ABSTRACT A COVERT WAR AT SEA: PIRACY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN MALAYA, 1824- 1874 Scott C. Abel, PhD Department of History Northern Illinois University, 2016 Eric A. Jones, Director Piracy around the Malay Peninsula during the 19th century was extraordinarily prevalent and resulted in the death and loss of liberty for an untold number of people. This dissertation examines the connections between the piracy of this era and the political economies of the Straits Settlements and the Malay states in the region. Malays pirates often had the support of local rulers who required the goods and slaves brought back by pirates to reinforce their own political and socio-economic positions. The piratical system supported by the rulers was a component of the overall Malay economic system known as kerajaan economics, which helped maintain the status quo for Malay states. This system came under threat once Great Britain and the Netherlands worked to suppress piracy in the region and helped persuade the Malay elite to phase out state-sanctioned piracy. Some people living in Malaya took advantage of the characteristics of British and Malay political economies to engage in acts of piracy regardless of the policies of the British and Malay governments. This study of piracy enables us to understand better the experiences of people of various backgrounds living in 19th-century Malaya, along with how piracy influenced their worldviews. NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY DE KALB, ILLINOIS DECEMBER 2016 A COVERT WAR AT SEA: PIRACY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN MALAYA, 1824-1874 BY SCOTT C. ABEL © 2016 Scott Abel A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY Doctoral Director: Eric A. Jones iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Far too many people have helped me with this dissertation and obtaining my degree to mention them all by name but I feel obliged to mention a few people and institutions that have made this project possible. My dissertation committee, composed of Eric A. Jones, Trude Jacobsen, Anne Hanley, and Khairudin Aljunied, was immensely helpful in completing the work. A variety of institutions made this work possible through grants, fellowships, and scholarships, including the U.S. State Department, U.S. Department of Education, N.I.U. History Department, Clark and Arlene Neher Fellowship, Peabody Essex Museum, and N.I.U. Study Abroad Office. Learning Malaysian and Indonesian was a lengthy process that has not ceased. Led by James Collins and Rahmi Hartati, countless people have helped me in this process ranging from teaching assistants to Malay and Indonesian speakers whom I have met in the past few years. Translation assistance from Mansor bin Sulaiman, Yosephin “Apri” Apriastuti Rahayu, and Testriono Mohammad was particularly helpful in my understanding sources. I would also like to thank those who have revised my work such as the Dissertation Writing Group, Faizah Zakaria, and the N.I.U. Thesis and Dissertation Office. A multitude of libraries and archives has assisted me in this endeavor in the United States, Great Britain, Malaysia, and Singapore. N.I.U.’s Founders Library and Law Library, especially the Donn V. Hart Collection, were helpful in providing many iii sources. Cornell’s Kroch Library, the Cambridge University Library, the New York Public Library, and the Phillips Library of the Peabody Essex Museum all generously provided support in my project. The National Archives of Malaysia and the State Archives of Pahang were particularly helpful because of their collection of Malay- language documents and sources from the Colonial Era. The National Archives of Singapore and the National Library of Singapore were quite helpful in providing documents relevant to piracy. Gene Tan and Tony Leow gave their unconditional support in helping me obtain the necessary documents, for which I am grateful. I would also like to thank my research assistant, Danielle G.T. Sim of Singapore, who collected some sources I neglected to find that proved valuable in completing my statistical information. The National University of Singapore generously permitted me to obtain notes and copies from their collection. In Great Britain, the British Library, National Archives, and London Metropolitan Archives granted me great assistance in my research that helped form the bulk of my primary source material. Finally, I would like the express gratitude to my loving friends and family for providing assistance when I was in need. The wonderful people at the Center for Southeast Asian Studies have helped and supported me countless times throughout my years at Northern Illinois University, ranging from accepting nearly half of my possessions at the time in boxes, to a speedy trip to the train station, and plentiful conversation and food over the years. I would like to express gratitude to my parents, Charles and Catharine Abel, for their unwavering support and affection in my journey. iiii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………. v LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………… vi GLOSSARY ………………………………………………………………………............. vii Chapter INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………. 1 CHAPTER 1: PERCEPTIONS OF LEGITIMACY IN MALAYA IN RELATION TO MARITIME RAIDING AND LAW…………………………………………... 23 CHAPTER 2: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF THE MALAY KERAJAAN….. 57 CHAPTER 3: PIRACY AND KERAJAAN ECONOMICS IN MALAYA……….. 107 CHAPTER 4: CHINESE PIRACY AND POLITICAL ECONOMY IN MALAYA………………………………………………………………………….. 175 EPILOGUE………………………………………………………………………… 230 REFERENCES.………………………………………………………………….................. 242 APPENDIX: MALAYAN PIRATICAL CONTACTS WITH MERCHANT VESSELS, 1825-1850………………………………………………………………………………….. 253 ivi LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Malayan Piracy Rates…………………………………………………….…….. 118 2. Commercial Vessels Arriving and Departing Singapore…………...................... 119 3. Reported Pirate Attacks……………………………………………………….. 121 4. Singapore Population Table……………………………………………............ 193 5. Estimates on the Number of Chinese Seafarers in Singapore Circa 1848..…… 196 6. Shipping of Singapore and East Coast of Malaya (Tonnage)……………. ……. 208 7. Shipping of Singapore and East Coast of Malaya (Vessels)…………………… 209 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Map of Singapore Straits……………………………………………………… 22 2. A Malay Seafarer……………………………………………………..……….. 56 3. Letter of the Sultan of Pontianak to Thomas Stamford Raffles, February 1814…………………………………………………………..……… 86 4. Charts on Piracy Attacks and Shipping…………………………………......…. 121 5. Singapore Population Chart…………………………………………………..... 194 6. Chart on the Estimation Number of Chinese Seafarers in Singapore Circa 1848………………………………………………………………………. 197 7. Bustling Singapore Harbor……………………………………………………... 197 vi i GLOSSARY Agar-agar: type of seaweed commonly consumed in mainland China in the 19th century Autonomous history: An historical methodology that focuses on using and investigating the worldview of indigenous Southeast Asians; history from the Southeast Asia-centric perspective Bahar: a measurement of weight around 428 pounds avoirdupois Bendahara: high-ranking official in a Malay government; the treasurer, frequently the holder of the title was the highest ranking non-royal in the state; in 19th century, effectively meant a chief, specifically the ruler of Pahang Brig: a two-mast sailing vessel with the forward mast lower than the aft one Cochin-China: a land that includes modern Cambodia and southern Vietnam Gutta percha: a rubber-like substance found in Insular Southeast Asia that required the destruction of its tree for its harvest Iranun/Lanun/Illanoon: An ethnic group from the southern Philippines known for rampant acts of piracy; synonymous with “pirate” in the Malay language Jong/junk: vessel commonly used by Chinese Jurumudi: helmsman Jurubatu: navigator Kapal: ship; large vessel Kerajaan: kingdom; government; rule; empire Kerajaan economics: political economy of Malay states that involved the seizure of assets to prevent the rise of potential opponents Keris/kris: type of sword or dagger with curvy blade Kurnia: bounty, gift; code of conduct for Malay princes viii Laksmana: chief admiral Nakhoda: commander of vessel; master of vessel; captain Orang laut: “sea people” or sea gypsies; a group of nomadic people found in Southeast Asia Penjajap: war vessel common used by Malays Perahu/prahu: marine vessel; later evolved to mean vessel native to Southeast Asia. Perompak: pirate, sea robber Pikul: weight of 3 pounds avoirdupois according to J. Church Raja laut: high-ranking naval officer, admiral Raja muda: crown prince; heir apparent; chief minister Raja: prince; king Rakyat: the common people; sea people, orang laut Sampan: boat Sampan-pukat: trading vessel sailed usually by Chinese or Cochin-Chinese seafarers Syahbandar: harbormaster Temenggung/temenggong: high-ranking Malay state official; chief of police; later evolved into a chief of territory, namely Johor Tope: vessel commonly employed by people from southern Vietnam or Cambodia Vessel: floating object manned by a crew; example: boat; ship Wangkang: vessel commonly employed by Chinese seafarers Yang di-pertuan besar: sultan; “He Who Is Made Lord” is one translation Yang di-pertuan muda: (see Raja Muda) INTRODUCTION “All along the shore there were hundreds of human skulls rolling about on the sand; some old, some new, some with hair still sticking to them; some with the teeth filed and others without,” Abdullah Munsyi wrote of the shores of Singapore shortly after the arrival of