Front Matter

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00252-4 - The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture Edited by Nicholas Rzhevsky Frontmatter More information

The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture

Russia’s size, the diversity of its peoples, and its unique geographical position straddling East and West have created a culture that is both inward- and outward-looking. Its history reflects the tension between very different approaches to what culture can and should be, and this tension shapes the vibrancy of its arts today. The highly successful first edition of this Companion has been updated to include post-Soviet trends and new developments in the twenty-first century. It brings together leading authorities writing on Russian cultural identity, its Western and Asian connections, popular culture, and the unique Russian contributions to the arts. Each of the twelve chapters has been revised or entirely rewritten to take account of current cultural conditions, and the “further reading” list brought up to date. The book reveals, for students, academic researchers, and all those interested in Russia, the dilemmas, strengths, and complexities of the Russian cultural experience.

nicholas rzhevsky is Professor and Chairman of the Department of European Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at Stony Brook University, State University of New York.

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The Cambridge Companion to Modern Russian Culture

edited by Nicholas Rzhevsky

cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao˜ Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb28ru,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

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c Cambridge University Press 1998, 2012

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First published 1998 Second edition 2012

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Contents

List of illustrations vii List of contributors ix Chronology xiii Note on names and transliteration xlv

1 Russian cultural history: introduction 1 nicholas rzhevsky

part i cultural identity

2 Language 19 dean s. worth and michael s. flier

3 Religion: Russian Orthodoxy 44 † dmitry s. likhachev and nicholas rzhevsky

4Asia65 mark bassin

5TheWest94 timothy westphalen

6 Ideological structures 113 abbott gleason

7 Popular culture 135 catriona kelly

vi Contents

part ii literature and the arts

8 Literature 169 david m. bethea

9Art213 john e. bowlt

10 Music 250 harlow robinson

11 Theatre 279 laurence senelick

12 Film 316 nikita lary

Further reading 347 Index 368

Illustrations

4.1 Vasily Ivanovich Surikov: Yermak’s Conquest of Siberia in 1582, 1895, oil on canvas. By permission of the State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg. 71 7.1 Girls using kacheli, a Russian swing, and a seesaw, both popular amusements since medieval times. Russian lithograph, c. 1850. Kelly collection. 142 7.2 “The sirin-bird”: Old Believer watercolor in the style of an engraved lubok, probably early nineteenth century. From Iu. Ovsiannikov, The Lubok (Moscow, 1968). Taylor Institution, Oxford. 148 7.3 Refrigerator magnets, with inscriptions, c. 2009. Rzhevsky collection. 163 9.1 Mikhail Vrubel: Illustration to “Demon,” in Mikhail Lermontov, Sobranie Sochinenii (Moscow, 1891), pp. 14–15. 219 9.2 Kazimir Malevich: Suprematism (Supremus No. 58), 1916, oil on canvas, 79.5 × 70.5 cm. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg. 227 9.3 Vladimir Tatlin: Line drawing of design for the model of Monument to the III International, c. 1920. First published in Nikolai Punin, Pamiatnik III Internatsionala (Petrograd, 1920), unpaginated. 228 9.4 Pavel Filonov: Formula of the Petrograd Proletariat, 1920–1, oil on canvas, 154 × 117 cm. State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg. 231 9.5 Anonymous designer: Crest of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics manufactured for a railroad car, c. 1950, painted metal, 13 × 10 cm. Ferris Collection, Institute of Modern Russian Culture, Los Angeles. 236 9.6 Vladimir Ovchinnikov: Basketball,1978,oiloncanvas, 60 × 75 cm. Rzhevsky collection. 242

viii List of illustrations

9.7 Francisco Infante: Artefact: Suprematist Games, 1968, cardboard, tempera, snow. Artist’s collection, Moscow. 246 11.1 Griboedov’s Woe from Wit at the Moscow Maly Theatre in the 1850s: L. V. Samarin as Chatsky, Mikhail Shchepkin as Famusov, and G. S. Olgin as Skalozub. Phototype by Panov. Laurence Senelick collection. 283 11.2 Korsh’s Theatre, Moscow, designed by the architect M. N. Chichagov. Laurence Senelick collection. 284 11.3 The last act of Chekhov’s The Three Sisters at the Moscow Art Theatre, directed by Stanislavsky in the setting by Viktor Simov (1903). Laurence Senelick collection. 286 11.4 Michael Chekhov as Hamlet. Laurence Senelick collection. 294 11.5 A Blue Blouse troupe demonstrating “Fordism in the factory.” Laurence Senelick collection. 299 11.6 Act 2 of Armored Train 14–69 at the Moscow Art Theatre (1927). Laurence Senelick collection. 302

Contributors

Mark Bassin: Research Professor of the History of Ideas, Center for Baltic and East European Studies, Sodert¨ orn¨ University, Stockholm. Author of Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East; co-editor of Space, Place and Power in Modern Russia: Essays in the New Spatial History; author of essays and articles on Russian perceptions of Asia, the history of geopolitics, and the history of environmentalism in the Slavic Review, American Historical Review, Journal of Modern History, Geschichte und Gesellschaft,andTransactions of the Institute of British Geographers. Visiting Professor at the universities of Chicago, Copenhagen, and Pau. Former fellow in the Institute for European History (Mainz), Kennan Institute, the Remarque Institute, and the American Academy in Berlin. David M. Bethea: Vilas Research Professor of Slavic Languages at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and Professor of Russian Studies at Oxford University. His numerous studies of Russian poetry, Russian literary culture, and Russian thought have been recognized by the Guggenheim Foundation, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Council of Learned Societies, and other scholarly bodies. Publications include Khodasevich: His Life and Art; The Shape of Apocalypse in Modern Russian Fiction; Joseph Brodsky and the Creation of Exile; The Pushkin Handbook (editor); The Works of Pushkin/Sochineniia Pushkina (general editor), and The Superstitious Muse: Thinking Russian Literature Mythopoetically (selected essays). John E. Bowlt: Professor of Slavic Languages and Literatures at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, where he is also director of the Institute of Modern Russian Culture. He has written extensively on Russian visual culture, especially on the art of Symbolism and the avant-garde, his latest book being Moscow, St. Petersburg. Art and Culture during the Russian Silver Age. Bowlt has also

x List of contributors

curated or co-curated numerous exhibitions of Russian art, including “A Feast of Wonders. Sergei Diaghilev and the Ballets Russes” at the Nouveau Musee´ de Monte Carlo, Monaco, and the State Tretiakov Gallery, Moscow; and “El cosmos de la vanguardia rusa” at the Fundacion´ Marcelino Botın,´ Santander, and the State Museum of Contemporary Art, Thessaloniki. In September, 2010, he received the Order of Friendship from the Russian Federation for his promotion of Russian culture in the USA. Michael S. Flier: Oleksandr Potebnja Professor of Ukrainian Philology, Harvard University. Author of Aspects of Nominal Determination in Old Church Slavic, essays, articles, and reviews on Slavic synchronic and diachronic linguistics, and on the semiotics of medieval East Slavic culture. Editor of Slavic Forum: Essays in Slavic Linguistics and Literature and Ukrainian Philology and Linguistics, co-editor of Medieval Russian Culture,vols.i–ii, Issues in Russian Morphosyntax, The Scope of Slavic Aspect, and The New Muscovite Cultural History. Chair, American Committee of Slavists. Director, Ukrainian Research Institute, Harvard University. Abbott Gleason: Keeney Professor of History Emeritus at Brown University. Past President, American Association for the Advancement of Slavic Studies. Author of Totalitarianism: The Inner History of the Cold War; Bolshevik Culture: Experiment and Order in the Russian Revolution; Young Russia: The Genesis of Russian Radicalism in the 1860s; European and Muscovite: Ivan Kireevsky and the Origins of Slavophilism; essays, articles, and reviews in Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Contemporary European History, Russian Review, Slavic Review, American Quarterly,andThe Journal of Modern History. Catriona Kelly: Professor of Russian, University of Oxford. Author of Petrushka, the Russian Carnival Puppet Theatre; A History of Russian Women’s Writing, 1820–1992; Reﬁning Russia: Advice Literature, Polite Culture, and Gender from Catherine to Yeltsin,andChildren’s World: Growing Up in Russia, 1890–1991.EditorofAn Anthology of Russian Women’s Writing, 1777–1992, and co-editor of An Introduction to Russian Culture Studies,and Constructing Russian Culture in the Age of Revolution. Nikita Lary: Emeritus Professor, York University, Toronto. Author of Dostoevsky and Soviet Film: Visions of Demonic Realism, and of Dostoevsky and Dickens: A Study of Literary Inﬂuence. Chief editor and translator of The Alexander Medvedkin Handbook (forthcoming). Author of essays, articles, and reviews in Slavic and East European Journal, Slavic Review, Slavic and East European Arts, Sight and Sound, Canadian Slavonic Papers, Kinovedcheskie zapiski, Eisenstein Rediscovered. † Dmitry S. Likhachev : Academician, Institute of World Literature, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg. Head, Soviet Culture

List of contributors xi

Foundation and Deputy, Congress of Russian Deputies. Author and editor of numerous works on Russian literature and language. Widely regarded as the primary modern authority and conscience of Russian culture. Advisor on cultural matters to the Soviet and Russian Federation governments. Harlow Robinson: Matthews Distinguished University Professor, Department of History, Northeastern University. Author of Russians in Hollywood, Hollywood’s Russians: Biography of an Image; The Last Impresario: The Life, Times and Legacy of Sol Hurok; Sergei Prokoﬁev: A Biography; Selected Letters of Sergei Prokoﬁev (editor/translator); essays and reviews for Russian Review, Slavic and East European Journal, Slavic Review, Musical Quarterly, Opera News, Dance Magazine, New York Times, Boston Globe. Radio and television commentator on Russian music and culture. Nicholas Rzhevsky: Professor and Chair, Department of European Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, Stony Brook University, State University of New York. Author of Russian Literature and Ideology; Modern Russian Theater: A Literary and Cultural History; articles and essays in Encounter, Nation, Modern Drama, Russian Review, Slavic Review, New Literary History, and (with Yury Liubimov) an English-language stage adaptation of Crime and Punishment.EditorofAn Anthology of Russian Literature: Introduction to a Culture, and co-editor of Media >

xii List of contributors

the Kennan Institute for Advanced Russian Studies. President, Western Slavic Association and Vice President, International Committee of Slavists. Author of ﬁfty-plus publications on Russian culture and approximately 160 on linguistics, Paleosiberian languages, and Russian folk poetics.

Chronology

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

Third to eighth centuries Tribal migrations Ninth century Ninth century c. 750–800 Vikings reach central Volga c. 862–79 Slavs invite Riurik, Sineus, Truvor; c. 863 Sts. Cyril, beg. reign Kiev Great Methodius, Glagolitic Princes alphabet 2nd half ninth century Greek Teacher’s Gospel Late ninth century ﬁrst trans. Bible 882 Oleg unites Kiev, Novgorod Tenth century Tenth century Tenth century 907 Oleg attacks c. tenth century church of Constantinople Ilia, Kiev c. 955 Olga baptized Christian faith c. 962 beg. reign Sviatoslav c. 968 Sviatoslav defeats Bulgarians 969 Kiev besieged by Pechenegs 978 Beg. reign Vladimir 988 Vladimir accepts 988 Trans. Bible, Byzantine Christianity liturgical texts, saints’ lives 991–6 Assumption church (Tithe); Kiev (cont.)

xiv Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

Eleventh century Eleventh century Eleventh century 1015 d. Sts. Boris and Gleb c.1017beg.Novgorod First c.eleventhcentury Chronicle znamenny raspev (choral singing) 1019–54 Reign Yaroslav (“the Wise”) 1036 Sermon of Luka 1036 Transfiguration Zhidyata Cathedral, Chernigov 1037 Victory over 1037–41 St. Sophia, Kiev Pechenegs c. 1040 first chronicles Kievan Rus’ 1045–50 St. Sophia, Novgorod 1046–67 St. Sophia Russo-Byzantine mosaics c. 1050 Hilarion’s Sermon on Law and Grace 1051 Hilarion, first 1051–4 Russian Pravda Metropolitan Russian origin 1056–7 Gospel of Ostromir 1061 Kiev troops defeat Polovtsy (Kumans) 1070–88 Archangel Michael Cathedral, Vydubetsky monastery, Kiev 1073–8 Monastery of Caves Russo-Byzantine mosaics 1074 d. St. Theodosius (founder Kiev-Pechersky monastery) 1078–93 Reign Vsevolod 1079–85 Boris and Gleb c. 1088 Nestor’s Life of Theodosius 1089 Ioann’s Church 1089–90 Church St. Regulation Michael, Pereslavl’ 1093–1113 Reign c.1093–5Primary Sviatopolk, Iziaslav’s Compilation; Primary son Chronicle 1095 Novgorod Monthly Readings

Chronology xv

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1096 Polovtsy occupy Kiev 1096–1117 Instructions of c. eleventh to twelfth Vladimir Monomakh centuries kriukovye noty (musical notation) Twelfth century Twelfth century Twelfth century c. ﬁrst half twelfth century Vladimir Mother of God icon 1103 Annunciation church, Novgorod 1113–25 Reign Vladimir c. 1110–13 Nestor’s Primary Monomakh Chronicle (Tale of Bygone Years) 1114 d. Monk Alipy 1115–23 Cathedral Sts. Boris and Gleb, Chernigov c. 1117 Silvester’s second 1117–19 Cathedral redaction Primary Nativity of Virgin, Chronicle Antoniev monastery 1119–20 Cathedral St. George, Yuriev monastery 1128–57 Synodal copy 1128 Spassky monastery, 1136 Novgorod breaks Novgorod First Chronicle Polotsk away from Kiev 1135–44 Church Dormition, Kanevo 1140 Kirillovsky monastery beg. near Kiev 1145 Church Sts. Boris and Gleb, Smolensk c. 1150 Church Sts. Boris and Gleb, Kideksh 1152 Church of Savior, Pereslavl’-Zalessky c. 1152 St. Olaf ’s church, Novgorod 1154–7 Kiev reign Yury Dolgoruky, founder Moscow c. 1158 Uspensky Cathedral, Vladimir 1165 Church Intercession of Virgin on Nerli 1169 Andrei Bogoliubsky, Prince of Vladimir, sacks Kiev (cont.)

xvi Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1170 Novgorod forces defeat Suzdal 1174–1212 Vsevolod (“Big Nest”) Great Prince of 1179 Church Vladimir Annunciation, Miachino 1185 Igor’s unsuccessful 1185–92 Church Sts. Peter campaign against and Paul, Sinichia hill Polovtsy c. 1187 Tale of Igor’s Campaign 1190–2 Church St. Basil, Ovruch c. late twelfth–early 1194–7 Cathedral St. thirteenth century Dmitry, Vladimir Supplication of Daniil the 1198 Church of Savior, Exile Novgorod Thirteenth century Thirteenth century Thirteenth century 1202–6 Birth of Mother of God monastery, Vladimir 1216–24 Cathedral Transﬁguration of Savior, Yaroslavl’ 1222–5 Cathedrals Nativity of Virgin, St. George, Vladimir-Suzdal 1223 Mongol victory, c. 1223–before 1246 Tale of Kalka river Ruin Russian Land 1237–40 Mongol invasion. 1237–40 Tale of Battle on Cities devastated River Kalka c.1239Tale of Batu’s Invasion 1240 Kiev taken; beg. Mongol “Yoke”; Aleksandr Nevsky defeats Swedes, Neva river 1242 Aleksandr Nevsky’s “Battle on the Ice” 1252–63 Reign Aleksandr mid thirteenth century Nevsky trans. Greek Aleksandriia 1263–72 Yaroslav reign in 1263 Life of Aleksandr Nevsky Vladimir 1270 Novgorod treaty Hanseatic League

Chronology xvii

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1292 Church St. Nicholas on Lipna, Novgorod Fourteenth century Fourteenth century Fourteenth century 1317–22 Reign Yury of Moscow 1326 Metropolitan Peter 1326 Uspensky Cathedral, moves see to Moscow Moscow Kremlin 1328–40 Ivan I (“Kalita”) 1330 Church Savior in Forest, Moscow Kremlin 1333 Archangel Cathedral, Moscow Kremlin c. 1335 Sergius of Radonezh’s Trinity-Sergius monastery 1340s Tale of Battle Novgorod c. 1340 Birth of with Suzdal Theophanes the Greek c. 1350 Icon Savior of Fiery Eye; Assumption Cathedral, Moscow 1359–89 Reign Moscow Prince Dmitry (“of the 1361 Church St. Theodore Don”) Stratilates, Novgorod 1366 Fire destroys much of Moscow 1367 Kremlin stone walls, Moscow 1373 Mamai devastates 1370–80 Assumption Riazan church, Volotovo Field, Novgorod 1374 Church Savior on Elijah Street, Novgorod 1377 Laurentian Chronicle 1378 Theophanes’s icons and frescoes, Church Transﬁguration, Novgorod 1379 Church Nativity of Virgin, Mikhailitsa 1380 Dmitry defeats Mongols, Kulikovo Field 1382 Toqtamysh sacks Moscow 1383–4 Church St. John the Divine, Radokovitsi, Vitka river (cont.)

xviii Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1389–95 Tamerlane attacks Golden Horde c.1393Zadonshchina (Beyond the Don) 1389–1425 Reign Vasily I Moscow 1391 Sergei of Radonezh dies 1396 d. Stefan of Perm 1397 Kirillo-Belozersk monastery founded 1399 Theophanes and craftsmen decorate Cathedral of Archangel Michael in Moscow Kremlin Fifteenth century Fifteenth century Fifteenth century c.1400Tale of Battle with c. 1400 Uspensky Mamai Cathedral, Zvenigorod 1405 Rublev, Theophanes, Prokhor icons Nativity, Baptism, Transﬁguration 1406 Arsenian Edition 1406 Church Sts. Peter and saints’ lives Paul Kozhevniki, Novgorod c. 1408 Rublev and Daniel the Black’s Christ in Majesty c. 1410–22 Rublev’s Old Testament Trinity 1413 Church St. Basil on Hillock, Pskov 1415 Epiphanius the Wise letter to Archimandrite Kiril c.1420Hypatian Chronicle; 1420 Rublev interior d. Epiphanius the Wise cathedral, Trinity-Sergius monastery 1421–2 Church St. John the Compassionate, Lake Miachino 1425–62 Vasily II (“the Dark”) 1433 b. Nil Sorsky c.1430d.Rublev 1439 Council of Florence 1441 First mention demestvennyi form singing

Chronology xix

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1442 Pachomius Logothetes’s Russian Chronograph 1448 Russian Church autocephalous 1450 Icon Battle Suzdal and Novgorod 1453 Fall of Constantinople 1462–1505 Ivan III (“the Great”) 1469 Ivan III fails to take Kazan 1470 “Judaizers” heresy, Novgorod 1471 Ivan III attacks Novgorod 1472 Ivan m. Sophia Paleologue 1472–85 Moscow rules Perm, Rostov, Novgorod, Tver c.1474d.AfanasyNikitin author, Journey beyond Three Seas c. 1475–1556 Maksim Grek 1475–9 Fioravanti’s Assumption Cathedral, Moscow Kremlin 1480s Catalog of 1484–9 Annunciation Kirillo-Belozersk church rebuilt, Moscow liturgical books Kremlin compiled 1484–90 Ivan III’s Novgorod citadel 1485–1516 Moscow Kremlin reconstruction 1491 Ivan III and Crimean 1487–91 Armoury Tatars defeat Sarai Chambers, Moscow Tatars Kremlin 1496 War with Sweden 1497 Code of Ivan III (Sudebnik) Sixteenth century Sixteenth century Sixteenth century 1500–2 Dionisius and sons’ frescoes, Ferapont monastery (cont.)

xx Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1503 Church council; “Possessors”– “Non-Possessors” debate 1505–33 Reign Vasily III 1505 Novy’s new Archangel Michael Cathedral in Moscow Kremlin 1508 d. Nil Sorsky 1510–14 Cathedral Intercession Mother of God, Suzdal 1515 d. Joseph of 1515 Transﬁguration Volokolamsk Cathedral, Khutyn monastery 1518 Maksim Grek arrives in Moscow 1525 Trial of Maksim Grek 1524–5 Cathedral for heresy Smolensk Mother of God; Novodevichy convent 1529 Church St. Prokopy 1530–2 Vasily III’s Trinity Cathedral, Trinity-Danilov monastery 1532 Ascension church, Kolomenskoe 1533–8 Regency Elena Glinskaya 1533–84 Reign Ivan IV (“the Terrible”) 1535–7 Church St. Nicholas rebuilt, Pskov 1536 Church Sts. Boris and Gleb, Plotniki c. 1540s Macarius’s Chet’i Minei 1547 Sylvestr’s Domostroy 1547 Church Decapitation John the Baptist, Moscow c. 1548 Morality plays, Novgorod 1550–1 Hundred Chapters 1550 Peresvetov’s Tale of Council (Stoglav) Sultan Mahmed; Sudebnik issued 1551 Stoglav 1552 Kazan taken

Chronology xxi

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c. 1553–1600 Cathedral 1555 English Moscow Virgin of Intercession Trade Company on Moat (St. Basil’s the Blessed), Red Square, Moscow 1557 Trinity church, Holy 1558–83 Livonian War Ghost monastery, Novgorod 1559–85 Dormition Cathedral, Trinity-Sergius monastery 1560–3 Athanasius’s Book of Generations 1560s–70s Correspondence Ivan IV and Kurbsky 1564 Andrei Kurbsky 1564 Fedorov, defects Mstislavets’s Apostol ﬁrst printed book in Moscow 1565 Ivan introduces Oprichnina 1566 Philip becomes Metropolitan 1568 Synod deposes 1568 Psalter printed Metropolitan Philip 1569 Philip strangled 1570 Oprichnina overruns Novgorod 1571 Crimean Tatars raid 1571 Skomorokhi Moscow mentioned Novgorod Chronicles 1572 Ivan IV abolishes Oprichnina 1575 War with Sweden 1580 Swedes invade Narva; Ivan kills son Ivan; Poles march to Pskov 1581 Ostrog Bible 1582 Yermak conquers Khanate Siberia 1583 End of Livonian War 1584–98 Reign Fedor I, Boris Gudunov regent 1589 First Patriarch Iov 1589 Code Tsar Fedor Ivanovich,regulation skomorokhi (cont.)

xxii Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1591 d. Ivan’s son Dmitry Uglich 1592–7 Restrictions on peasant mobility on St. George’s Day 1598 d. Fedor; end House c. 1598 Trinity church, of Riurik Moscow 1598–1605 Reign Boris Gudunov Seventeenth century Seventeenth century Seventeenth century 1601–3 Drought, famine, 1600 Chudovsky Chet’i plague Minei 1604 False Dmitry I invades Russia 1605 d. Boris Gudunov; beg. “Time of Trouble”; reign Fedor Gudunov; killed same year 1605–6 Reign False Dmitry I 1606–10 Reign Vasily Shuisky 1607–10 False Dmitry II 1610 Polish forces occupy Moscow 1610–13 Vladislav of Poland, Tsar elect 1611 Swedes occupy Novgorod 1611–12 Armed resistance, Minin and Pozharsky 1613 Beg. Romanov 1613 Performance dynasty, Landed chambers, Moscow Assembly chooses court Mikhail 1613–45 Reign Mikhail 1614 Moscow Printing House founded 1615 Kiev religious puppet shows 1619–33 Filaret (Mikhail’s father) patriarch 1628 Dormition church, Uglich 1632 Kiev Academy 1632 Peter Mohyla opens school in Kiev 1632–4 War with Poland

Chronology xxiii

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1634–5 Intercession church, Moscow 1635–6 Kremlin Terem Palace 1635–7 Church Sts. Zosima and Savvatii, Zagorsk 1637 Don Cossacks seize Azov 1639 Moskvitin expedition reaches Pacific 1640 Mohyla publishes Pravoslavnoe ispovedanie 1643 Holy Trinity church, Nikitinki, Moscow 1645–76 Reign Aleksei 1645 Mohyla publishes catechism 1646 Census 1647 Russian–Polish 1647–50 Church Prophet alliance against Turks Elijah, Yaroslavl’ 1648 Ukrainian liberation 1648 Tsar Aleksei forbids war, Boghdan skomorokhi Khmelnitsky 1649 Ulozhenie,codeof 1649–52 Church Nativity laws; d. Mohyla of Virgin, Putinki, Moscow 1650 Publication of 1649–54 Church Ioan Kormchaia kniga, Zlatoust, Korovniki, 1652 Nikon patriarch collection of Yaroslavl’ 1653 Avvakum exiled ecclesiastical law 1653 Nikon reforms, Nomokanon; psalter published by Printing Office; Patriarch Nikon heads Printing Office 1654 Beg. Schism (Raskol); 1654 Russians travel to Old Believers; Mt. Athos to purchase Ukrainian Rada books declares allegiance to Russian Tsar 1654–7 Russo-Polish War 1654–5 Church undertakes revision of Church texts 1656–61 Russo-Swedish 1658 Vasily Likhachev on War Italian theatre (cont.)

xxiv Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1659 Pan-Slavist Yury Krizhanich in Moscow 1664 S. Polotsky’s Latin school (Moscow); Avvakum returns from exile 1665 Mail service established 1666–7 Church council deposes Nikon 1669–71 Stenka Razin 1669–76 Avvakum’s Life rebellions 1672 Birth of Peter (I) 1672 Pastor Gregory stages adaptation Book of Esther 1673 Ballet Orpheus and Eurydice; Tsar Aleksei funds theatre 1676–82 Reign Fedor III, 1676 Tsar Fedor evicts regent Prince Vasily theatre from court Golitsin 1677–8 Polotsky’s 1678 Ushakov’s Savior Not Many-Flowered Garden Done by Hands 1678–83 Potekhin’s Trinity church, Ostankino, Moscow 1680 Polotsky’s Rhymed 1679–82 Church St. Psalter; Rifmologion Nicholas, Kamovniki, late seventeenth century Moscow Misery–Luckless–Plight; Shemyaka’s Judgment; Frol Skobeev; Savva Grudtsyn. d. Polotsky 1682–1725 Reign Peter I 1682 Avvakum burned at “the Great” (initially stake with brother Ivan) 1684–93 Epiphany church, Yaroslavl’ 1687 Greek–Latin– 1687–95 Church Slavonic Academy Resurrection in opens in Moscow Kadashi, Moscow 1690–1704 Church Icon of Sign at Petrovo, Moscow 1695 War with 1695 Church of Turkey/Crimean Tatars Ascension, Suzdal

Chronology xxv

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1696 Naval ﬂeet; Turks surrender Azov 1697 First Kamchatka expedition 1697–8 Peter travels to the 1697–1703 Nativity West church, Bell Tower, Nizhny-Novgorod 1698 Streltsy revolt 1698–1704 Church St. Anne,Uzkoe,Moscow 1699 Trading companies formed; Julian calendar Eighteenth century Eighteenth century Eighteenth century 1700 Beg. Northern War with Sweden 1701–3 Foundation St. 1701–7 Church Archangel Petersburg Gabriel (Menshikov Tower) 1702 Kunst’s theatre troupe arrives 1703 First Russian 1703 Peter and Paul newspaper Vedomosti Fortress (News) 1705 Military draft 1705 Peter I decree on instituted comedies; Prokopovich’s Vladimir 1706–10 Tsarevna Natalia stages plays 1708 Administrative 1708 New “civil” alphabet reforms; provinces created 1709 Battle of Poltava; defeat of Swedish army 1710 War with Turkey 1711 Senate replaces boyar 1711–27 Five printing 1711–14 Summer Palace duma presses open St. 1712 St. Petersburg new Petersburg 1712 Imperial court moves capital to St. Petersburg 1712–33 Trezzini’s Sts. Peter and Paul Cathedral, St. Petersburg 1713 Conquest Finland 1714 Kunstkammer; Church Transﬁguration, Kizhi (cont.)

xxvi Chronology

(cont.)

Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1714–52 LeBlond, Braunstein, Michetti, Rastrelli’s Peterhof 1715 Aleksandr Nevsky monastery, St. Petersburg 1716–24 Second Winter Palace 1718 Poll tax; judicial reform 1720 Peter I hires Prague actors 1721 Treaty Nystad; Peter emperor; patriarchate abolished 1722 War with Persia; 1722–6 Sts. Peter and Paul Table of Ranks Cathedral, Kazan instituted 1722–41 Twelve Colleges, 1723 Treaty gives Russia Vasilevsky Island, Caspian Sea’s southern St. Petersburg shores 1725 Academy of Sciences 1725–7 Reign Catherine I 1727 Treaty with China; c. 1727 Leshchinsky Bering discovers strait theatre, Siberia 1727–30 Reign Peter II 1729 b. Volkov, actor 1730–40 Reign Anna I 1731–4 Church Sts. Simeon and Anna 1732–8 Admiralty, St. Petersburg 1733 b. Dmitrevsky 1734 Winter Palace Theatre, St. Petersburg 1735–40 War with Turkey 1735 Trediakovsky’s New 1735–9 Korobov’s church, and Brief Method for St. Panteleimon Composing Russian Verses 1738 Dance school, St. Petersburg 1739 Tatishchev proposes Urals Europe–Asia divide 1740–1 Reign Ivan VI 1741–61 Reign Elizabeth I 1741–3 Rastrelli’s Summer Palace 1741–50 Rastrelli, Zemtsov’s Anichkov Palace

Chronology xxvii

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1743 Lomonosov’s Ode on 1743 Musical Rose without Conquest of Khotina Thorns, St. Petersburg court 1744 Russia joins Warsaw pact 1747 Sumarkov’s Khorev 1748 Lomonosov’s Short 1748–64 Resurrection Guide to Rhetoric Cathedral, Rastrelli’s Smolny convent 1749 Noblemen’s Corps’ production Khorev 1750 Elizabeth encourages Russian actors; Yaroslav troupe’s About Penance of Sinful Man 1752 Volkov’s Yaroslav performances; formal actors’ training 1755 Moscow University 1754–62 Rastrelli’s founded Winter Palace 1756 Opera Taniusha 1757 Treaty with France, 1757 Lomonosov’s Russian 1757 Academy of Arts, Austria; Russia invades Grammar St. Petersburg Prussia 1759 Russian forces occupy Berlin 1761–2 Reign Peter III 1762–96 Reign Catherine 1762 Actors given noble II (“the Great”) rank 1763 Correspondence 1763 d. Volkov Voltaire–Catherine II 1764 Government takes Church lands and peasants; Smolny Institute: beg. of women’s education 1766 Trediakovsky’s Tilemakhida 1767 Catherine’s Legislative Commission 1768–74 War with Turkey 1768–82 Falconet’s Bronze Horseman 1769–70 Novikov’s Truten 1768–85 Rinaldi’s Marble c. 1770 Fonvizin’s Brigadier Palace, St. Petersburg 1772 First partition 1772 M. Popov’s Anyuta; Poland synodal typography prints znamennyi chants (cont.)

xxviii Chronology

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Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1773 Diderot visits Russia 1773 D. Levitsky’s 1773–5 Pugachev rebellion women’s portraits 1774 Journal Musical Entertainments 1776 Bolshoi Theatre of Opera and Ballet; Trutovsky’s collection folk songs 1779–89 Moscow News 1779 D. Bortniansky, dir. Imperial Chapel Choir; Dmitrevsky head dramatic school 1780–1801 Cameron’s architectural ensemble, Pavlovsk 1782 The Minor; “Felitsa” 1782–6 Cameron’s Temple of Friendship, Pavlovsk 1783 Crimea annexed; 1783 Bolshoi Kamennyi Dashkova heads Theatre Academy 1784 Alaska settled 1784–6 Bazhenov’s 1785 Charter of Nobility Pashkov House, 1786 Catherine II’s plays Moscow 1787 War with Ottoman Empire 1788 Sweden declares war 1788 b. Shchepkin 1790 Radishchev’s Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow 1791 Moscow Journal 1792 Karamzin’s “Poor Liza” 1794 Kosciusko rebellion 1796 Prussian military reforms 1796–1801 Reign Paul I 1797 Karamzin beg. Letters 1797 V. L. Borovikovsky’s of Russian Traveler Portrait of M. I. Lopukhina 1799 b. Pushkin 1799 Kozlovsky’s Statue of Suvorov, Field of Mars Nineteenth century Nineteenth century Nineteenth century 1800 b. Mochalov 1801–25 Reign Alexander I 1802 Creation 1802–3 Herald of Europe; 1802 b. Karatygin government ministries A. N. Radishchev’s suicide

Chronology xxix

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1803 Karamzin’s Marfa Posadnitsa; Discourse on Old and New Style in Russian Language 1804–6 Expansion 1804 b. Glinka Caucasus 1804–18 Martos’s sculpture Minin and Pozharsky, Red Square 1805–6 V. Kruzenshtern’s 1805 decree instituting expedition imperial theatres 1806–12 War with Turkey 1806–23 Zacharov’s Admiralty, St. Petersburg 1807 Battle Friedland; Treaty Tilsit 1808 A. Arakcheev 1808 Zhukovsky’s 1808 Smolny Institute; Defense Minister Liudmila Didelot’s Zephyr and 1808–9 War with Sweden, 1809 Krylov’s Fables Flora; Drama News annexation Finland 1810 Lyceum Tsarskoe 1810 Stock Exchange Selo founded building, St. Petersburg 1811–16 Collegium of 1811 Voronikhin Amateurs of Russian completes Kazan Word Cathedral 1812 Invasion of 1812 First Russian Napoleon; battles vaudeville, Borodino, Smolensk; Shakhovskoy’s Cossack Fort Ross, California, Poet founded 1813 Battle Leipzig 1814 Russian forces in Paris 1814–15 Vienna Congress 1815 Holy Alliance signed 1815 “Arzamas” literary circle 1816 Karamzin’s History of Russian State (completed 1829) 1817 Batyushkov’s Dying Tasso 1818 Fatherland Annals 1818 b. Sadovsky 1818–58 Montferrand’s St. Isaac’s Cathedral 1819 St. Petersburg 1819 Society of Lovers of 1819–29 Rossi’s General University founded Russian Letters Staff Building 1819–21 Exploration Antarctica (cont.)

xxx Chronology

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Performing Arts, Art, History Literature Architecture

1820 Ruslan and Liudmila 1821 Pushkin’s Prisoner of Caucasus; b. Dostoevsky 1823 Society of Wisdom; 1823V.A.Tropinin’s Polar Star Lace-Maker 1824 Mnemozyne; Woe from 1824 Maly Theatre, Wit Moscow becomes state theatre 1825 Decembrist Revolt 1825 Moscow Telegraph; 1825–55 Reign Nicholas I Boris Godunov 1826–8 Russo-Persian War 1827 Moscow Herald 1827 Kiprensky’s Portrait of A. S. Pushkin 1828 b. Tolstoy 1828–32 Rossi’s Alexandrinsky Theatre 1829 Yury Miloslavsky or 1829–37 Orlovsky’s Russians in 1812 sculptures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly, St. Petersburg 1830–2 M. Speransky 1830 Belkin Tales; Little 1830–3 Briullov’s Last Day Russian Code of Laws Tragedies of Pompeii 1831 Evenings on Farm near Dikanka; Telescope 1832 Briullov’s Horsewoman 1833S.UvarovMinister 1833 Eugene Onegin; Bronze 1833 b. Borodin Public Education Horseman; “Queen of Spades” 1834 Herzen-Ogarev circle 1834 Belinsky’s Literary arrested; Kiev Reveries University founded 1834–59 Shamil’ rebellion Caucasus 1835 Arabesques; Mirgorod; Masquerade 1836 Captain’s Daughter; 1836 Life for the Tsar; Contemporary; Inspector Inspector General General;“Nose” 1837 d. Pushkin; Lermontov’s “Death of Poet”; Chaadaev’s Apology of Madman 1839 Fatherland Notes 1839 b. Mussorgsky 1839–49 Ton’s Bolshoi Kremlin Palace 1840 Hero of Our Time; 1840 b. Tchaikovsky Mtsyri;Aksakov’sFamily Chronicle 1841 d. Lermontov