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Renewable Energy Utilization in 3 European Cities Ris0 Bibliotek Forskningscenter Riso DISCLAIMER

Portions of this document may be illegible electronic image products. Images are produced from the best available original document. Renewable Energy Utilisation in 3 European Cities

The Municipality of Ballerup received the contract on behalf also of the City of Neumiinster and the City of Palermo.

Name: Ballerup Municipality Full address: Hold-Anvej 5-7 DK 2750 Ballerup Telephone: +45 44 77 20 00 Name of person responsible: Klaus Ole Mogelvang Position: Technical Director

The project was lead by the technical co-ordinator (see appendix 3 for a full list of par­ ties in the working group which carried out the project):

Name: Cenergia Energy Consultants Full address: Set. Jacobs Vej 4 DK 2750 Ballerup Telephone: +45 44 77 20 00 Name of person responsible: Ove C. Morck Position: Director

Invitation to submit proposals of: September 1993 93/5OO/E0F Relating to: ALTENER 1994

From: January 1995 To: July 1997

ALTENER Project XVII/4.1030/A/94-1 15

1 Preface

0. Preface Energy production based on fossil fuels produces C02, S02 and NOx, which are harmful to the environment. It is agreed, both nationally and internationally, that it is necessary to con ­ siderably reduce the energy consumption. The following two passages appear in the Brundtland report "Our Common Future": • "The Commission recommends a low-energy future, based on energy efficiency, sa­ vings, and an aggressive development of new and renewable energy sources." • "Renewable energy sources need to be given considerably higher priority in national energy programmes. In the 21st century renewable energy must form the basis for the whole of the global energy structure."

Only with a strong, well-planned and well-managed effort it will be possible to promote the use of renewable energy sources and of less polluting energy sources and to reduce energy consumption, locally and globally, to a level that is environmentally acceptable according to the Brundtland Report.

When conceptualising plans for improvement of the environment by reducing energy con ­ sumption the wise words from the seventies "think comprehensively - act selectively (or plan globally - implement locally)" are still useful to keep in mind. They can be phrased a little bit differently, namely that plans and means (measures) must be developed as a whole. Actors must be found and their role clearly defined - then sound technically and economi­ cally solutions will be found.

The difference between different European countries politically, financially, culturally, and socially needs to be acknowledged when energy initiatives are considered for implementa ­ tion on a local as well as an international scale.

This was the basis for the initiation of the project “Renewable Energy Utilization in 3 European Cities”. Three very different cities with different problems and thus different inte ­ rests got together and joined efforts to develop action plans to increase renewable energy use to reduce the burden on the environment from energy consumption in the urban and re­ gional areas.

The work has been undertaken by the working group presented in appendix 3.1 thank all . who has been involved in this project for their engagement and contributions to reach our target.

June 26, 1997 Ove C. Merck, Cenergia Energy Consultants Technical co-ordinator Contents

Contents - Part I 0. PREFACE...... H

1. INTRODUCTION...... 4

1.1 A ims and objectives...... 4 1.2 Fields covered - and scope of project ...... 4 1.3 Structure of the report ...... 4 1.4 The 3 CITIES - BASIC INFORMATION ...... 5 2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 6

2.1 Palermo ...... 6 2.1.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans...... 7 2.2NEUMONSTER...... 8 2.2.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans...... 9 2.3 BALLERUP...... 9 2.3.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans...... 10 2.4 Proposals for an action plan ...... 11 2.4.1 Guarantee of results...... i...... 12 2.4.2 Third Party Financing...... 13 2.5 Conclusions ...... 13 3. STATUS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY UTILISATION, EXISTING LEGISLATION AND INCENTIVES...... 15

3.1 The solar water heaters industry in Italy . Economics and Institutional A spects ...... 15 3.1.1 Introduction...... 15 3.1.2 The Italian Solar Thermal Market...... 15 3.1.3 The Supply Structure in Italy...... 17 3.2 Legislation A imed at Promoting SDHW in Italy ...... 20 3.2.1 The Direct Incentive...... 20 3.2.2 Legislation for the Reduction of C02 Emissions and for the Promotion of Sustainable Development...... 22 3.2.3 Institutional and Legislative Aspects ofDSM and TPF Policy...... 22 3.2.4 The Concept of Third Party Finance...... 23 3.3 The plans and incentives on the German Solar market ...... 24 3.3.1 Wind...... 24 3.3.2 Solarthermie...... 24 3.3.3 Photovoltaic...... 24 3.3.4 Biomass...... '...... ■•...... 24 3.3.5 Instruments of Promoting...... 24 3.4 The D anish Solar market ...... 26 3.4.1 Solar systems in Denmark...... 26 3.4.2 Continuous state economical incentive...... 26 3.4.3 Price reduction...... 27 3.4.4 Electricians have solar heating certificate...... 27 3.4.5 Sun for electricity production...... 28 3.4.6 Solar heating covers 30% of the heat requirement in 30 years...... 28 4..THE RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF THE URBAN AREA OF PALERMO...... JO

4.1 Solar potential of the city of Palermo ...... 30 4.1.1 Division of the urban area in separate sections...... 30 4.1.2 Rooftop characteristics evaluation...... 32 4.1.3 Evaluation of old buildings roof area...... 33 4.1.4 Corrective coefficients for natural obstructions...... :...... 34 4.1.5 Corrective coefficients for neighboring buildings shading...... 34 4.1.6 Calculation of net solar area...... 36 4.1.7 Evaluation of the energy production...... 36 4.2 Possible diffusion of solar technologies : targets to 2005 and to 2020...... 36

1 Contents

4.3 Waste /biomass potential of the city of Palermo ...... 39 4.3.1 Recycling...... 40 4.3.2 Incineration...... 40 4.3.3 Biogas...... 41 4.3.4 Total potential energy recovery from urban wastes...... 42 4.3.5 Wooden residuals...... 42 4.4 Hydroelectric resources ...... 43 4.5 Wind energy ...... 43 4.6 Total potential from renewable energy sources ...... 43 5. THE RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF THE CITY OF NEUMUNSTER...... 45

5.1 Current Energy Supply ...... 45 5.2 Potential of solar energy in N eumunster ...... 45 5.3 Wind energy potential in N eum Onster ...... 46 5.3.1 Practical wind energy potential...... 47 5.3.2 Shared windmills...... 47 5.4 Waste /biomass potential ...... 47 5.4.1 Municipal solid Waste...... 47 5.4.2 Compost...... 49 5.4.3 Commercial Waste...... 49 5.4.4 Construction site Wastes...... 50 5.4.5 Collecting and Disposal...... 50 5.4.6 Energy Utilisation of Wood Wastes...... 51 5.4.7 Fermentable Wastes from Food Production Industry, Food Residues and Agriculture...... 52 5.5 Total renewable energy potential of N eumunster ...... 52 6. THE RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL OF THE MUNICIPALITY OF BALLERUP...... 53

6.1 Potential of solar energy in Ballerup ...... 53 6.1.1 The current utilisation of solar energy...... 55 6.2 Wind energy potential in Ballerup ...... 55 6.2.1Practical potential...... 56 6.3 Waste /biomass ...... 56 6.4 D escription of Status Quo ...... 56 6.5 Waste Quantities ...... 56 6.5.1 Municipal solid Waste...... 56 6.5.2 Commercial Waste...... 57 6.5.3 Constructionsite Wastes...... 57 6.6 Combustion ...... 57 6.6.2 Composting...... 58 6.6.3 Fermentable Wastes from Food Production Industry, Food Residuesand Agriculture...... 58 6.7 Total renewable energy potential in Ballerup ...... 59 7. SOLAR - NATURAL GAS SYNERGY: CONSIDERATIONS FOR A VIABLE UTILITY PROMOTION CAMPAIGN...... 60

7.1 Economical and Other A spects for the V iability of Future Installations ...... 60 7.1.1 Utility Action: Third Party Financing(TPF) ...... 60 7.2 Technical A spects ...... 68 7.2.1 Effects of Solar Thermal and Natural Gas Applications to the Electricity Power Load...... 70 8. WASTE MANAGEMENT...... 72

8.1 Minimisation of Waste ...... 72 8.2 Reuse and Recycling ...... 72 8.3 Composting ...... 73 8.4 Incineration ...... 73 8.5 Landfill ...... 73 8.6 Perspectives and new Initiatives...... 74 8.6.1 Minimisation of Wastes...... 74

2 Contents

9. OBSTACLES, STRATEGIES AND ACTION PLANS FOR THE DIFFUSION OF RENEWABLE ENERGIES...... 76

9.1 General overview of means available to a city administration ...... 76 9.2 Considerations with regards to an A ction Plan for Palermo ...... 76 9.3 Present situation : interventions carried out and projects in progress ...... 78 9.3.1 Towards a sustainable energy use and production...... 78 9.3.2 The solar policy...... 78 9.3.3 Introduction of the energy parameter in the new Master Plan...... 79 9.3.4 First case study: diffusion of solar thermal collectors...... 79 9.3.5 Self construction...... 79 9.3.6 The Alto Adige experience...... 80 9.3.7 Creation of new "solar experts”...... 80 9.3.8 The dissemination strategy in Sicily...... 81 9.3.9 Installation of solar systems in municipal buildings...... 82 9.3.10 First outcomes of the Altener Project...... 82 9.3.11 Second case study: electric vehicles fueled by solar energy...... 82 9.4 A ction Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in Palermo ...... 83 9.4.1 Typesof action...... 84 9.5 A ction Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in N eumunster ...... 89 9.5.1 Scope of actions...... 89 9.5.2 Plan for realization of a fermentation system in Neumunster...... 91 9.6 A ction Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in Ballerup ...... 95 9.6.1 Thermal solar...... 96 9.6.2 Solar cells...... 97 9.6.3 Wind...... ,...... 97 9.6.4 Biomass...... 97 9.7 N on Utility A ction : Guarantee of Results Contracts ...... 97 10. OTHER BENEFITS AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS...... 99

10.1 Interaction of Solar Thermal with Other DSM Objectives and Saving Opportunities .....99 10.2 Environmental A spects ...... 99 10.3 Other Positive A spects of the D iffusion of SDWH ...... 100 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 101

12. APPENDIX 1. THE RESULTS OF AN APAS PROJECT...... "...... 103

13. APPENDIX 2. ABBREVIATIONS...... 106

14. APPENDIX 3. WORKING GROUP...... 107

15. APPENDIX 4. DATA FOR THE CITY OF PALERMO...... 108

16. APPENDIX 5. PRESS CONFERENCES AND SEMINARS...... 116

3 Introduction

1. Introduction Renewable energy utilisation has been a political issue since the oil-crises in the 70-ties. In the recent years the focus has been on the potential risk for climatic changes caused by the use of fossil fuels. In 1987 the Brundtland Report clearly pointed out the need for reduced energy consumption achieved by energy conservation, improved energy efficiency and re­ newable energy utilisation at a global as well as a local scale. The role of the local authorities - cities and municipalities, in achieving the energy saving goals has later been pointed out at the Environment Conference in Rio and also often underlined by the EU Commission.

This report describes the outcome of an EU-supported project “Renewable Energy Utilisa­ tion in Three European Cities” undertaken by the cities of Palermo (I), Neumunster (D) and Ballerup (DK).

1.1 Aims and objectives The objective of this project was to establish the basis for, develop and initiate an action plan for the three involved European cities, which completely implemented would lead to substantially increased renewable energy utilisation consumption and correspondingly re­ duced impact on the environment.

1.2 Fields covered - and scope of project The fields covered are • the obstacles to the diffusion of renewable technologies and the policies that the city and its municipal utility can play • the renewable energy resources • the technical potential of renewable energy sources • the present utilization • long term energy planning and governmental incentives • economical aspects • preliminary ideas for an action plan.

The scope of the project was to analyse the current use of each of the renewable energy sources available for each city, solar, wind, hydro, waste and biomass and identify their po­ tential in the future energy supply pattern of each city and based on these analyses develop action plans to initiate the increased harvesting of the identified resources.

1.3 Structure of the report This report has been structured in the following way: After this introduction the Executive Summary presents the work and results in a short, condensed way - chapter 2.

Chapter 3 presents the status of solar utilisation in the three cities and identifies the present situation with respect to economy and legislation aimed at promoting solar systems. Diffe­ rent incentives are covered for each country. The concepts of third party financing is briefly accounted for. Introduction

The chapters 4,5 and 6 presents the results of the analyses of the renewable energy utilisa ­ tion potential in each city.

Chapter 7: “The solar - natural gas synergy" presents arguments and considerations for a viable utility promotion campaign of solar thermal systems for domestic hot water.

Chapter 8 covers waste treatment, different type of waste, their potential and special con ­ siderations for their use.

Obstacles, strategies and preliminary action plans for the three cities are presented in chap­ ter 9, and chapter 10 accounts for other benefits and environmental aspects.

Finally, appendix 1 to 5 holds a bibliography, a summary of the results of an APAS project, abbreviation, the name and address lists of the working group, and two tables of detailed data for Palermo.

A specific part of the study on “International experience of Utility Involvement in the Diffusion of Solar Thermal Systems” has been reported in a separate document - part 2 of this report.

1.4 The 3 cities - basic information The three cities co-operating within the framework of this project are: Ballerup (DK), Neumunster (D) and Palermo (I). The table below provides some basic information about these three cities:

Table 1.1 Population and size of the three involved cities. Ballerup Neumunster Palermo Population 45 300 81 923 700.000 Area 34 km2 72 km2 191km 2

5 Executive summary

2. Executive summary In 1987 the Brundtland Report pointed out the need for reduced energy consumption achie­ ved by energy conservation, increased renewable energy utilisation and improved energy efficiency at a global as well as a local scale. This was in 1994 followed by the conference in Madrid: “An action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources in Europe ”. At this conference it was stated that the present 4% contribution of renewable energy sources to the European total primary energy consumption has the technical potential to be increased to 47%. The aims agreed at the conference was to reach a 10% contribution by the year 2005 and 15% by the year 2015. At the conference it was recognized that there exist severe obstacles to achieving these ambitious goals.

This report describes an EU-supported study “Renewable Energy Utilisation in Three Euro ­ pean Cities” undertaken by the cities of Palermo (I), Neumunster (D) and Ballerup (DK).This EU-study takes the Brundtland Report and the Madrid conferences as starting points. The objective of the project was to establish the basis for, develop and initiate an ac­ tion plan for the three involved European cities to point out which actions can be taken by municipal authorities to overcome barriers and obstacles to accomplish the goals quoted above with a correspondingly reduced impact on the environment. .

2.1 Palermo Palermo is a city of 700,000 inhabitants and generally a large part of the energy consump ­ tion goes to private transport while a relatively small part goes to industry. There is a small but growing demand for heating and a quickly growing demand for room cooling.

The renewable energy in Palermo mainly consists of solar heating but there is also a large bio mass potential whereas there is not much wind energy. The total renewable energy po­ tential can replace primary energy of up to 7200 TJ (of which three fourth is solar energy, the rest is mainly biomass, only a very small part of this potential is used today.

The largest renewable energy source is solar energy and it is relatively easy to use partly because there are many flat roofs and partly because 75% of the domestic hot water con ­ sumption is covered by electricity which is rather expensive.

The net solar area on the sunlit non-historical buildings in Palermo is calculated to 3.4 km2 and if this roof area is used to electricity production by means of solar cells the total net electricity production will be 563 GWh per year (176 kWh per m2) equal to app. 822 kWh per inhabitant. This way the solar energy could cover more than 75% of the private elec­ tricity consumption. In primary energy this means that solar cell energy can replace approx. 1,500 GWh (120 ktoe) or 5000 TJ per year.

The potential from the waste is calculated either as recycling, combustion or biogas but the optimum would be a combination of these different possibilities. Between 30 to 50 ktoe/y (1250-2100 TJ/y) could be obtained according to the technological mix that will be adopted. Executive summary

The contribution of wooden residual (1 ktoe/y = 42 TJ/y) and of mini-hydro systems con ­ trolled by the local utility (3 ktoe/y = 126 TJ/y) are of minor importance.

The estimated total renewable energy potential and its distribution of Palermo is shown in the table and figures below.

Table 2.1 Renewable energy potential of Palermo. Source TJ/year. Solar 5000 Mini-hydro power 126 Wind ~0 Wooden residuals 42 Solid waste 1250-2100 Total 7200

Solid waste 28.9%

Mini-hydro Solar power 68 .8 % 1.7%

Fig. 2.1 Distribution of the renewable energy potential of Palermo, the total potential of renewable energy: 8500 TJ/y.

2.1.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans The oil crisis in the seventies made that in Italy there were more than 150 importers of manufacturers of solar heating systems in 1980 and the sudden expansion resulted in poor systems and this way solar heating got a bad reputation and therefore the sales decreased in the beginning of the eighties.

The most important incentive to invest in solar systems to private households has been 3-7 years loans that covered 75% of the expenses and where the monthly repayments are made over the electricity bill. Even though 12,000 systems (100,000 m2) have been built during a three-year campaign period by means of this funding the campaign is evaluated as a failure as sales stopped when the funding was discontinued. Subsidies have shown not.to be either necessary or sufficient to a satisfactory dissemination of solar heating.

However, one single law is estimated to be of importance for solar heating to domestic wa­ ter, namely a law that compels the public sector to save or replace conventional energy in cases where the simple pay back time of the investment is less than 8-10 years.

7 Executive summary

Because of small sales the solar heating systems are relatively expensive in Italy - 700,000 lira - 1,200,000 lira per m2 where the price could be as low as 300,000 lira per m2. How­ ever, the economy of a solar heating system that supplies domestic water to a family of four with an electric water heater would be satisfactory. The family wbuld save 36% of the ener ­ gy consumption while the financial saving would be 60% as the price per kWh is increasing the more you use. This gives a simple pay back time of 4 - 6 years, which means that there should be great possibilities in solar heating systems for heating of domestic water.

In addition to the direct energy saving the solar heating systems will reduce the demand for power from the power station considerably as electricity is usually used for heating of wa­ ter.

2.2 Neumunster The estimated renewable energy potential in Neumunster is 587 TJ (163 GWh).

Biomass is the largest part of the renewable energy potential - 311 TJ (86 GWh), divided in 94 TJ from waste wood and 217 TJ from other organic waste material.

In the whole Schleswig-Holstein area (but not in Neumunster) it has been planned that re­ newable energy is going to cover 25% of the net energy consumption in 2010 and (of this) the bio mass is going to be approx. 17%, partly from waste material and partly from energy yield.

However, solar energy is also a large part of the renewable energy potential namely 77 TJ (21.4 GWh) for heating of domestic water, equal to 50% of the domestic water consump ­ tion and 45 GWh (162 TJ) per year delivered by solar cells.

On the contrary wind energy is not very important as it is an inland area where a 500 kW mill will produce approx. 1 GWh per year. In the total Schleswig-Holstein area the electri­ city production from wind mills is going to be fourfold before year 2010 according to the plans, where wind power is going to produce 25% of the electricity consumption. In Neumunster the estimated potential is 33 TJ (9.17 GWh) which could be produced by 9 wind mills. There are no plans of how to place the mills and the local authorities in Neumunster have not laid out areas to wind mills. At the moment Neumunster has shares of eight wind mills by the North Sea which had a production of 1026 MWh in 1995.

The total renewable energy potential of Neumunster is illustrated on the table and figure below.

Table 2.2 Renewable energy potential of Neumunster. Source TJ/year Thermal solar 76 Solar cells 164 Wind 35 Organic waste 217 Wood waste 94 Total 587 ' Executive summary

Energy from Wood Waste out of NeumOnster only Energy from Organic

28% v Solarthermie 13%

Fig. 2.2 Distribution of the renewable energy potential of Neumunster, total potential of renewable energy: 587 TJ/y.

2.2.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans To promote solar energy at the Schleswig-Holstein market it is the plan to make diversified promotion of small and medium sized systems. Furthermore it is the plan to make a demon ­ stration system in combination with district heating and it is the plan that solar heating is going to cover 1% of the energy consumption for heating. The solar cell technology is go­ ing to get help to reach the commercial level: Schleswig-Holstein has planned to establish 660 kW solar cells per year, of which 100 kW is going to be installed on public buildings.

A solar heating system to a one-family house supplies energy at 0.24 ECU per kWh. And even though the price of a systems is reduced when the amount of fiats increases the eco­ nomy is not better in a block of fiats than in one-family houses. It is then necessary to re­ duce the price of solar heating systems, and in the this project it is estimated that is it possi­ ble to reduce the price, among other thing through increasing sales of the systems.

In Germany funding to renewable energy systems is given both from federal and state go­ vernments and from the local authorities.

2.3 Ballerup The solar heating potential, which it will be possible to use by means of solar heating sys­ tems on the roofs, is 36 TJ (10 GWh). If solar cells were used a larger part of the houses would be suitable and therefore they will be able to produce 58 TJ (16 GWh) electricity.

The total potential of renewable energy that it would be possible to use is 100 GWh (306 TJ) per year. Of this the bio mass counts for 51 GWh, which is already being delivered by a waste material destructor.

In 1994 there were approx. 100 solar heating systems in Ballerup equal to 300 MWh (1 TJ) which is nearly 3% of the estimated practical potential. Almost the total Ballerup district is in the poor end of the scale concerning wind and the best area has not been laid out to wind mills in the local plan. In practice 5-10 wind mills

9 Executive summary can be placed here, equal to an annual production of 5 - 10 GWh. Until now there are no wind mills in Ballerup.

The total renewable energy potential in Ballerup is- summarised in the table below. In cal­ culating the total it should be noted that if the biomass potential from household waste is utilised a corresponding amount of solid waste cannot be burned in the waste incineration plants.

Table 2.3 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup Source TJ/year Thermal solar 36 Solar cells 58 Wind 29 Biomass, (54) inch in solid waste Solid waste 184 Total 306

From the table it is seen that the total practical potential for renewable energy utilisation in Ballerup is 306 TJ/year.

Fig. 2.3 .Distribution of the renewable energy potential of Ballerup, total potential of renewable energy: 306 TJ/y.

2.3.1 Existing legislation, incentives and plans Since 1980 investments in renewable energy systems have received governmental funding. Together with other governmental initiatives this has resulted in an considerable increase in sales of solar heating systems so in 1995 there were 18,000 systems equal to 150,000 m2 in Denmark.

It has been and is the Danish Energy Agency’s aim to reduce the prices of solar heating systems and therefore they have worked hard through national and regional campaigns to promote sales - among other things in connection with natural gas. A quality assurance scheme for installers secures reliable solar heating systems. Executive summary

In the government ’s perspective plan “Denmark ’s energy futures ” it is anticipated that 30% of the net heat consumption is going to be covered by solar heating before year 2030. This will demand 300,000 small and 100 large system and 10 million m2 solar walls. 15 million m2 solar cells are going to supply 10% of the electricity consumption. Totally the solar energy is going to cover 50 PJ in year 2030.

The price of a 3 m2 solar heating system is nearly 5,000 DKK when government funding and the price of a standard hot water tank have been deducted. The system can produce between 1,200 and 1,500 kWh per year and the pay back time will typically be 7 - 8 years.

Many people are sceptical about the yield of the solar heating and its efficiency and a gua­ ranteed result could help to overcome this obstacle for sales of solar heating systems. Ce- nergia has conducted another Altener project (Olesen, 1997) on the subject of guarantees for large solar heating systems.

2.4 Proposals for an action plan To overcome the technical and economical barriers working against increased renewable energy utilisation the following list presents a set of general means which can be used by the municipal or city authorities. These means can be placed into four main categories: • Pedagogical means, i.e. free energy consultancy, information, education, and demonstra ­ tion projects, thematic evenings. These means are to inform and educate as well consul ­ tants and installers, as The general public. • Normative means, i.e. building regulations, requirements to maintenance, prohibitions. • Economical means, i.e. special price structure, subventions and supply and energy taxes. • Organisational means, i.e. the establishment of an overall energy supply coordination body, and a regional energy conservation and renewable energy supply semi-public company. Also the formation of local public interest groups can bo an effective means to promote the renewable energy utilisation.

The pedagogical and organisational means are means taken the individual as the point of outset. These will be the type of means which generally can be initiated by a local authority.

The background for the initiation of the normative and economical means are the advan ­ tages of utilizing renewable energy for the society - reduced harm to the environment, saving valuable fossil resources for the future, etc. Typically means to be set into force by a country, or even an international body as the EU as a part of a long term planning and legislation activity, by could also be used by a regional or local administration.

Even though the three cities exhibit large differences in size, present energy use pattern and renewable energy potential the set of actions identified for the three cities are remark­ ably similar. Below are listed the elements of the action plans which have been identified in all the three cities: • guarantee of results contracts • third party financing - the utility or another third party finances, installs and maintains the solar thermal systems that remain his property, while the users buy the hot water produced at a convenient price, thus he is ‘selling’ the energy savings obtained by the renewable energy installation. ( • information campaigns Executive summary

• price subsidies • obligation to install solar energy by law • demonstration projects * all the three partner cities are involved in a 1995 THERMIE quality targeted de ­ monstration project on educational buildings - MEDUCA. * Besides the Municipal Gas Company of Palermo (A.M.G.) will install 12 solar systems in combination with natural gas boilers to test, demonstrate, and develop design guidelines for this type of systems.

In a free market society it is obvious that the actions which will have the largest impact are the type of actions which takes the present economical barriers as the basis and acts to overcome these by methods which are suitable in a market oriented context. Such measures are “guarantee of results ” and “third party financing ”. These measures are outlined in brief in the two following paragraphs.

2.4.1 Guarantee of results One of the most important obstacles for a successful solar market is that solar thermal sys­ tems are often considered as less reliable than conventional systems. Most of the people doubt on both cost effectiveness and durability of them. In fact, it is not enough to present economic calculations in order to convince people to use solar.

What is convincing is a concrete guarantee of the hot water production costs for a deter ­ mined period. The possibility to formulate a contract that could offer this guarantee has been elaborated and, in some cases, applied: it is called ‘Guarantee of results contract ’.

In Denmark Cenergia Energy Consultants have recently completed the Altener Project No. AL/4.1030/93 -23/DK on pilot actions seeking the introduction of a guarantee of solar re­ sults in the market of large solar DHW systems (Olesen, 1997). The following list of requi­ rements for a guaranteed contract is given in the final report of this study: “A guarantee must include the following 4 items: • It must be easy to understand and clearly defined. • It must be easy to put into practice. • The person responsible has to insure his responsibilities. ■ • • The compensation in case of a defect or a too low yield must be proportional to the da ­ mage.” '

In the report of this project it is also stated that a guarantee can only be introduced if the following demands also are fulfilled: • “Design instructions of solar heating systems with dimensioning and yield calculations must be accessible. • Quality products to solar heating system must be available on the market such as solar collectors, tanks and other components. • Demands must be made to the installer. Reliable measuring methods for solar results and continuous monitoring. “

This kind of contract is more appropriate for large scale applications like multi-apartment buildings, hospitals, hotels etc., but is in fact offered by a Danish manufacturer (Olesen, 1997) for small scale applications. Sometimes this type of contract can be combined with a Executive summary tele-monitoring process application that offers many useful data. These data could offer many possibilities like: • control and define the optimum working conditions for the maximum efficiency of the system • report quickly every irregularities • reduce the Hn situ' technical controls • obtain valuable savings data which can be compared to other applications.

2.4.2 Third Party Financing In Third Party Financing (TPF) a lender offers money to a project and accepts repayment from the cash flow generated by the project. For a SDWH installation the cash flow is pro­ vided-by the cash savings produced from the energy savings made in respect to the substitu ­ ted conventional energy system.

Third party financing was developed as a means to help customers finance solar plant in ­ stallation. The advantage for the customer is that he does not have to provide any cash up front to finance the investment.

Third party financing is a simple means of financing a SDWH utility programme. TPF should generally by combined with guaranteed reductions in energy consumption. The savings pay for the investment costs.

A ceiling cost is also established and agreed: any additional cost is the responsibility of the third party financier. Moreover, this investment does not appear as a commercial debt; so the recipient company preserves its own funds and credit limits: that is, its financial inde ­ pendence is unaffected.

The Directorate-General for Energy, DGXVII, has long recognized that Third Party Fi­ nancing can be a powerful incentive for renewable energy and energy efficiency invest ­ ments.

Some manufacturers in Denmark provide the solar installation for free and in return receive the savings from the system (Olesen, 1997).

2.5 Conclusions Within this co-operative project the status of the renewable energy utilisation in the three cities Palermo, Neumunster and Ballerup have been established. The existing legislation and incentives as well as barriers and obstacles have been identified. Thereafter estimates of the renewable energy potential of the three cities have been made. A summary of the results for each of the relevant renewable energy sources and the total potential in relation to the overall in each city is given in table 2.4. It appears from the table that only the total poten ­ tial in Palermo comes somewhat near the potential estimated in the TERES study mentio ­ ned above. Also it is obvious that an effort must be made to find greater potential for the renewable energy utilisation in Ballerup and Neumunster if the goals of the Madrid confe ­ rence “An action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources in Europe” of a 10% contribuion in 2005 and a 15% shall have a chance to be met. Aside from that, it is obvious from the status of the present utilisation that only if very powerful actions are initiated is it possible to reach these goals.

13 Executive summary

Table 2.4 Renewable energy potential and total energy consumption in each city. TJ/year Ballerup Neumunster Palermo Solar 94 240 5000 Wind 29 35 ~ o Biomass 54 217 40 Minihydro - - 130 . Solid waste 184 94 1200-2000 Total renewable energy potential 306 587 -7200 Total current energy use 3507 7950 20500 Renewable energy potential in pet. 8,7% 7,4% 35%

It should be added to this discussion that the passive solar contribution to the heating of all houses in the three cities has not been accounted for. A study carried out for the EU shows that passive solar energy already displaces 13% of the energy consumption in the building sector on a European level. This contribution could be increased to 27% by 2000 and 54% by 2010 if solar energy is given sufficient attention and if all possible actions are taken. In some individual countries it could be increased to as much as 87%, ref. (TERES, 1993).

The studytincludes- special treatment of the solar - natural gas synergy (especially in Paler­ mo and waste treatment. It turns out that waste is a major resource, which might not gene­ rally be considered renewable (the biomass part of it is), but the use of something which otherwise would be “wasted ” to produce energy in effect is very similar to renewable ener­ gy resources. Therefore also a special chapter has been devoted to waste treatment.

The action plan proposed for all three cities to overcome the identified obstacles holds the following means, which directly can be initiated and nursed by municipal authorities: information campaign, organisation of user groups, demonstration projects (all three cities participate in a THERME targeted project) and third party financing.

The study of international experiences of utility involvement in the diffusion of solar ther­ mal systems, see part 2 of this report, concludes that information campaigns, training of sales and technical personnel, economical incentives and third party financing are the most successful instruments.

Based on the analyses performed within this project and their relation to other studies (TERES) it is clear that although much can be done to strengthen local energy policy within the existing frames in all three local authorities, it is also a question of creating better possi­ bilities for action and room for local political initiatives. This cannot be expected to come from the local authorities alone, but needs cooperation with central, national and European authorities.

It is also quite clear that national and European authorities have to define and lounge very powerful initiatives to strongly push the utilisation of renewable energy sources in order to achieve the goals of a 10% contribution in 2005 and 15% in year 2010, agreed to at the Ma­ drid conference by the national representatives from the EU-countries. Status of solar utilisation

3. Status of renewable energy utilisation, existing legislation and incen­ tives.

3.1 The solar water heaters industry in Italy. Economics and Institutional Aspects.

3.1.1 Introduction In Italy roughly 80% of gross energy consumption (172,8 Mtoe in 1995) 7 is provided by imports. In 1993 total energy consumed in the residential sector was 26,4 Mtoe, or 23,5% of total overall energy consumption, of which 3.1 Mtoe was used for domestic hot water.

The breakdown by household of energy sources for water heaters and an estimation of the equivalent C02 emissions are listed in following table:

Table 3.1 Sources Mtoe*2 % of DHW for energy source used Total 3 C02 emission (t) Natural gas 1.7 55.80 4,611,124 Electricity 0.84 . 27.10 7,476,000 Oil 0.53 17.10 1,733,000 TOTAL 3.07 100 13,820,124

Though the Italian climate is favourable to SDWH systems, their actual application in Italy is less than in countries with less advantages climates (tab. 1.1). Unsuitable governmental support policies in the past coupled with lower than expected energy price increases has badly affected market development. The figures listed in the table 2.1 provide an indication of the huge potential market for SDWH and the possibility for significant reductions in C02 emissions.

In what follows a brief historical description of the Italian market is offered, identifying the legislation, institutional, economics and financial aspects in the sector. The analysis offers a framework with which a local utility might offer support of SDWH market.

3.1.2 The Italian Solar Thermal Market In the 1980, 68,000 square metres of solar collectors were installed in Italy. The oil crisis of 1973 and 1979 increased the demand for solar technologies. In 1980 more than 150 impor­ ters and manufacturers of SDWH were active in Italy. But, at the beginning of the 1980s sales dropped (Fig. 2.1) following the large failure rate of already installed systems. "This gave solar energy a bad reputation with the general public" 4. In an attempt to help the in ­ dustry in 1983, the Italian Government working through ENEL, the national utility, initia ­ ted a support programme; "Acqua calda dal Sole" ("Hot Water from the Sun!"). The pro­ gramme included testing (application standards), installation training, information training, information centres, financial tools and effective advertisement.

7 Including bunkers. Ministero dell’Industria del Commercio e dell’Artigianato (MICA) 1996. 2 Sources: P. D’Angelo et al. 1996, p. 17. 3 Emission factors used (Kg/KWh): gas: 0.229775; electricity: 0.76 (Frischknecht, R. et al 1996); oil 0.29 (Danielis, R. 1996, p. 208). 4 A. Joffre, D. Roditi (edit by) 1991, p. 66.

15 Status of solar utilisation

Two financial incentives were offered to encourage SDWH sales: the first was a govern­ ment subsidy covering 30% of the total solar installation costs, as defined by the article 6 of Law n. 308 of 29/5/1982 ("Norme sul contenimento dei consumi energetic!"). However in practice bureaucratic complexities requiring years to complete meant the subsidy was very difficult to obtain 5 .6

(flat plate and vacuum collector)

70,000 T

60,000 --

50,000 --

40,000 --

30,000 --

20,000 --

10,000 --

Years

Source: ESIF1996, p. 149 Fig. 3.1: Solar collector sales in Italy6

The second incentive, the most important for householders, was a three to seven years low interest loan covering roughly 75% of the total cost. The monthly repayments were added to the electricity bill.

During the three years campaign 12,000 solar systems (100,000 m2 of solar collectors) were installed. About 9,300 systems were installed in single family homes. Of these 600 were installed in Sicily were 71% of users otherwise used electric water heating7. Peak sales occurred in 1984 (Fig. 2.2), since when numbers have decreased, especially following the end of the support campaign in 1987.

5The funding of this grant were assigned by the central to regional governments. The size awarded took account of local solar radiation conditions and the population. 6 "It was not possible to obtain data concerning sales from 1988 to 1991, however, it is estimated that the market has stabilised since 1987, at around 11 - 13,000 nr / year ". Data varies for 1992 and 1993 according to source; compare with F. Tutino 1996 p. 167, who offers 16,035 m2 for 1992 and 17,684 m2 for 1993. 7 ENEA 1996.

16 Status of solar utilisation

120% T 100% - 80% - 60% - 40% - 20% -

-20% - -40% - -60% -80% -L

years

Fig. 3.2: Annual variation of solar collector sales in Italy

The result of the government campaign promoting industrial production and increased sales was mainly negative. The promotion failed to create the desired self-sustaining market; when financial incentives stopped sales declined rapidly. The experience indicates that sub ­ sidies need to be offered as part of a larger action programme which includes other supply side initiatives, e.g. research and development programmes and co-operation between utili ­ ties and manufacturers. Operated in isolation demand-side public policy fails to generate an healthy sustainable market.

A “competitive index ” of solar domestic water heaters manufactured in Italy, based on na ­ tional field research5 has been established. Surprisingly the most commonly used Italian systems appear to be the least competitive. This paradox may partly be explained by the ef­ fect of the demand side public policy of council on the manufacturing condition of the sec­ tor. Both the structure of the ENEL campaign and the finance of public works contracts for the residential building market provided by Law. 457/79 were such as to allow the inef ­ ficiency of the Italian manufacturing sector to be passed on to the consumer in elevated re­ tail prices.

3.1.3 The Supply Structure in Italy In 1993 18 manufacturers and 7 importers were still active (tab. 2.2). However manufactu ­ rers generally consider SDWH as a marginal component of their business. 60% of total SDWH’s sales in Italy during 1992 and 1993 were made by only four of these companies (two manufacturers and two importers). 8

8 F. Tutino 1996.

17 Status of solar utilisation

Table 3.2 Italian manufacturers and importers of Solar Water Heating Manufacturers No. Region Name Status Commence­ Employees ment of Acti­ vity 1 Trentino Alto Eliotermica D.I. 83 3 Adige 2. Trentino Alto Energsol Sas 77 Adige 3 Veneto CDM PCF (ex S. Giorgio Pra) Sri 87 6 4 Veneto New Technology (ex Miazzon) Sri 83 2J 5 Veneto Sile Sri 78 147 6 Emilia Romagna A.T.I. Snc 79 28 7 Emilia Romagna NuovaThermosolar SRL 83 6 8 Friuli Emmeti Spa 80 85 9 Piemonte F.lli Fea Snc 73 13 10 Piemonte Finterm Spa 79 136 11 Piemonte Menegatti Spa 79 20 12 Piemonte Intereco di B.Ing. F. Snc 84 11 13 Lombardia Copeco Scrl 93 4 14 Marche Merloni Termosanitari Spa 80 2000 15 Lazio Enetec Sri 78 21 16 Lazio Nuova S.A.R.E.D. Coop rl 93 2 17 Puglia Costruzioni Solari Sri 89 5 18 Puglia Solares D.I. 85 1 Importers 1 iLiguria Polo di Fogher Catherine&C Snc 80 4 2 1Emilia Romagna Accomandita Sri 81 10 3 jEmilia Romagna Thermomax italiana Ltd 91 1 4 Umbria Tecnoclima Sri 86 3 5 1Lazio DEA Sri 92 1 6 1Lazio Italenergie Spa np 40 7 lLazio STAES Sri 79 3

Table 3.2 shows the majority of manufacturers are located in northern Italy. Two factors might explain this situation: i. the geographical proximity with those central European countries where a wider dif ­ fusion of SDWH exists. ii. a large number of small and medium sized firms working in the thermal and light en ­ gineering sectors have found it easy to diversify into the market. Status of solar utilisation

South Centre 5%

Fig. 3.3: Geographic distribution of SDWH supply

The better diffusion of solar systems in northern and central Italy is reflective of this supply base. Companies when questioned, indicated they dealt mainly with local markets.

In recent years the number of imported systems as a fraction of the total number of systems sold has increased, though the number of Italian systems sold is still greater than the num ­ ber of those imported (Fig. 3.4). Of the Italian manufacturing supply has been dominated by medium and large sized companies established in the domestic heating and household sec­ tor.

years 1992 and 1993

Fig.3.4: Supply distribution

In consequence of the limited market and of this supply structure, system prices of SDWH remain relatively high. Moreover the competition with electric water heating is very inte ­ resting due to the particular structure of the Italian residential tariff9 .

As of today no national policy exists which aims to enlarge the SDWH market; direct go­ vernmental support and incentives are more or less non existent 10. Italy is one of the only countries in Europe that has neither a specific government agency for the promotion of so­ lar energy nor a manufacturers ’ association to encourage marketing techniques and sales.

9 See chapter 3. 10 See next paragraph.

19 Status of solar utilisation

Manufacturers are reticent to innovate, preferring to use standard designs and materials. Not one of the major national manufacturers has invested in R&D in the last year (1995).

A possible strategy for growth might be the development of strong, local markets in favour ­ able locations which could be subsequently expanded to the wider national arena.

3.2 Legislation Aimed at Promoting SDHW in Italy. Following is an overview of the legislation currently in force which aims to incentivate the application of SDWH in Italy: 1) Law 457/1978 “Norme per l’edilizia residenziale ”, art. 31 comma b and art. 56; related art. 2 comma 2 and art 3 comma 14 of Decree Law n. 669 31/12/1996. 2) Legislation with regard National Energy Planning (PEN 1988) y/ and related: • Law 9 of 9/1/1991: “Norme per I’attuazione del nuovo Piano energetico nazionale: aspetti istituzionali, centrali idroelettriche ed elettrodotti, idrocarburi e geotermia, autoproduzione e disposizioni jiscali; • Law 10 of 9/1/1991: “Norme per I’attuazione del Piano energetico nazionale in materia di uso razionale dell ’energia, di risparmio energetico e di sviluppo delle fonti rinnovabili di energia ”. Guides of practice for implementation of legislation: • decrees of CEPE 21/12/1994: “Ripartizione dei Fondi alle Regioni e provincie autonome per I’attuazione del piano energetico”; • D.P.R 26/8/1993, n° 412: “Regolamento recante norme per la progettazione, I’installazidne, I’esercizio e la manutenzione degli impianti termici degli edifici ai fini del contenimento dei consumi di energia, in attuazione dell ’art. 4 della L. 9 gennaio 1991; • DM (MICA) 15/02/1992: “Agevolazioni Jiscali per il contenimento dei consumi energetici negli edifici”. 2) Legislation for reduction of C02 emissions and for the promotion of sustainable deve ­ lopment: Decree CEPE 25/2/1994: “Approvazione delprogramma nazionale per il contenimento delle emissioni di anidride carbonica ”; Decree CEPE 28/12/1993 “Piano nazionale per lo sviluppo sostenibile in attuazione dell ’agenda XXF\ 3) Public Utility legislation for the implementation of DSM and TPF policies: • Law 481 of 14/11/1995: “Norme per la concorrenza e la regolazione dei Servizi di pubblica utilita ”; • Law 142 of 8/6/1990: “Ordinamento delle autonomie locali”.

3.2.1 The Direct Incentive Generally, national incentives are handled by MICA (Ministero dell ’ Industria del commer- cio e dell ’artigianato) and local incentives are financed by the Regions. The law allows fi­ nancial contributions from different sources to be combined up to 75% of the total invest ­ ment cost as been met.

yy Art. 3, comma 70, forces 2 million square metres of installed solar thermal collectors by the year 2000, equivalent to 0,2 Mtoe. Status of solar utilisation

The principle legislation regarding incentives and support for renewable energy generally, and SDWH specifically, is currently that regarding national energy policy; laws 9 and 10 of 9 January 1991.

In the last National Energy Plan (PEN), approved by the Counsel of the Ministers in August 1988 the increased diffusion of the solar water heaters was included as a means to meet the general energy policy targets, namely: rational consumption of energy, the protection of the environment and human health, the diversification of energy sources, increased competi­ tiveness of the productive system and the development of indigenous national resources.

Laws 9 and 10 of January 1991 offer provisions for the realisation of the PEN decided in 1988.

More precisely Law 9/91 (art. 29) and the related guide of practice (DM 15/2/1992 art. 1 comma c and art. 2 comma b) provided until the end of 1994, the possibility to deduct from income tax half the capital cost of a SDWH installation 72.

Law 10/91, art. 8 (“Contributi in conto capitale a sostegno dett ’utilizzo delle fonti rin- novabili di energia nell’edilizia ”), provides for a State contribution of between 20% and 40% of the investment cost of SDWH systems for homes, industrial, commercial, agricul­ tural and public buildings. The solar plant has to provide at least 30% of the heat require­ ment.

Relative funding is periodically made available by central government and offered to local Regions to manage. However in consequence of recent cuts to public spending in order to reduce the budget deficit available funds are very low and of no real practical value.

Of particular interest is art. 26 (c.7) of Law 10/91, which obliges public bodies to install solar plant in public buildings for room heating. More precisely, DPR. 412/93 (guides of practice for art. 26 (c.7) of the Law 10/1991) force a public agent to save or substitute con ­ ventional energy with renewable energy in all public buildings, whenever the simple pay back time is less than 8-10 years and where no technical or economical obstacles exist for its implementation. The obligation is with respect to all new or substituted thermal plants and if technical or economical obstacles do exist then these have to be clearly indicated in the project technical report (art. 28, Law 10/1991).

This law offers a good base for the support of SDWH in the public sector.

The law 10/91, articles 4 to and to 25, provides additional finance and thus strengthens the previous legislation defined by law 457/1978. Law 457/1978 regulates public funding in council housing and in particular art. 56 makes the installation of water heaters fuelled from non traditional energy sources a preferential requisite for the assignment of the public con ­ tributions and loans.

Finally the SDWH installations residential buildings can be considered as ordinary mainte ­ nance building works 73, then for the year 1997 the decree law 669/96 states a VAT reduc ­

72 In 1992 it was forecast that only 500 systems would advantage of this scheme. 73 As defined by Law 457/78, art 36, comma b, this includes installation of SDWH. Status of solar utilisation tion from 19% to 10%, and the deduction from taxable income of interest of loan invested for these works.

Occasionally, local administrations provide special discounts on building taxes wjhen SDWH is used to cover a certain percentage of energy demand.

3.2.2 Legislation for the Reduction of COz Emissions and for the Promotion of Sus­ tainable Development. The national plan for the promotion of sustainable development approved by the Inter-mi ­ nisterial Committee for Economic Planning (CEPE, 28/12/1993), defines the promotion and application of the renewable energy sources as essential elements of any sustainable energy plan.

Subsequently the Committee approved a decree (CEPE 25/2/1994) for C02 emission stabili­ sation by the year 2000 to the level of 1990. The art 3.1.2 states that increased efficiency in energy conversion and increased application of renewable energy is necessary for C02 emission reduction.

The Committee identified the following as tools suitable to promote the strategic choices made (between others): - Law 9/91 and Law 10/91; - Charge systems; - Subsidies; - Enforcement incentives; - fiscal politics; -TPF. To change the behaviour patterns and accelerate the acceptance of renewable energy the committee indicates: - information; - formation; - DSM programmes; - fiscal exemptions.

3.2.3 Institutional and Legislative Aspects of DSM and TPF Policy A summary of the opportunities and restraints offered by DSM and TPF is provided by an analysis of Italian laws relative to the Public Utility and the National Authority.

Law 481/1995 introduces a “price cap” method for establish electricity tariffs. The “price cap” formula can be used to pay for the energy service of the DSM and specifically for the financing of low interest loans for installation of SDWH.

This law states (article 2 comma 18 and 19) that new tariffs need to be calculated roughly according to the following formula:

T, = T0 + RPI-A7t+Q + C + DSM;

where: T,: current tariff; Status of solar utilisation

T0: initial time tariff; RPI: Retail Price Index 74; Att : productivity target rate of power plants as planned in the coming years; Q: payment of quality recovered from service supplied; C : cover of unpredictable costs. DSM: payment of investments made to obtain increases in efficiency in electricity and e- nergy consumption (training and diffusion programmes, investments in more efficient power plants, grants to purchasers of energy saving equipment, etc.).

The formula allows, for example, minor increases to be made to natural gas prices to finance the introduction of SDWH systems. The specific cost of natural gas to the user would increase but his overall energy bill would fall to due to the introduction of the SDWH system.

“However, in general profits generated by distribution companies are based on the concept that the higher the volume of the commodity (electricity or gas) which can be sold, the greater the company profits generated. Therefore, the traditional commodity based distributor may be tempted to resist applying novel planning techniques which incorporate investment in demand reduction because, if lower volumes of sales result from the process, company profits might also be reduced. This rather limited view neglects the fact that the distributor will also make a profit from its energy efficiency operations and will gain economic advantage from the avoided cost associated with new capacity provision, provided electricity and gas regulations do not contain any obstacles for treating supply side and demand side options on an equal basis. Distributor profit under a novel planning scenario would be made up of two elements, one derived from the sale of the commodity (whether electricity or gas), and a second derived from the sale of energy services which is the real requirement of the customer ”75.

3.2.4 The Concept of Third Party Finance In Third Party Financing (TPF) a lender offers money to a project and accepts repayment only from the cash flow generated by the project. For a SDWH installation the cash flow is provided by the cash savings produced from the energy savings made in respect to the sub ­ stituted conventional energy system.

Third party financing was developed as a means to help customers finance solar plant in ­ stallation. The advantage for the customer is that he does not have to provide any cash up front to finance the investment.

Third party financing is a simple means of financing a SDWH utility programme.

Third party investors are asked to provide finance for SDWH systems which offer guaran ­ teed reductions in energy consumption. The loan offered by the third party is re-paid from the cash saved from reduced energy bills, according to a payments schedule calculated on the basis of the total lifetime projected energy savings. The third party financier sees its contribution refunded from the profit made by the energy saving. Under agreements of this type, the third part financier might either receive 100% of the cash savings made, or might

74 i.e. inflation rate. 75 D. Fee 1996, p. 6.

23 Status of solar utilisation share the profit with the customer, according to the provisions of the contract. The duration of the contract, and the refund schedule, are stipulated unequivocally in writing.

A ceiling cost is also established and agreed: any additional cost is the responsibility of the third party financier. The completion dates and the quality of implementation are guaran ­ teed. Accounts and invoices are accessible at all times. Moreover, this investment does not appear as a commercial debt; so the recipient company preserves its own funds and credit limits: that is, its financial independence is unaffected.

The Directorate-General for Energy, DGXVII, has long recognised that Third Party Finan ­ cing can be a powerful incentive for renewable energy and energy efficiency investments.

3.3 The plans and incentives on the German Solar market

3.3.1 Wind The annual delivery of the windmills in year 2010 should cover one quarter of the electri­ city consumption in whole Schleswig-Holstein, considering the plannings made by the state government. Comparing the actual delivery and the expected consumption of electricity in an saving scenario of 3 027 GWh/a, the present delivery has to be extended by an factor more than four. There are no plannings about the regional distribution. Yet the municipel autorities of Neumunster have not assign areas to rise windmills on.

3.3.2 Solarthermie A diversified promotion of small and medium sized plants shall help the solarthermie to a market entry in Schleswig-Holstein. The advantages of solar district heating shall be veri­ fied within a demonstration plant.

The use of solarthermie shall cover in 2010 1% of the heating energy consumption.

3.3.3 Photovoltaic PV-collectors shall be helped to marked maturity in small scale. Following the Greenpeace solar campaign of 10 000 new plants per year in Germany, the government of Schleswig- Holstein is planning new plants of 660 kW power capacity per year in Schleswig-Holstein of this 100 kW power capacity shall be raised on rooftops of public buildings owned by the Land.

3.3.4 Biomass The government of Schleswig-Holstein is planning 25% of final energy demand in the year 2010 to be provided by renewable energy [1]. This means that approximately 17.5% of the needed final energy is to be provided by the energetical use of biomass. The Land of Schleswig-Holstein promotes both the energetical use of residual materials and the cultiva ­ tion of energy farms.

3.3.5 Instruments of Promoting In Germany there are three governmental subsides. Federal and state governments and mu ­ nicipal subsides. Each governmental subsides can be granted without any legitimate claim only in the range of finance resources. Status of solar utilisation

3.3.5.1 Federal subsides: Due to the programme "promotion of enterprises to use renewable energy" (Forderung von MaBnahmanen zur Nutzung emeuerbarer Energien) the Ministry of Economics promotes • solar thermal systems larger than 3 m2 with 802 ECU* on single family houses, and other solar thermal units with 134 ECU for the firs 20 m2. • hydroelectric plants with less than 500 kW power with 134 ECU per new installed kW power capacity, or 321 ECU per extended kW power capacity • photovoltaik units with more than 1 kWpeak with 3743 ECU per kWpeak but- maximal 37433 ECU. • wind turbines from 450 kW to 2 MW power capacity in regions with an average wind speed of more than 4.5 m/s in 10 m height with 107 ECU per kW but not more than 53476 ECU • furnaces for biomass from 15 kW for wood furnaces and from 100 kW for other fuels with 134 ECU per kW power capacity under the circumstances that the emissions are lower than usual. • plants for fermentation of agricultural residues larger than 50 m3 fermentation chamber with 107 ECU per m3 fermentation chamber but not . more, than 106952 ECU.

Due to the scare annual finance resource of app. 53 Mio ECU in four years, there are no subsidies left in 1996.

The Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (German Environment Foundation) promotes pilot- and demonstration proj ects in renewable energy.

There are income-tax write-offs for solar thermal systems

An indirect promoting of renewable energy is the law of electricity energy delivery (Stromeinspeisungsgesetz). Wind turbines can work economically just by the promotion of the higher price (90% of the average consumer price) for delivered energy. 3.3.5.2 State Subsides The construction of district heating grids, most times an unrenounceable attribute of heat supply from renewable energy, is supported by the state up to 30%.

The state Schleswig-Holstein promotes research and development in the field of renewable energy supply with the following programmes: • The use of solarthermie in low-energy-houses is promoted by the state of Schleswig- Holstein within the programme "saving of resources in buildings" (Ressoucensparendes Bauen und Wohnen). This programme promotes the additional costs of building of new apartments in low-energy-style. Solarthermie for hot water supply and heating in dwellings is also promoted within the programme "solarthermie Schleswig-Holstein". The subsidy is 1337 ECU per unit, or in dwellings with more than 8 appartments 30% od the costs. • The use of photovoltaic in low-energy-houses is also promoted within this programme. • The raise of wind turbine is supported by the state of Schleswig-Holstein within the programme "renewable energy - wind" (Emeuerbare Energien - Wind). The support can

*1 ECU =1.87 DM

25 Status of solar utilisation

be up to 17% of the investment costs. Relevant for the absolute amount of the support is the aerodynamic efficiency, the noise emissions and the grid effects. • The cultivation of biomass or the use of agricultural residues for industrial-technical or energetical purpose is promoted. ■ • Enterprises to improve agricultural structures and coast protectionare promoted (Verbesserung der Agrarstruktur und des Kiistenschutzes) •. Promotion of product innovation (Forderung von Produktinnovationen) • Promotion of modem technologies in economics (.Forderung von Mafinahmen zur Ver­ besserung der Struktur der schleswig-holsteinischen Wirtschaft im Bereich modemer, zukunftsweisender Technologien) • Ecotechnical and economical enterprises (Okotechnische und okowirtschaftliche Mafinahmen) • In the order of the promotion of waste management (Abfallwirtschaftliche Mafinahmen) some kinds of energetical use of biomass can be also promoted.

The Energy Foundation Schleswig-Holstein (Energiestiftung Schleswig-Holstein) promotes pilot- and demonstration projects in renewable energy supply in Schleswig-Holstein.

The use of photovoltaic-converters for bus-stop lightning in regional areas is promoted by the ministry of economics of Schleswig-Holstein up to 2674 ECU per plant.

The Energieagentur Schleswig-Holstein helps to find a aquivalent support for projects that improves the energy utilisation. 3.3.S.3 The Stadtwerke of Neumunster offers special credits for the change from individual heating systems to grid bounded heating systems and for installation of solarthermie units. The credits can be up to 5348 ECU at 4.8% effective annual interest.

Literature: a [1] Minister fur Soziales, Gesundheit und Energie des Landes Schleswig-Holstein: Energiekonzept Schleswig-Holstein. Kiel. 1992

3.4 The Danish Solar market

3.4.1 Solar systems in Denmark Every year since 1988 there has been a remarkable increase in the sale of solar heating sys­ tems. In 1995 there were installed more than 3,000 systems in Denmark, so that the total amount of solar heating systems now goes beyond 18,000, corresponding to 150,000 m2.

3.4.2 Continuous state economical incentive Since 1979 there has been approx. 30% state incentive for establishment of solar heating systems. The subvention fluctuates after the contribution, so that the most efficient and most contributing system gets the greatest subvention percent. Status of solar utilisation

Solar heating systems are primarily installed in natural gas areas, viz. 43% of all systems. Henceforth there are areas with individual heating (37%), while 20% of the systems are in ­ stalled in distant heating areas.

It is not directly forbidden to install solar heating systems in combined heating and power (CHP) areas, but you try to avoid it, as the combined heating and power systems already have difficulties in letting the waste heat from the electric-production out in those periods of the year where the solar heating gives the most.

3.4.3 Price reduction The typical solar heating systems for cottages are approx. 3-5 m2, while the medium-sized systems for sports centres, institutions etc., in average are 40 m2.

The systems contribution has been improved through the years, as 1 m2 solar heating sys­ tem contributed with 300 kWh in 1991, while it can contribute with 360-500 kWh in 1995, an improvement of20-60%.

The small solar heating systems typically cost 6,000 DKK per m2 solar collector including container and installation, while the medium-sized systems cost 4,000 DKK per m2. It is the aim of the Danish Energy Agency to reduce these prices by 30% by the next 5-10 years, so that the aid of the state can be reduced proportional and gradually come to an end, like it has happened in the wind generator area. 3.4.3.1 Strong marketing To reach this price reduction on the solar heating systems primarily for hot water prepara­ tion, the Danish Energy Agency invests large resources in the marketing. These years na ­ tional advertisement campaigns and television-commercials are accomplished to inform people about the solar heating systems possibilities.

The campaigns are to be accomplished in co-operation with the regional natural gas compa­ nies in a way, were you offer a package deal in connection to conversion to natural gas. The package contains among other things a combi-container for both natural gas- and solar heating.

In those regions and periods were the campaigns are running, you can easily notice an in ­ crease in sales of solar heating systems.

Along with the advertisement campaigns a campaign towards the consulting architects and engineers is accomplished to make them interested in consulting their customers about solar heating systems, primarily medium-sized systems for public-schools, care centres and holi­ day centres etc.

The consultants can get a considerable subvention for working out a small sketch plan/basis for decision to their customers.

3.4.4 Electricians have solar heating certificate Years ago it was sometimes difficult to getsufficient good quality on the installation of so­ lar heating systems, because a lot of electricians did not have the knowledge in this new

27 Status of solar utilisation field. Consequently, the Danish Energy Agency released a quality security arrangement in 1993 for installation of small solar heating systems.

The electricians are to participate in seminars and having solar heating certificates issued and the finished solar heating installations are notified for repeat inspection, which is ac­ complished by the agricultural testing laboratory for solar energy at DTI.

At the moment there are approx. 300 WS-installation companies with a total amount of approx. 500 solar heating electricians connected to the quality security arrangement.

3.4.5 Sun for electricity production Gradually a great deal of solar cell systems, which produces electricity, are being installed. A solar cell is a semi-conductor, which transforms fight directly into electricity by help of the so-called photoelectric effect. The solar cell produces direct-current (DC), which is transformed into alternating current (AC).

Normally solar cell systems are used in areas with missing or unstable electric-supply, as the price by a direct comparison normally is too great for competing with the established electric-supply.

In the Danish conditions are applied that a typical system for supply of a weekend cottage with fight, radio and television in the summer months will be 100 W solar cell effect and fills 1 m2.

A typical system for covering all the electric-consumption in a dwelling is 4 kW and fills 40 m2.

Grid-connected systems are not yet economical, but it is expected that they are competitive in 10-15 years from now. In the last 10 years the price on solar cells has dropped from 1.50 DKK/kWh to 1.60 DKK/kWh.

Great expectations are held against building integrated solar cells, as you here are counting on developing rational and inexpensive mounting systems, which can reduce the total sys­ tem-price by 25%.

3.4.6 Solar heating covers 30% of the heat requirement in 30 years In the governments perspective plan, "Denmark's Energy futures", one count on that 30% of the net heat requirement can be covered with solar heating before year 2030.

This contribution ratio could be reached with 300,000 small solar heating systems and 100 large collective solar heating systems and 10 mil. m2 solar walls.

On the electric-area solar cell systems of 15 mil. m2 could cover 10% of the yearly electric- consumption.

Total it is counted that the solar energy delivers approx. 50 PJ energy per year in year 2030. Status of solar utilisation

3.4.6.1 Neumunster The prices of solar domestic hot water supply depends mostly on the costs for the unit and on the interests on the capital. The costs of a solar domestic hot water supply are in average about 193 ECU/m2**, but they can vary by a factor four.

Under the consumption, that a non-supported consumers price for a solar domestic hot wa­ ter supply in singly family houses would be about 4813 ECU, a lifetime of 20 years and ap­ proximate 8.2 GJ/a gathered, the costs are 66 ECU per GJ adequate 0,24 ECU per kWh.

The costs for a solar domestic hot water supply in dwellings decreases with the number of supplied apartments. Nevertheless the subsides are not as good as for single family houses. The total costs per GJ would be higher.

There is still a potential for a decrease of costs in the future. The variety of prices shows, that the market is not transparency enough yet. Another decrease would be possible, if the number of collectors increases.

Solar hot water supply for swimming-pools is yet in a range of economic concurrence to fossile fuels, because of the low temperature, where no expensive collectors are needed, the pool itself is the heat-storage and the solar radiation comes annual together with the needed heating energy for the swimming-pool. > S.4.6.2 Ballerup The price of a small (3 m2) solar domestic hot water system in Denmark appears from the table below.

Table 3.3 Solar system cost in Denmark Complete solar system package 9990 finstallation 2400 sub-total 12390 V.A.T. 3097,5 Total 15487,5 -incentive 4646,3 Net costumer price . 10841,2 Common hot water tank 6000 . Net price 4841,2

From the table it is seen that the net customer price, when installation and V.A.T. has been added and the incentive and price for a standard hot water preparation tank subtracted is app. half of the complete package price. That is 1370 ECU* and 685 ECU respectively. This solar hot water system is likely to produce between 4 and 500 kWh/m2 per year, or 12- 1500 kWh corresponding to economical savings of app. 6-700 DKK per year (82-96 ECU). The payback time is in this case 7-8 years.

*1 ECU =1.87 DM *1 ECU = 7,3 DKK

29 4. The renewable energy potential of the urban area of Palermo In this chapter the potential of solar energy, biomass, hydro and wind energy that could be used by the city of Palermo will be analyzed.

While for the first two sources there are no problems regarding the area involved (that is strictly the Administrative territory of the Municipality), some clarification should be done regarding the exploitation of wind and hydropower.

We assume in this study that also the sources that are located in the proximity of the urban area and that could be transformed by a municipal utility should be considered.

It is well known that many municipal utilities, in the past, have built hydro power plants tens of km outside of the urban areas in order to produce the electricity needed by the cities. More recently the same approach is being followed regarding the use of wind power, with windfarms installed at 30-60 km from the cities (Sacramento and Bologna are two examples).

4.1 Solar potential of the city of Palermo The potential of solar energy production in existing rooftops of the city of Palermo has been evaluated adopting a simple but effective methodology.

The solar potential has been calculated as the net south facing inclined surface avail­ able for all kinds of applications (in the near future thermal, in the long term PV). A tilt of 30° has been considered. For fiat roofs the row spacing to avoid shading has been included in the calculations of the net solar area.

Vertical surfaces have not been considered since the low latitude of Palermo (38°) does not allow an efficient conversion of solar radiation. This is however a conserva­ tive estimate since also vertical surfaces could be interesting for solar applications, for example using inclined PV shading devices.

For the calculation of the net solar area, the following steps have been considered: 1) Division of the urban area in separate homogeneous subsurface 2) Rooftop characteristics evaluation 3) Evaluation of old buildings roof area 4) Corrective coefficients for natural obstructions 5) Corrective coefficients for neighboring buildings shading 6) Site specific corrective coefficients 7) The application to each of the 183 urban areas of the coefficients defined in the previous points has permitted to evaluate the total net solar area

4.1.1 Division of the urban area in separate sections From computerized data of land registry maps, the city has been divided in 183 areas for which were available the height, the volume and the roof area of the single buil ­ dings. Also the total urban surface of each cell is available.

30 To these data through our elaboration the percentage of sloped roofs has been evalua ­ ted and from another database the historical buildings roof area has been added (tab. 4.1). In Fig. 4.1 the map of Palermo, with the division considered is presented.

Fig. 4.1 Map of the areas in which the city of Palermo has been divided

31 4.1.2 Rooftop characteristics evaluation From aerial pictures an analysis has been made in order to calculate the percentage for each specific town area of the rooftop characteristics (flat or inclined). In Fig. 4.2 a photograph of a subsurface is presented.

Globally the percentage of flat roofs is equal to 70%. Excluding the historical center that is mainly characterized by- sloped roofs (see next paragraph), the flat roof per­ centage increases to 76%.

Fig. 4.2 Aerial photograph of an urban section of Palermo

32 4.1.3 Evaluation of old buildings roof area From urbanistic maps the so called “netto storico”, that is the presence of buildings constructed before, 1939, has been evaluated for each-urban cell.

The city of Palermo has a very large historical center (280 hectares, Fig. 4.3), but historical presence is present also in surrounding urban fractions.

In our evaluation this roof area has been completely excluded. However this is a con ­ servative estimate, since there is the possibility of an intelligent integration of solar components also in the old buildings and some of them (nearly a quarter) have flat roofs.

Globally the roofs of the historical buildings represent 29% of the total urban roof area.

Fig. 4.3 Historical buildings in the subarea presented in Fig. 4.2

33 4.1.4 Corrective coefficients for natural obstructions In order to evaluate the level of influence of the shadows produced, during the varying seasons, by the mountains which surround as semicircle the City of Palermo, a speci­ fic software - set up by the Faculty of Architecture of the Polytechnic of Milan - called “Solpot”, has been used.

By introducing a series of data input: geographical co-ordinates of the location, shape, dimension and orientation of a typical building, geographical horizon ’s contour (natu­ ral and artificial obstacles) - considering the typical building as point of view, urban neighbouring environment, Solpot can simulate the animated evolution of the sha­ dows during each hours of any day of the year.

It gives back, at the moment only for the City of Palermo, also the value of the daily monthly averaged global solar radiation (Wh/m2) incident on vertical and horizontal surfaces.

Such a simulation has been carried out for four districts (Guadagna, Passo di Rigano, Altarello, Partanna) considered both critical, namely located near the chain of moun ­ tains, and highly populated.

The results show the very low orographic influence on the solar radiation ’s quantity and duration, even on winter solstice.

In fact, in all study-cases on 21st of December - the shortest day of the year - the roof and south oriented surfaces of the typical buildings located in the critical districts re­ ceive daylight for six hours (from 9.25 a.m. to 3.25 p.m.), assuring, in normal weather conditions, high level of daily monthly averaged global solar radiation (up to 2365 Wh/m2 on the vertical surface oriented to the south).

From these evaluations derive that the correction factors - an annual average correc­ tion coefficient - calculated for each urban cell in order to consider the effect of the surrounding mountains, have a very short range of correction.

It could theoretically go from Cn=l (no obstruction) to Cn=0,2 for the most shadowed urban area, but the previous study justifies with optimum approximation, the adoption of Cn=l for the total roof area.

4.1.5 Corrective coefficients for neighboring buildings shading Not all roofs can be utilized to collect solar energy due to partial obstruction from the surrounding buildings.

Detailed simulation of the mutual shadowing of buildings are necessary in order to verify the solar potential in a specific site. Such computerized tools have been used to assess the potential of the municipal buildings (Apas, 1996).

Generally mutual shading does not represent an important obstacle for the use of solar energy, since the different areas of the town are quite homogeneous in terms of the buildings height.

34 In order to have an indication of the mutual interactions at the urban level, three speci­ fic subareas representative of the situation of the town have been selected (subareas n.12; 80; 96).

In all three cases the average of absolute deviations of the single buildings ’ heights re­ spect to the average height of the entire stock result little (respectively: 7 meters; 6m, 7m). This result could be expected since the features of the buildings laying in the same subarea are homogeneous.

The table 15.2 shows the data elaborated for the subarea n.12.

From these evaluations it follows that the correction factor for neighboring buildings shading, derived correlating the height differences of the buildings with the relative partial obstruction, don ’t influence significantly the calculation of solar potential.

In fact, considering an average distance between two buildings of 20 meters, it fol­ lows that the higher building will produce shadow on the second one only when the sun will have a zenithal angle on the horizon minor than 19°.

Situation that happens, for example: , - on the 21st of December, before 9.30 a.m. and after 2.30 p.m.; - on the 1st of November (= 11th of February), before 8.45 a.m. and after 3.15 p.m.; - on the 1st of October (= 14th of March), before 8.15 a.m. and after 16.15 p.m.

In other words, the neighboring buildings shading occurs sensibly only near the winter solstice, and during the hours of the day which however wouldn ’t give considerable contribution of solar radiation.

Therefore we can confirm the value of 0,95 preliminary chosen in the intermediate re­ port, even according to a similar study carried out in Apulia (Sorokin, 1993).

Site specific corrective coefficients see appendix 4.-

Not all the surface of flat roofs can be used due to site obstructions (technical boxes for lifts, air conditioning...). Regarding the sloped roof the surface can be used only if the orientation is included between +/- 30° from the south.

In order to consider the effect of manmade obstructions and of non optimal inclination and orientation of the roofs, specific correction factors have been determined through detailed sample investigation for the region Apulia in a study made for Enel, the nati ­ onal electric utility (Sorokin, 1994).

Considering that the characteristic of the buildings in Palermo are not very different from those of Apulia, the same factors, Cf=0,34 for flat roofs and Cr= 0,27, for sloped rooftops have been adopted.

35 4.1.6 Calculation of net solar area Using the assumptions described in the previous paragraphs (from the total area the historical building area is subtracted and a correction coefficient of 0,95 has been used to consider the shadowing of surroundings) the net solar area has been calculated as 3,2 km2.

Table 4.1 Evaluation of the net solar area (hectares) available on the roofs of the city of Palermo Land area Roof area flat roofs sloped rooftop Historical area Solar net area 19.100 1.490 70% 30% 29% 320

4.1.7 Evaluation of the energy production The data for the solar radiation in Palermo are reported Table 4.2 (adapted from Butera, 1996).

Table 4.2 Average solar radiation data (MJ/m2 day) for Palermo Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Direct horizontal 4,4 6,8 1.0,2 14,2 18,3 21,1 21,6 19,6 14,4 9,1 5,8 3,9 12,4 Diffuse horizontal 3,3 4,3 5,5 6,6 6,9 6,8 6,3 5,6 5,2 4,4 3,5 3,0 5,1 Total horizontal 7,7 1U 15,7 20,8 25,2 27,9 27,9 25,2 19,6 13,5 9,3 6,9 17,6 Total at 30° 11,0 14,3 17,8 20,9 23,5 25,3 25,9 25,4 22,1 17,3 13,4 10,3 19,9

A PV module gross efficiency (including frames) of 12,5% has been used. Considering an annual solar radiation incident on a 30° surface in Palermo of 5,5 kWh/m2 day (2000 kWh/ m2 y), the gross electricity production will be of 252 kWh/m2y.

In order to calculate the net energy to the grid, the following energy losses have been considered: • Pv modules (dirt, temperature...): 10% • Non optimal orientation: 3% • Diodes, cables and mismatch: 4% • Inverter and grid interface: 15% • System outages: 2%

Using these factors, the net electricity production will be of 176 kWh/m2. Globally the potential electricity that could be produced from the roofs of Palermo is equal to 563 GWh/y, that is 822 kWh/inhabitant.

Considering that the average residential consumption in Palermo is of 1100 kWh/y (Enel, 1995), the solar roof production could cover 75% of the total city domestic de ­ mand.

4.2 Possible diffusion of solar technologies: targets to 2005 and to 2020 As has been seen, the theoretical potential of the city solar energy is quite large. The possibility to use part of this renewable energy is strictly connected with the im­ plementation of aggressive and coherent policies at local, national and international level.

Given the new emphasis at the European level (as is by the Green Paper on renewable energies of the European Commission, November 1996, that proposes for the year 2010 a target of 12% of primary energy), it is possible to imagine for the future a more positive attitude by the national government and by the European Union.

We will analyze the possible scenarios for solar thermal and photovoltaic technolo ­ gies.

Solar thermal technologies For the diffusion of this technology it is more important the role of the local institu ­ tions and particularly of the municipal utilities. Of course a positive attitude at natio ­ nal level (for example through information or through the reduction of VAT), will enlarge the diffusion of solar thermal technologies.

In order to define specific targets by the AMG a feasibility study should be promoted. However, given the experiences of other realities (from Germany to Greece), the pos­ sible diffusion of solar collectors has been evaluated through the year 2005.

In the “solar scenario ” the total installed area in 2005 could reach 50.000 square me­ ters, with an energy saving of 9.000 tody16 and a reduction of C02 emissions of 23.000 tons/y *77

This target implies an active role of the local energy utility through a mix of the diffe ­ rent actions described in the previous chapter.

The solar program could take off in 1998 with the installation of an amount of 500 square meters of collectors. The yearly growth rate for the following years has been assumed to be similar to that achieved in Austria.

«■ The total installed area in Palermo in 2005 would be of 74 square meters per 1000 in ­ habitants. This value, while representing an interesting result, is still much lower compared with the values already reached by other countries (Austria, 111; Greece, 196; Israel 555).

The Palermo target could be seen as the reasonable result of an active local solar poli­ cy.

Larger solar areas (or the same total area in a shorter time) could be achieved in pre­ sence of a favorable national and international environment coupled with an aggressi­ ve local strategy.

16 An yearly solar production of650 kWh/mq has been assumed 77 The carbon dioxide emissions from the 1990 Sicilian electric production has been evaluated in 0,63 kg/kWh. Given the higher efficiency of the power plants that will be operating in 2005, a 10% reduction n the carbon intensity has been used for this calculation.

37 For example in a recent study for the city of Turin a solar area of nearly 500.000 square meters by the year 2010 (including water and space heating) has been proposed (Reset, 1997).

The achievement of these targets would activate at the year 2000 a direct occupation of 750 units, a number that could be also larger considering the solar production to be exported (Silvestrini 1996).

Fig. 4.4 Diffusion of solar thermal collectors in the city of Palermo in the “Solar scenario”

Solar photovoltaic The diffusion of solar PV technologies largely depends on the strength of national policies. While programs to promote local PV installations are present in Germany, Switzerland, Japan, this is not the case for Italy.

The local authorities can, as they are doing in Palermo, use European or National funds to co-finance single installations. However a large scale diffusion of PV sys­ tems for the next 5-10 years can only be achieved through the adoption of a national program.

If Italy should activate a program proportional to the “70.000 roofs” of Japan (for example 50.000 PV roofs by the year 2005), an active local role could lead to nearly 3 MW installed in the city of Palermo.

This result would include not only residential applications, but also other installations on schools, sport systems, parking areas, with peak power between 10 and 50 kW promoted directly by the municipality.

38 □ Yearly installations 8 Cumulative installation

Fig. 4.5 Potential diffusion of PV systems in Palermo in presence of a national program

4.3 Waste/biomass potential of the city of Palermo We consider, for the evaluation of the biomass potential, the energy that could be pro­ duced by the wastes collected (including the biogas produced by the existing landfill) and the wooden residuals.

The total urban waste quantity disposed each year in Palermo is equal to 296.000 t, with the distribution reported in Fig. 4.6.

11%

Fig. 4.6 Composition of Palermo urban wastes

The evaluation of the energy saving/energy production is connected with the waste disposal strategy.

39 In this study the theoretical potential is evaluated for different strategies. Of course the different totals are not additional. In reality a correct strategy of waste disposal would be based on a balance of different solutions.

4.3.1 Recycling In the case of recycling, the “savings” are given for the “compost” by the avoided production of the chemical components (N, P, K) present in the organic fertilizer, for plastic materials by the avoided production of poliethilene, for glass and paper by the avoided energy required by the production from row materials.

Table 4.3 Theoretic energy saving connected with the recycling of urban wastes Tons toe MWh toe primary energy organic 87226 760 1134 1.020 paper 62973 13857 8186 15.740 plastic 32363 12435 259 12.495 glass 23256 1337 348 1.418 total 205.818 28.389 9927 30.673

BTons ■Toe (primary energy)

organic paper plastic glass

Fig. 4.7 Quantity of urban wastes collected and primary energy saved through recy­ cling of different waste components

As reported in Fig. 4.7, it is interesting to note that from an energy point of view, the recycling of different components has very different impacts (maximum for the plastic fraction and minimu m for the organic fraction).

4.3.2 Incineration In case of incineration with energy recovery, the potential is connected with the hea­ ting content of the Palermo wastes. In Table 4 , the theoretic energy potential is evaluated from the characteristics of the urban wastes.

A small part (about 2%) of the total fraction defined "other" is not considered because it consists of inert and cumbersome wastes. The values obtained (PER, 1995) have negative sign when the materials absorb energy during the combustion process.

40 Table 4.4 Theoretic energy potential of the wastes of Palermo through combustion Fraction Production (t/y) % humidity Heating value (GJ/t) Energy potential (TJ/y) Organic 87.226 66% 3.0 261 Paper 62.973 20% 11.5 724 Plastics 32.363 3% 36.1 1168 Glass 23.256 0% -0.3 -7 Wood 11.913 35% 1-1.8 140 Metals 7.461 0% -0.3 -2 Other 68.384 40% 4.7 321 Total 294.848 35% . 8.8 . - 2.605

The energy potential of the urban wastes is of 2.605 TJ, that is of 62.000 toe.

Considering the use of incinerators with only the electric conversion (18% efficiency) or with a cogeneration of heat and electricity (65% efficiency), the wastes could pro­ duce the following energy values (PER, 1995).

Table 4.5 Energy potential production from the incineration of the urban wastes of Palermo Cogeneration Only electricity Net electricity (GWh) 107 ' 131 Net heat (toe) 26.072 -238 Total primary energy (toe) 50.682 29.892 Efficiency 65% 18%

4.3.3 Biogas Biogas can be obtained both from the natural processes in the landfills and in an ac­ celerated way through technical processes. In Palermo there is already a biogas pro­ duction from a landfill and there could be a possibility to produce methane from the new urban wastes. 4.3.3.1 Electricity from the existing landfill site Since 1965 at the site Bellolampo an uncontrolled landfill has been used to contain all the municipal wastes of the city of Palermo.

The total surface is of 110.000 m2. Since 1990 the landfill has been environmentally recovered and the biogas (1.200 m3/h) is being collected through a system of pipes from 70 wells. At present a small 45 kW power system produces electricity for inter ­ nal use.

There are plans to install two 850 kW power systems in order to exploit all the biogas collected. Only electricity can be produced, since the distance from possible heat users is too large.

According to the evaluations made it should be possible to produce 5 GWh/y for 15 years.

41 4.3.S.2 Biogas production from organic wastes Regarding the production of biogas from the new wastes produced by the city, the values of an accelerated anaerobic digestion process are used.

In this case, each ton of organic matter can generate 140 m^ of biogas that, with a methane content of 65%, is equivalent to 3,2 GJ (2,1 GJ considering the internal ener­ gy consumption of the process of biogas production). If this gas is used to produce electricity it could generate 190 kWh/t.

Applying these conversion factors to the organic matter yearly produced in Palermo, the potential electric production could be of 16,5 GWh/y.

4.3.4 Total potential energy recovery from urban wastes The energy saving/production connected with the different waste treatment options are quite different.

As already said the different values are not additional and represent a potential value. The optimal choice will be a mix of different options connected with economic and environmental evaluations. To these values 5 GWh/y produced using the biogas from the existing landfill should be added.

Table 4.6 Potential energy production/saving from different waste treatment options Unit Recycling Combustion Biogas Waste quantity kt/y 206 295 87 Heat ktoe 28 26 cog 3,7 heat. Electricity GWh 10 107 cog 16,5 el (131) el Primary energy ktoe 30 50 cog 3,7 heat (30) el (3,8) el Specific saving/production toe/t 0,15 0,17 cog 0,04 heat . (0,10) el 0,04 el where: "cog"— cogeneration; "el"= only electricity.

4.3.5 Wooden residuals We consider in this sector two kind of residuals, from urban trees and from fruit trees in the surrounding lands.

Regarding the urban trees, each day 8 m3 of wood are collected. Considering the pe­ riod of the year in which the pruning takes place, this value means a production of nearly 500 m3/year equivalent to 70 toe/y.

At present this wood is only partly used.

42 As far as the orange trees in the so called “Conca d ’oro”, the Golden Valley where Palermo is located, whose name is derived by these fruit trees, there are at present 1.400 hectares (the part preserved from the urbanization).

Considering 3 kg/y of wood from each tree and the presence of 800 trees per hectare, the annual production of wood consists in 3.360 tons, equivalent to 1.075 toe. Most of these residuals are burnt in the field.

Globally the wooden residuals have an energy potential of 1,1 ktoe/y.

4.4 Hydroelectric resources The situation regarding the minihydro systems controlled or planned by Amap (the municipal water utility) located in the territory of the province of Palermo are the fol­ lowing :

Table 4.7 Minihydro systems existing or planned by the Palermo water municipal utility Size (kW) Producibility (GWh/y) Situation Agghiastro 2.300 9.000 in operation since 1994 Monte Grifone 600 4.900 built but not in operation Liste-Scillato 55 18 project Giambardaro-Cerda 65 21 project Arduino-Cerda 48 16 project Mammaro-Cerda 9 3 project Ficarazzi 80 26 project S. Giro 72 21 project Total 3.229 14.005

4.5 Wind energy The mean values of wind energy in the city of Palermo are quite low (4 m/sec).

Fig. 4.8 shows an area with good wind resources located in the Province of Palermo. It should be considered that in an area of 1 km2 with a mean annual wind speed of 5 m/s it is possible to install 12 wind turbines of 500 kW with a production of 7 GWh/y.

4.6 Total potential from renewable energy sources From the data described in the previous paragraphs it is possible to define the poten ­ tial of renewable sources available in the city of Palermo.

The data are expressed in terms of primary energy, as part of it would be thermal and part electric.

From wastes an amount from 30 to 50 ktoe/y could be obtained according to the tech­ nological mix that will be adopted.

43 The potential solar energy captured by roof based systems is equivalent to nearly 150 ktoe/y.

The contribution of wooden residual (1 ktoe/y) and of minihydro systems controlled by the local utility (3 ktoe/y) are of minor importance.

As far as wind energy is concerned, a more detailed macrositing should be made.

3.49 3.51 3.53 3.55 3.57 3.59 3.61 3.63 3.65 3.67 I I mm,i 42.06 42.06

42.04 42.04

42.02 7-W 42.02

42.00 42.00

41.98 41.98

41.96 41.96

41.94 41.94

41.92 41.92

41.90 41.90

41.88 41.88

41.86 4 1.86 3.59

vento 4 m/s vento 5 m/s • vento 5 m/s • vento 7 m/s vento 8 m/s 9 m/s

Fig. 4.8 Wind speed in a site in the Province of Palermo Renewable energy potential ofNeumunster

5. The renewable Energy potential of the city ofNeumunster.

5.1 Current Energy Supply The local energy supply company in Neumunster is called Stadtwerke Neumunster. This company provides district heating, electricity and since 1995 also natural gas supply in the city of Neumunster. In 1992 the natural gas supply was provided by the Hamburger Gaswerke. Oil, coal and other fuels are sold by various companies.

The Stadtwerke Neumunster operate an own coal fired CHP-plant to provide district heating and electrical power supply in Neumunster and the city's outskirts. The plant has a maximal output of 79 MWei and 234 MW^.

In 1992 the CHP-plant produced 176.7 GWh (636 TJ) of electricity. In addition to this 371.8 GWh (1,338 TJ) have been bought from other power supply companies. Overall there were 522.4 GWh (app. 1.9 PJ) of electricity given to the local supply network. The biggest part of this, 461.8 GWh (1,662 TJ), had been consumed in the city ofNeumunster.

The district heating network ofNeumunster includes two different net systems. One part of. the net is operated with steam, the other part runs with hot water. In 1992 the CHP-plant provided approximately 1.5 PJ of heat to the district heating system. The supply network lies exclusively within the city ofNeumunster. It has got a length of 123.2 km and provides district heating to 14 235 households, 129 public buildings and 8 industrial companies.

Apart from this the Stadtwerke Neumunster take care of water supply, public transport, street lights and refuse disposal. Since 1995 the Stadtwerke Neumunster also provide natu ­ ral gas supply in the city ofNeumunster.

Until 1995 the Hamburger Gaswerke took care of the natural gas supply in Neumunster. In 1992 approximately 2.1 PJ of natural gas had been delivered to industry, households, trade and public service in Neumunster. The supply with oil and other fossil fuels is provided by various companies coming from the city of Neumunster and its environs. This companies often do not deliver fuels only to Neumunster but also to surrounding villages and cities. For this reason it is not possible to give any exact data concerning the distribution and con ­ sumption of these fuels in Neumunster.

5.2 Potential of solar energy in Neumiinster The theoretic potential of solar energy is a product of solar radiation and usable areas. To get data of solar radiation in Neumunster, radiation data of the Deutscher Wetterdienst measured in Hamburg, middled over 10 years, were taken. These data are comparable to Neumunster. An average incl in ation of slope roofs is 45°. This angle allows also an use of diffuse radiation. Areas to gather solar radiation are rooftops of dwelling houses, which are south mounded (25%), constructional to use (80% of before), not in shadow (90% of be­ fore) and acceptable in townscape (95% of before). For the reason that there is only use of solar thermal energy in dwelling houses, and for the reason that there are no valid data of roof on no-living houses, only dwelling houses are inquired. In summary there is a theoretic potential of 1 477 TJ of solar radiation.

45 Renewable energy potential ofNeumunster

To get an technical potential of solar energy two assumptions were made: 1st Use of solar radiation with collectors to prepare hot water for sanitary purpose in dwellings 2nd Use of solar radiation with collectors for heating and sanitary hot water in dwel­ lings.

1st assumption: the gathering factor of solar collectors are 33%. Comparing an lay-out to half of the annual warm water supply consumption in energy, 100% is brought by solar power, even more; there is no more need for 96.4 TJ/a theoretic solar radiation. This might be used with photovoltaic units (r| = 0,13) to an electric energy of45 000 MWh/a.

2nd assumption: For the reason that the level of temperature of hot water heating systems is higher than for sanitary hot water supply, the efficiency of solar collectors goes down to 25%. The lay-out of such a plant should be 2/5. The total heat demand of 1 779 TJ/a increa ­ ses so to a solar heat demand of 712 TJ/a. In this case 52% of the by solar energy possibly, supplieable energy are provided, this is 21% of the whole heating energy consumption.

Solar thermal energy can cover the technical possible maximum of 50% of the annual sani ­ tary hot water consumption, adequate 77 TJ. Excess solar radiation can be used in PV-mo- dules, this would be up to about 45 000 MWh/a current.

Solar thermal energy can also be used for heating and sanitary hot water in dwellings. For the reason that the level of temperature of hot water heating systems is higher than for sanitary hot water supply, the efficiency of solar collectors goes down. The total heat de ­ mand of 1 780 TJ/a can be covered by solar heat with 21%, adequate 370 TJ/a. This is 52% of the energy that is possibly supplieable by solar.

About the utilisation of solar energy it is nothing now, because there has not been a substi ­ tution for solar energy plants.

5.3 Wind energy potential in Neumunster When using wind power at an inland location the best now known type of wind turbine is an horizontal machine with active pitch, nowadays in series construction of 500 kW. This type of wind turbine is best for using gentle and moderate breezes. A power diagram of a pitch controlled wind turbine was taken to get annual production of electricity. Further axioms were a height of the mast of 65 meters, an average density of air of 1,225 kg/m3 and no further restrictions of the turbines power by pollution ect. The velocity of wind in 65 meters is:

V65m v30m

The occurrence of wind velocities were compared with a Rayleigh occurrence with v30 = 5,5[m/s] as an average wind velocity according to DEWI'Windatlas:

46 Renewable energy potential of Nemniinster

The annual produktion of elektricity is: ■ E = X/(v/) * -Kv/)5 kWh/a i In the conclusion one 500 kW wind turbine gathers 1.014,62 [MWh/a]. A larger turbine has no significant larger annual production of electricity (1.054,74 MWh/a). Presuming nine wind turbines at three locations, there is an theoretic potential of 9,13 GWh/a. 5.3.1 Practical wind energy potential The authorities of the city did not declare areas for use of windmills, as the authorities of Dithmarschen and Nordfiiesland did. Each, for wind milling interesting location has to be checked out for other criterions, as nature reservation, monument listing, noise, and optical irritations. Considering the fact that one windmill demands a 40-fold of the turbines gathe­ ring area, a 500 kW turbine with 40 meters turbine diameter needs approximate 5 ha. Areas among windmills could use by farming, but high vegetation in directions of high frequency or biggest velocities decrease the annual electricity production.

40.00%

20.00%

Fig. 5.1

Under average weather .conditions one modem 500 kW wind turbine with an 65m mastheight gathers 1 015 MWh/a at a location in Neumunster. A larger turbine has no signi­ ficant larger annual production of electricity (1 055 MWh/a). Presuming nine wind turbines at three locations, there is an theoretic potential of 9.13 GWh/a (33 TJ). In the year of 1992 there was no wind turbine in Neumunster. 5.3.2 Shared windmills The Stadtwerke Neumunster shares since December 1994 17.40% of eight windmills on ­ shore the North Sea. In 1995 these eight windmills gathered 5 897 MWh, so the part for Neumunster is 1 026 MWh.

5.4 Waste/biomass potential 5.4.1 Municipal solid Waste Municipal solid waste includes wastes from households, bulky wastes and commercial wastes, if it is similar to household waste.

47 Renewable energy potential of Neumiinster

Table 5.1 contributions: in [t] [kg/inh.] total: 24 752 269.3 from total grey bin: app. 15 352 app. 187.4 dust and dirt (< 8 mm), medium grained waste (8 - 40 mm), nap ­ kins, packaging, textiles, mine ­ rals from total in bio bin vegetable waste app. 9 400 114.7 bulky waste 1678 20.5

There are no realistic data about the ingredients of municipal waste in Neumiinster, when bio bin and the yellow sack disposal systems were working. The data of waste masses are of 1993 (not 1992), because from 1993 on the DSD was working all over" Neumiinster. The masses of vegetable wastes are scaled up from the data of 1.7.1994 to 31.12.1994 and sub ­ tracted from the municipal waste masses. This method has its mistakes, for example garden wastes, earlier self composted, are now also in the bio bin, but it seems to be the only prac­ ticable chance. The vegetable part of municipal waste is still about 10 to 20%. The limits of TA Siedlungsabfall are theoreticly possible, but with nowadays quotes of sorting in unreali ­ stic distance. A reduction to a half of municipal waste is possible, in the end of 1995, after oneandahalf year of bio bin, is expectable if this aim is reachable.

There are no bigger furnaces, that bum biomass for energetical purpose, but there may have been smaller facilities in some households or at wood manufacturing companies, like example joiners workshops or carpentry's. Concerning this there is no data available. 5.4.1.1 Duales System Deutschland (DSD) The packaging ordinance of 1991 aimed to reduce the packaging used, whilst preserving product quality. The underlying objective is that the generator of a packaging must collect the packaging, whether for reuse or for proper disposal. The alternative of collecting in shops etc. was to build up an all over recovering system. This was done by the company "Der grime Punkt. Duales System Deutschland - Gesellschaft fur Abfallvermeidung und Sekundarrohstoffgewinnung mbh" (DSD), this private-sector system runs parallel to the municipal system and guarantees collecting, sort and reuse. The green dot on every item, which is collected by the DSD, signals to the consumer, that this item belongs in the yellow sack. The costs of collecting and sorting are brought up by the licence fee. Every generator has to pay for his packaging. This costing up is directly brought to the consumers by higher prices. The costs of reuse and recycling are not included in the user fee. The idea was a self­ financing recycling market to set producers and vendors under pressure, to use easier to re­ use materials.

The most significant problem of this system is the recovery of the collected waste. Not all materials, especially the material mixes, are as simple to recycle as paper and cardboard. Even today there is no realistic guaranteed recycling of the materials collected by the DSD. Because the collecting rates were set in the beginning on a to low level, the DSD had an overflow of waste. The image of the DSD was damaged, when Yellow sacks found in France and even in Indonesia. The licence fee is not declared on the package, so the con ­ sumers cannot distinguish the fee in the price. Those packages which are environmentally

48 Renewable energy potential of Neumiinster ' hazardous are not specially declared. Changes in structure and organisation are needed, so that the collecting and sorting of green-dot-waste by the consumers becomes senseful. Spontan answers of the inhabitants, asked after their opinion about the yellow sack, were, that the system is easy to handle 73, but the recycling problem is not solved with this system yet (42,1%).

To collect, sort and ready-made the green-dot-waste in Neumunster the DSD ordered Fa. Wittko, Neumunster. The collecting is done by the municipal Neumunster in order of Fa. Wittko. The rests of sorting of about 20% are put in landfill Wittorfer Feld.

Table 5.2 contents of yellow sack in Neumunster W [kg/inh.] yellow sack (DSD): total: 1 325.79 16.2 tinplate 369.20 4.5 aluminium 24.10 0.3 plastic foils 144.34 1.8 ■ mugs, blister 18.59 0.2 EPS 17.20 0.2 mixed plastics 204.01 2.5 drink packs 113.66 1.4 paper and cardboard (miss 116.71 1.4 throw) glass (miss throw) 9.4 0.1 sorting rest: 266.21 3.2 (=20.1%) glass container glass white and coloured 2 328.55 28.4 paper container paper and cardboard 5 411.93. 66.1 5.4.2 Compost The vegetable waste of Neumunster is now brought to the compost plant Wittorfer Feld. After a sight control, the waste is shredded. Ferrous materials are separated by an magnet trap, other external materials are screened out.

The vegetable waste is brought to an intensive rotting in computer controlled containers. After two weeks intensive rotting the compost is sized again, confectioned to compost or rotted twice. The outgoing-air from the containers and from the hall is filtered by bio filters to reduce the odour molestation.

In Neumunster compost is now delivered gratis when loose, only for on packaging is a small fee. A lot of compost is now used in agriculture and in landscape architecture.

5.4.3 Commercial Waste These wastes are disposed by private investigations with containers and brought to landfill.

Table 5.3

7S Arbeitsgemeinschaft Mensch und Umwelt: Die Akzeptanz der Wertstofftonne. Heidelberg

49 Renewable energy potential of Neumiinster commercial waste: [t] 20 756 of total approximate: mineral, dust and dirt 6 642 paper and cardboard 4151 wood waste 3 113 • vegetable waste 2 491 plastics textile 2 076 metals, ferrous and non-ferrous 1 868 glass 415

The particular quantities are taken from a German middle, because there are yet no data about it. A sorting of commercial waste is planed in the same pilot plant which sorts con ­ struction site waste now. The now talked about Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz, is going to bring new structures in waste management. This will say that a admissible disposal is also an ac­ ceptance of third. Waste is going to be an economical good, whether it is recycled or not, or brought again in economic circle. 5.4.4 Construction site Wastes Construction site waste of 6 533.85 1 brought to landfill in 1993. Since autumn 1994 a pilot sorting plant for construction site waste is on operation, realistic data are yet not available. 5.4.5 Collecting and Disposal A more specified collection of waste over the three existing and the coming blue paper bin, is not enquired for household waste, but for commercial and construction site wastes. Through huge masses are moved a sorting, where generated is unavoidable to get more re­ usable waste material.

Table 5.4 waste Collector container interval brought to household Stadt Neumiinster MGB 12019 every fortnight landfill waste MGB 240 on request 4weekly MGB 1,1 m3 weekly, landfill MGB 5 m3 on request every fortnight vegetable Stadt Neumiinster MGB 120 every fortnight in composting wastes only change with house ­ hold waste yellow sack Stadt Neumiinster or­ plastic sacks every fortnight recycling, dered by Fa. Wittko (app. 20% to (ordered by DSD) landfill) paper Stadt Neumiinster MGB every fortnight20 recycling bulky waste Stadt Neumiinster lose on request only landfill commercial ordered private in­ div. div. landfill and con ­ vestigations struction site waste

■^MGB (Mullgrofibehalter) - waste bins, the dimensionless number at the end means the volume in dm3 20since December 1994 in 3 parts of the city

50 Renewable energy potential of Neumiinster

The collecting of household waste in MGB 1,1 m3 and MGB 5 m3 is only done at dwellings with greater amount of apartments. That is the reason why only 35 MGB 5 m3 are posi­ tioned. The transport of collected waste to landfill Wittorfer Feld is done on the refuse lorry. If vegetable wastes is composted on own ground (high percentage of single-family- homes in Neumiinster), a bio bin is not obliged. But the vegetable part in the household re­ fuse increases, because not all vegetable wastes, e. g. food rests, are composted on own ground.

The use of a bigger garbage bin, increases the waste masses, because bulky waste and com­ postable waste from gardens are disposed now together with household waste, especially in Neumiinster, with high percentage of single-family-homes. Further on some people think that the bigger garbage bin can disposed as easy as the small one.

To minimise the molestation by the bad odour from the yellow sack, it is conveyed every fortnight. The sacks are thrown by hand on refuse lorries and pressed slidly, so that the sorting is not interfered. On day with strong winds sacks are blown away. Nevertheless sack seem to better then bins, because, as happened in windy areas, bins fall and empty. A Sack System is also cheaper.

Collecting waste in bring-systems is easier to carry-out, but less grade purity and less quan ­ tity then collect disposal systems.

Table 5.5 bring-systems: waste: acceptance glass single colour containers all over the city paper and cardboard containers all over the city every kind of reusable waste acceptance and sorting at 7 collecting plants, each open once weekly hazardous waste from house ­ Acceptance at the collecting plants and at the fire bri­ holds gades 5.4.5.1 Energy Utilisation At the moment only landfil gas from the old sealed landfill is used in gas-motors. The an ­ nual electricity production was in 1992 4 677.620 MWh and in 1993 2 912.900 MWh. These gas motors were erected in 1984 with higheremission levels then nowadays, hr 1994 the old motors were exchanged to modem motors with a flue gas cleaning. A modem se­ wageplant is planned for 1998 with a anaerobic gasification of sewage sludge. The gas of about 150 m3 shall be used in gas motors after year 2000. 5.4.6 Energy Utilisation of Wood Wastes .It is thought of an incineration plant for hazardous loaded wood and wood parts of bulky waste together with sewage sludge. These ideas go in conflict to the plannings to an anae ­ robe sewage sludge treatment at the new sewage plant. The private investigations for com­ mercial waste shall supply the plant with wood wastes.

The annual wood waste mass is about 6 1001, what is about 102 TJ with an ashmass of about 1 2201.

51 Renewable energy potential of Neumunster

The thermal utilisation is at the moment one of the safest and most economically ways to dispose wood wastes. But the annual amount of waste wood in Neumunster is not adequate to charge a CHP in senseful size.

Most commercial wood wastes of Schleswig-Holstein are handled by a firm, sited near Neumunster. These wood wastes together with the wood wastes of Neumunster and other parts of Schleswig-Holstein could charge a fluidized bed fired CHP.

The city of Neumunster is caused by the central position and good logistical connections in Schleswig-Holstein and the good utilisation facilities for heat and current a propper location for a waste wood fired CHP. 5.4.7 Fermentable Wastes from Food Production Industry, Food Residues and Agri­ culture Under the assumption that 20% of food industry wastes in Neumunster and the surroun ­ dings in a 50 km radius could be utilised for energy production, biogas with an heating value of 33 945 MWh (122 TJ) can be generated . Assuming 25 000 t/a of food residues for fermentation, the result would be an annual biogas amount with an heating value of 16 800 MWh (60.5 TJ) is possible. The liquid excrements from animals represent a poten ­ tial basis for cofermentation in biogas plants. In Neumunster and a radius of 25 km a slurry volume of 191 100 mYa, what is a third of the total slurry volume, is good for fermentation. In this case biogas with an heating value of25 684 MWh/a (92.5 TJ) can be generated.

5.5 Total renewable energy potential of Neumunster The total renewable energy potential of Neumunster is illustrated on the figure below.

Energy from Wood Waste out of Neumunster only Energy from Organic

28% Solartherrrie 13% total potential of renewable final energy: 587 TJ/a

Fig. 5.2 Distribution of the renewable energy potential of Neumunster

52 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

6. The renewable energy potential of the municipality of Ballerup.

6.1 Potential of solar energy in Ballerup The theoretic potential of solar energy is a product of solar radiation, efficiencies and usable areas. To get data of solar radiation in Ballerup, radiation data of the Danish Test Reference year, were taken. Areas to gather solar radiation are rooftops of buildings, which are south mounted (25%), constructional to use (80%), only one side of a pitched roof can be used (50%), not in shadow (90% of before) and architecturally acceptable (90%). The multipli ­ cation of these fractions results in a useful fraction of the built building areas f=0,08, see table below.

' Table 6.1 'Useful solar fraction: f= 0,08 "South"-oriented 0,25 Usable construction 0,80 One side of roof 0,50 Not in shadow 0,90 Architural acceptable 0,90

Based on the available statical data on the buildings the solar energy potential on the buildings in the municipality was estimated. The total built areas of all buildings in Ballerup is shown in the table below. The total theoretical potential is then simply given by the built area multiplied by the factor f, established above and a yearly yield of 300 kWh/m2 of solar collector (30% overall efficiency for thermal purposes). However, for practical rea­ sons the thermal use of solar energy has to be seen in relation to the actual use in the diffe ­ rent categories of buildings. The column- “practical" solar potential holds the results of this estimation. The assumptions made for each category of buildings is given in the last column of the table. As is seen from the table for dwellings is has been estimated that 10 m2 and 8 m2 of solar collectors is appropriate except for the homes for the elderly where is assumed that all the theoretical potential is also practically useful. For the service sector and several of the buildings for cultural purposes a fixed fraction of 0.01 m2 of solar collector per 1 m2 of built area has been chosen as a reasonable assumption. Finally 2 m2 for summerhouses and 40 m2 for different sports halls has been judged sensible.

53 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup Table 6.2 Type Buildings Area Dwellings Built area Solar potential Assumptions total "practical" 1 n m2 n m2 m2 m2 Private sector 8126 2277000 20187 1195000 96795 30521 Single family houses 6059 938000 6057 733000 59373 9812 10 m2 per dwelling* f Row-houses 1703 278000 2889 208000 16848 4680 10 m2 per dwelling*f Apartment blocks 345 1028000 11118 234000 18954 14409 8 m2 per dwelling*f Home for elderly, ... 19 33000 123 20000 1620 1620 =total

Service sector 519 894000 486000 39366 1448 Transport 74 30000 26000 2106 49 0.01 m2 per m2*f Offices 394 829000 440000 35640 1343 0.01 m2 per m2*f Private service 37 32000 17000 1377 52 0.01 m2 per m2*f Other 14 3000 3000 243 5 0.01 m2 per m2*f

Cultural purposes 268 365000 228000 16767 1721 Libraries, etc. 34 ■ 20000 13000 1053 32 0.01 m2 per m2*f Schools, research,.. 106 287000 163000 13203 465 0.01 m2 per m2*f Hospitals,... 5 5000 4000 324 324 • =total Daycare centers 90 31000 27000 ^ 2187 900 10 m2 per centre Other institutions 33 22000 21000 1701 36 ' 0.01 m2 per m2*f

Sports and leisure 3316 157000 149000 12069 978 Summerhouses 3207 117000 117000 9477 520 2 m2 per house*f Sports and other 109 40000 32000 2592 706 ' 40 m2 per building*f

54 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

The results of these estimations of solar energy potential on the rooftops of the buildings in Ballerup are summarised in the table below.

Table 6.3______Total area: 164997 m2 49 GWh 176 TJ Thermal solar 34669 m 2 10 GWh 36 TJ Solar cells 164997 m2 16 GWh 58 TJ

From the table it is seen that the total theoretical thermal potential is 176 TJ, and the practi­ cal potential is 36 TJ. If it is assumed that the total available area is used with photovoltaic cells (r| = 0,1) the potential of electrical energy generation is 16 GWh/a. It should be em­ phasised that this is a theoretically estimated potential which in fact assumes that also the area which is used for thermal solar applications can be used for PV-cells (in combined PV and thermal solar modules).

If the annual domestic hot water demand per familiy is app. 2000 kWh the 20000 families in Ballerup use in the order of 20000*2000 kWh=40 GWH or 144 J. Thus the technical possible solar thermal energy can cover 25% of the annual sanitary hot water consumption.

In the future buildings integrated solar cells can be placed all over the outer skin of the buildings thus the total potential for solar electric energy generation can be assumed to be a factor of 2 to 3 higher than what is estimated for the rooftops alone. This means that it will be of the same order of magnitude as the domestic electicity use in the municipality (50 GWh). 6.1.1 The current utilisation of solar energy. In 1995 a total of 94 solar installations have been registered in Ballerup for having recei­ ved the governmental subsidy for solar (see elsewhere in the report). Probably a few more privately installed systems brings the number up to around 100. The average system size is estimated toTO m2 as there are some larger installations included. The yearly yield of these thermal solar systems is then 300 kWh* 10*100= 300 MWh or app. 1 Tj or a little less than 3% of the practical potential estimated above.

6.2 Wind energy potential in Ballerup When using wind power at an inland location the best type of wind turbine is a horizontal machine with active pitch, nowadays in series construction of 500 kW. This type of wind turbine is best for using gentle and moderate breezes. A power diagram of a pitch controlled wind turbine was taken to get annual production of electricity. Further axioms were a height of the mast of 65 meters, an average density of air of 1,225 kg/m3 and no further restrictions of the turbines power by pollution ect. The velocity of wind in 65 meters is: 1

The occurrence of wind velocities were compared with a Rayleigh occurrence with v30 = 5,5[m/s] as an average wind velocity according to Danish meteorological data.

55 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

The annual production of electricity is: £ = Z/W*^(v,-), kWh/a

In the conclusion one 500 kW wind turbine gathers 1.014,62 \MWh/a] =1 GWh/a. 6.2.1 Practical potential Considering the fact that one windmill demands a 40-fold of the turbines gathering area, a 500 kW. turbine with a 40 meters turbine diameter needs approximate 50000 m2. Areas among windmills could be use for farming, but high vegetation in directions of high fre­ quency or biggest velocities decrease the annual electricity production.

Denmark has been subdivided in 4 wind energy classes A-D, A being the best and D the worst. In the municipality most of the area is within class D, except for one area of 1 km2 which is class C. Presuming 20 wind turbines at this location (1 km2), there is a theoretic potential of 20 GWh/a. However, the municipality has declared that because of a series of reasons considering landscape, current use, future plans, etc. this area is not to be used for a cluster of wind mills, wind farms, etc. However, the municipality has declared that indivi ­ dual wind mills might be placed within the area of the municipality. In practise this might be between 5 and 10 mills. Thus the potential for wind energy generated electricity produc ­ tion is 5-10 GWh/a.

Until now no wind turbines has been installed in Ballerup

6.3 Waste/biomass

6.4 Description of Status Quo The waste management in Ballerup is directed towards the huge incineration plant Vestfor- brcending, which is also used by the other municipalities in the area of Copenhagen. The huge district heating network all over the area allows also an use for the heating energy in the summer. Compared with other municipalities in the region of Greater Copenhagen, Ballerup has the lowest arise of waste per inhabitant.

6.5 Waste Quantities 6.5.1 Municipal solid Waste Table 6.4 municipal solid waste includes wastes from households, bulky wastes and com­ mercial wastes, if it is similar to household waste. from households: contributions: in. [t] [kg/inh.] combustible 9 563 211.1 bulky waste 2 794 66.7 biowaste 4 750 104.9

Reusable materials are collected in Ballerup in a bring-system. There are 129 containers for paper and cardboard and 77 containers for glass spread all aver the city. In addition to the containers one recycling station is in Ballerup.

56 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

Table 6.5 Collected recycling materials in containers [t] [kg/inh.] glass 510 11.3 paper and cardboard .1 059 23.4

Table 6.6 Collected and sorted waste at Ballerup recycling station [t] [kg/inh.] glass 124 2.7 paper 148 3.3 cardboard 160 3.5 Fe 773 17.0 garden refuses 2105 46.5 combustible 2 901 64.0 non-combustible 3 295 72.7

It is conspicuous, that only 14.5% of the collected material can be recycled. 6.5.2 Commercial Waste Table 6.7 As Commercial waste only combustible wastes, handled by Vestforbrasnding, are shown. commercial waste: in [t] service and office 2 339 public service 735 industry 6129 other 24 6.5.3 Construction site Wastes Construction site wastes are not handled by Vestforbraending. There are no available data.

6.6 Combustion Ballerup co-operates with 17 other municipalities to fun Vestforbraending a modem waste incineration plant that bum waste for energetical purpose. The total number of inhabitants in the 18 municipalities is 657.000. Vestforbaending yearly (1993) receives 435.000 tons of waste and bums 329.000 tons to produce 740 GWh. The total waste received is app. 660 kg per inhabitant. Of these 250 kg is household waste. The population in Ballerup is 45.300. Thus the corresponding numbers for Ballerup can be calculated as the fraction 45300/657000 of the above:

Table 6.8 Inhabitants 45300 persons Waste 30000 tons Burned waste 22700 tons Produced thermal energy 51 GWh

All combustible wastes of Ballerup are incinerated at Vestforbraending, this was in 1993 an amount of 22 384 1.

57 Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

The heating energy, 740 GWh adequate 2.66 TJ, from the incineration plant is used for dis ­ trict heating. About 55% could delivered to Vestforbrasndings own networks. The Herlev hospital is one of the great consumers with 23% of the heating energy of the Vestfor- brasndings own network. The rest of the heating energy is delivered to the VEKS and the CTR district heating network in Storkobenhavn. The two networks supply app. 750 000 inhibitions with district heating from waste incineration and combined heat and power plants. During the warmest four months the three waste incineration plants can sup ­ ply the whole network. 6.6.1.1 Landfill Incombustible materials are brought to landfill AV miljs, this was in 1993 from Ballerup in total app. 21001.

Table 6.9 waste typology to landfill AV xniljo from Ballerup 27 M [kg/inh.] incombustible blendet waste 1 047.4 23.1 from flue gas cleaning 436.4 9.6 soil and fillings 87.3 1.93 Ash 235.7 5.2 street sweepings 148.4 3.3 slag, flyash 52.4 1.2 asbest containing wastes 31.4 0.7 6.6.2 Composting From Ballerup kommune 4 7661 of biowaste were brought to composting, this is an amount of 105.2 kg/inh. The compost is used within Dansk Jordforbedring for landscape architectu ­ re.

The only biomass potential in Ballerup is from household waste, which at the moment is burned (see solid waste below). Thus the estimated energy potential has to be counterba ­ lanced by a reduction in thermal energy production from the waste incineration plant. A lo­ cal use of biomass are likely to have environmental and other benefits that would justify this use.

Each inhabitant in Ballerup produces 250 kg of household waste. An estimated 60% of this is organic waste. Thus this amounts to: 45300*250*0.,6 kg = 6795.000 kg or 6795 tons, which would represent an energy output of app. 15 GWh.

The farm prodction of biomass products in Ballerup is neglible and the potential has not been calculated. 6.6.3 Fermentable Wastes from Food Production Industry, Food Residues and Agri­ culture This potential is not present in Ballerup.

^Due to the unknown amounts of waste types from Ballerup to AV miljn, the total amounts of waste types were diveded by the part of Ballerup from total. Renewable energy potential of Ballerup

6.7 Total renewable energy potential in Ballerup The total renewable energy potential in Ballerup is summarised in the table below. In cal­ culating the total it should be noted that if the biomass potential from household waste is utilized a corresponding amount of solid waste cannot be burned in the waste incineration plants.

Table 6.10 Renewable energy potential in Ballerup. GWh/year Thermal solar 10 Solar cells 16 Wind 8 Biomass, incl. in solid waste 15 Solid waste 51 Total 85

Thus from the table it is seen that the total practical potential for renewable energy utilisa ­ tion in Ballerup is 85 GWh/year.

59 A viable utility promotion campaign

7. Solar - Natural Gas Synergy: Considerations for a Viable Utility Promotion Campaign.

7.1 Economical and Other Aspects for the Viability of Future Installations In consequence of the limited market evolution with respect to some other countries, actual prices of solar thermal systems in Italy are relatively high. Costs of natural circulation sys­ tems range from 800,000 L./m^ (420 ECU/m^)22 to more than 1,500,000 L.lm' (787

ECU/m2 ). The cost of centralised systems depends on many parameters (e.g. design and in ­ stallation costs) which are not easy to evaluate. However, a value of about 700,000 - 2 1,200,000 L./m would be typical of a complete centralised solar thermal system (including installation costs) using flat plate collectors. The price of reliable, high efficiency flat plate collectors (alone) can be as low as 300,000 L./m^ (157 ECU/m^).

7.1.1 Utility Action: Third Party Financing (TPF) Probably the single largest obstacle which hinders the creation of a successful solar market in Italy is the low reliability generally attributed to systems. Most people doubt their cost effectiveness and durability. In fact, though long term economic convenience of solar sys­ tems can be demonstrated this usually proves insufficient to convince people to adopt the technology.

One way a Utility can overcome this obstacle is to sell solar energy savings by applying a large scale TPF scheme. TPF is a method by which a Utility finances, installs and main ­ tains the solar thermal systems which remain his property, while the users buys the hot water produced at a convenient price. The strategy has been applied successfully in Wis­ consin and California.

We will now examine in detail the possibility that the Palermo’s Municipal Natural Gas Distribution Utility (AMGP), contemporary with the distribution of the natural gas*25 , in ­ stalls solar thermal systems. The Utility can buy and install the solar systems to selected users, selling the service of hot water production to them. Since the solar systems (with auxiliary gas boilers) are going to substitute the electric heaters, there will be substantial electricity bills reductions. Our effort will be to examine the feasibility of the following operation: the Utility will charge the single user with a periodic payment that is less than its electricity bill reduction. Payments are to be made for a number of years, until the total system and installation costs has been covered. During this period, the solar system re­ mains the property of the Utility. Following completion of payment the unit becomes the property of the user. Numeric examples will be provided.

As electric water heaters are widely used in Palermo (more than an 80% diffusion in fa­ mily homes) the economic evaluation begins by first analysing electricity tariffs. This evaluation also serves to understand the peculiar structure of these tariffs in Italy as a

22 European Monetary System (EMS) exchange rate parity: 1 ECU = 1906.48 L. 25 Natural gas is currently being introduced throughout Palermo.

60 A viable utility promotion campaign whole. Electricity costs are in fact progressivewith consumption which serves to penalise users with a monthly electricity consumption of more than 220 kWh. Electricity costs24 are given in the following table:

Table 7.1 Costs of every electric kWh on a monthly basis 1st 75 84.04 76 150 124.63 from the 151 to the 220 296.34 221 225 kWh Lira/kWh: 528.44 for the 226th 782.54 227 295 601.04 from the 296 to the 370 560.45 371 445 368.94 for any kWh consumed over the 445th: 332.64

The electricity consumption for an average 3 person household in Rome25 as been estima­ ted to be 300 kWh per year. We can assume, given the similarity of climatic and social conditions, that this equates to similar sized households in Palermo. Let us now take the example of a Palermo’s family of 3 people using an electric water heater, having a total monthly electricity consumption of 300 kWh and a daily hot water consumption of 30 It. per person. We assume that hot and cold water is provided at 50 and 15°C respectively and the overall efficiency of the electric heater is 80%. The resulting consumption (per month), for the electric water heater only, is roughly 140 kWh (47% of total electricity consump ­ tion). Figure 1 represents the electric bill (on a monthly basis) for this family.

24 For those users with a 3 kW maximum power supply contract This category of user accounts for 89% of domestic electricity consumption in Palermo. Prices are inclusive of tax and are correct as of November 1996. 25 As presented in the ‘Energy plan of Rome’, Ambiente Italia, 1995.

61 A viable utility promotion campaign

Figure 7.1: Electric bill for a 3 persons family using an electric boiler

800

bill area apart from boiler

200 - Cost of single kWh [L]

50 100 150 Wh(mo%Hlybasg)0 350 400 450 500

Lira kWh/montt monthly yearly total electric consumption : 300 total bill cost 87,701 1,052,41 electric boiler consumption : 140 boiler consumption's cosl : 65,479 785,750 remaining consumption : 160 bill without boiler 22,222 266,660 The boiler represents 47 % of the energy consumption while 75 % of the bill cost

The values of figure 7.1 shows how the electric heater weighs disproportionately on the bill, and immediately offers an indication of the convenience of solar thermal systems. Figure 7.2 shows the mean cost of each kWh saved if we substitute the boiler by a non electrical water heater (the costs of the solar & auxiliary gas will be presented subsequently). The cost curve of figure 7.2 has been drawn as a function of the total monthly electric energy consumption.

Figure 7.2: Mean price of kWh saved for the electric water substitution

i . 400- - - v 300-- r., .

-—-4-

100 150 200 a%thl\P89nsu#ion#for^Qbst#)on)#h] 600 650 700

62 A viable utility promotion campaign

We have assumed, in this diagram and elsewhere in the analysis, that the boiler accounts for 40% 26 of the total electrical consumption (at each level of consumption). Figure 7.3, shows the cost fraction of this 40% energy consumption (again presented as a function of r the total electrical energy consumption).

Figure 7.3: Electric water heater consumption cost as a percentage of total electricity bill

60%--

10%-- percentag; of the bill due to the :

f%9l consum$A8n [kWh/m§flfti]

Very often, economic evaluations are based on the ‘mean ’ price of a kWh. Figures 7.3 and 7.4 show how much higher the cost of consumption associated to boiler operation can be when made with respect to an appraisal based on the averaged price of the kWh.

We are now ready to examine the economic effects of solar thermal applications on a global scale. Next table presents data relating to household electricity consumption in the city of Palermo, (source : ENEL, Palermo Sub District).

Table 7.2 Household electricity consumption data for Palermo Type of Number of Total energy con­ Mean user con­ Mean user con ­ contract users sumption sumption sumption (kW) (MWh/year) (kWh/year) (kWh/month) 1.5 12,158 23,445 1,928 161 3 - 203,536 626,415 3,078 256 >3 8,955 51,353 5,735 478 Total 224,649 701,212 3,121 260

Unfortunately, statistical data showing consumption distribution for Palermo is not avail­ able. To overcome this, a hypothetical distribution curve has been created, based on similar data available for the city of Rome. This latter data set has been shifted and “normalised ” according to the known global consumption values of Palermo. This hypothetical domestic users consumption distribution 27 is presented in figure 4.

A conservative value with respect to the value of 47% given in the last example. 27 Analysis is limited to that major category of domestic users with 3 kW contracts.

63 t A viable utility promotion campaign

Figure 7.4: Consumption distribution of domestic electric users in Palermo

3.00%

2.50%

2.00%

1.50%

1.00%

percen?ag

0.00%

100 200 S^Vh/montH 100 500 600 700

We now identify that category of users who would benefit from the introduction of a TPF action by the Utility. The analysis of the electricity bill, made above, shows us that it is more convenient to substitute the electric boilers of those users with higher consumption levels. In figure 7.2, we note that the mean price of each kWh saved reaches a maximum for (initial) monthly consumption levels of about 370 kWh and then drops slightly. The same figure also shows us, that for the most part savings of L. 400/kWh28 *can be obtained for all those kWh's above 260 kWh/month. Thus we assume the utility concentrates its activities on those users who consume on average 260 kWh2Por more a month. Figures 7.5 and 7.6 show the projected user consumption distribution should the Utility introduce action plans to obtain a 10% and a 40% (respectively) diffusion of thermal solar systems amongst the target group. We assume that a solar thermal system is able to cover the 70% of the users energy needs for DHW30. We also remind the reader of the simplification that the DHW heater consumption represents 40% of the total electric consumption for all domestic users.

28 For consumption above 530 kWh/month the mean value of each saved kWh falls to less than L. 400. This has a negligible effect on the analysis for two reasons: firstly, no more than ,2% of users consume more than 530 kWh/month and, secondly, other saving measures combined with the use of "solar systems may result in further reductions in monthly consumption of those users, thus increasing the price of kWh saved. 25 48% of the total number of users belong to this category. 88 Users are to be supplied with combined solar/natural gas systems; 30% of hot water energy needs will be met by natural gas. To avoid over sized and hence less economical units it is always necessary to use an auxiliary energy source.

64 A viable utility promotion campaign

Figure 7.5: Users consumption distribution for a 10% solar implementation

3.00%

2.50%

2.00%

1.50%

1.00%

per&R%

0.00% 0 100 200 300 '400 500 600 700 kWh/month

Figure 7.6: Users consumption distribution for a 40% solar implementation

3.00%

2.50%

2.00%

1.50%

1.00%

per&fflaijei or usersH

0.00% 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 kWh/month

All assumptions and some basic data used are listed bellow:

Assumptions, simplifications and basic data used 37 1. 1.Useful output from a solar thermal system in Palermo52 : *650 kWh/m2. 2. 2.No maintenance requirements have been considered for the solar systems. To compen ­ sate for this, a conservative value of 15 years has been used for system lifetime55. 3. Price of natural gas54: 952 L./m2 (0.5 ECU/m3) 4. Net calorific value of natural gas55: 8520 kcal/m3.

55 A software model has been constructed to analyse the costs and benefits of the proposed interventions. All project contextual parameters defined in the model e.g. interest rates, system efficiencies ,etc., can be modified to perform sensitivity analysis. 52 As offered by the ESIF (European Solar Industry Federation) for "sunny" locations in southern Europe. Note that this value is with respect to natural circulation kits. Centralised systems may provide higher energy outputs. 55 Good quality solar thermal systems can easily operate, with very little maintenance, for 20 years. In addition, the use of solar systems reduces the maintenance requirements of conventional water heaters. 34 Considering “T2”, the most diffused contract held by domestic users. The contract considers the use of gas for space heating ,DHW production and cooking. Cost is 772 L./m3 for the first 250 m3 and 952 L./m3 thereafter.

65 A viable utility promotion campaign

5. The efficiency 3336 of* * the auxiliary (natural gas) system is 75%. 6. Price of solar thermal systems (installation included): 1,000,000 L./m2 (525 ECU/m2). 7. Duration of the TPF action: 5 years. 8. Time preference discount rate37 for the Utility: 8% (case A) and 14% (case B) nominal values 38 . 9. Time preference discount rate for the user: 8 % (nominal value). lO.Infiationrate: 3%. 1 l.IRR for the investment 39 :12% (case A) and 18.4% (case B) nominal values. 12.Annual increasing rate for electricity and natural gas bills: equal to the inflation rate

Notes • Economic calculations do not consider future reductions to AMGP natural gas sales caused by the introduction of solar systems.40 * * * * * * • Only the case of maximum diffusion of solar systems (40% among the selected users) has been analysed 47. The economic costs and the energy savings created by the Utility TPF action are summari ­ sed in the next table.

33 The net calorific value of natural gas is commonly 90% of its gross value. The gross calorific value of natural gas used in Palermo is 9500 kcal/m3 36 System Efficiency = AE^ / (m^ x NCVgJ where: AEwaa.= Increase in energy of each unit mass of water m = Mass of gas used to heat unit mass of water NCVgas= Net Calorific Value of gas (per unit mass of gas) 37 "Time Preference Discount Rate (TDR)” is a parameter which quantifies the otherwise- qualitative preference an investor (an individualor organisation) has for cash today as opposed to cash at some point in the future. An investor will usually forego access to a sum of money for a period of time only if following this period the sum has grown in value. By convention TDR is reported as percentage increase with respect to one year. Thus an investor with Time Preference Discount Rate of 8% expects $ 108 after a year for every $ 100 he invests. 38 Nominal values include inflation. 39 The value is chosen so as to be higher than the time preference discount rate of the Utility whilst at the same time allowing the action to be concluded in 5 or 6 years. 40 It is supposed that the Utility encourages the diffusion of solar thermal systems and discourages the increased use of natural gas. As well as the social and environmental benefits, solar technology provides long term economic advantages. More precisely, opportunities exists for Utilities to be involved in the business of commercialising, installing and maintaining SDWH systems, as well as the construction and assembling of system parts. Further, the wide scale introduction of solar may favour other DSM actions. 47 All values listed in next table (including NPV) are directly proportional to the percentage diffusion of solar systems. To achieve a 10% diffusion scenario, for example, it is sufficient to multiply all values listedby 0.1/0.4 = 0.25.

66 A viable utility promotion campaign

Table 7.3 Energy and economic balance of the Utility’s action Total reduc ­ Sum of W? ’ of Annual inputs Net present tion of con ­ annual solar Investment to AMGP (for value of the ventional e- energy panels needed by 5 years) from whole action nergy costs42 * savings by needed AMGP bill reduc­ for AMGP (due to solar solar tions 45 & gas) MWh m.2 ■ 28,968 67,466 17,227 7,420 (*10 6 Lira) (*10 6 Lira) (TO6 Lira) . (*10 6 Lira)

A 15.195 35.389 9.036 3.892 (*10 6 ECU) (*10 6 ECU) (*10 6 ECU) (*10 6 ECU)

43,853 67,466 20,103 7,435 (*10 6 Lira) (* 106Lira)

B same as in A same as in A 10.545 3.900 (*10 6 ECU) CTO6'ECU)

The Utility is seen to invest around 67 billion Lira for which it will need to receive 17 bil­ lion Lira annually for 5 years in case A (19 billion in case B) from those end users who participate in the TPF action. The lifetime net profit of the programme is roughly 7.5 billion Lira for both cases44 A and B. The operation should serve a total of around 35,000 families. 2 Thus the medium solar collector size per family is approximately 2 m .

We can now examine the effects of the TPF action made by the Utility on a single user bill. In figure 7.7, the bill for a 300 kWh of monthly consumption is presented for 15 years to­ gether with the bill for an identical user who takes part in the TPF programme45. For sim­ plicity, all values are presented in real terms (inflation is not included). Only case A is pre­ sented 45.

42 This is the net total reduction of the conventional energycosts, that is the difference between the old electricity and the new (subsequent to TPF, action) electricity and gas costs. The purpose of the TPF action is to share this saving (obtained thanks to the investment made by the Utility), between users and Utility so as to be profitable to both. 45 Inputs are presented in real terms, that is with inflation removed. Using nominal values simplifies the process of economic evaluation, though ultimately project feasibility is the same, whether we use nominal or real values. 44 In case A the Utility invests its own capital, while in B, the worst case, a bank loan at 14% annual interest rate is necessary. As seen, by the correct choice of IRR (which consequently alters the annual Utility inputs), the NPV may remain at the same levels. 45 The cost of gas (for the 30% of the DHW needs not met by solar) for the user who participates in the TPF action has been taken into account in calculating the bill. 45 In Case B the user obtains slightly reduced benefits and it maybe better in some cases to apply a TPF action of 6 years duration. Otherwise Case B has a negligible influence on the results.

67 A viable utility promotion campaign t>

Figure 7.7: Evolution of the user's bill 300kWh/month) after TPF

1,000,000

800,000 ■ old bill □ new bill

400,000

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 years

We can observe that the user has benefits from the very beginning of the action. In fact, there is a substantial reduction of the bill even during the first 5 years of the operation, after which the bill drops drastically. The following table represents users benefits for different values of initial consumption. We remind the reader that the bill reductions presented below are net reductions; the user does not make any investment or payment.

Table 7.4 Benefits of the TPF action for various users Initial user ’s Reduction of Reduction of the bill NPV of the whole opera­ consumption the bill for the for the following 10 tion for the user first 5 years years (from 6^ to 15th) kWh/month %- % Lira ECU 260 16% 61% 3,400,000 1,783 300 25% 63% 5,200,000 2,728 350 30% 63% 7,200,000 3,777 400 26% 58% 7,750,000 4,065 450 19% 51% 7,400,000 3,881

As we can observe in the above table, the substantial fractional reduction in bills corre­ sponds to important overall benefits (NPV) which make this operation very attractive.

7.2 Technical Aspects Hot water production systems are of two general categories: a) instantaneous supply sys­ tems and b) storage systems. In the first case the use of natural gas is generally more con ­ venient with respect to other conventional sources (electricity, oil, etc.) from both the eco­ nomic and technical point of view. For storage systems several different sources can be used. However, for solar thermal storage systems, availability of natural gas as the auxilia ­ ry source offers great advantages. Principally because natural gas is able to satisfy higher thermal power requirements much better than electricity and secondly because it is more flexible to use than say, for example, oil.

68 A viable utility promotion campaign

To see how the availability of natural gas may assist the operation of a solar system we provide the following example. Consider a solar thermal system, which works with a single storage tank, during a day of medium/bad climatic conditions. Let us assume that the system without assistance is able to bring the water to 35° C. If a highpower equip­ ment is available then the temperature of the water in the tank can be allowed to remain low. Whenever hot water is required , the auxiliary high power equipment can be used to bring the tepid water up to temperature (60°C) almost instantaneously. Natural gas is able to provide the higher thermal power required for such an operation far more effectively than can be achieved with other means, electricity being the worst source 47. In fact, if electricity were the only auxiliary power source then the hot water in the storage tank would need to be maintained at the user required temperature which would result in a de ­ crease of solar system efficiency .48

The question which arises when considering the typology of multi apartment systems is whether multiple mono family units (thermosifonic kits) or a single centralised system should be installed. Often where solar thermal systems are quite diffuse (for example in most Greek towns) we observe rooftops with many mono family units, to each one of which are attached a storage tank and the pipes which connect the system with the apart­ ment of the user to which the unit belongs. Though this “solution ” offers a user the possi­ bility to decide independently if and when to install a solar thermal system, from the tech­ nical, economic and energetic point of view it is generally not the better option for the following reasons: • In a multi-storey building not all of the apartments can be served by single units in ­ stalled on the roof. Generally they are suitable for apartment blocks no higherthan 3 or 4 stories for the simple reason that excessive thermal losses occur from the tubes connecting the unit with the lower apartments in buildings any taller. • Thermal losses form both the connecting pipelines and the tarik(s) of multiple sys­ tems are higher than centralised systems because the surface to volume ratio of the first is higher than the second.

On the positive side, small size, natural circulation systems do not have auxiliary energy requirements for heat transfer circuits and have limited maintenance requirements. How­ ever, if centralised solar systems are correctly designed and installed they too have very little auxiliary energy and maintenance requirements.

It is therefor recommended to promote centralised systems from the very beginning of the campaign; since once single systems are installed in a multi-store building it will be diffi ­ cult (if not impossible) to switch to a centralised application.

In the case of a single apartment buildings it is generally recommended to use natural cir­ culation systems which are much simpler and cheaper for application on the small scale. - Palermo has a quite dense urban structure with many multi apartment buildings (particularly in the centre), so the use of centralised systems would be the most appropri­ ate. The interventions required (and projected) for the laying of natural gas pipe work on

47 Domestic electric boilers used in Italy are typically able to provide 2 kW power; gas systems on the other hand easily provide 25 kW. 48 Efficiency of the solar heater is reduced as the temperature of the water in the storage tank increases. At high water temperatures efficiency can fall to zero.

69 A viable utility promotion campaign buildings should ultimately facilitate the installation of solar systems. In some cases tech­ nical problems may prevent the installation of pipes inside the apartment block. In so, it is possible to pass the pipelines outside the building, though additional insulation will be re­ quired and attention will be needed to aesthetics. Where ever centralised systems are in ­ stalled meters are necessary to measure individual user consumption.

7.2.1 Effects of Solar Thermal and Natural Gas Applications to the Electricity Power Load Apart from energy savings, another important aspect of DSM policy is the potential of re­ ductions in the Utility electric power load. Following, the Utility load created by electric water heating in the city of Palermo is estimated. Hot water consumption profiles are not available for the city of Palermo, and so the general profile of figure 8 is used 49 .

Figure 7.8: DHW consumption

consump n 2%--j

Hour of the day

This profile is used as a basis from which we estimate the electric power load curve of Pa­ lermo for electric water heaters. This is done by making the following assumptions: • The 20% of the power demand for electric heaters follows an homogeneous distri ­ bution throughout the 24 hour cycle, while the 80% is proportional to the hot water de ­ mand. • All hypothesis concerning the calculation of specific energy needs for DHW con ­ sumption are the same as applied in the “third part financing” chapter. Again, only users having a 3kW contract are considered. • The reduced power demand curve regards the case where the TPF action, presented previously, has been applied to 40% of the selected users. (We remind the reader that “selected users ” are those users who consume more than 260 kWh/month).

Figure 7.9 shows the Utility power output dedicated to water heating before and after the introduction of solar systems through TPF action 50. We can observe that peak power re­ ductions as high as 17 MW are obtained.

49 J.A. Duffie & W. A. Beckman, 1990 50 Of course, the substitution of electric heaters by standard natural gas appliances (that is, without the solar component) would result in identical changes to the electric power demand curve. A viable utility promotion campaign

Figure 7.9: Power demand with and without the TPF Palermo's Utility

Power demand for electric heaters only

Power demand with the use of solar&gas -sunny day ■i—

„ 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Hour of the day

71 Waste Management

8. Waste Management

8.1 Minimisation of Waste Most important for a concept of waste management is the minimisation. A greater re­ sponsibility of the producers and consumers for the duration of use and minimi sation should be done by a deanonymisation of the waste disposal and naming of the eco­ nomical cycles that gives material, or even worse, products, to waste disposal. The surroundings for individual generation of waste are given by structures of the waste management, but both are interactive.

For the reason that the financial load by taxes and fees is high, the citizens are sensi­ ble for the costs of waste disposal. This effect can be used to minimise waste masses by a, best linear performed, polluter-pay-principle.

The minimisation of packaging goes in conflict with a, save transport and, according food also, hygiene. All aspects of, for example return-systems, waste minimisation are yet not total considered. momentary problems of waste management: • the price of a product contains no costs of disposal of itself • to less prices for energy and raw materials, for packaging • the anonymous waste disposal together with a socialisation of the costs by privati­ sation of the use of easy disposal. • sales of consumption goods increases by a shorter lifetime of the products

8.2 Reuse and Recycling Any use of waste sets limits on purity of grades. For this case a sorting of waste, where generated and easiest possible, is extremely important. The acceptance for a sorting system decreases with the number of waste typologies and work contra pro­ ductive.

When talking about reuse and recycling differentiations have to be made. A material reuse practised now is most times more a down- than a recycling. Realistic recycling means that materials brought as products in economic circle on the same or even higher level then the product before. Products of "recycling-plastic", so called kompo- sitplastics, are better to be named as decentral waste dump. Parts of these products are extremely overdimensionated, because of the unknown material structure. This is comparable with scrap, new steel from scrap cannot reach the same high quality stan ­ dards under comparable circumstances as. new steel from ore, the tin, coming of the tinplated scrap, contaminates the steel. If the paper is recycled, the fibre becomes shorter and shorter, the reachable paper quality becomes less with shorter fibre.

In the beginning of the DSD plastic recycling in Germany was thought of raw material reuse of plastics to hydrogen and synthetic raw oil, the technical problems and the un ­ expected high costs, have not yet brought to a conclusion, how to reuse plastic packa­ Waste Management ging waste. At the moment a lot of plastic wastes are used for reduction of blasts in blasts furnaces.

8.3 Composting If practising a composting of vegetable wastes, low hazardous and hygienic limits have to be kept. In other, case the ready done compost is not suitable for marketing. If the decarbonisation is working anaerobic, it is the same.

Vending of compost is nearly impossible, because people are sceptic to use compost for vegetable gardening, in fear of harmful substances, also peat or other compost substitutes for private gardening are very cheap in Germany. In southern Germany compost is vended to fruit and vine agriculture, this agriculture has to fight high ero­ sions and produces no own humus. The marketing of biocompost only from vegetable wastes, is, as to see in Neumunster, easier, than a distribution of waste compost, which most are only suitable for landscape architecture or green beside the streets.

8.4 Incineration A waste incineration can only be done under the conditions.of very low emissions. This requires an high standard of flue gas cleaning technology with its high costs. The economic efficiency can most times only be reached by an high percentage of sold heating energy. Vending heating energy from waste incineration requires a district heating network, that can consume the heating energy from waste incineration also in the warmest months. If waste is incinerated, a lot of hazardous substances has to be cleaned out of the flue gas. These substances concentrate in the cleanser and must be controlled deposed.

The advantages of waste incineration are of course the minimisation and decarboni­ sing of waste.

8.5 Landfill Landfill of waste makes pre treatment of goods necessary, to retain harmful substan ­ ces controlled, concentrated and watchable in the landfill. A landfill has to been sealed to ground and air.

In the waste dump anaerobic states are possible, so similar processes to a fermentation is possible. The landfill gas has to be collected and incinerated, best in IC-machines, so no green-house-gases, like CH4 and CO2 can escape from the landfill.

In Germany the TA Siedlungsabfa.il draws two kinds of landfill, one for high inert goods (mineral, soil, etc.) less sealed, the other one for less inert goods like pre-treated municipal solid waste, with a high standard sealing. These limits are valid from 1st June 2005, respectively 1st June2001 on, for the upper type of landfill. The limits of TA Siedlungsabfall are compared to commercial technology only reachable with thermal processes, the option of mechanic-biological processes is still possible. A pretreatment of mineral wastes is not necessary.

73 Waste Management

8.5.1.1 Municipal solid waste The sorting of the different waste typologies can reduce the amount of the household refuse up to three quarts. Such a sorting plant would be expensive in arise and work. The economic efficiency is also coupled with the demand on the sorted materials. A higher efficiency is also reachable with more information of the people to get reusable materials with an high purity. 8.5.1.2 Vegetable wastes An anaerobic pretreatment of vegetable wastes to biogas together with an aerobic rot­ ting to end-compost, makes an use of biowastes for energy supply possible. The ad­ vantage of the single aerobic rotting is the modular construction, witch is able to work with annual discontinuing waste masses, and it is also easily extensionable. 8.5.1.3 Commercial and construction site wastes Commercial wastes are production related wastes arising from specific items. These wastes are most times not managed by the municipal ordinance. Even some commer­ cial wastes are handled like commercial goods.

Construction site wastes are mixed wastes, of rumble, concrete, soil, timber, paper and cardboard, plastics, isolation fill, metal and hazardous waste.

Generally a sorting on the construction site is more significant, more effective and even cheaper then a sorting of the already mixed wastes. A plant of this type has to handle huge masses to get small parts of reusable materials.

8.6 Perspectives and new Initiatives

8.6.1 Minimisation of Wastes Further local initiatives for waste minimi sation are: • conditions by certifications • of production plants • of gastronomic one way systems • restrictions of sales • of plastic mugs by drink vending machines • less one way ware on street parties and events • public institutions: • no one way ware in canteens • only purchase of long living, easy-to-repair products and no hazardous products • public promoting of waste minimisation • promotion of vending loose products • economical help of such dealers • present public areas to inform about waste minimisation • build up markets for used wares (e. g. furniture, radio..) • build up of a napkin-catering system (app. 3% of household waste in Germany are one way napkins) • influence on taxes • interaction between tax rates of industries and waste minimisation Waste Management

An example of recent local initiatives for waste minimisation is a local tax on one way food embarges. These taxes are on one-way-dishes, portion-packages and extra ven ­ ding-machine packages. Only a few months of imposition show, that restaurants and catering trade are possible to change their vending systems. Even vending machines are easily to change to an extra packaging-less work.

Generally the use of polluter-pays-principle is working best for minimisation of waste. Individual promotion of waste minimisation can work faster and more effective as promotion for a collective. The individual name and at the same time an economi­ cal punishment of polluters or over normal disposers can minimise waste disposal. The common use of one disposal tank makes an annonymisation on a low level. The conveying and pricing should be individual for every household.

75 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

9. Obstacles, strategies and action plans for the diffusion of renew­ able energies

9.1 General overview of means available to a city administration To overcome the technical and economical barriers working against increased renew ­ able energy utilisation the following list presents a set of general means which can be used by the municipal or city authorities and municipal information. The means can be subdivided into four main categories: • Pedagogical means, i.e. free energy consultancy, information, education, and de ­ monstration projects, thematic evenings. • Normative means, i.e. building regulations, requirements to maintenance, prohibi­ tions. • Economical means, i.e. special price structure, subventions and supply and energy taxes. • Organisational means, i.e. the establishment of an overall energy supply coordina­ tion body, and a regional energy conservation and renewable energy supply semi­ public company. Also the formation of local public interest groups can be an ef­ fective means to promote the renewable energy utilisation.

9.2 Considerations with regards to an Action Plan for Palermo A comprehensive analysis of the renewable energies’ non-diffusion in Palermo and in whole Sicily leads to considers, at least, four main causes:

1. Until about three years ago, the absence of energy policy, innovative pilot projects and incentives by the Municipal policy •2. Until about three years ago, weak role of the Municipal Utilities (especially of the ones which sell and manage the urban distribution of gas - A.M.G. - and water - A.M.A.P.) 3. Lack of know-how among both the professional engineers and the installers, and among the technicians inside public Administrations 4. Lack of public information and environmental sensibility.

Given the high renewable energies potential (confirmed by the results of this study), the large potential market and the interesting impacts on the creation of new jobs, since three years, the new Administration has tried to deal with these bottlenecks, de­ veloping a new strategy, especially for the solar thermal energy.

Certainly one of the principle reasons for which the market in Italy for solar thermal systems is weak is the high costs of systems and installation. However, the introduc ­ tion of cheap products without any guarantee of reliability will not enhance the mar­ ket in the long term. In fact, another important reason for which people fail to believe in solar is the memory of those unreliable products installed during past promotion campaigns.

It has been seen TPF actions or the ‘Guarantee of Results Contract ’ can help over­ come such obstacle, presuming that suitable systems are installed. The Utility should Obstacles, strategies and action plans have a global view of the solar thermal systems market and develop direct contacts with the manufactures of the most reliable and cost effective products. If direct “guarantee of results” arrangements are not possible, the Utility should establish cer­ tification requirements for all system components and perhaps define procedures for system installation. National or international 57 standards may prove sufficient to regulate component parts or the Utility may define its own additional requirements (e.g. protection against overheating of the systems). To help ensure correct installa ­ tion practice the Utility may provide instructive courses to installers or perform peri­ odic or random control of installations in progress.*52 .

An approved list of products, installers and project managers may be created. Tools which have proved useful in the evaluation of systems and components by other Utilities should be applied in Palermo using the local climatic and technical data. For example F-Chart and TKNSYS, allow pre-design and simulation models to be deve ­ loped.

With regard the domestic sector, apart from the high consumption users, efforts should be focused on that part of the population which shows a sensibility to envi ­ ronmental issues.

Outside the private domestic sector, the most suitable application of solar systems is in Social Housing and public buildings.

It is worth noting that if a Utility is able to stimulate the market and guarantee high 2 quantities of solar installation (in terms of m installed per year), then it is most likely in a position to obtain reductions in system prices from manufacturers, (agreements of this type have been achieved in the Netherlands).

It has to be underlined that the present situation in Palermo offers a unique opportu ­ nity for a large scale introduction of solar technologies. In particular the planned wide scale introduction of natural gas will facilitate greatly the introduction of solar systems. Combined.solar and gas applications can offer (as we have seen) reductions in energy bills for end users from the very start of the project. If, on the other hand, only natural gas systems were to be installed at this point in time, it will be that much more difficult to apply solar systems in a second phase. Though ‘switching’ from electricity to ‘natural gas only ’ may be the simpler and faster option in the short term it essentially negates future implementation of solar systems. It is much easier, in economic terms, for solar (plus natural gas as an auxiliary source) to compete with the use of electricity, than it would be for solar to compete with a well established use of natural gas. Moreover, from a technical point of view (dimensioning, installa ­ tion handling, retrofit choices etc.) it is more convenient to apply combined solar and natural gas thermal systems at once.

57 The creation of new common European standards for the efficiency and durability of solar collectors is currently in progress (1997). 52 The Utility providing power to the district of Sacramento in the USA (SMUD) sets minimum qualification requirements for the enrolment in courses as well as providing the procedures with which system monitoring and checking should be carried out.

77 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

9.3 Present situation: interventions carried out and projects in progress

9.3.1 Towards a sustainable energy use and production The city of Palermo is developing an aggressive policy towards a large scale use of renewable energy: 30 municipal buildings will be equipped by the end of 1996 with thermal solar collectors, a 75 kW power plant using landfill biogas is operating and a 1 MW plant is in the planning stage. Finally 2 solar photovoltaic shading systems will be built in two interchange parking centers for electric cars.

The reasons for this involvement are environmental (both local and global), economic (reduction of the municipalities expenses) and occupational (creation of new job opportunities).

Attention has been paid to the identification of the obstacles that have till now avoided the diffusion of solar technologies and to the elaboration of an inno ­ vative strategy in order to assure a correct use of the abundant renewable ener­ gy. For this reason hardware and software, appropriate technology and inter­ actions with the society (from the production phase to it’s final use) are origi­ nally combined.

Two examples of this approach will be described. • The first one is connected with a bottom-up approach for the diffusion of simple self-constructed solar thermal collectors. • The second one, on the contrary, deals with a sophisticated technology, electric cars charged by photovoltaic systems. The management of the two projects is innovative in terms of job creation, en­ ergy saving, improvement of urban quality.

The participation in E.U projects (Altener, Apas, Facte, Urban, Thermie) is strongly helping the city to reduce the distance with more advanced experien­ ces and to define an incisive energy policy.

In order to enlarge the exchange of policies and projects, the town of Palermo participates to the “Energy Cities” network and has joined the Sustainable Cities Campaign. Moreover the city has signed the Heidelberg Declaration on global warming and is involved in the “Cities for climate protection ” program.

9.3.2 The solar policy When in 1984 Enel, the national electric utility, launched a national campaign for the installation of solar collectors, Sicily was one of the regions that reacted poorly (8.100 m2 out of 100.000 m2 nationally), even if the percentage of electric water hea­ ting was very high (71 % of the users). t

One of the main obstacles was the inadequate preparation of the installers; another problem was given by the high prices of the collectors.

The promotion of the solar policy has been articulated in different steps: Obstacles, strategies and action plans

• Evaluation of the solar potential at the city level and more specifically for the public buildings (these parts have been defined through 2 European projects, Altener and Apas) • Definition of codes and rules in the new Master Plan in order to improve the energy efficiency and the diffusion of solar technologies • Creation of local expertise in the fields of design and installation, promoting in particular self-construction approaches • Installation of solar water collectors in public buildings • Demonstration project to verify the possibility by the Municipal utility to in ­ stall solar systems and sell the heat produced by gas-solar systems instead of simply selling methane • Experimentation of innovative solutions like solar photovoltaic parking areas to recharge electric cars

9.3.3 Introduction of the energy parameter in the new Master Plan Zoning is defined taking into consideration issues like cogeneration, energy cascading, and in general integrated use of energy; also “solar rights” are being proposed.

At the level of the building regulations, specific indications are proposed in order to improve, through the retrofit of existing structures, the summer and winter thermal comfort and the energy performance. Also for new buildings a particular attention will be given in order to improve the energy efficiency and to facilitate a solar approach.

9.3.4 First case study: diffusion of solar thermal collectors Economic and ecological reasons are strongly helping the diffusion of solar thermal technologies.

The technology for the production of hot water with solar energy is well established (30 million square meters installed), but it’s diffusion is quite dis- homogeneus.

In the Nineties there has been a new growth of interest for thermal solar tech­ nologies. In Austria and Germany the sales increased by 5 and 19 times reaching an area of 120.000 and 185.000 square meters in 1994 installed due to the combination of ecological motivation and correct diffusion strategies.

9.3.5 Self-construction One interesting aspect of the renovated interest in the last years for the solar systems has been the approach of self construction that, particularly in coun­ tries like Austria and Switzerland has had a large success.

In practice the solar collectors are built and assembled locally with a reduction of the cost (30-40% lower) and with an increase of local labor (nearly twice higher).

79 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

In Austria self-constructed collectors covers 40% of the total installations. Even if Italy is contiguous to countries like Austria and Greece that have a large diffusion of solar technologies, the presence of solar collectors is quite ' low with an yearly production of only 14.000 square meters and a total in ­ stalled area of 176.000 square meters (1994).

The definition of a successful strategy of diffusion of solar technologies could have a great impact in terms of job creation and of energy reduction. For this reason, the municipality of Palermo is trying to define new policies that could be replicated in other areas.

Also in Italy the self construction experience is beginning, particularly in the Alto Adige region. Single courses have been conducted in Bologna, Rome, Naples and particularly in Palermo in cooperation with environmental, profes­ sional and workers associations in order to prepare the necessary competencies in the field of design, installation and maintenance of solar systems.

9.3.6 The Alto Adige experience In the Alto Adige region, near the Austrian border, 10.000 self constructed collectors (15.000 square meters) have been installed (Dec. 1995), thanks to an original diffu­ sion strategy.

Four different centers coordinated by the LEA (Lega per le Energie Alternative - League for the Alternative Energies) organize weekend workshops with an average participation of 10 persons.

Simple copper absorbing plates are jointly prepared (in the sense that each participant works at the preparation of all the collectors and not to its individual one) under the assistance of a coordinator. Ten instructors are involved in the experience. In average a production of 0,5 m2 per hour per person could be considered.

The cost of a collector (absorber, glass, insulation, frame) of 1,5 m2 is of 150 Ecu, that includes 17 Ecu for the workshop (Ausserer, 1995).

Each participant will then install the collectors in his home and the final price of a system of 9 m2 (for 4 persons) is in the range of 2.500-7.500 Ecu, while the cost of commercial systems sold in the area is in the order of 7.500-10.000 Ecu.

9.3.7 Creation of new “solar experts” Since the scarcity of technicians and installers of solar systems is one of the reasons of the low diffusion of this technology in Southern Italy, a specific at­ tention has been paid on this aspect.

Post graduate courses have been organized by a technical school in order to give to the students the expertise to build and install solar collectors. Other solar courses were organized by the unions for laid off workers.

80 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

The characteristic of these self-construction courses has been that the theory has always been coupled with the installation of solar systems.

Four systems have been installed in a day care center and in three social cen ­ ters (one of these has received the European solar prize 1995 promoted by Eurosolar).

The ultimate goal is to prepare experienced technicians and to diffuse the self­ construction of solar panel with costs much lower than the commercial ones.

Globally 100 persons have been involved in these projects between 1994 and 1996. A group of these technicians is now creating a solar cooperative and part of the laid off workers will install the solar systems in the municipal buildings.

The next step is to diffuse this experience in other areas. Some Sicilian and Italian towns (like Catania, Naples, Rome) have recently proposed a similar approach.

It is interesting to note that some of the experts formed in these courses have later acted as teachers in other similar experiences.

Forty per cent of the participants to the 1994/95 course have decided to continue in the solar field and are creating a cooperative for the design, production and installa ­ tion of solar systems. Also part of the technicians that are participating to the 1995/1996 course intend to work in the solar field.

9.3.8 The dissemination strategy in Sicily Given the success of the Palermo experience, the solar cooperative set up by the ex­ perts trained in the last year course, is adopting a promotion strategy centered on the proposal of "open workshops" for small Sicilian Municipalities.

Such initiatives will last three days (generally a week-end) and are articulated in: - a local public conference about the state of the art of solar energy technologies and to the potential impact in job creation (on Friday); - the self-construction of a solar systems with the involvement of local inhabitants and it’s installation on a municipal building. The total cost of the "package" (conference + 6 m2 of ICS solar system) is 4.500 Ecu.

In this way it is possible: - to inf orm the public opinion about the possibilities and advantages offered, espe­ cially in Sicily, by the utilization of solar energy - to carry out an intervention for the Municipality at a very low price, considered that the plant cost results 30% lower than solar components in commerce; - to encourage the formation of new "solar teams" in Sicily.

81 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

9.3.9 Installation of solar systems in municipal buildings An important element for the creation of a solar market is given by the instal ­ lation of solar systems for hot water production in many public buildings. Thirty solar systems will be assembled and installed in day care centers, schools, sport centers for a total of300 square meters.

Also the municipal utilities have plans to install solar systems for additional 300 square meters.

9.3.10 First outcomes of the Altener Project The evaluation carried put in the Altener Project has already produced .a real result: on the basis of solar potential determined in the Intermediate Report, the Municipal Gas Utility of Palermo (A.M.G.) - which will become soon an Energy Company - has launched a campaign to promote the combination of solar thermal energy with natural gas, for domestic hot water systems.

Until March 1997, 12 thermal solar systems will be installed by A.M.G., in combina­ tion with boilers fed by natural gas, in highest floor of multi-familiar buildings in Pa­ lermo. In the same flats, high efficiency showers systems will be installed.

All the systems - each composed by a different type of solar collector - will be moni ­ tored by National Research Council (CNR - IEREN) of Palermo, in order to define the best technical guidelines for a large diffusion of solar thermal systems.

These interventions will be totally free for the selected flats. The budget dedicated by A.M.G. for this programme is: 40.000 Ecu.

9.3.11 Second case study: electric vehicles fueled by solar energy The aim of the project is to introduce clean vehicles and new mobility solu ­ tions that, along with the radical improvement of the public transport system, will allow to move towards a sustainable mobility.

The use of low polluting vehicles is being considered important by the Pa­ lermo municipality both to improve the urban air quality and to contribute to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

The first results of this project (electric cars, CNG vehicles) will already be available in summer 1997 in occasion of the University Olympic games that will take place in Palermo.

In perspective, the adoption of new clean solutions is particularly important for the mobility in the historical center that is in process to be recovered and in which the use of private car will be limited.

The combination of advanced technologies both in terms of hardware (low polluting vehicles) and in terms of software (use of telematics to improve the performance of public transport and organizational and behavioral measures to Obstacles, strategies and action plans

reduce the presence of private cars) will help to reduce the urban congestion and the pollution.

The results achieved in Palermo will be quite interesting for other towns with similar conditions, especially in the Mediterranean area.

Eightmillion Ecus (partly funded by the Ministry of Environment) have been allocated for this project and for the conversion of public buses to methane (conversion to CNG of 17 buses of the local municipal transport utility and of 200 cars of the municipality ; also 8 new CNG buses will be bought).

Moreover, the Palermo project has been introduced in a very ambitious pro- ■ gram called Zeus (Zero and low Emission vehicles in Urban Society), pro­ posed together with seven towns, Athens, Stockholm, London, Berlin, Hel­ sinki, Copenaghen and Luxembourg, in the frame of a Thermie project in which 1.500 zero and low emission vehicles have been included.

The project consists in three different uses of electric vehicles, for a global fleet of 110 cars. The first interchange parking will be located in connection with a subway sta­ tion and will be equipped with photovoltaic shading elements (20 kW) that will be provided by the national utility Enel. A second photovoltaic system for a parking center (15 kW) will be installed by the Palermo municipality. 9.3.11.1 General considerations All the users of electric cars will have the possibility to enter in the central part of the town that has been inhibited to normal cars mid will find specific par­ king places (free of charge).

Different type of cars will be tested, including light electric vehicles (LEV) characterized by very low energy consumption (120-150 Wh/km).

The beneficial aspects of this approach in the introduction of electric cars are both environmental and connected with the better use of urban space.'

From the environmental point of view, this solution is interesting since the lo­ cal emissions and noise impacts are minimized. Also from the point of view of global warming the use of electric car in Sicily is beneficial considering the large use of natural gas in the power plants and the introduction of high effi­ cient technologies (combined cycle plants).

Moreover the environmental benefits are enlarged considering the use of pho­ tovoltaic solar energy to partly refill the electric cars.

9.4 Action Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in Palermo Considering the local - social, cultural, technical, economical - situation of the City of Palermo, on the basis of the great potential of renewable energies valued in the pre­ sent study, a synthetic but organic action plan is described below.

83 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

It is divided in five types of actions: each one is not more or less important than the others, because only the co-ordinated development of everyone can lead in few years to a rational diffusion of renewable energies in Palermo and in Sicily.

9.4.1 Types of action

9.4.1.1 Information Objectives • Public awareness about: state of the art of the new technologies for the utilisa ­ tion of R.E.s; environmental effects (reduction of C02 emission, energy savings, etc.), occupational opportunities; comparison with national and international positive experiences • Technical and economical information about specific products or initiatives • To stimulate a first private market

Responsible and promoters • Municipality of Palermo • Municipal Utilities (A.M.G.: Gas and public lighting Utility; AMAP: Water Utility; AMIA: Urban wastes management) • Province of Palermo • Government of the Region of Sicily • Ministry of Environment of the Italian Government • European Commission (DG XVII) • ENEL • ENEA (National Company for the Energy and Environment) • ISES • Environmental associations • Private producer or commercial companies • Consumers associations

Target groups • All the ages and sectors of the population. In particular: students, young people with a technical school formation, families. • Private companies • Politicians and public administrators • Small and medium industrialists which intend to invest in new activities • Tourism and sport operators (owners of hotels, camping, gymnasium)

Steps of the action • Advertising and informative campaign co-ordinated among various promoters {see above): brochures, posters, informative spots through radio and television, gadgets. • Analysis of previous informative campaigns and relative level of unsuc ­ cess/success • Informative meetings in schools, universities, enterprises associations • Creation of a municipal energy information desk

84 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

• Promotional/informative articles on local newspapers and magazines • Local seminars • International workshop • Public expositions • Demonstrative realisations • Diffusion of results from monitoring of pilot proj ects

Obstacles • Present lack of sensibility for the advantages about the renewable energies • Investment with long term and immaterial returns • Absence of co-ordination among the possible actors • Small budgets available for such information campaigns

Costs and benefits • Budget of medium magnitude (0,5 - 1 MEcu) • Necessity of private sponsors • Some informative initiatives could be supported by European Commission • Strategic long term benefits: environmental sensibility; technical awareness; market stimulation 9.4.1.2 Formation Objectives • To form local competencies for production, installation and maintenance • To form technical promoters for a local development of R.E.s • To lay the basis for a new and innovative occupation

Responsible and promoters • Municipality of Palermo (Education, Industry and Job Departments) • Technical Institutes • University of Palermo (Technical Faculties) • ENEA • CNR (National Council of Research) • Province of Palermo • Government of the Region of Sicily • European Commission (DG XVH) • Professional Associations • Training private/public organisms • Environmental associations

Target groups • Students (secondary and university level) • Youngs searching first occupation and laid-off workers • Craftsmen

Steps of the action • On the basis of the positive results obtained by the specific courses post secon ­ dary school (see par. 3.1.2 - 3.1.9) organised in the last two years, and consi ­ dering the launching of a next course for “Promoters of renewable energies in

85 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

the Mediterranean area” promoted by ENEA and financed by the Italian Mini ­ stry of Labour and U.E., it foolows that the organisation of training courses with different kind of theoretical subjects (technical, computer design and graphics, economic, marketing strategies) and practical applications (i.e. self-construction and installation of thermal solar collectors, installation of photovotaic panels, monitoring) is the main strategic road to fill the gap of local technical know ­ how. • Comparison with other positive experiences of R.E.’s local diffusion, in Italy and abroad • Since the second year of action, organisation of similar training courses using the young technicians just formed as teachers • Activation of a permanent laboratory of technical updating for designers, produ ­ cers, installers

Obstacles • Financial availability • Difficulties to find teachers with good theoretical and practical experiences • It needs to create a market: at present, in fact, this sector doesn ’t offer great op­ portunities of immediate and constant occupation

Costs and benefits • Investments with medium term return • Necessity of sponsoring by the public and private promoters • Enrichment of local multipliable know-how 9.4.1.3 Interventions on municipal building stock Objectives • Energy and economic savings • Reduction of C02 emissions • Testing of different types of applications in order to define the typologies which fit better with the local condition • Promotion of renewable energies utilisation through realisation of systems used by different sectors of the population • Activation of the local market and induction of local competencies

Responsible and promoters • Municipal technical offices • External experts • European Commission

Target groups • Various types of constructions and relative users: schools, hospitals, gymna­ sium, swimming pools, barracks.

Steps of the action • Selection of the buildings and identification of the ones in which the interven­ tions could be more convenient and strategic for a diffusion effect • Design, installation, monitoring, evaluation and diffusion of the results

86 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

• Involvement of laid off workers for the installation of the systems • Comparison with successful international experiences (Germany, Holland, Au ­ stria, Greece, California, etc.)

Obstacles • Few local installers (especially in the first period, that is before the end of the first formation courses) • Lack of politic sensibility • Present financial availability

Costs and benefits • Investments with acceptable pay back time • Energy/Economic savings • Induction of new occupation • Reduction of power demand and peak load on the grid* • Big supply of renewable energies systems means lower prices (scale economy) of purchase and installation 9.4.1.4 Role of Municipal Utilities Objectives • Differentiation of the energy market • Direct management of new sectors of the energy market • Testing of different types of applications in order to define the typologies which fit better with the local condition and which can be combined with conventional energies (i.e. natural gas) • Promotion of renewable energies utilisation through realisation of systems used by different sectors of the population • Activation of the local market and induction of local competencies • Energy and economic savings • Reduction of C02 emissions

Responsible and promoters • Municipal Utilities (A.M.G.: Gas and public lighting Utility; AMAP: Water Utility; AMIA: Urban wastes management) • External designers and experts of monitoring • Consumers associations

Target groups • Individual and multi-family domestic systems • Small and medium companies • Public lighting

Steps of the action ' • Carrying out and replication of the initiative promoted by A.M.G.: identifica ­ tion, design, installation and monitoring (in order to collect credible data about consumption, efficiency, real costs, energy and economic savings, acceptance, user ’s satisfaction) of pilot projects (combined systems natural gas - thermal

87 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

solar energy, photovoltaic systems and hybrid thermal and photovoltaic sys­ tems, recycling) • Economic incentives for the users who combine conventional sources with re­ newable energies • Innovative kind of contract and financing (also Third Party Financing) • Practical recommendations for the rational utilisation and ordinary maintenance of the innovative systems

Obstacles • Few local installers and specialised technicians • Initial low public acceptance

Costs and benefits • Medium size and strategic investments with acceptable pay back time • Benefits proportional with the achievement of the objectives/targets • Induction of new occupation 9.4.1.5 Urban energy rules Objectives • Energy and economic savings • Reduction of noxious emissions (C02 Nox, etc.) • Induction of innovative technical competencies • Stimulation of the market

Responsible and promoters • Energy, technical and legal experts • Municipal technical and legal offices • Province of Palermo • Government of the Region of Sicily • Ministry of Environment of the Italian Government

Target groups • Influence direct or indirect on all the population • Enterprises for buildings, plants and energy systems realisation • Designers and installers • Administrations in other cities or regions

Steps of the action • Elaboration of the new Energy Plan for the City of Palermo • Definition of minimum obligations for existent and new buildings (i.e. in the City of Turin the recent urban rules oblige the private owners to install in new buildings a thermal solar surface equal al least to 1/30 of the gross surface of the house • Definition fiscal and financial incentives • Proposal of local “green taxes” on conventional energies whose proceeds invest in further information, formation and incentives for renewable energies • Obligation of Certificate of Guarantee for all types of renewable energy systems

88 Obstacle's, strategies and action plans

• To encourage types of solar panels with low visual impact (especially for the historical buildings) and good efficiency • Introduction of possibility of innovative kind of financing (also Third Party Fi­ nancing) for renewable energies applications • Definition of simple instructions and guidelines for installation and maintenance of R.E.’s systems

Obstacles • Initial resistance by politicians, administrators and populations • In the historical centre (Palermo has a 280 hectares historical centre, that is 29% of total roof surface) the solar panels can produce disagreeable visual impact

Costs and benefits • Consequent costs sustained both by public administration and private owners • Energy/Economic savings • Reduction.of power demand and peak load on the grid • Reduction of noxious emissions

9.5 Action Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in Neumunster The potential of renewable energies in Neumunster is shown in chapter 5. If the total potential would be exhausted, about 10% of the total final energy consumption of Neumunster could be covered. The potential of wind energy is low, if only the town area of Neumunster is considered. The situation changes, if the electricity supply area of the Stadtwerke Neumunster is considered. (The Stadwerke also supplies municipa ­ lities in the environs.) In some of these municipalities plans exist to install wind turbi ­ nes. Because the wind potential in the town area is low action plans only for the utili ­ zation of solar energy and biomass are made.

For exhausting the existing potential of renewable energies and energy savings an im­ portant measure is to make an agreement concerning the fixture goals with all relevant groups in the town. Relevant groups are the politicians, the municipal administration, the utilities and associations of industry, trade, craft, building owners, tenants and consumers. A steering committee sets up the priorities for the nearest fixture. All rele­ vant groups have to agree with these priorities. Different working groups elaborate measures to overcome existing obstacles. Only if all relevant groups agree with the proposed measixres the goal can be reached. In the following some actions regarding solar and biomass energy are described.

9.5.1 Scope of actions

9.5.1.1 Solarthermie Different support programmes shall help the solarthermie to a market entry (see chapter 10.2.5), but many potential users and plumbers do not know the possibilities to use solar energy for DHW. Publicity and information campaigns, like exhibitions and information meetings organised by the utilities, and also training courses for the plumbers have to be made. Solar DHW systems are often economic in new multifa ­ mily houses with more than eight fiats. In single family houses the installation of SDHW, dxxring the building , phase of new houses or during the replacement of the

89 Obstacles, strategies and action plans boiler seems to be most economic. Solar collectors show a high economy when in ­ stalled at gymnasiums or swimming pools. At first solar collectors are to be installed in these fields of application. After participating a training course the plumbers should advice these potential users. 9.5.1.2 Photovoltaic Photovoltaic cells are far from an economy. But the installation of PV cells is necessa ­ ry for the development of this technology and an increase of the production which can result to the decrease of the price. A good way for dissemination is the installation at public buildings or schools combined with information and incorporation into the cur­ riculum.

For private persons different support programmes exist. Some utilities in Germany pay the real costs for the electricity which is generated by PV modules, so that the utilisation of PV modules is economic for the users. Stadtwerke Neumunster could also pay the real costs to promote the PV technology. 9.5.1.3 Biomass For Neumunster plans are made for the energetic utilisation of wooden and fermant- able residuals.

Plan for the energetic use of wooden residuals Different kinds of wooden residuals turn up in Neumunster. There are wooden resi­ duals from parks and gardens, and the wooden share of bulky refuse, commercial waste and construction site waste. The wooden residuals from parks and gardens are chopped and composted or used in landscape-gardening. The other wastes are brought to landfills or wood collector companies. But the deposit of wood on landfills will be not allowed after the year 2005, so another way of removal has to be found. As the wooden share of bulky, commercial and construction site waste can be contaminated, it cannot be reused. For this reason the thermal Utilisation seems to be the most suit ­ able path for these wastes. Sorted and uncontaminated waste wood, for example from wood manufacturing industries is often used as input material for other industries like chipboard or paper industry.

The share of wood in bulky refuse is about 25%, in construction site waste about 35% and in commercial waste about 29%. With these shares and the sorting rate of about 70% the wood quantity amounts to about 5,750 t/a, including the wooden residuals of parks and gardens to about 6,100 t/a or about 105 TJ/a as final energy.

This quantity is not adequate to charge a CHP plant in sensible size. But a company located near Neumunster handles most of the commercial wood waste of Schleswig- Holstein (about 50,000 t in 1995). Today this wood waste is sorted and chopped by the company and transported to Sweden, where it is burned in CHP-plants. If a share of this wood waste is burned together with the wood waste of Neumunster a CHP- plant can be run.

Different technologies of combustion systems are available for the thermal utilisation of waste wood. Horstmann compared grate combustion, fluidised bed combustion and gasifacation. Because gasification is only on a standard of pilot plants the fluidised Obstacles, strategies and action plans bed combustion is the suitable technology to run a combustion plant in the range be­ tween 15 and 50 MWfh-

Including the'wood waste of the company near Neumunster a fluidised bed fired CHP-plant with an thermal input of about 30 MW can be run. Because Neumunster is located in a central position of Schleswig-Holstein with good traffic connections (highway, railway line), Neumunster is suited for a waste wood fired CHP-plant.

The CHP-plant could be located at the area of the landfill in Neumunster where the waste wood of Neumunster is brought. In addition to this a sorting plant would have to be installed to sort the wood from the unsorted commercial, bulky and building site waste. The generated electricity can be supplied to the local electricity network and the generated heat can be provided to the district heating net.

The wood fired plant is to be built under the regulation of 17. Federal Order oflmmis- sion Protection, because the contamination of the different kinds of wood waste are often unknown. Respecting this regulation all kind of wastes can be burned.

Reference: Horstmann, Dirk: Thermal Utilisation of contaminated wood. Diploma thesis, FH Flensburg, Flensburg 1995 (in German).

9.5.2 Plan for realization of a fermentation system in Neumunster Biogas plants are used to produce energy; another aspect of such systems is their abi­ lity to dispose of organic residues in a environment-friendly and efficient manner. Plants whose design reflects actual requirements as to equipment range, substance cir­ culation and energy requirements in a given operational situation lead to rational energy production with many economical and ecological advantages. The prerequisite for successful operation of a biogas plant is application of conceptual planning me­ thods.

The motivation for installation of a biogas system in Neumunster is defined primarily by the following items:

Economical-energy production Disposal of problematical organic substances in composting systems (moist fractions) Profit from disposal earnings Reduction of energy costs Reduction of disposal costs

Construction of a biogas plant depends on a number of influential factors, all of which must be coordinated and integrated in the final plant concept. The substrate volume and types of residues, and the resulting energy production, are interdependent factors which are the primary determinants of plant size and type.

/

91 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

9.5.2.1 Residual substance potentials in the Neumunster area Existing substance potentials in the Neumunster area were determined as basic study data for construction of a biogas plant.

Calculated on the basis of a slurry availability potential of 30%, an annual volume of 191,100 t would be available. Further, 50,514 t would be available from the food in ­ dustry within a 50-km radius of the location.

The animal cadaver disposal institute Nagel is also located in Neumunster. This insti ­ tute has the right to offer for processing, as well as the obligation to accept, residual materials covered by animal cadaver disposal legislation, including food residues. Nagel is currently not yet equipped for disposal of food residues, which are now being processed as animal feed. Over the longer term, this method of "disposal" will be pro­ hibited by law. For this reason, cooperation between Nagel and the Neumunster public service company would be worth considering, since the food residues are estimated by the Agriculture Ministry at 25,000 t/a.

Nagel cannot be expected to dispose of such a potential volume on their own, since they have one other competitor in Schleswig-Holstein. On the basis of only one-half of this potential, 12,500 t of organic wastes would be available for processing in a fermenting plant in the immediate vicinity of Neumunster over the medium term.

The disposal methods currently in use for the large volumes of wastes from the food industry are not known. For this reason, an offer of future disposal potential for res­ idues in a biogas plant should be made to local and nearby companies in Neumunster to test the echo for biogas plant disposal there. The following materials are, for exam­ ple, suitable for cofermentation:

Apple solubles Apple marc Brewer's grains Podzol Filtration kieselguhr Vegetable wastes Extracted healing herbs Cocoa shells Potato solubles Molasses Whey Fruit marc Oilseed residues Grape marc Castor oil meal Food wastes Vinasse Bio-wastes Summer prunings Mowings

92 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

Flotate sludge Contents of stomach, intestine and rumen from abattoirs Separator fats Fats from fat separators

If 10% of the potential volume from the food industry were available, c. 20,000 t/a would be available including canteen wastes. Further, wet waste fractions in the com­ posting plant in could be processed in a biogas plant, although the estimated potential for next year is only 20,0001. This corresponds to an annual gas production volume of 2,000,000 m3 or 13,440 Mwh of primary energy substitute.

The above potential would appear to be available and would be relatively easy to ex­ ploit and integrate in a plant concept. In addition to this, the necessary transport ex­ penditure would not be such as to compromise commercial success. 9.5.2.2 Slurry: the basic substrate Use of slurry as the basic mixing substrate in the plant is necessary to process the final substrates in the fermenting process to produce fertilizers. The final substrate would be spread as fertilizer over farmland in a mixture of slurry and food industry residues. A relatively homogeneous substrate such as slurry would also stabilize the fermenta ­ tion process. For this reason, it is recommended that at least 50% of the substrate be in the form of slurry.

If slurry is not used as a base substrate, alternative methods of disposal would have to be found for the substrate. Methods such as dumping or further composting would re­ sult in added costs, so that this alternative should not be considered.

The resulting slurry requirement is at least 20,000 t/a. 20,0001 slurry is the equivalent of 400,000 m3 biogas or 2,688 Mwh primary energy substitute per year. The slurry potential would be available from the vicinity of Neumiinster. The larger animal hus ­ bandry business in the area should be invited to discuss such a project

Further advantages accrue from a financial participation by the farmers in the projects to keep the risk of plant operations at a minimum. On the one hand, this would ensure that the slurry to be supplied would be handled properly, thus reducing the risk of dis ­ ease transmissions. It is also necessary to prevent destabilization of the fermentation process by, for example, medicines used in animal husbandry. The farmers would then also have more control over the quality of the substrate that is later to be spread over the fields as fertilizer.

9.5.2.3 Commercial success The economic feasibility of a biogas plant is determined by earnings from sales of energy and energy substitution, plant operating costs and investments. Further income sources result from cofermentation of residues.

The following aspects must therefore be reviewed:

93 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

How much the public service company would pay for the electric power pro­ duced Whether the heat energy produced can be introduced into the existing long­ distance heating systems. What earnings levels can be achieved for cofermentation of food residues, residues from the composting plant and residues from the food industry.

Exploitation of the above-mentioned potentials would result, assuming an electrical efficiency value of 30%, in power production of c. 4,840 Mwhel. Further, c. 60% of the primary energy can be produced as derivative heat, equivalent to 9,680 Mwhth /a, which could be fed into the existing long-distance heating network.

Operating costs as follows must also be considered within the framework of the va- . rious potential plant concepts:

Energy requirements for plant Auxiliary and operating materials Maintenance and wear (3-4 PfrkWh under 100% maintenance contracts) Wage costs for plant operation Substrate acquisition, logistics Substrate utilization, e.g. on farmland Insurance (usually 1% of the investment sum) Reserves (1-2% of investment sum) Investment costs are based on the process concept for the biogas plant. The plant components are as follows:

Fermenter Gas storage and safety equipment Substrate processing Hygienization treatment Interim storage tank as buffer for organic residues Storage tank for fermented substrate Biofilter Pipelines Energy conversion BHKW (heating plant) or power plant Auxiliary aggregates MSR technology Secondary construction costs Planning

Cost optimization methods include, for example, use of existing equipment and structures such as the BHKW operations building.

9.S.2.4 Technical Concept From a hygienic point of view, certain specifications for the plant concept result from the project of cofermentation of food residues and fermentation of slurry from diffe ­ rent farms. For example, it is necessary to achieve a threefold reduction of pathogenic germs by means of a hygienization stage, the fermentation process and subsequent

94 Obstacles, strategies and action plans cold storage. Hygienization must be a controlled process. In case of problems, the substrate must be put through this stage a second time.

Using a mesophilic process (fermentation at a temperature level of 35 C), pasteuriza ­ tion for one hour at 70 C is required, followed by fermenting at 35 C for c. 25 days. Then the substrate is stored unheated in a storage tank until it can be spread over farmland.

If residues from the composting plant are to be added to the process, it will also be necessary to install a preliminary sieving stage to eliminate unwanted materials.

A comminution stage to produce maximum material piece sizes of 1 cm prior to hygi­ enization is also required for cofermentation.

Site: The possibility of installing the biogas plant at the composting plant site should be considered. When selecting the site, it must be kept in mind that odour emissions may be produced by the biogas plant. For this reason, the site named above would be ideal. In consideration of this site, costs for a heat transfer pipeline to the existing long-dis ­ tance heating network should be determined. Further, uses for the heat within the exi­ sting composting plant should be considered.

Construction of a biogas plant on the Neumunster composting plant site offers ad­ vantages to waste processors in the form of an additional potential utilization of orga­ nic residues that are not suitable for use in composting plants.

Further, the utilization quality of the slurry is improved by fermenting. Farmers will also benefit from no-cost nutrients in the coferments.

The Neumiinster public service company would produce, in addition to the power plant, current without producing C02, and could utilize the residual heat produced either in the composting plant or in the existing long-distance heating network.

All in all, biogas technology has considerable advantages. The start of detailed plan ­ ning for the Neumiinster site is therefore recommended.

9.6 Action Plan for the Utilization of Renewable Energies in Ballerup To overcome the technical and economical barriers working against increased renew ­ able energy utilisation the following list presents a set of general means which can be used by the municipal or city authorities and municipal information. The means can be subdivided into four main categories: • Pedagogical means, i.e. free energy consultancy, information, education, and de ­ monstration projects, thematic evenings. • Normative means, i.e. building regulations, requirements to maintenance, prohibi­ tions. • Economical means, i.e. special price structure, subventions and supply and energy taxes.

95 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

• Organisational means, i.e. the establishment of an overall energy supply coordina ­ tion body, and a regional energy conservation and renewable energy supply semi­ public company. Also the formation of local public interest groups can be an ef­ fective means to promote the renewable energy utilisation.

The further utilisation of the identified energy supply potential from renewable ener­ gy resources in Ballemp can be increased by initiating a set of actions which systema­ tically belong to the above list. These actions naturally are identified with an outset in the types of potential identified in Ballerup: Thermal solar, PV solar, wind and bio­ mass.

9.6.1 Thermal solar The following actions have been identified: • Establishment of experience groups for housing associations and house owners ’ as­ sociations. • Standard solar heating system development for dwellings in the municipality • Assessment of heating systems, possibility of alternative supply, inclusive solar heating. • Financing arrangements for solar heating systems. • Municipal building solar systems • Energy information campaigns • Publication of successes

Table 9.1 shows a matrix of measures of the action plan and the possible contributions from actors involved in the carrying out of the actions.

Table 9.1 Matrix of measures of the action plan and contributions from actors Measures Municipality Utility Consul­ Indu­ Contractors Mer­ companies tants stry chant boards banks Experience Initiate Know­ Know ­ Know-how groups how, how, co­ co-ordi ­ ordinator nator Standard Initiate Provide Work out Inform, in­ Finance solar consul ­ solutions stall heating tancy system service dev. Municipal Implement Provide Work out Inform, in ­ building consul ­ solutions stall solar sys­ tancy tems service Financing Implemen ­ Provide Provide Represen­ Provide ting, consul ­ consul­ tative loans representa ­ tancy tancy tive service service

96 Obstacles, strategies and action plans

Informa ­ Initiate Provide Provide Finance tion consul­ consul ­ campaigns tancy tancy service service Successes frnplemen-. ting via the press

9.6.2 Solar cells As the economy of solar cell installations in most situations still is far from being eco­ nomically competitive the role of the municipality is limited to being instrumental in finding appropriate places for demonstration installations projects and supporting these installations. For publicity reasons the municipality might consider installing solar cells on its own buildings.

9.6.3 Wind The identified wind energy potential in Ballerup is quite small. However, further inve ­ stigations to find adequate locations for individual wind mills in the area of the muni ­ cipality would be the logical next step.

9.6.4 Biomass Currently the biomass potential from household waste is utilised by being burned along with the general solid waste at the waste incineration plant. An investigation could be initiated to show whether a local utilisation of this part of the household waste could be beneficial. For example the economy and other benefits of local biogas production-for a gas furnace or CHP station might be investigated.

9.7 Non Utility Action: Guarantee of Results Contracts Less complex than a Utility conducted TPF programme is the establishment of the "Guarantee of Results Contract" concept which is activated between solar system in ­ staller and user. As the name suggests such contracts provide guarantees of energy yield to purchasers of solar systems. The concept has been tried elsewhere with suc­ cess.#

Simplifying a little, installer and user agree to a contract which defines: • The (minimum) annual energy production of the system. • The return the user will in any case obtain should the solar system not produce as expected.

The contract covers possible system malfunctioning or variations to the users hot wa­ ter consumption in such a way as to ensure savings by the user. A contract of this type eliminates completely the risks to user and at the same time promotes the correct de ­ sign and use of systems.

Its application is more appropriate to largescale implementation in for example multi ­ apartment buildings, hospitals, hotels etc. It is possible to use the contract with 53

53 Gilliaert 1991, ISPRA

97 Obstacles, strategies and action plans telemonitoring to provide detailed information of systems operation.. Such data pro­ vides the possibility to: • control and define the working conditions in order to achieve maximum sys­ tem efficiency; • report irregularities quickly; • reduce ion site ’ technical controls; • obtain valuable savings data which can be compared to other applications.

It should be pointed out that in the case of Utility promoted TPF programmes such guaranteed results contracts should be sought between the Utility and the manufactu ­ rers of the solar thermal system components.

In Denmark Cenergia Energy Consultants are working under the Altener Project No. AL/70/93/DK on pilot actions seeking the introduction of a guarantee of solar results in the market of largesolar DHW systems.

98 Other benefits and environmental aspects

10. Other benefits and environmental aspects

10.1 Interaction of Solar Thermal with Other DSM Objectives and Saving Opportu­ nities Other DSM projects have already shown that54 “there are many synergisms between re­ newable supply and energy efficiency ”.

Palermo is facing quite serious problems ensuring water supply is maintained. Most high buildings have roof tank storage to help problems of discontinuous supply. The solution to these problems can in part be met by DSM actions. The use of low flow taps and other water saving equipment by end users not only decreases water consumption but also offers indirect energy savings and other advantages. In fact, decreases to the general water requi­ rements lead to decreases in the need for hot water and subsequent energy savings. Moreo­ ver, the diminished need for hot water, reduces the initial capital investment required for a solar thermal application and allows the wider application of systems amongst different categories of users.

Likewise improved efficiency of water usage of dishwashers and washing machines should be sought and possibly be obtained by: • the application of financial incentives by Utilities for users to buy appliances requiring less water; • incentivating users to purchase those models which accept directly both hot and cold water. When solar (or solar assisted) hot water production is available then additional energy savings could be obtained. It must be remembered that the greater part of the energy consumption of such equipment is due to the electric heating of the water. Actu ­ ally on the Italian market only dishwashers of this type are currently available. Washing machines with hot and cold water taps though currently produced by Italian manufactu ­ rers are only available elsewhere in Europe. However, they should be easy to introduce on to the national market (where they were infact present some years ago) if demand in ­ creases. The electric energy demand for hot water heating in the washing machine ac­ counts for around 9% of the total electric consumption of a typical Italian household.

A proactive role on the part of the Palermo water and natural gas Utility in the promotion of the above aspects should result in significant water and energy savings, particularly if combined with solar thermal applications. The saving measures described in these later paragraphs may be combined with the TPF actions analysed above in a large scale DSM project.

10.2 Environmental Aspects The application of solar thermal and natural gas systems for hot water production will pro­ vide positive environmental benefits. Next table lists the avoided emissions of pollutants obtained by the introduction of TPF action, (installation of 67,500 square meters of solar thermal systems).

54 Friedemann & Johnson Consultants GmbH, 1995.

99 Other benefits and environmental aspects

TablelO.l Avoided emissions resulting from the TPF action m2 of solar collectors installed: 67,500 Energy savings 'annually) Avoided emissions (annually) MWh Primary energy (electric) [GJ] C02[t] CO[t] NOx [t] SOx[t] 55,000 560,000 42,100 12 75 219

Once again, the same assumptions and simplifications have been adopted for the energy savings. All values are approximate.

10.3 Other Positive Aspects of the Diffusion of SDWH. The introduction of SDWH may also provide other social benefits for the city. At the moment the general public is not particularly aware of either renewable energy or energy saying technologies. The wide scale diffusion of solar systems will provide people with direct contact, and help promote appreciation of these technologies as well as develop a sensibility towards environmental and energy issues. Solar thermal applications in edu ­ cational and public buildings may add substantially to this development. Most certainly solar applications will generate new employment; ESIF estimates that roughly 14 new jobs are created for every 1,000 m2 of collectors installed annually. Thus, if the Utility’s TPF action were to be realised up to 300 new jobs would be created over the next 3 year.

The success of self construction and assembly courses already completed in Palermo shows the technology has great future potential Bibliography

11. Bibliography A. A. V.V. (1995), “Demand Side Management Programmes in USA - An Opportu­ nity for European Producers of Solar Water Heaters”, 17/05/1995.

Ausserer W., Gantioler G. (1996), “Documentazione per i capigruppo dell ’autocostruzione di collettori solari, Lega per le Energie Alternative ”, Brixen, Alto Adige

Blum, S. 1995, “Overview of Solar Energy Activities in IEA Countries ”, IEA, [http://www. IEA.vuw.ac.nz: 90/natprog/overvu.html] .

Butera F., (1995), “Architettura e ambiente ”, Etaslibri

Butera F., Mereu F., Schultze G., Silvestrini, G., (1995) "Introduction of the energy parameter in the master plan of a large european town", European Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy Summer Study, Mandelieu, 6-10 giugno 1995

ESIF (1996), “Solar Thermal strategy study - Sun in Action ”, 1996.

Butera F., (1993) "Analisi comparata delle misure esistenti e potenziali di risparmio energetico nel settore edilizio nella regione mediterranea nell ’ambito della ricerca: Energie et environment urbain dans les pays tiers mediterraneens”, primo rapporto, gennaio 1993

ICLEI - IRT (1995) “The Results Centre Profile Series. Sacramento Municipal Utility District, Solar Domestic Water Heating”, The Results Centre Profile #66”, [http://www.iclei.org/cases/irt66.html]

Istituto di Ricerche Ambiente Italia (1996), “Piano Energetico Ambientale di Roma”, Milano.

L. Bosselaar, E.H.Lysen, A.F.J. v.d. Water (1994) “Long term agreements: a new ini ­ tiative to stimulate SDHW’s in the Netherlands ”, North Sun, September 1994.

M. Moore, (1995) “Partnerships with the Sun: A profile of Three Solar Utilities” The solar Industry Journal, vol.6, issue 3. [http:// crest.org/renewables/seia/sij/3Q95/pp- partner.html]

Murley, C. (1993) “SMUD'S Solar Water Heating Program”; Home Energy Magazine Online May/June 1993 TRENDS IN ENERGY, No. 95, Berkeley, CA 94704. [http:// beijing.dis.anl.gov./ee/hem/93/93 0503.pi]

Osborn, D.E. Murley, C.S.;Collier D. E (1995), “ a voice from NORTH AMERICA Sacramento Municipal Utility District: solar programs”, SunWorld Vol 19. No. 3 Sep ­ tember 1995, pp 1517.

101 Bibliography

Roditi D. e Joffre A. (edit by) (1991)., “ Solar Thermal Equipment in Europe ”, , Commission of the European Communities, Directorate General for Energy (C.E.C., DG XVII), Agence Frangaise pour la Maitrise de l’Energie, Service de V Action Inter ­ nationale (Afine), TECSOL

Sacramento Municipal Utility District (1995), “Demand Side Managemant Business Plan. Continuing to build Sacramento ’s Conservation Power Plant ” March, 1995.

Sacramento Municipal Utility District (1995), “Equipment Efficiency Improvement Loan Program”

Sicilian!, J. (1995), “Solar Water Heating: An Energy Service Option for Diversifying Utility Portfolios” The Solar Industry Journal, vol. 6. [http://crest.org/renewables/seia/sij73Q95/pp-partner.htmI ]

Silvestrini G. (1996), “Sicilia 2020: scenari per uno sviluppo sostenibile ”, Istituto Ambiente Italia, Milano

Sorokin A., Leone M., Cupi F., (1993), “Assessment of PV rooftop integration into southern Italian architecture ”, 3rd European Conference on Architecture, Florence, may 1993

Teylingen, v. D.B. (1994) “Thermal solar energy in the Netherlands ”, Novem

Water, A.F.J. v.d. (1995), “a voice from Europe. Progress through partenrship: increa ­ sing the solar domestic hot water system market in the Netherlands ”; SunWorld. Vol 19 No. 3 September 1995, pp. 12 - 14.

“TERES The Renewable Energy Study ”. ESD et al., 1993.

“TERES II The Renewable Energy Study, The prospects for Renewable Energy in 30 European Countries from 1995-2020 ”. ESD et al., 1996.

“An Action Plan for Renewable Energy Sources in Europe, Madrid 16-18/3/94 - Conference Proceedings ”.

O., B. Olesen, June 1997. Pilot actions in Denmark seeking the introduction of a "Guarantee of Solar Results ” in the market for large scale solar DHW systems. Alte- ner Programme - 4.1030/93-23. Cenergia Energy Consultants. DK.

102 Appendix 1

12. Appendix 1. The results of an APAS Project

Inside the APAS Project “PV/TH Medurban Buildings. Combined electric and ther­ mal energy production in existing and new buildings with photovoltaic envelope com­ ponents”, the energy assessment and evaluation of potential use of grid connected PV and PV/Th components in the Municipality of Palermo owned building stock were carried out.

On the basis of the inventory of the properties of the Municipality of Palermo, which involves 1019 buildings located in 18 different districts, and after a meti­ culous selection, in order to check the feasibility of interventions to install pho­ tovoltaic and thermal plants, it was decided to focus the attention on educational buildings, because of their numerical prevalence (75% of the considered buil ­ ding stock) and because of the higher possibility to repeat with good effects of energy conservation and social impact. All the data collected for each building (photographs, year of construction, building state, surface, volume, height, building material, windows, roof, type of existing plants, shading, etc.), and re­ ferred also to the surrounding buildings, have been inserted on a specially structured database, which allows a quick and clear consultation according to different criteria, of selection.

Moreover, on the basis of the planimetries at disposal, three-dimensional dra­ wings of 140 educational buildings have been realised. These drawings involve also the surrounding buildings, which have been further elaborated by a spe­ cially provided and set up data processor, characterised by a global applicability.

The program developed, named SunCAD, is an application software of Auto ­ CAD, and it allows to value the solar radiation incident on the surfaces of buildings, testing its three components (directed, diffused and reflected), on hourly, daily and yearly basis.

The input data consist in the geometry of the analysed building and of the sur­ rounding buildings, while the result of the calculation is the solar radiation inci­ dent on every surface, which can be used for energetic purposes

, The evaluation of the solar radiation incident on building structure, desegregated for each fagade, considers also surrounding buildings shades.

The results of the simulations made by SunCAD have been used as input data for the final processing which consists in the evaluation of the photovoltaic and thermal-photovoltaic potential of the same 141 municipal schools.

Typologies of available data for each month of an average year are: a) total solar radiation for each surface (kWh); b) total solar specific radiation (kWh/m2); c) direct solar radiation on horizontal surfaces (kWh/m2):

103 Appendix 1 d) direct solar radiation on vertical surfaces (kWh/m2); e) percentages of solar radiation intercepted after the calculation of the influ ­ ence of surrounding obstacles.

Prcgraaea SunCAD. carieato^. Per miziare digitare- SUNCAD.- Ccaaand: SU.NCAQ- . 1 .

Fig. 12.1: SunCAD opening screen

The horizontal surfaces and the vertical ones facing South, East and West have been considered. The classification of those fagades has been carried out ac­ cording to the following criteria:

The horizontal semicircle (which has East and West as limit, and South direc ­ tion as axis) has been divided in three sectors, each of them measuring 60°.

All the fagades with a superficial azimuth included in the central sector, have been considered as oriented to South, and so on. The inclined roofs have been studied and selected in the same way. On this subject, it has been proved that the approximation of ± 30° according to South direction, can cause at most an error of 2.5% on the evaluation of the solar po­ tential.

Those surfaces have been finally translated and ordered according to AutoCAD consecutive layers. Appendix 1

Using monthly values of the total solar specific radiation per each fagade of each building and using a 30% photovoltaic covering on vertical surfaces (with verti­ cal modules) and 50% on roofs (modules inclined 38° on the horizontal), with an electrical panel efficiency equal to 8.5%, it was calculated that for the 141 examined educational buildings the energy obtainable by the photovoltaic sys­ tems installed on facing South vertical surfaces, is equal to 1.1 GWh/per year, while the energy deriving by those modules placed on covering is equal to 8.3 GWh/per year; it is in total more than 10 GWh/per year.

Fig. 12.2 Evaluation of solar radiation incident on the surfaces of buildings (calculated at 9 a. m of the 15 of December)

105 Appendix 2

13. Appendix 2. Abbreviations DHW : domestic hot water SDHW: solar domestic hot water L.: Italian Lira, DM: German Marks, DKK.: Danish croners. ‘Solar’ and ‘gas’ are used sometimes to indicates ‘solar thermal systems’ and ‘natural gas systems’ respectively (both concerning the hot water production).

Energy conversion: 1 ktoe=41,868 TJ.

106 Appendix 3

14. Appendix 3. Working Group

Cenergia Energy Consultants CenergiaApS Set. Jacobs Vej 4 2750 Ballerup Denmark Tlph.: +45 44 66 00 99 Fax.: +45 44 66 01 36 Director Ove Morck

Forschungsgesellschaft fur umweltschonende Energieumwandlung und -nutzung Danische Str. 3-9 24103 Kiel Germany, Tlph.: +49 43 19 805 762 Fax.:+49 43 19 805 795 Dr. Winfried Dittmann

CNR-IEREN Via U. La Malfa 153 1-90146 Palermo Italy Tlph.: + 39 91 680 9240 Fax::+ 39 91 680 9279 Georgia Schultze Tullio Pagano Axis Aidonis Francesco Tutino

107 Appendix 4

15. Appendix 4. Data for the city of Palermo

Subarea Land Surf, (nr) Built Vol. Roofs Surf, (m2) % Hist Built % Sloped Roofs % Roof/Land Inhabit (m3) 1 704086 478256 55885 33 35 8% 1389 2 295724 723109 • 79063 41 30 27% 3243 3 7268987 466891 65009, 8 30 1% 1008 4 30355871 340856 41895 5 25 0% 980 5 339760 340856 23885 • 0 25 7% 101 6 415304 177112 30140 18 25 7% 1058 7 324286 291491 40871 35 30 13% 761 8 249728 224885 32315 6 40 13% 619 9 336969 564476 65732 80 40 20% 827 10 214162 184628 27431 17 40 13% 683 11 302011 331327 45985 55 40 15% 232 12 336730 725850 82178 57 25 24% 3254 13 496861 316743 42843 11 25 9% 590 14 389196 722350 96639 8 25 25% 1406 15 238943 424005 44448 31 25 19% 1329 16 480205 1134944 104468 8 20 22% 6721 17 541769 279269 54477 10 20 10% 481 18 266445 141379 27829 5 25 10% 99 19 540855 589451 81167 25 20 15% 2293 20 352553 356686 51360 24 30 15% 729 21 179607 I5I495 23691 6 40 13% 314 22 189296 243291 39262 14 40 21% 531 23 215432 332794 48731- 34 40 23% 250 24 769113 154358 29673 15 30 4% 307 25 228083 262004 42156 16 30 18% 733 26 171896 174272 26871 23 35 16% 502 27 377550 369206 53193 22 30 14% 370 28 616450 310394 55982 4 20 9% 516 29 572869 733635 37248 6 20 7% 5690 30 6125238 493068 78756 4 40 1% 670 31 631528 456412 58581 34 20 9% 2206 32 441797 1683726 126733 5 25 29% 7384 33 518978 163245 27860 19 25 5% 238 34 581939 307081 57745 5 25 10% 1395 35 529325 209034 37686 6 25 7% 1099 36 874497 603181 78994 4 40 9% 316 37 763277 272952 38843 5 30 5% 47 38 7190118 93413 12434 50 30 0% 45 39 11858207 506676 75777 5 40 1% 511 40 795617 1142370 140923 19 30 18% 1069 41 571069 765288 86189 6 30 15% 2663 42 519581 234981 34112 44 25 7% 556 43 543273 465332 59859 29 25 11% 1858 44 357786 226388 28726 22 25 8% 1108 45 357506 540011 62813 41 25 18% 2031 46 406255 795042 79026 29 20 19% 3395 47 520438 1361278 144887 8 25 28% 1316 48 310062 1116785 80116 25 20 26% 2977 49 405496 278752 43837 56 20 11% 1581 50 3156838 762082 66544 30 15 2% 2593 Appendix 4

Subarea Land Surface Built Volume Roofs Surf, (mq) % Historic. % Sloped Roofs % Roof/Land Inhabit. (mq) (me) Buildings 51 926838 1021207 106942 12 15 12% 2918 52 282739 685172 48564 20 20 17% 2492 53 343476 1384156 88158 22 15 26% 4996 54 627377 , 1377419 87460 19 15 14% 4474 55 1358567 1443288 169801 22 15 12% 5912 56 433952 1713842 83275 5 20 19% 6826 57 265945 1828649 90733 22 15 34% 4710 58 340046 1692376 76487 2 15 22% 5537 59 242912 2006026 69513 15 20 29% 5639 60 296006 1946260 79596 16 15 27% 6976 61 412502 4256723 117893 14 15 29% 9512 62 711660 1142063 92108 16 • 15 • 13% 6299 63 698265 415697 124063 2. 15 18% 2531 64 645530 395764 61057 20 15 9% 2223 65 541249 1131005 106804 9 15 20% 4908 66 218685 82 0690 45770 4 15 21% 2657 67 249089 1477536 70462 10 15 28% 4339 68 230375 2225456 89672 35 20 39% ' 6382 69 461822 1993305 117638 25 15 25% 7437 70 459640 992261 67389 17 15 15% 3108 71 351485 664825 51111 47 20 15% 2093 72 739979 1730392 156149 35 15 21% 7167 73 1338534 538735 64288 42 15 5% 2094 74 3151786 2307897 186168 5 20 6% 15815 75 669662 587131 67462 7 25 10% 2659 76 654364 788378 86019 40 20 13% 3992 77 469433 1034744 69912 18 15 15% 3977 78 438715 2011526 90423 6 15 21% 5867 79 237462 1562894 75789 10 20 32% 3745 80 383622 236923 105464 2 25 27% 6653 81 259569 2226128 99110 23 25 38% 5532 82 345355 2954478 128368 16 25 37% 8186 83 326517 974498 56531 25 25 17% 1448 84 210813 1292158 81446 50 25 39% 6565 85 388483 1045775 70281 50 20 18% 3693 86 309689 2156480 133260 40 20 43% 8192 87 7668506 1725526 115415 3 25 2% 5129 88 760911 1672649 129631 12 20 17% 9037 89 545681 1963818 110993 8 25 20% 7434 90 179701 994994 63520 35 15 35% 4726 91 197318 868616 46748 23 25 ,24% 5207 92 111160 860566 46777 44 20 42% 4239 93 116767 617137 58457 30 20 50% 3162 94 200275 1233835 54882 54 25 27% 2551 95 202840 1955161 81375 61 30 40% 6828 96 489059 2783397 127729 62 40 26% 6425 _ 97 367612 1506425 84346 87 35 23% 3220 98 206400 1769822 108661 70 35 53% 8472 99 271109 1262207 69482 72 35 26% 4325 100 186848 1517158 76442 73 50 41% 3728

109 Appendix 4

Subarea Land Surface Built Volume Roofs Surf, (mq) % Historic. % Sloped Roofs % Roof/Land Inhabit. (mq) (me) Buildings 101 211000 2390149 94329 76 55 45% 4346 102 265830 2428248 118812 75 50 45% 5956 103 3754809 1342602 150048 36 25 4% 3796 104 1601046 626848 58455 30 30 4% 2157 105 612996 1785138 139533 31 20 23% 9668 106 315445 535138 44074 27 25 ’ 14% 2213 107 539633 1334530 86255 32 25 16% 7008 108 318176 1151194 69769 29 30 22% " 6068 109 327970 1553873 116573 43 35 36% 6866 110 273812 2485968 127408 62 40 47% 8860 111 167532 148-1301 71253 85 50 43% 4015 112 230779 2270652 103504 79 60 45% 2470 113 214880 2097839 92526 69 55 43% 4385 114 222981 2720221 119282 71 50 53% 3159 115 682247 945029 105424 22 35 15% 249 116 271644 1062208 87264 75 25 32% 5885 117 267453 1933534 110605 87 40 41% 8895 118 341672 267689 129433 90 55 38% 1082 119 152443 126585 29999 94 75 20% 452 120 118169 1715164 108631 77 80 92% 1036 121 231505 1994227 111078 74 80 48% 1651 122 165443 1769640 96603 86 80 58% 1174 123 6414638 908523 103316 47 40 2% 4057 124 851010 790436 71257 7 25 8% 3613 125 975921 706517 74034 30 25 8% 2880 126 377931 895457 68818 50 20 18% 3998 127 292165 583771 59004 40 25 20% 777 128 260700 1449162 70771 60 20 27% 6365 129 172491 1207034 64954 68 20 38% 3323 130 127601 902617 39660 56 25 31% 2682 131 ' 211586 871598 60984 61 35 29% 2564 132 144989 1385215 88121 84 65 61% 3640 133 218613 1605257 113273 83 70 52% 4129 134 146290 1610930 91673 92 70 63% 4023 135 94332 972007 49833 85 70 53% 2614 136 267513 1609694 91740 90 60 34% 3954 137 350868 1864246 125525 81 60 36% 4157 138 619524 662081 61093 23 60 10% 3096 139 174565 734208 46083 15 20 26% 2076 140 206055 958359 52790 10 20 26% 5821 141 202885 530679 34470 50 20. 17% 2137 142 158748 636187 45985 57 20 29% 2779 143 1138594 1864015 137637 30 20 12% 3193 144 183580 1394943 88349 38 25 48% 6711 145 642469 2134879 121280 16 25 19% 10746 146 609121 980222 . 65330 10 20 11% 1974 147 253759 1734105 105758 58 40 42% 5331 148 161370 1474723 79943 66 40 50% ' 4503 149 333035 2384366 128378 56 30 39% 11626 150 366843 1505956 105880 69 30 29% 4350

110 Appendix 4

Subarea Land Surface Built Volume Roofs Surf, (mq) % Historic. % Sloped Roofs % Roof/Land Inhabit (mq) (me) Buildings 151 629316 1981265 144931 62 30 23% 5582 152 396621 534853 47664 21 30 12% 1446 153 631502 1590764 144595 45 30 23% 5812 154 358140 940687 71404 25 30 20% 3871 155 550793 267213 38124 12 20 7% 927 156 744341 601460 68130 20 25 9% 1723 157 727785 759072 54969 45 25 8% 3568 158 395702 2491403 45079 5 15 11% 1355 159 705977. 421414 61685 9 25 9% 1020 160 1374004 752422 95886 7 25 7% 2585 161 584516 1173848 74055 1 15 13% 8585 162 1038470 1405480 115288 2 20 11% 8322 163 776446 1914870 143107 4 25 18% 10058 164 656684 1674912 111826 36 20 17% 7510 165 837110 1412691 99054 15 15 12% 8499 166 205509 650488 57321 41 20 28% 3147 167 494836 1663861 115147 61 15 23% 8673 168 855298 2579652 166897 46 20 20% 15689 169 550006 1240214 185745 37 20 34% 63 170 686206 1189029 86681 29 15 13% 7961 171 696414 323910 40225 36 20 6% 1156 172 966098 625453 78105 29 20 8% 2381 173 1416287 949813 114932 37 15 8% 3142 174 861399 253709 44333 16 20 5% 9 175 6653377 1424673 182082 .15 20 3% 4230 176 1214881 1606034 111461 15 25 9% 11041 177 1058166 599264 74046 18 25 7% 2586 178 9797402 1544787 198225 19 25 2% 5311 179 822507 481166 47641 18 25 6% 2044 180 4874428 831719 112458 5 25 2% 2253 181 3896795 734153 107216 9 30 3% 691 182 485664 321128 • 49793 17 25 10% 302 183 930285 277723 44979 12 30 5% 760

Total Land 191 Surf. (Km2) Tot. Roof 15 Surf. (Km2) N. tot inhabit. 684923 Average Built 8% Density Average 30% sloped roofs Average hi­ 29% storic. roofs •

Tab. 15.1 Data available for the 183 subareas in which the city of Palermo has been divided

111 Appendix 4

CODICE Building Volume (m3) Building Surface (m2) Build, height a.s.l. (m) 12 100 6 35432 3374,4590 65 12 101 6 1328 163,9767 59 12 102 6 4578 420,0068 63 12 103 6 870 129,8531 54 12 104 6 1706 155,0775 63 12 105 6 91 16,5129 52 12 106 6 9392 1067,2350 61 12 107 6 1640 399,9360 51 12 108 6 1740 225,9138 58 12 109 6 1633 212,1309 58 12 10 6 626 142,3101 48 12 110 6 1956 247,6521 58 12 111 6 1781 202,3827 60 12 112 6 2186 485,8826 52 12 113 6 1459 131,4691 65 12 114 6 161 37,5022 51 12 115^6 15914 1894,5450 61 12 116 6 2003 256,7990 58 12 117 6 123 45,5599 48

12 118 6 G\ O 18,1924 51 12 119 6 5355 465,6122 66 12 11 6 8411 459,6397 75 12 120 6 3208 276,5308 66 12 121 6 534 121,4421 51 12 122 6 622 148,0030 49 12 123 6 4114 311,6371 69 12 124 6 2704 252,7327 64 12 125 6 2654 340,3000 58 12 126 6 2132 292,0398 57 12 127 6 13632 1793,6990 57 12 128 6 1587 260,1673 53 12 129 6 59 17,2748 50 12 12 6 627 142,5901 48 12 130 6 550 88,7735 56 12 131^6 9243 1087,3670 58 12 132 6 1404 206,4891 57 12 133 6 1837 229,6223 57 12 134 6 4629 497,7050 59 12 135 6 7072 862,4574 56 12 136 6 31086 4200,7480 56 12 137 6 4102 773,9112 52 12 138 6 89 38,8280 55 12 139 6 645 119,3778 59 12_13_6 2002 263,3655 55

112 Appendix 4

12 14 6 12899 1499,8810 56 12 15 6 708 150,5693 50 12 16 6 252 70,0499 47 12 17 6 9470 966,3288 59 CODICE Building Volume (m3) Building Surface (m1) Build, height a.s.1. (m) 12 18 6 8264 918,2641 57 12 19 6 - 868 177,2424 49 12 1 6 562 137,1264 46 12 20 6 2189 547,3140 47 . 12 21 6 90 26,3848 54 12 22 6 125 33,8016 55 12 23 6 2112 285,4534 59 12 24 6 2062 278,6743 58 12 25 6 1985 268,1886 57 12 26 6 1961 265,0128 57 12 27 6 4376 653,1880 53 12 28 6 6713 828,7583 56 12 29 6 2063 278,8303 62 12 2 6 151 51,9725 43 12 30 6 2144 289,7776 61 12 31 6 1996 269,6831 59 12 32 6 2027 273,9083 58 12 33 6 2001 270,3980 60 12 34 6 1986 268,4235 , 59 12 36 6 6368 563,5678 73 12 37 6 4681 410,6262 71 12 3 8 6 6219 676,0000 68 12 39 6 5161 441,1113 70 12 3 6 3905 394,4611 57 12 40 6 12986 1014,5520 75 12 41 6 40423 3577,2290 66 12 42 6 5792 252,9069 98 12 43 6 1319 140,3292 71 12 44 6 10281 856,7594 76 12 45 6 19923 2459,6200 64 12 46 6 291 111,8899 61 12 47 6 12663 1918,5660 67 12 48 6 142 56,8627. 59 12 49 6 17921 2800,0950 63 12 4 6 1213 173,2564 51 12 50 6 2728 233,1740 75 12 51 6 2374 308,3459 66 12 52 6 19080 1644,8700 . 70 12 53 6 41808 3513,3170 70 12 54 6 1809 311,8271 68 12_55_6 1138 160,3098 66

113 Appendix 4

12 56 6 772 94,1660 66 12 57 6 49 18,1238 56 12 58 6 6037 727,3698 67 12 59 6 2321 266,8351 67 12 5 6 3614 340,9888 59 12 60 6 6727 896,9948 70 , 12 61 6 2575 325,9240 69 12 62 6 5873 682,8588 67 CODICE Building Volume (m3) Building Surface (m2) Build, height a.s.l. (m) 12 63 6 6846 777,9108 66 12 64 6 12465 1312,1000 66 12 65 6 19032 1922,3980 65 12 66 6 2081 400,2000 59 12 67 6 734 183,4000 56 12 68 6 1512 137,4910 69 12 69 6 10251 1005,0240 67 12 6 6 83 39,6131 42 12 70 6 2665 242,2355 69 12 71 6 1446 127,9653 69 12 72 6 23299 3148,4920 59 12 73 6 4689 450,8913 61 12 74 6 2198 278,2210 57 12 75 6 15376 488,1214 104 12 76 6 4033 896,2800 51 12 77 6 1973 177,7083 62 12 78 6 1490 281,1530 53 12 79 6 4696 527,5918 60 12 7 6 740 139,5698 49 12 80 6 147 40,7284 49 12 82 6 195 37,4067 53 12 83 6 6135 705,1900 61 12 84 6 12619 1752,5840 58 12 85 6 105 25,7131 52 12 86 6 5980 548,6007 65 12 87 6 1618 231,2131 57 12 88 6 3825 780,6735 53 12 89 6 8640 1016,5190 60 12 8 6 2648 343,8750 53 12 90 6 7298 675,7410 65 12 91 6 6385 840,0904 58 12 92 6 1263 173,0054 58 12 93 6 869 222,7841 51 12 94 6 232 51,4475 51 12 95 6 221 56,6054 49 12 96 6 48 17,7293 47 12_97_6 7619 302,3555 93

114 Appendix 4

12 98 6 4647 258,1551 80 12 99 6 5011 207,0775 92 12_9_6 1972 205,4378 59

Average of absolute deviations respect to the average height Tab. 15.2 Analysis of the 12th subarea ’s but dings stock in order to evaluate the deviations of the single building ’s heights respect to the average height of the entire stock

115 Appendix 5

16. Appendix 5. Press conferences and seminars The project has all along the way had much interest from the mayors of the involved cities. At three out of four working group meeting the mayors have been present and have been informed about the progress of the project. At these meetings press conferences have been arranged to inform the public in the local city about the meeting and the project. Overleaf are two scrap-book cuts - one from the Ballerup start-up meeting, and one from the closing meeting in Neumunster. Appendix 5

kommuner i samarbejdet er, at de skal Isre af hinanden og sammenligne forskelligheder- Ballerup styrer ne. Kommuneme skal inspire- re hinanden til at gore tingene bedre. Slutteligt skal det hele ende ud i en plan om, hvad der kan gores. EU-miljoprojeld . Konkrete miljoforbedringer blrver det ikke tfl i denne om- gang. HI gengaeld skal planer- ne laves si grundigt, at de er kommune, der skal admini- dersages, ogforBallerupsved- Milj0: Mandagunder- lige til at fere ud i liver, nir der strere pengene. kommende handler det isaer engang bliver fundet penge til skrevfire europaeiske I viikeligheden var det to om at finde plads til solvarme- deL byer kontrakn med EU kontrakter, tier blev under­ anlsg, si der kan spares na- skrevet. Og det er ikke turgasogolie. Ap Steen Breiner ■ smipenge,' der blev skrevet Pengene skal ogsi bmges til under pi. Ialt giver EU 1.6 et plan- og smdieprojekt, hvor BALLERUP: Miljoet bar in­ millioner kroner, og de tre det skal tmderseges, hvor ti onfor tie seneste ir Set det byer skal selv finde et tilsva- langt det er muligt at komme bedre, men det kan blive end- rende belob. Ballerup kom- med vedvarende energi. Hvor nu bedre. Ballerup kommune. munes andel belober sig til barriereme og mulighedeme underskrev i maj mined sidste 550.400 kroner, men i det be- er. Men undersogelsen skal ir et manifest for et bedre mil- lob kan men indregne den Ion, ogsi vise, hvor der er ekonomi jo, og mandag kunne Dalsga- kommunens ansatte skal have • i at lave vedvarende energi, for ard underskrive endnu en for at vzere med i projektet eksempelvis fiemvarme er en kontiakt, tier skal vrere med til billig opvarmningskilde, si de at forbedre miljoet. Ikke bare i' Solvarme omrider, der har varme fia Ballerup, men ogsi i den tyske Milet med de to kontrakter er fiemvarme i dag, skal forment- by Neumtinster og tie to itali- at undersoge og afdrekke, lig ikke til at installere solfen- enske byer Palermo og Varesi. hvordan vi i de fire byer kan gere. Det vil blive for dyrt for Kontrakten blev underskrevet forbedre miljoet. Muligheden beboeme. i Ballerup, for det er Ballerup for vedvarende energi skal un­ Ideen med at have fire

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SofortmafSnahmen nach dem BSE-Fall Kampagn^ 1st schon fertig 5200 Kinder £ NEUMUNSTER. Wenn der oo Oberbiirgermeister die Parkgebiihren wie geplant senkt, starten - die Wirt- schaftsverbande cine groRe erwartet die Werbekampagne. „Neu- miinster Marketing" hat ci- nen groRen Wcrbefeldzug fur Neimuinster entwickeln lassen. Abdeckerei Seite 12 BONN (dpa). Wegen mogli- Wahrenddessen hielt das cher BSE-Gcfahren soilen in Verwirrspiel urn die wahre Her­ Deutschland Jewells 2600 kunft des an BSE gestorbenen Rindcr aus GroRbritannien Galloway-Rindes an. Es.wird Diebesgut und der Schweiz getotet wer- nicht. ausgeschlossen, daR die den. Die Bauern erhalten pro Ohrmarken vertauscht wurden sichergestellt Tier eine Entschadigung voh und das Rind in die Herde einge- 1500 bis 2000 Mark. schmuggelt wurde. NEUMUNSTER. Mit gro- ■ Die Mutterkuh des Rindes je- Rem Aufgebot hat die Kripo Bund und Lander trafen diesen denfalls - die aus GroRbritan­ rEuropa-Treffen" beim OB gestem ein ,Haus durch- EntschluR gestem auf einer Kri- nien stammt - wurde als „offen- sucht. Sie fand Diebesgut. sensitzung und reagierten damit sichtlich gesundes" Tier im letz- Hoher Besuch fur Oberbiirgermeister Hartmut Unterlehberg und die Stadt Neurniinster: Delegationen aus Ein Verdachtiger wurde auf den jiingsten BSE-Fall im ten Jahr in den Niederlanden acht europaischen StSdten d iskutlerten gestem die Ergebnlsse von drel europalschen Projekten zur Ener- festgcnommen. Vor Jahreri Kreis Hoxter. Bonn will bei der geschlachtet, dort verarbeitet gieeinsparung und zur Nutzung erneuerbarer Energlen. Unser Bild zelgt Oberbiirgermeister Hartmut Unter ­ hatte es im glcichen Haus EU-Kommission in Brussel einen und auch verkauft. Der Oko-Hof lehberg (sechster von links) mit den Burgermeistern der beteiligten stSdte und anderen Delegationsteil- be! einer Durchsuchung Antrag auf finanzielle Unter- in Mecklenburg, von dem die nehmern..- ■ : - ...... , - Seite 9 Foto: hb Schlagereien gegeben. stiitzung stellen. Alle Nach- Galloways stammen, schlieRt Seite 9 kommen der Importtierc aus aber eine Verfutterung von beiden Landern soilen erfaRt Tiermehl eindeutig aus. Die Ex- und unter Bcobachtung gestellt perten kennen jedoch bislang Nach Lohengrin und ,,Phantom" nun Old Firehand werden. Dies betrifft ungefahr nur zwei Ansteckungsmoglich- Apotheke Von Pech und 12 OOOTiorc britischer Herkunft keiten: von der Mutterkuh auf • •• •• 1 iiberfallen Peter Hofmann reitet