©2014 Arnout Henricus Cornelis van der Meer ALL RIGHTS RESERVED AMBIVALENT HEGEMONY: CULTURE AND POWER IN COLONIAL JAVA, 1808-1927 by ARNOUT HENRICUS CORNELIS VAN DER MEER A dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in History Written under the direction of Professor Michael Adas And approved by: _________________________________" _________________________________" _________________________________" _________________________________New Brunswick, New Jersey " OCTOBER, 2014 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Ambivalent Hegemony: Culture and Power in Colonial Java, 1808-1927 By ARNOUT HENRICUS CORNELIS VAN DER MEER Dissertation Director: Professor Michael Adas “Ambivalent Hegemony” explores the Dutch adoption and subsequent rejection of Javanese culture, in particular material culture like dress, architecture, and symbols of power, to legitimize colonial authority around the turn of the twentieth century. The Dutch established an enduring system of hegemony by encouraging cultural, social and racial mixing; in other words, by embedding themselves in Javanese culture and society. From the 1890s until the late 1920s this complex system of dominance was transformed by rapid technological innovation, evolutionary thinking, the emergence of Indonesian nationalism, and the intensification of the Dutch “civilizing” mission. This study traces the interactions between Dutch and Indonesian civil servants, officials, nationalists, journalists and novelists, to reveal how these transformations resulted in the transition from cultural hegemony based on feudal traditions and symbols to hegemony grounded in enhanced Westernization and heightened coercion. Consequently, it is argued that we need to understand the civilizing mission ideology and the process of modernization in the colonial context as part of larger cultural projects of control. ii By emphasizing the interactions between the colonizers and the colonized, this study brings into focus a shared colonial space, thus bridging the fields of Indonesian and European colonial history. These interactions are explored in a number of sites that have proved of particular relevance. For example, the study of Javanese status symbols, such as the ceremonial parasol (payung), deference rituals, and a hybrid sartorial hierarchy reveals the ways in which the material grounds of colonial authority were contested. Likewise, an examination of hill stations, their architecture and function, illuminates the growing concerns surrounding the “physical body”, and fears of Westernization and Javanization among the Javanese and Dutch respectively. The various narratives are brought together in a discussion of annual fairs, their attractions, appearance and objectives in the colony’s capital at Batavia (Jakarta). These transformative themes in the history of Indonesia, which stress the place of material culture in legitimizing colonial regimes, are treated in depth for the first time as dimensions of a coherent process. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This dissertation is the culmination of my cross-Atlantic academic journey. On its eastern shores I was introduced to the historical discipline at Leiden University. There I quickly developed a fascination with the history of colonial Indonesia. Under the auspices of Leonard Blussé I wrote two research theses, based on explorations of the rich archival collections in the Netherlands, emphasizing political and economical perspectives on the colonial past. Partly based on these writings I was presented with the opportunity to attend graduate school at Rutgers University for one academic year. It was this experience on the western shores of the Atlantic that proved to be both life and career changing. Foremost, during this year at Rutgers University Michael Adas challenged me to apply a cultural perspective to my subject. This reorientation was reflected in a lengthy MA thesis that explored the relationship between culture and power in colonial Java. This experience abroad – the introduction to a more cultural perspective as well as the general academic atmosphere – encouraged me to pursue a Ph.D. at Rutgers University. With the support of Michael Adas, Bonnie Smith, Matt Matsuda and many others I was able to make this happen. Of course, the whole project would have been impossible without the generous financial support of the Rutgers University History Department, the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, a Fulbright Fellowship from the Netherlands America Commission for Educational Exchange, a VSB Fund grant, and a Leiden University Scholarship. This dissertation, its contribution to the academic field, and my development as an instructor are the returns on these investments for which I am forever obliged. iv It was my education at Leiden University under the excellent guidance of Leonard Blussé and Harry Knipschild in particular that allowed me to embark on my Ph.D. studies. During my research in the Netherlands I also greatly benefited from discussions with Kees van Dijk, Gerard Termorshuizen, Remco Raben, and Pauline van Roosmalen. In addition, the support of the staff of the Royal Netherlands Institute for Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies was indispensible in finding my way through its important collections. I am especially thankful for the guidance of Rini Hogewoning, Josephine Schrama, Sven Aalten, Liesbeth Ouwehand, and Jaap Anten. My dissertation project, and consequently my future academic work, was significantly enriched by the opportunity to study and learn Indonesian at the Alam Bahasa language school in Yogyakarta (Central-Java). My immersion in the Indonesian language and culture was without a doubt one of the highlights of my dissertation work. My instructors, especially Eka Zuliati and Ayu Kusumastuti, demonstrated great skill and patience for which I am forever grateful. I also feel fortunate to have been given the opportunity to present two of my chapters to my peers. The symposium that Hazel Hahn organized on cultural exchange between Europe and Asia helped me place my dissertation in a larger framework. In addition, my participation in the networks of exchange project at the Rutgers Center for Historical Analyses directed by Toby Jones and James Delbourgo, proved to be a great testing ground for my ideas on cultural hegemony in the colonial context. I consider myself fortunate to have been able to pursue a Ph.D. at Rutgers University, where the history department in New Brunswick has provided me with an outstanding academic training in a highly social environment. The department showed its v true excellence at times when things looked bleak. The support of professors and graduate advisors, in particular Alastair Bellamy, Al Howard, Paul Hanebrink, Seth Koven, Belinda Davis, and Phyllis Mack, was crucial in completing my studies. Nor could I have done without the guidance and assistance of Dawn Ruskai in dealing with and making sense of academic bureaucracies. Most of my appreciation goes to my committee members. In their own way, each has valuably contributed to my academic training and the development of the dissertation project. First and foremost, I owe much gratitude to Michael Adas with whom I conceived and worked out the applicability of the notion of cultural hegemony to the case of colonial Indonesia. Our meetings and discussions were not only academically productive, but were reflective of our growing friendship. I look forward to continuing our conversations on history, politics, dogs, and baseball (in no particular order). Matt Matsuda not only helped me envision the project in a larger framework, but also remains an inspiration as a teacher. Bonnie Smith challenged me to think about cultural exchange and its relationship to power dynamics, while Eric Tagliacozzo encouraged me to acquire Indonesian language skills to deepen the scope of my studies Graduate school, and the writing of a dissertation in particular, can be a lonely and arduous adventure. Lucky for me, I did not have to make this journey alone. The friendship and support of fellow graduate students was indispensible. I will forever savor professional and social get togethers at libraries, coffee shops, weddings and Thanksgiving dinners with Annie Kinkel-De Vries, Elizabeth Perry-Churchich, Adam Zalma, and especially Stephen Allen, Kathryn Mahaney, and Alejandro Gomez-del Moral. In addition, friends and family on both sides of the Atlantic were indispensible in vi my transition to the United States. This process was considerably aided by the presence of Geert van der Varst, Rob Schuurmans, Jeroen Ruifrok, Ajolt Elsakkers, Martijn Reeser, Alexander van Mazijk, Els Boonakker, Adriaan Kroonenberg, Andre Leijh, Sonja Schaetzlein, Rafael Toro, Laura Norwood-Toro, and Hans en Nienke van der Meer in my life. It was my mothers’ fascination with Dutch colonial literature that first directed me towards the history of colonial Indonesia in particular, although my parents have always encouraged my fascination with the past in general, for instance by taking me to historical sites during our many family vacations together. But their greatest accomplishment is the creation of a warm and supportive family that allowed my sisters and me to chase our dreams knowing that we could always count on one another. The fulfillment of this particular dream of mine is therefore also their achievement. Together with my wife, Joke van Oers, I embarked on