COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION An examination of perceptions, ideas, beliefs and solutions throughout

Dr Hussein Tahiri, Police Professor Michele Grossman, Victoria University

Release date: September 2013

The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the project partners: , Victoria University or Multicultural Foundation. The project partners are not responsible or liable for any inaccurate or incorrect statements contained in this report.

The views expressed by government stakeholders in this report do not necessarily reflect those of the or State and Territory Governments.

© 2013 Victoria Police and Victoria University

Published by:

Counter- Coordination Unit, Victoria Police, 637 Flinders Street, Docklands, Victoria 3008 Australia

This publication is copyright. No part of this report may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this report may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publishers except in accordance with the provisions of the Australian Copyright Act 1968. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Community and Radicalisation: an We extend special thanks to the We would also like to thank Victoria examination of perceptions, ideas, AMF’s Executive Director, Dr Hass University for various aspects of beliefs and solutions throughout Dellal, who facilitated the focus technical and administrative support Australia is based on a collaborative groups conducted during the for the project, in particular Ms Jo research project conducted by course of the project. Lynn Cain Agius, Mr Kailesh Gunesh and Victoria Police, Victoria University and Athalia Zwartz from the AMF Ms Niky Poposki. and the Australian Multicultural also provided valuable support in Foundation (AMF). The research organising and preparing the data Finally, we extend our deep program was funded by the from focus group participants. appreciation to the many individuals, Countering Violent Extremism groups and organisations throughout Sub-Committee (CVESC) of the We offer the same special thanks Australia who offered their views Australia-New Zealand Counter- to Kevin Dunn, Professor of Human and opinions and were generous in Terrorism Committee. Geography and Urban Studies and sharing their experiences with the Dean, School of Social Sciences research team. We are very grateful The authors are grateful to all and Psychology at University of for their forthright and passionate project and funding partners for Western . Professor Dunn responses. This project would not their support. We would also served as external academic have been possible without their like to thank the Commonwealth peer reviewer for this study and commitment and contribution. Attorney-General’s Department provided generous, in-depth and and Australia’s States and constructive expert feedback Hussein Tahiri and Territories for their participation on the report in draft form. Michele Grossman and constructive comments. June 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary. 6 Aims and scope of study. 7 Methodology ...... 7 Limitations...... 8 Summary of key findings. 8

Introduction . 16

Methodology . 18 Overview . 19 Key assumptions. 19 Scope of the study...... 20 Limitations...... 20 Data sources...... 20 Methods of data collection...... 21 Interviews ...... 21 Focus groups . 21 Written submissions ...... 23 Data analysis...... 23

Chapter 1: The concepts of radicalisation and extremism. 24 The role of violence in concepts of radicalisation and extremism. 29 Conclusion...... 30

Chapter 2: Causes and drivers of radicalisation and extremism. 31 Individual and personal factors . 33 Socio-cultural factors...... 39 Religious and community leadership ...... 45 Political factors . 47 Conclusion...... 50

Chapter 3: Violence as a solution or response to grievances and problems . 52 The use of violence as a response to grievances or problems. 53 Social exclusion, marginalisation and disenfranchisement...... 55 Can violence ever be justified? . 58 Conclusion...... 61

Chapter 4: The efficacy of democratic processes to address political grievances . 62 Democratic processes are effective in addressing political grievances . 63 The limitations of democracy...... 64 Conclusion...... 68

Chapter 5: Perceived links between Islam, extremism and terrorism. 69 Media drives perceptions of the relationship between Islam and terrorism...... 70 Non-media drivers of the perceived link between Islam and terrorism. 71 Does a perceived link between Islam and terrorism affect people’s general view of Muslims? .75 Conclusion...... 77 Chapter 6: The role of media within discourses of radicalisation and extremism . 79 Part I: Television, radio and print...... 80 Part I: Conclusion. 85 Part II: The internet and other . 86 Social dynamics of the internet and other social media...... 86 Social impacts of the internet and other social media...... 90 Social challenges of the internet and other social media . 92 Part II: Conclusion ...... 95

Chapter 7: Perceptions of Operations Pendennis and Neath . 98 Procedural integrity of Operations Pendennis and Neath and their outcomes. 99 Operations Neath and Pendennis were not justified . 101 Perceptions of operational policing during Pendennis and Neath. 101 Conclusion...... 105

Chapter 8: Preventing or mitigating the threat of radicalisation and violent extremism. 106 Counter-narratives of radicalisation and extremism . 107 Who should be developing and disseminating counter-narratives? . 107 Who should counter-narratives be aimed at? ...... 108 What kinds of counter-narratives work best? . 109 How can we make violent extremism less appealing?. 110 The role of police in preventing or mitigating violent extremism ...... 113 The role of government in preventing or mitigating violent extremism...... 114 Empower communities to identify how they can best contribute. 114 Education and understanding can best counter violent extremism...... 115 Engaging communities in the process of social cohesion. 116 The role of communities in preventing or mitigating violent extremism. 119 All communities ...... 119 Muslim Australian communities ...... 120 Challenges for Muslim communities in cooperating with counter-extremism initiatives. 120 The role of ordinary people in preventing or mitigating violent extremism . 122 Conclusion...... 124

Chapter 9: Conclusion: Cross-cutting themes and perspectives on community and radicalisation. 127

Chapter 10: Considerations for the future. 135 Considerations for governments at all levels. 136 Considerations for policing agencies...... 137 Considerations for communities...... 137 Considerations for government-community partnerships. 137 Improving understanding and acceptance of Muslims in Australia. 137 Equipping young people to become more resilient. 138

About the authors . 139 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

Aims and scope of study Methodology 4. The ability to hear a range of community and stakeholder Community and Radicalisation: an Four key interrelated assumptions voices across a broad Examination of Perceptions, Ideas, informed the study’s design and purposive national sample Beliefs and Solutions throughout methodology: is a critical component of Australia was a year-long national Australia’s ability to understand study designed and conducted as a 1. Within the last decade, forms and engage with community qualitative research project through of terrorism and terrorism- concerns, and solutions, in a partnership between Victoria related activities conducted developing effective strategies Police, Victoria University and the by organisations and for addressing contemporary Australian Multicultural Foundation. individuals who claim to act forms of radicalisation, The key aims of the study were: in the name of Islam have extremism and terrorism. dominated the domestic and • To identify how communities international discussion on, In addition to these assumptions, the understand the meanings and response to, terrorism. study design also included a focus of and relationship between on exploring public perceptions radicalisation and extremism. 2. Many Muslim and non-Muslim of two recent nationally publicised communities, in Australia as counter-terrorism operations – • To explore community elsewhere, have been disturbed Operation Pendennis ( perceptions of the underlying by the way in which – especially and Sydney) and Operation Neath drivers for radicalisation following the US terrorist (Melbourne) – and their subsequent and extremism. attacks of 9/11 and the British arrests, trials, convictions and bombings of 7/7 – perceptions • To explore perceptions of sentencing. While Victoria Police of Islam as a religion and a the impact of radicalisation has examined the implications culture have seemingly become and extremism on sense of of Operation Pendennis from an inextricably associated with community and social harmony internal and inter-agency operational terrorism. This perception and cohesion. perspective, considerably less is largely a consequence of effort has been devoted to date the occurrence and nature of • To solicit community views in assessing its social impacts acts of terrorism and violent about effective approaches to for both Muslim and non-Muslim extremism perpetrated by and solutions for eliminating or communities throughout Australia. reducing the threat of violent those who claim to act in the extremism in Australia. name of Islam, along with a 542 respondents drawn from all range of activities that either Australian states and territories • To provide an evidence base intentionally or inadvertently contributed to the study, broken for community views and encourage this association. down into three participant cohorts: perceptions that can inform and support the development of 3. Both Muslim and non-Muslim 1. government stakeholders effective policies and strategies community members are in with relevant knowledge and to counter radicalisation and a strong position to assist in understanding of issues related to extremism in Australia. identifying the drivers of, and violent extremism and terrorism; potential strategies to prevent or mitigate, the development and 2. community leaders from a wide impacts of radicalisation and range of both Muslim and non- extremism within Australia. Muslim communities, and

3. general community members, including young people, drawn from a variety of religious and ethnically based Muslim and non-Muslim communities across the nation. 8 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Methods of data collection Summary of key findings Both radicalisation and extremism included individual interviews were perceived to involve Overall, the picture that emerges with government stakeholders intolerance for the viewpoints from these consultations around and community leaders, focus of others and the imposition of community perspectives on groups with general community one’s own truth claims on other radicalisation and extremism is that members, and written submissions people or on society as a whole. community leaders, community invited from members of culturally However, there was little consensus members and government diverse communities through press amongst participants around the stakeholders are reasonably advertisements. The research data relationship between the concepts confident that Australia is in a were then analysed thematically of radicalisation and extremism. good position to meet and address to develop key and emerging Some government stakeholders some of the continuing challenges points of insight, consensus and community leaders felt that presented by the threats of and contrast that informed the radicalisation led to extremism, radicalisation and extremism. study’s findings. All aspects of the while for others extremism led However, a range of concerns, research were conducted by the to radicalisation, and for still strategies and solutions were principal researchers from Victoria others there was little meaningful identified by participants that helps Police and Victoria University, with distinction and the terms could be focus attention on what work assistance from the Australian used interchangeably. still needs to be done, how this Multicultural Foundation (AMF) can best be pursued, and what in facilitating the national focus A number of Muslim-background strategies need to be developed to groups component of the project. participants questioned the stay abreast of a social and political underlying premise of broadly The project received Human environment that is dynamic, accepted meanings of radicalisation Research Ethics approval as fluid, occasionally volatile and and extremism. For this group, such detailed in the report. Anonymity still working toward broad-scale meanings were more closely linked and confidentiality for participants resilience and social cohesion in to Western liberal frameworks than were key components of ethics local, national and trans-national to Islamic concepts of moderation approval for the study and all data contexts. The key findings for each and extremism. Muslim-background have been rigorously de-identified. of the study’s main themes are participants also felt that extremism summarised below. and Islam had become increasingly Limitations interchangeable terms in the CHAPTER 1: WHAT DO post-9/11 and 7/7 environments. This study has not included a review RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM They attributed this to a perceived or analysis of the current literature MEAN FOR PARTICIPANTS? highly politicised consensus in the on the issues of radicalisation, For most community leaders West around radicalisation and extremism and terrorism from and government stakeholders,1 extremism in relation to Islamic community perspectives. This radicalisation meant a process of belief and culture. This view is being provided by a related moving beyond accepted social was implicitly confirmed by the research project in which Victoria or community norms. By contrast, significant proportion of government Police is a partner. As part of the extremism tended to be seen as stakeholders who drew explicit qualitative methodology employed the ideological end-point of the contrasts between Islam and for the project, sampling for all radicalisation process. However, democracy in their responses. participant cohorts was purposive some participants saw this and the results are therefore differently, believing that extremist Some government stakeholders not generalisable. beliefs were the necessary pre- also felt strongly that over- condition for embarking upon a generalising radicalisation narratives radical path. and processes was a risk. These participants were concerned about the loss of in-depth understanding of, and strategic responses to, the different pathways by which individuals and social groups may become radical or extremist if simplistic profiling techniques or models of radicalisation were used. 1. Community participants in the focus groups were not asked this question. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9

The role of violence as Specific drivers identified by Religious and community a threshold in defining participants ranged across leadership was another major radicalisation and personal and individual factors driver for Muslim-background extremism such as the influence of family participants, who identified and early life, including the role of concerns around the lack of There were contradictory family history in the normalisation guidelines or accreditation for perceptions of the role of of violence, and the psychosocial Islamic religious leaders and violence in relation to concepts vulnerability of individuals, including educators; the misleading of of radicalisation and extremism. lack of resilience. For a very large religious followers either through Many government stakeholders number of participants, issues ignorance and lack of education or and some community leaders around identity and sense of else in order to promote deliberately thought extremism indicated belonging were seen as important a variety of ‘political Islam’; willingness to take concrete action, underlying factors in helping drive the uneven nature of parental including violent action, to achieve people toward radicalisation and oversight for children’s religious desired outcomes, while others extremism. These included the education, and the consequences felt extremism did not necessarily implications of lack of belonging; of this for isolating children and involve condoning violent action. the tensions of multiple cultural young people from the familial However, there was greater allegiances and loyalties; rebellion and social support networks consensus around the idea that against family or community that can serve as protective arriving at an extremist standpoint norms; the yearning for cultural factors against radicalisation. often involves a transition from and religious authenticity; and latent belief or passive support to the need for approval and A range of political factors were the willingness to take concrete attention, particularly for those also canvassed by participants. action in some form, even if not whose fractured self-esteem or These included perceived explicitly violent, that has an impact sense of self-worth makes them frustrations and injustices, on self, others and society. strive to feel like a ‘somebody’ especially for Muslim-background rather than a ‘nobody’. participants, in the realm of CHAPTER 2: THE CAUSES AND DRIVERS international affairs and Western OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM The dominant perceived driver in foreign policy, with the Israel- Responses to this issue covered relation to socio-cultural factors Palestine conflict and the wars in a broad and complex spectrum of informing radicalisation and Afghanistan and Iraq emerging drivers and factors. For many, these extremism was the broad domain as focal points for the capacity of drivers were interrelated, sometimes of marginalisation, and radical and extremist groups to intimately. This is best understood social exclusion. This included attract and maintain support. the rejection or marginalisation of as a convergence paradigm, in Despite some respondents’ views which a number of personal and minority groups by mainstream society; the phenomenon of self- of the perceived risks inherent environmental factors need to in Australia’s ability to manage coalesce for an individual before exclusion and insularity by minority groups from the mainstream in both elements of its domestic they find themselves on the road to social inclusion and its foreign radicalisation or extremism. an effort to preserve a coherent cultural identity; and the corrosive policy framework, a majority of experience of discrimination participants who offered views on and racism in the community, this topic thought the prospect of particularly for Muslim- and African- home-grown background participants. was fairly low. Reasons given for this included: Australia’s relative geographical isolation; a sufficiently friendly and peaceful domestic culture; good access to democratic processes and freedom of expression; reasonable approaches to social inclusion, and a relative lack of political aggression. 10 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Notably, the wide range of Responses ranged across CHAPTER 4: THE EFFICACY OF interlocking factors and frameworks personal factors, such as mistrust, DEMOCRACY TO ADDRESS POLITICAL identified above led many family history, early exposure to GRIEVANCES government stakeholders and violence, peer influence and lack The vast majority of participants community leaders to question of educational or other personal who contributed to this theme the value of generalising about resources; socio-cultural were positive about democracy, the mechanisms, pathways, and factors such as ethnic or cultural seeing it as a political system processes by which people can background, social environment, that is reasonably robust and become radicalised or develop marginalisation, limited or no sense capable of responding, within into violent extremists in light of the of other options, and the desire limits, to diversity of viewpoint and perception that ‘what we’re talking to ‘be somebody’ through taking orientation. Many participants said about here is a whole series of small violent action; and political factors democracy is the best available things rather than one big thing.’ such as ideology, religious or political system for guaranteeing Most participants thought there political solidarity, a strong sense of highly valued rights such as was no single model or pathway personal and/or political grievance freedom of speech, movement, to radicalisation and spoke of the or disenfranchisement, perceived political beliefs and the right to challenges in trying to develop inability to effect peaceful political practice one’s religion without strategies to deflect people from change, and the suppression of discrimination or persecution. Being going down this path. political dissent – often violent in its able to speak freely and to dissent own right – that leads to a violent without fear of imprisonment, CHAPTER 3: THE ROLE OF VIOLENCE counter-reaction. sanction or other forms of IN ADDRESSING GRIEVANCES A large number of participants persecution was particularly Most participants perceived the argued that non-state violence important to those participants causes of and justifications for could be justified as a legitimate who hailed from countries or extremist violence to involve response to state-sponsored regions where such rights and the ‘perfect storm’ paradigm, in oppression or the denial of basic freedoms were curtailed or absent. which some or all of the vectors civil liberties and human rights, of personal vulnerabilities, However, participants also identified particularly in countries overseas environmental circumstances, a number of challenges and where democratic systems were group dynamics and proximity limitations for democracy as a either fragile or non-existent. to extremist narratives or political system. These included the Nevertheless, strong distinctions influences converge to enable perception that while democracy were drawn between perceived or encourage violent responses may be a strong and fair system, it legitimate political insurgencies to grievances or problems. In must involve full participation and targeting governments and the line with this, the most common good understanding of its capacity military, versus terrorist violence drivers of violent action highlighted by the people who are subject targeting non-combatants and civil by participants were seen as to its rule. Democracy was not society as a whole. interrelated or co-dependent. universally perceived by participants to deliver justice or live up to its own principles. In particular, many examples were offered of perceived hypocrisy or failure to live up to expectations, particularly in the area of foreign policy relating to the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and the ongoing Israel/Palestine conflict. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11

Criticisms or reservations about CHAPTER 5: ARE THERE PERCEIVED Non-media drivers of the democracy were more connected LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM perceived link between Islam, to the realpolitik of democracy AND TERRORISM? extremism and terrorism for in action, rather than to any participants included the success An overwhelming majority of fundamental disagreement with of extremist rhetoric in defining participants believed there was the premises or precepts of Islam in the broader public sphere; a strong and well-established democracy as a political system. non-Muslim perceptions of and perceived link between Islam However, certain risks in relation prejudices against Muslims and terrorist thought and action to radicalisation and extremism and Islam; lack of contact and in public community discourse. deriving from the limitations of understanding between Muslims The primary source of this link democracy in action were also and non-Muslims; an over- was seen to be the media, with a highlighted. These included: the emphasis on the visible difference of particular emphasis on commercial perception that democracy can Muslims from mainstream Australian media and, to a lesser extent, frustrate people because it is communities; the perpetuation publicly funded broadcasters. Most bureaucratic and slow, which can in of an ‘us and them’ mentality by participants thought that this link turn encourage turning to extremist non-Muslims and Muslims alike; was forged mainly through media or violent means of achieving the influence of the post-9/11 sensationalism, stereotyping and social change; the extent to which environment; lack of educational distortion; media oversimplification minority needs and concerns opportunities for mainstream or ‘dumbing down’ of issues may go unheard or unmet in a communities to learn more around Muslims, extremism and democracy that favours majority about Islam; lack of publicity for terrorism; and the propensity rule; the perception that democracy diverse viewpoints across Muslim of mainstream and especially does not always tolerate cultural communities, and the lack of commercial media to marginalise, difference as well as people think; general community awareness that dismiss or ignore diverse and/or and that democracy cannot benefit Islamic extremism is not the only moderate views within the broader those who lack capacity to engage form of violent extremism that may Australian Muslim community. with it, which can then discourage pose a threat to the community. or alienate them from relying on Media sensationalism around The influence of these perceived democratic processes to resolve Muslims and terrorism were seen links on participants’ own views of their grievances. by participants as driven primarily Muslims and of Islam as a religion either by cultural bias, ignorance, Perceived solutions to these issues fell into three broad categories: or the desire to sell more papers or were that more education about those from Muslim backgrounds attract more advertising based on democracy is needed to keep it who said this perception had not populist appeal. Many participants robust and viable, and that more changed their understanding of believed that truthful, accurate or attention is required to ensuring their religion or cultural identity; balanced reporting on Muslim and that the least advantaged in our those non-Muslims who said it terrorist issues took a back seat communities are provided with the had little or no impact on how to the economic drivers of news means to fully engage with and they viewed Muslims and Islam, cycles and advertising revenue. benefit from democratic systems. and those non-Muslims who said it had spurred them to develop greater knowledge of Islam and contact with Muslims in order to challenge either their own ignorance or what they saw as the biased and ill-informed views of others. 12 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF Participants identified risks in The internet and other MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF relation to radicalisation and social media RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM extremism as a result of their distrust in media motives and The social and interactive There was almost universal behaviours. A substantial number dimensions of the internet and consensus that television, radio thought there was potential for other relatively new social media, and print media are enormously peaceful Muslims to become such as Facebook and Twitter, influential and at times insidious radicalised because the steady were seen by many participants as in shaping both ‘headline’ and diet of negative media imaging critical in shaping how extremist also day-to-day perceptions and discourse about Islam was so and terrorist discourses are played about one’s own society and that pervasive and humiliating. out. The internet and social media of others, with tangible impacts were seen as dynamic, fluid spaces and consequences. This was Accordingly, levels of distrust, in which radicalisation as a social particularly the case for how media cynicism and disenchantment with process can be either reinforced or discourses shape perceptions media were generally high to very hampered by how users of internet around the nature, impact and high amongst participants in all and social media sites build and implications of radicalisation and three cohorts. Nevertheless, the direct flows of information, opinion extremism both in Australia and media was also seen as having and perspective. overseas. For many, the advent of potential positive capacity to globalised media means that the foster greater knowledge about Responses around the social distinction between ‘Australian’ Islam as a religion, the place of dynamics of the internet and and ‘foreign’ media is no longer Muslims in the general community, other social media included the seen as relevant, particularly in and a realistic understanding broad perception that radicalisation relation to global issues such and assessment of the risks of and the internet are both driven as extremism and terrorism. extremism and radicalisation. by social interaction, so that the internet and other social media Most participants felt that the media were seen to play a significant in general was overwhelmingly Solutions to the problem of media distortion role in incubating radicalisation focused on fostering a perceived and extremism through forms concerning Islam, negative link between Islam, of immersive virtual community- violence and extremism, led by extremism and terrorism building. The internet was generally ‘hot media’ that deliberately sets Two main solutions were offered perceived by participants to out to provoke conflict, passion by participants to address the reinforce existing views rather and dissent in the community. concerns above. The first was the than create new views. Many A large number of respondents need to make Australian media participants pointed out that the felt that commercial media such organisations more accountable internet could be used both to help as television and radio were through monitoring and regulation and to harm others more generally, responsible for significantly with reference to responsible and stressing the role of people rather distorted reporting on issues balanced portrayals of Islam and than technology in this regard. relating to Islam and to Muslims, Muslims. The second was the task and for practicing their own form of of developing stronger consultative The social impacts of the internet extremism through sensationalised, relationships with Muslim and other social media were likened imbalanced and/or inaccurate spokespeople who represent the by a broad majority of participants representations of the connection moderate majority of Australian to a ‘giant borderless pamphlet’, between Islam, extremism and Muslim society, rather than relying one that facilitated faster, broader, terrorism. The power of the media heavily, as media is now perceived easier access to radical and to shape how people think was to do, on controversial or radical extremist views than ever before. seen to go hand in hand with Muslim figures on the fringes for Hand in hand with this went the a heightened expectation of commentary on a range of Islamic idea that the internet and other responsibility by media for how and other issues. new communication technologies they portray issues related to Islam, are fundamentally altering our radicalisation and extremism. perception of reality and our capacity to distinguish between the ‘virtual’ and the ‘real’, particularly for young people born in an age in which the internet is reshaping consciousness as a part of daily life. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 13

Participants thought the impacts CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF These participants thought of promoting hatred and cultural OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH that more publicity should have stereotyping on the internet were been given to the willingness Sharp distinctions emerged important factors in relation to of other Muslims to come between government and radicalisation and extremism. forward about a terrorist threat community perspectives on the Reactive radicalisation in response within their own community. efficacy and integrity of these to one’s religion or cultural identity two counter-terrorist operations. being constantly denigrated or Community-based participants Government stakeholders disrespected on internet sites was also thought that Australia had almost unanimously perceived the most common concern. Such increasingly shifted its approach the procedural integrity of these hatred was felt by many participants in countering violent extremism operations to be successful and to be another variety of extremism toward intervention and away to reflect the healthy nature of the in its own right. More government from prevention. They wanted to Australian democratic and justice support for strengthening see more focus on preventative systems. They felt that lessons resilience amongst communities strategies that would reduce from earlier counter-terrorist bearing a disproportionate the need for intervention and operations had been learned, burden of web-based hatred surveillance. They stressed the particularly in relation to engaging was also seen as important. ways in which the residual social communities in the aftermath of impacts following operations like Finally, a number of social and the operations. However, a number Pendennis and Neath can damage operational challenges and of government stakeholders also how Muslim communities are opportunities in relation to strongly questioned whether perceived by non-Muslims, setting internet- and social media-based cultural sensitivities or issues back the agenda for intercultural radicalisation and extremism could or should form part of a harmony accordingly. emerged for participants. These strategic approach to counter- included a strong emphasis on how terrorism operations more CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR the internet and social media can be generally, citing a range of MITIGATING THE THREAT OF used to counter as well as facilitate operational and other concerns. RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT radicalisation and extremism. EXTREMISM A limited number of focus group Participants wanted to see alternative participants and community Counter-narratives internet and social media-based leaders, particularly outside Victoria narratives and options more easily Questions were raised by and , were able available to those who go to radical participants about the effectiveness to respond to this theme because or extremist sites out of curiosity or of counter-narratives that many lacked familiarity with these uncertainty about who they are and emphasise the ‘negative case’ in operations. However, for those where they belong. However, there relation to violent extremism. Both community-based participants was broad consensus that better government stakeholders and who did express a view, a large awareness needs to be fostered community members wanted to see majority thought Pendennis and about balancing the positives and more ‘affirmative’ narratives that Neath were not justified. They were risks of the internet and social media, emphasise what binds us together uneasy about convictions based particularly for those still grappling rather than what separates us on what people thought rather with new languages, technologies socially and culturally as Australians. than what they did. A significant and freedoms. The majority view Positive narratives of inclusive proportion thought these operations was that trying to censor or control national identity that shift beyond were more about harassing and the internet was impractical discourses of ‘us and them’ to ‘we’ intimidating Muslim communities and unrealistic; could potentially in shaping Australian identity and than about detecting crime and backfire by making restricted allegiances were seen as the most preventing violent extremism. material more desirable, and poses desirable approach. However, some participants significant and unacceptable risks also stressed that it was local to Australian democratic freedoms community members themselves and rights, including that of privacy. who had first brought those Participants with this view placed ultimately targeted by Operation high value on democratic freedoms Neath to the attention of authorities. and were wary of assigning too much power to the state. 14 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

There was a strong view amongst The role of police Supporting families to help young many government stakeholders and people to stay on the right track The main mechanisms for police community leaders that government by avoiding or rejecting violent to enhance their effectiveness in agencies are not effective sources extremism was also emphasised. preventing or mitigating the threat of counter-narratives, particularly in of violent extremism were identified the context of influencing religious Educating communities for by participants as building trust debates or perspectives. There social cohesion and alternatives to with communities; minimising police was general consensus that Muslim violence was central in the thinking social distancing, particularly with communities themselves are best of many participants in relation to culturally diverse communities; positioned to develop, disseminate what government can promote, strengthening their communication and reinforce counter-narratives as well as increased emphasis on and feedback skills, especially in against violent extremism, especially cultural diversity, critical thinking the context of keeping communities where religious ideology is used and analytical skills in classrooms informed about local developments to justify these actions. Muslim- and other educational settings. In relating to counter-terrorism; and generated counter-narratives were addition, there was a strong sense bringing more Muslims into the law seen as more credible amongst that government should foster enforcement fold so that the ‘insider- those whom such narratives aim openness and receptivity to being outsider’ gap around countering to influence, and there was a educated by communities in order violent extremism was reduced. strong call for encouraging further to learn more about the best ways cooperation with and support by to develop effective strategies for government for community-based The role of government countering violent extremism. counter-narrative strategies. The vast majority of participants The main ways in which saw the main role of government In relation to the focus of counter- government could be most in preventing or mitigating the narratives, many participants effective in engaging communities threat of violent extremism in suggested that counter-narratives were identified as prioritising terms of empowering, educating need to be embraced by social cohesion by making it a and engaging communities by mainstream Muslims but not reality rather than an aspiration; strengthening social cohesion aimed at Muslim communities driving social cohesion through and building intercultural alone. There was also concern grassroots community processes capacity and resilience. The that continuing to target Muslim rather than high level government primary role of government in communities explicitly through policy; showing strong political this context was identified as counter-narrative strategies risked a leadership for multiculturalism; facilitative rather than directive. backlash response from Muslims. doing a better job at translational communication of government Bottom-up grassroots initiatives that objectives around social cohesion Making violent extremism empower communities to prevent and community strengthening; less appealing violent extremism were perceived and narrowing the trust gap as more effective than top-down Education was identified by all between at-risk communities and approaches. Communities were participants as the most critical government. Greater cooperation also seen as better able to identify element in reducing the appeal between Muslim communities and and support at an early stage of violent extremism. Strategies government more generally was at-risk individuals, and the role of included promoting moderate Islam strongly emphasised. Participants government should be to support through curricula at all education saw the role of Muslim community such interventions. Participants levels, and demystifying some leadership in engaging more identified a strong need for of the ‘romance’ around violent broadly with countering violent governments to appropriately equip extremism through public education extremism as vital. Community- Muslim communities to identify and campaigns in order to reduce its based participants also wanted to respond to emerging radicalisation appeal. Education was also seen see much stronger recognition and and extremism at the local level. as important in helping develop and support by government for those It was suggested that greater sustain the level of critical reasoning Muslim groups and communities openness and dialogue between and analytical skills that can who share a commitment to communities and governments about strengthen resilience against violent countering violent extremism. the risk, threat and consequences of extremist ideology and suasion. extremism and terrorism was needed to support this endeavour. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 15

The role of communities All communities – Muslim and non- Muslim alike – were perceived by a large majority of participants to have key roles and responsibilities in preventing or mitigating the threat of violent extremism. The role of the general community was perceived by participants to revolve around normalising cultural difference and community cohesion; encouraging intercultural contact, and reducing community insularity.

There were consistent views expressed by community participants that Muslim communities need to be more outspoken in countering the religious, cultural and political justifications for violent extremism, and in promoting alternative views that help counter the legitimacy of violent extremism as a response to dissent and dissatisfaction with domestic or foreign policy. However, a range of challenges in fostering such cooperation and dialogue were also identified by community-based participants. This included lack of trust in mainstream authorities; the perception that cooperative relationships between communities, police and security agencies were a one-way street; and disunity and disagreement between different Islamic religious and cultural groups, which can make managing and progressing such relationships time-consuming and uncertain. INTRODUCTION

Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. For centuries, individuals, groups and governments have resorted to a variety of forms of terrorism as a weapon to achieve their political ends. INTRODUCTION 17

Despite or perhaps because of For such an approach, one • What is the impact of this, there is no real consensus needs to understand how social conventional and new media within the contemporary dynamics exert their forces on the on public understandings international community on the people who make up a society, of radicalisation, extremism definition of terrorism or on its the nature of grievances or issues and terrorism? causes, impacts or remedies. that might attract people to adopt This is reflected in the wide radicalisation and extremism as a • Are there ways to make diversity of opinions and analysis solution, and how these challenges extremism and violence less amongst scholars, governments can be met in order to mitigate or appealing? and everyday citizens as to what neutralise the potential for terrorist • How should governments constitutes terrorism. The term responses to such issues. and the community deal with has often been used very loosely radicalisation and extremism on but also widely, particularly in the This project has been developed the internet? modern era, by those who wish on the assumption that the general community is in a strong position to characterise politically based • What can the police and to assist in the identification, first, motives, actions or movements government do to prevent or of what causes radicalisation, that they see as undesirable, minimise the threat of terrorism? unpalatable or unsupportable. extremism and terrorism, and second, of potential strategies This report attempts to respond to This arbitrary application of to prevent or mitigate these these questions and to offer insights terrorism as a descriptor has processes. The study has thus based on community responses contributed to a lack of cooperation sought the views and perceptions in order to develop approaches and coordination at the international of community members, and recommendations that can level, which in turn has impacted community leaders and government contribute to current debate and to adversely on the capacity of stakeholders across Australia on the development of evidence-based states and societies to counter the following questions: policy in combating terrorism. both emergent and actual terrorist groups and events. This is all • How can we best understand The researchers acknowledge the more pressing because the the meanings of and relationship that the analyses and discussion combined impacts of globalisation, between radicalisation and presented here are by no means new communication technologies extremism? a comprehensive solution to the and increased transnational flows issue of radicalisation, extremism or • What inspires or causes of people, capital and ideas now terrorism. Nor are they intended to radicalisation and extremism? link terrorist ideologies and their serve as a substitute for a policing proponents more rapidly and • Where does the appeal of and security approach when there effectively than ever before. resolving political grievances is an imminent or immediate threat through violent extremism to national security. Instead, they Coordinated policing responses lie for those who adopt this offer an additional dimension in to terrorist threats are essential approach? And how efficacious thinking about how best to address when an act has been planned, is is democracy perceived to be a complex and multi-faceted range imminent or has been executed. in offering peaceful resolution of of issues that may be of use in However, a policing response alone grievances or conflicts? complementing other approaches. is not sufficient to counter either the threat or the reality of terrorism. A • Why are some people more key response should be developing resilient in the face of extremist strategies to prevent the processes messaging than others given of radicalisation and extremism from similar cultural, social and taking hold to begin with. political circumstances? METHODOLOGY METHODOLOGY 19

Overview Methods of data collection Key assumptions included individual interviews Community and Radicalisation: an A number of key, inter-related with government stakeholders Examination of Perceptions, Ideas, assumptions informed the and community leaders, focus Beliefs and Solutions throughout methodology used in this study: groups with general community Australia is a year-long national members, and written submissions study designed and conducted • Within the last decade, forms invited from members of culturally as a qualitative research project of terrorism and terrorism- diverse communities through through a partnership between related activities conducted multicultural community press Victoria Police, Victoria University by organisations and advertisements. The research data and the Australian Multicultural individuals who claim to act were then analysed to develop key Foundation. 542 participants in the name of Islam have and emerging themes and points drawn from all Australian states dominated the domestic and of consensus and contrast that and territories contributed to international discussion on, informed the project’s findings. The the study, broken down into and response to, terrorism. research, including the collection three cohorts of participants: and analysis of data and the • Many Muslim and non-Muslim • Government stakeholders preparation of the final research communities, in Australia as with relevant knowledge report, was conducted by the elsewhere, have been disturbed and understanding of issues principal researchers from Victoria by the way in which – especially related to violent extremism Police and Victoria University, with following the US terrorist and terrorism; assistance from the Australian attacks of 9/11 and the British Multicultural Foundation (AMF) bombings of 7/7 – perceptions • Community leaders from a wide for the national focus groups of Islam as a religion and a range of both Muslim and non- component of the project. culture have seemingly become Muslim communities, and inextricably associated with The project was approved by the terrorism. This perception • General community members, Victoria Police Human Research is largely a consequence of including young people, from a Ethics Committee (VPHREC) and the occurrence and nature of variety of religious and ethnically was conducted in accordance acts of terrorism and violent based Muslim and non-Muslim with VPHREC’s protocols. Mirror extremism perpetrated by communities across the nation. Human Research Ethics approval those who claim to act in the based on VPHREC approval name of Islam, along with a was granted by the Victoria range of activities that either University Human Research Ethics intentionally or inadvertently Committee (VUHREC). Anonymity encourage this association. and confidentiality for participants were key components of the ethics • Both Muslim and non-Muslim approval granted to this study. community members are in Consequently, scrupulous care a strong position to assist in has been taken to de-identify the identifying the drivers of, and data used to support the project’s potential strategies to prevent or findings in order to avoid any mitigate, the development and potential identification of individual impacts of radicalisation and study participants. extremism within Australia. 20 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Scope of the study Limitations 2. Consultations with members and leaders of non-Muslim Community and Radicalisation has This study has not included communities. Non-Muslim focused on the following key aims: a review or analysis of the community views were sought current literature on the issues because of the complexity of • To identify how Australian of radicalisation, extremism interrelated dynamics that may communities understand the and terrorism from community lead individuals to become meanings of and relationship perspectives. This is being studied radicalised or to take violent between radicalisation by another research project in action against others or against and extremism. which Victoria Police is a partner. the community at large. As Sampling for all participant cohorts • To explore Australian community such, a holistic approach to was purposive and therefore these perceptions of the underlying community consultations was findings are not generalisable. drivers for radicalisation taken. Such an approach and extremism. acknowledges that the views Data sources and actions of different groups • To explore perceptions of the Extensive consultations through and elements within the society impact of radicalisation and interviews, focus groups and as a whole inevitably influence extremism on Australians’ written submissions were and impact upon each other, sense of community and social conducted nationally over the at times creating a potential harmony and cohesion. course of the study. Methods cycle of mutual suspicion and violence. The views and • To solicit community views of sourcing participants to actions of Australia’s Muslim about effective approaches to contribute to the study included communities cannot, therefore, and solutions for eliminating or chain sampling, the use of be properly understood unless reducing the threat of violent existing research and community we also examine the beliefs and extremism in Australia. networks by the partners in the study, and public advertisement perceptions of those external to The research design also soliciting written submissions. these communities in order to included a focus on exploring gain insight into these broader public perceptions of two recent The research team conducted contexts and dynamics. nationally publicised counter- broad national consultations with 3. Government and other terrorism operations – Operation the following project stakeholders: stakeholders with relevant Neath (Melbourne) and Operation 1. Members and leaders across experience and knowledge Pendennis (Sydney and Melbourne) the spectrum of Australia’s of Australia’s state and – and their subsequent arrests, Muslim communities. national policy and operational trials, convictions and sentencing. frameworks in relation to While Victoria Police has examined domestic and international the implications of Operation developments in the areas of Pendennis from an internal radicalisation, violent extremism, and inter-agency operational terrorism and counter- perspective, considerably less radicalisation strategies. effort has been devoted to date in assessing its social impacts 4. Written submissions from general for both Muslim and non-Muslim community members were communities throughout Australia. solicited through advertisements in multicultural newspapers with national circulation in a variety of language groups detailed on page 23. Five responses were received. METHODOLOGY 21

Methods of data collection Table 1: Distribution of Individual interviews across Australian States and Territories Interviews Forty-seven individuals were ACT NSW NT QLD SA TAS VIC WA NATIONAL interviewed in face-to-face settings TOTAL across all States and Territories 10 7 5 5 3 6 4 7 47 with a view to gaining diverse and balanced perspectives across the government stakeholder and All interviews were conducted Focus groups community leader cohorts. between February and June Forty-seven focus groups were 2011 by the project’s principal conducted throughout Australia The interviews were semi-structured researchers. The views expressed between November 2010 and and the average duration of each by some of these interviewees are June 2011. In total, a sample of interview was between 1.0-1.5 personal and do not necessarily 490 participants was canvassed hours. In some cases, small group represent the formal position of through this method. The primary interviews with 2-3 participants the organisations or agencies with objective of the focus groups was were conducted depending on how which they are affiliated. to elicit community perceptions many people chose to represent surrounding the causes of and a group, organisation or agency. Because of the sensitive nature potential solutions to the issues Respondents were asked a set of of the issues under discussion, of radicalisation and extremism. pre-designed interview questions and in order to guarantee Participants were recruited to across the main focus points of the confidentiality and anonymity for ensure that the research was study and at times discussion was interview participants, interview informed by a broad range of extended on particular issues or data were not tape-recorded. religious, ethnic and geographic themes depending on the nature of Instead, the principal researchers community voices. each respondent’s comments. relied on the capacity of one of the researchers to produce transcripts The focus groups were organised Government stakeholders were developed through word-for-word and facilitated by the AMF in each drawn from a variety of State, data transcription (that is, typing State and Territory. The AMF Territory and Commonwealth as fast as people speak) using a contacted peak organisations, agencies and were purposively laptop computer combined with community leaders, youth sampled for their policy and supplementary hand-written notes organisations, state and territory operational background and taken by the other researcher. authorities, individuals and expertise in relation to countering This method has ensured as community organisations to violent extremism, community high a degree of accuracy as recruit participants for each focus engagement and cultural diversity. possible in the absence of group. The AMF also appointed Community leaders were sourced audio-recordings of participant a coordinator in each State and across a range of Muslim and responses to each question. Territory to assist in convening non-Muslim community groups. the focus groups. The national They included religious leaders, distribution of focus group leaders of multicultural community participants appears in Table 2 organisations, academics and those on the next page: with leadership roles in various political and advocacy groups.

The distribution of interview participants across all States and Territories appears in Table 1: 22 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Table 2: Distribution of focus group participants across Australian States and Territories

Number of focus groups by location ACT NSW NT QLD SA TAS VIC WA NAT 1 10 10 9 9 7 8 9 8 12 2 11 8 8 6 9 8 8 10 15 3 9 8 Extra 8 15 9 9 35 4 10 10 8 7 8 30 5 10 6 10 6 10 9 7 11 8 8 10 9 9 9 11 10 8 10 11 15 11 12 12 Totals in each location 40 121 52 37 38 16 102 57 27

TOTAL: 47 focus groups with 490 participants

Muslim focus group participants Non-Muslim focus group In the interests of energising came from Sunni, Shia and Salafi participants hailed from a similar discussion, selected focus groups backgrounds and included Islamic variety of cultural and religious or included a mix of Muslims and teachers, students, professionals secular backgrounds. Respondents non-Muslims. All participants were and non-professionals, Imams, included community leaders aged eighteen years and above. community leaders, representatives and members, representatives As for individual and small group of community organisations and of community organisations, interviews, no audio-recordings general male and female community multi-faith leaders, professionals, were made and detailed notes members from diverse cultural and non-professionals, university of focus group participant linguistic backgrounds including students and young people from comments were recorded by Arabic, Afghani, Bangladeshi, Anglo-Saxon, Italian, Greek, Indian, focus group facilitators. Bosnian, Caucasian, Chinese, African, Chinese and Middle Congolese, Eritrean, Ethiopian, Eastern backgrounds, along Fijian Indian, Indian, Indonesian, with Christians, Hindus, Jews, Iranian, Iraqi, Jordanian, Lebanese, Buddhists, Sikhs and those who Liberian, Malaysian, Pakistani, did not identify with any religion. Palestinian, Sierra Leonean, Rwandan, Serbian, Somali, Sri Lankan, South African, Sudanese, Syrian, Togolese, and Turkish. METHODOLOGY 23

Written submissions The principal researchers have Written submissions were sought maintained a strong focus on the from a wide variety of sources voices of participants throughout through ethnic media. Communities the presentation of the study’s were given the opportunity to analysis and findings in the final provide written submissions report. This reflects the nature delivered either electronically or by of the research, which has post through paid advertisements concentrated on eliciting and in 17 multi-lingual media outlets, gaining insight into the views many of which are circulated of community members and nationally. These included El government stakeholders across Telegraph, The Greek Herald, Il a wide diversity of regional, social, Globo, Indo Times, Jewish News, cultural and religious backgrounds. An Nahar, Dunya, Irish Echo, The While the data supporting our African Migrant and Sing Tao. Five findings have been analysed and written submissions were received presented in aggregate form, the from community members. study distinguishes throughout the presentation of the data between Data analysis the voices and views of government The transcripts of all interviews stakeholders, community leaders and focus groups, as well as the and focus group participants in five written submissions solicited order to provide clarity around the through advertisement in the ethnic extent to which various perceptions press, were analysed individually and beliefs may be shared across in relation to the main themes of cohorts or, alternatively, may the study’s focus. Themes and characterise one or two cohorts in sub-themes were then developed particular. However, readers should through iterative refinement of note that while representative the data to identify meaningful quotes and comments have been key perspectives within each limited, with a few exceptions, of the three participant cohorts to a modest number for each of government stakeholders, theme and sub-theme to support community leaders and focus the research findings and to group participants. Analytical illustrate the range and nuances of trustworthiness was established community views on these topics, through each of the two principal each selected comment represents researchers independently analysing the perspectives of many more portions of the data and then participants than the individuals comparing and cross-checking their whose words have been used as analyses against those of the other examples here. researcher, amending or further refining the analysis as required. A supplementary academic colleague with expertise in the area was also engaged to review the final draft of the study’s analysis and findings. CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPTS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM Many government stakeholders and community leaders2 did not always distinguish sharply between the concepts of radicalisation and extremism in their own thinking when asked about how they understood these terms. Broad consensus emerged about what radicalisation and/or extremism meant for a majority of participants around the following themes, which saw these terms as involving:

2. Focus group participants were not consulted on this theme. CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPTS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 25

• The process of individuals or A government stakeholder “I think the word ‘fundamental[ism]’ groups going beyond accepted commented that in the context of has been distorted by the media community norms in their terrorism, radicalisation is a process – it has become synonymous with thinking and/or behaviour; by which an individual or a group extremism but it really isn’t. I know moves from holding views and many Muslims who try to live by • Being or becoming intolerant of attitudes that would be seen as the fundamental precepts of Islam other viewpoints and the right of within the bounds of community but wouldn’t dream of taking up others to hold these; norms to a point where they arms – they see their salvation as actively challenge those norms. lying in prayer and a belief system • Seeing issues in fixed black and Another government stakeholder rather than trying to convert white terms; and felt radicalisation was a process of the whole world to a particular • Translating thought and getting to the point where it is seen ideology.” (Community leader) belief into concrete planning as legitimate to pursue an ideology and action. or position that is extreme, whether Radicalisation and this involves violence or other extremism can However, there was often destructive behaviour, in order to characterise any issue or confusion or disagreement about cause social ills that will achieve a ideology what constituted the difference particular outcome. between radicalisation and Yet a large number of respondents extremism and the relationship Radicalisation and pointed out that the concepts of between these concepts when extremism are inextricably radicalisation and extremism are viewed as part of a continuum of bound up with religion not limited to religion alone. Several thought, belief and behaviour. community leaders felt that the In defining radicalisation and focus on religion in relation to the A majority, though not all, extremism, some participants saw concept of extremism was over- participants also saw radicalisation these terms as explicitly linked emphasised, suggesting that many as an inherently social process of to religious beliefs. For them, people did not stop to consider developing certain kinds of ideas radicalisation and extremism fall varieties of extremism beyond and attitudes, whereas extremism almost exclusively within the domain religion, such as the personal, was generally considered to be of religion. One community leader the social or the ethical. Several more of an abstract and fixed set of observed that radicalisation means community and government beliefs or an existential condition – taking religious beliefs or laws and participants also saw radicalisation a terminus rather than a roadmap. re-contextualising them so that they and extremism as a fixed system of are used to support an alternative, beliefs, values and ethics in relation The notion of radicalisation and often fundamentalist understanding to any number of issues – whether extremism pushing ideas or beliefs of religious doctrine that causes religious, political, or social – that to or beyond the boundaries of social harm, while another saw its adherents believe is the only true social norms was common; as one radicalisation as comprising and correct path to take. A number community leader stated, extreme views held by people who of participants also pointed out that “Extremism is taking anything to ascribe to certain religious faiths, converts to various belief systems the very end of its logical and primarily those that accommodate who are ‘born again’ into a different sometimes illogical interpretation, a fundamentalist viewpoint. Others, faith or ideology are often more which can create extremists however, thought it was important fanatical and can have much more amongst us. It creates tension to draw a sharp distinction intense allegiances than those ‘born among us.” between extremism and religious into’ such belief systems through fundamentalism, terms they thought family history or national/cultural were often erroneously conflated in heritage. The key issue for these public discourse: respondents was the fixed nature of these beliefs, which can lead to significant dislocation from the 26 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

social mainstream: concrete actions harmful to self, “When you’re an extremist it others and society: means that your belief in your “I regard extremism as a case radical idea goes against other where people have fixed views on “Extremism means anything that beliefs, so you tend to hate the edges of social norms, who is destructive or disturbs the and react negatively to other then take themselves outside of normal everyday community ideas that are not your own.” normal political or philosophical life. Religion has a purpose, but (Community leader) discourse that takes place in an when it disturbs the balance of open society. You can become an life then it becomes extreme, Also prevalent was the idea that extremist without being radicalised, destructive and damaging to radicalisation was more likely but I doubt you can become an people, especially where it to be restricted to theories or extremist without being alienated.” contradicts the aims of religion perspectives, whereas extremism (Government stakeholder) itself.” (Community leader) more readily translated into practice and action: Does radicalisation In this view, extremism was precede extremism, or considered to be a subset of “My own view would be that radicalism is more of an vice versa? radicalisation, the position that one would arrive at as the result introspective look at the core The most significant dissonance of a process of radicalisation. of an ideology or religion, around the meanings of Radicalisation was thus seen stripping it back to its purest radicalisation and extremism by these participants as a form and believing yourself emerged when these terms were pathway to extremism as part to be an extension of that viewed as a continuum. There of a broader continuum, rather word, whereas extremism is were many respondents who than posing these as mutually more the manifestation and thought that radicalisation as a exclusive either/or terms. For this implementation of that ideology process preceded arriving at the group, the distinction between that sometimes loses sight end-point of extremism; there were radicalisation as a process and of that core because it gets also many who saw extremism extremism as an end point or so caught up in its practice.” as the necessary pre-condition existential state was important: (Community leader) for embarking on a process of radicalisation; and there were those “Extremism isn’t a process – you 2. Extremism leads to who felt there was little meaningful hold extreme views or you don’t. radicalisation distinction to be drawn between Radicalisation is the process.” A significant number of these terms. These responses can (Government stakeholder) participants, however, be broken down as follows: Another government stakeholder including government 1. Radicalisation is a process thought radicalisation was stakeholders, saw extremism that leads to a fixed position a slightly softer term than as preceding radicalisation. of extremism. extremism, seeing radicalisation For these respondents, as a process of shifting from radicalisation is best viewed 2. Extremism is a belief system that somewhat ideologically oriented as a subset of extremism: fosters radicalisation. religious views toward a more explicitly politicised extremist “Extremism is someone who 3. Radicalisation and extremism position. Several participants has a strong belief in religion, are terms that can be used suggested that fixity and politics, ideology, etc., interchangeably because they exclusiveness of ideas often probably past the step of effectively refer to the same characterise this progression: fundamentalism. Radicalisation, phenomenon. once someone has extreme by contrast, is the process of ideas they become very moving a step past extremism 1. Radicalisation leads to single-minded and develop where they’re prepared to extremism a ‘my way or the highway’ take violent means to achieve their goal, whether religious, An emergent distinction amongst perspective on the world that ideological or whatever.” participants saw extremism as clearly sets them apart from (Government stakeholder) a late stage of radicalisation in the general community: which radical perspectives tip over into willingness to take CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPTS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 27

Some community leaders said Regardless of whether However, while there was significant that extremism defined a person, they are called radicals or lack of consensus and some whatever s/he believes in, who extremists, what matters for confusion across participants in starts thinking that everyone these respondents is that such general around the concepts of and else should believe and behave individuals or groups follow relationship between radicalisation similarly, whether friends and their beliefs rigidly and translate and extremism, a number of Muslim family or complete strangers. them into action, even if they are participants in particular felt they Radicalisation is the next phase contrary to the mainstream; they had greater clarity around the origin and connotes someone with are not susceptible to approval of these concepts. extremist views who gets or sanctioning by others. In this involved in activities, actions and sense, both radicalisation and Western liberalism sets plans to drive change toward extremism are seen as bound up the benchmark for what the desired outcome. A feature with the willingness to bypass is considered ‘radical’ of this progression for these or ignore social norms in order or ‘extreme’ respondents is that the extremist to drive the desired social or who becomes radicalised ideological change they are For many Muslims radicalisation increasingly thinks that others seeking. As one community and extremism have originated should agree with them not leader put it, ‘The radical stirs as Western concepts that do not just in the context of religious the pot, wanting it to change accurately reflect what Islam is. beliefs, but more broadly across and to create problems.’ These respondents believe different all aspects of social attitudes societies set their own distinctive and behaviours. In this view, an Another community leader said, parameters for what is considered extremist is a person who keeps ‘extreme’ and beyond acceptable “You can be radical in any their ideas to themselves or social or community norms. Many situation where you pursue a within their own immediate circle, participants who shared this view specific agenda. When you take however deeply or fully these thought that those who may be it to the extreme you become may be held, whereas the radical seen as ‘extreme’ from outside a too radical in your views and extends out into the social social or cultural grouping may be maybe in action too. The two and political sphere and starts seen very differently by insiders of terms lead to the same end.” implementing and propagating that group. their beliefs in order to persuade And a government For these respondents, the or compel others to join them. stakeholder observed, post-9/11 and 7/7 environments, 3. Radicalisation and “[It’s] fairly simple – radicalisation along with the more vigorous extremism can be used is when people take a fairly global emergence of religious interchangeably extreme position. A lot of that fundamentalism, have inevitably language has been used in politicised terms such as The third category comprises terms of 9/11, e.g. the war ‘radicalisation and extremism’, those respondents who used against terror, related to Islamic which they would argue do not the terms radicalisation and fundamentalism, when various have an uncontested, simple or extremism interchangeably. groups wage war against a single meaning. The concepts of This group could not see population. I think it relates extremism and moderation are any meaningful differences fairly well to Al-Qaeda and clearly operative within Islamic between the two concepts. One the media who drive it. It’s jurisprudential perspectives, but community leader thought that something that we have been Muslim-background respondents the common factor in both terms thinking about and dealing stressed this is nothing like the way was that they connoted a person with over the past 3-4 years these terms are bandied around in or group characterised by in terms of police and what public discourse in the West. marked intolerance of the views community safety and harmony and feelings of others. is about, but effectively, in contemporary terms, radicalisation and extremism, and also marginalisation [are the key terms].” 28 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Accordingly, these participants And yet another linked these terms “Radicalisation and extremism can believed the reference point for to the concept of Orientalism3 and exist in any community group, any such discourses is more in line the way the West has historically system of beliefs – they are not with Western liberal ideology than engaged with Muslims: confined to any particular group. with the history of Islamic thought. Unfortunately, terms come to be Examples of extremism within “My answer is both academic used almost exclusively in relation Islamic frameworks included the and personal. [Radicalisation and to one religious group so it has instance of someone praying all extremism] are terms that lack almost become acceptable to talk night and ignoring the demands and definition – highly subjective. We of radical and extremist Muslims – rights of their body or family, and use them in academic discourse very unfortunate and clouds over this was seen as a more accurate but they are adopted from political that you can have radicals and reading of Islamic understandings discourse. Extremism is now extremists in any group – anything of ‘extremism’. As a community a short-hand term, Western- can be taken to extremes.” leader observed, ‘Radicalisation constructed, that basically (Community leader) is something above the normal describes any Muslim we don’t perception of religion. There are like, anyone who is not like us. The Defining radicalisation rules that every Muslim should origins come from engagement and extremism as threats obey and anything that jeopardises of the West with the Middle to democracy and the Eastern and Arabic parts of the everyday life isn’t considered to be rule of law acceptable. Radicalism distorts this’. world which sees that part of the world as a bifurcation of ‘you are More broadly, the idea that Another community leader with us, moderate’ or ‘extremist, radicalisation and extremism are commented, you are with them’. It doesn’t defined within Western liberal really have application to the frameworks by their opposition “The concept of radical Islam that way that Muslims live their lives. to perceptions of fundamental or is used in Western discourse We practice according to which ‘political’ Islam – particularly in is probably closer to what we school of thought we believe in relation to perceived threats to consider to be ‘true’ Islam – but it (Maleki, Hanafi, Hanbali or Shafe’i). democracy and the legitimacy of the is not our idea of what is radical or ‘Extremist’ or ‘moderate’ doesn’t state – was supported in the view extreme. There is Islam, there are really fit with how we describe of many government stakeholders: Muslims and there is non-Islam. In our own practice. Extremism relation to dissent about meaning, is a Western political construct “In official definitions of these terms there is room for differences of imposed on us in the context of it is clear that they are defined in meaning within Islam. There is a Islamist movements as a simplified terms of threat to a democratic perimeter within Islam that can way of describing the ‘out’ group.” system of government – that’s tolerate these differences, but (Community leader) the Netherlands definition of there is an outer perimeter or radicalism, for example. There is boundary beyond which there Some focus group participants a challenge both to the vertical are unacceptable or non-Islamic felt similarly, preferring instead relationship of government to interpretations that you cannot go to use the term ‘traditional’ people and also the horizontal beyond – when it’s simply just not to describe Islamic thought relationship of citizens to citizens, Islam anymore. For example, the as a way of collapsing the seeking to overturn both.” idea that you can target innocent sharp opposition between (Government stakeholder) people is beyond the line – it’s just ‘moderate’ versus ‘extreme’. un-Islamic and you just can’t do it. The idea that homosexuality is Many respondents also believed wrong is not ‘extreme’ Islam – it’s that radicalisation and extremism just Islam.” have now become terms applied explicitly, even exclusively, to Muslims in the context of terrorism:

3. The widely influential theory of Orientalism was developed by the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said in Orientalism, Vintage Books, 1978. CHAPTER 1: THE CONCEPTS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 29

“Think about the difference between “Radicalisation to me is a However, other government the motivations of the IRA versus descriptive term that describes a stakeholders contradicted this view, the jihadi. Both are saying that process, the movement of latent perceiving no integral link between the way society wants to make belief to violent action. It is that the definition of radicalisation or decisions on my behalf will not process that I see as radicalisation. extremism and violence: deliver on what I need in terms What you become radicalised to is of my beliefs and needs. One another question. Radicalisation is “The majority of people who says we want a more localised about movement, and it is about engage with radicalism never set of representatives, the other the tipping point from which latent adopt violence – for example, is saying no, your entire mode belief can be benign, to putting environmental movements, of governance is offensive to that belief into action, especially universal suffrage.” (Government me based on the words of through violence.” (Government stakeholder) Mohammed. Democracy is always stakeholder) “I don’t think all extremism has to seen as a threat, even on a global be violent. There are also forms scale when you have local Islamic “Radicalisation is a process of violence that are completely states.” (Government stakeholder) by which a person adopts an ideological set of beliefs that lead unrelated to extremism.” “The meanings of radicalisation and to violence as a way of bringing (Government stakeholder) extremism can’t be disengaged about political or social change. from the fact that the West has ‘Belief’ is the really key figure.” its own fundamental values as (Government stakeholder) well. So these terms reflect a sense of threat toward what we Similarly, extremism for a significant cherish and the core of how we number of participants was define ourselves as a people.” synonymous with violence: (Government stakeholder) “Extremism would be the support for or the use of violence The role of violence in to achieve political ends.” concepts of radicalisation (Government stakeholder) and extremism “My perspective on extremism Finally, participants had is that it’s probably the point at contradictory views on whether which someone finds it okay to use the meanings of radicalisation violence as a means to an end.” and extremism included violence. (Government stakeholder) Some respondents thought that radicalisation charted an inevitable path from radical thought to concrete violent action: 30 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Conclusion A significant number of Muslim- The lack of consensus and background participants, however, divergent understanding around The majority of participants questioned the underlying basis of the meanings of and relationship consulted on this theme felt that thought on which broadly accepted between radicalisation and radicalisation was a process of meanings of radicalisation and extremism within the government moving beyond accepted social extremism were premised, linking stakeholder cohort in particular was or community norms, and that these more to Western liberal notable. This suggests that there both radicalisation and extremism frameworks than to operative is at present no unified narrative involved intolerance for the concepts of moderation and within government at state and viewpoints of others to the extent extremism within strands of Islamic federal levels about the analysis of universalising and imposing thought and law. Many also felt and meanings of radicalisation one’s own truth claims by a that extremism and Islam had and extremism as both theoretical variety of means. However, there become synonymous in Western and operational concepts. This was little consensus and some uses of the term ‘extremism’ may signal a healthy climate confusion amongst participants because of the post-9/11 and 7/7 of informed and democratic around the relationship between environments which have produced debate about the meanings of the concepts of radicalisation and a highly politicised, if contestable, radicalisation and extremism based extremism, particularly in terms consensus in the West around the on different schools of thought and of how they were positioned on a concepts and of radicalisation and experience. However, it can also continuum or spectrum of thought extremism in relation to Islamic lead to confusion and disjointed and action. Some government religious beliefs. There were also understandings and approaches stakeholders and community varying perceptions of the role of when thinking about how best to leaders felt that radicalisation led violence in relation to concepts of operationalise these understandings to extremism, while for others radicalisation and extremism, with in the context of counter-extremist extremism led to radicalisation community leaders and government and counter-terrorist initiatives at and for yet others there was stakeholders split on whether national, state and local community little meaningful distinction to violent action is an integral part of levels. This is particularly the case be drawn and the terms could either or both radical and extremist when trying to implement national be used interchangeably. ideologies. However, there was dialogues with Muslim and other slightly more unified support for the religious and ethnic communities idea that arriving at an extremist about what radicalisation and standpoint (whether via the pathway extremism mean for government of radicalisation or by some other and communities in the Australian means) often involves a transition as well as the global context. from latent belief or passive support to the willingness to take concrete violent action that causes harm to self, others and society. CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM This portion of the study asked participants about their perceptions of the underlying causes of radicalisation and extremism and what factors they thought drove people to radicalise or adopt extremist viewpoints and behaviours. Both focus group respondents and individual interviewees from government and community leadership roles suggested a number of different causes. 32 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

It was generally agreed that multiple However, other participants pointed “In Australia even uneducated and sometimes interlocking drivers, out that many radical people people have opportunities, so they albeit with different emphases who go on to become terrorists don’t go for such things. They feel for different respondents, best are highly educated and drew secure. Everyone is treated in the defined the underlying drivers of a distinction between extremist same way. In India and Pakistan it radicalisation and extremism. A leaders and their followers in is very different, there is no middle significant number of participants relation to educational levels, class, just rich and poor.” (Focus adhered to what may be described noting that some leaders of radical group participant) as the convergence paradigm, movements are highly educated which brings together a range and come from middle class or “If there are economic problems, of personal and environmental even more privileged backgrounds. terrorism can hit any country. The factors that combine to radicalise Saudi government is only giving an individual or a group. As one Poverty and an accompanying people money, and not many jobs. government stakeholder put it, ‘It sense of political and social When there were protests in Saudi, is a convergence of the internal powerlessness were also identified the government gave everyone and external – being vulnerable by a few respondents as a money, and increases and and then being exposed to people leading cause of radicalisation bonuses, and people went home.” or materials that come together and extremism: (Focus group participant) to bring someone to the point of “Sometimes it’s linked to poverty Others from similar backgrounds, extremism. There is an external too, because if you haven’t got however, thought that these element as well that accompanies anything to eat and you see risks were as potent in Australia the internal vulnerability – this someone else with plenty to eat, as elsewhere because the is required’. One convergence you want to grab that and fight for lack of opportunity and its scenario from participants was it. I believe all the world’s problems accompanying frustrations that a personal sense of grievance are related to poverty or injustice. can make people vulnerable to or frustration combined with the Where things are going well you radical or extremist suasion: external influence of ideology don’t see much fighting going on.” or belief systems to produce a (Community leader) “The process of radicalisation is commitment to act or to support embedded in social, economic the extreme and often violent “You look at people from developing and political systems in Australia. actions of others; another was and developed countries and there For example, if you don’t have a that intergenerational family history is a huge gap in social living, and job and you are uneducated or if combined with the trigger of political many Muslim countries think either you are educated but cannot find events in the country of origin or I can embrace them and be like a job. If someone approaches you elsewhere on the world stage could them or if I cannot be them, it’s and offers participation in their tip someone over into radical or better to destroy them.” (Focus movement, they might convince extremist attitudes and behaviours. group participant) you to join the organisation.” (Focus group participant) A minority of participants There were some sharp distinctions thought that low socio-economic drawn by focus group participants “The second and third generation capital, especially lack of born and raised outside Australia in Australia will look at the education, was ‘the biggest between the impacts of poverty background generation, how driver’ (community leader) for and lack of educational levels or well did mum and dad integrate, radicalisation and extremism, opportunities in other countries he’s a nice man, honest, with violence perceived as a tool versus the perceived relative ease but treated like dirt, he got of expediency in this context: of educational and economic nowhere, so I will get nowhere.” opportunity in Australia, which (Focus group participant) “At school, there are poor students was seen as a protective and violence is all they know. They factor against extremism: get their way through violence. Some people don’t have the intellectual understanding; it is a quick solution to things.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 33

In general, however, the key themes Consequently, many within the “The world is now internationalised to emerge from the data across focus groups believed that parents and the issues like Palestine or all three participant cohorts on the need to be more fully engaged other developments across the issue of what drives radicalisation with and responsible for their Middle East are talked about in and extremism revolved around a children’s education, though they many families who originated from variety of personal, socio-cultural acknowledged this could be a these countries. This would be and political factors. Many of these challenge if the parents were part of what they talk about at were interrelated for participants, themselves not well educated or the dinner table. It is in the air as as discussed in more detail below. had heavy competing demands on part of the everyday discourse for There was also some focus their time and resources: families for whom these issues by participants on the risks of and conflicts are meaningful. It overgeneralising or oversimplifying “Muslim parents send their kids to can also be about the centuries- the causes of radicalisation and Islamic schools to get the right old grievances that people have extremism, and on the presence or education, to get the Islamic values suffered which are experienced absence of drivers for home-grown and traditions, but they do not as live issues in the present.” violent extremism in Australia. know what is happening there.” (Government stakeholder) (Focus group participant) “I think if they have had a tragedy Individual and “I know parents who, in good personal factors in their own family, something faith, feel proud of [their] son like that, if their parents got killed, The influence of family going to a particular madrassa people can get manipulated by and early life or something, and feel proud that, and it can become a revenge because he’s not into other social There were different views among thing.” (Focus group participant) vices, but they didn’t know, had respondents in relation to the no idea until he came home and Several participants thought that role of family in the process of packed his bags and said ‘thank people are more inclined to become radicalisation and extremism. For you, good bye, I’m going for radicalised if they have been in some participants, one’s upbringing jihad’.” (Focus group participant) a violent family, had a violent is a major explanatory framework childhood, or been involved with for why one might be more or less There was also a reasonably strong gangs, problems that were further vulnerable to external influences, view that young people can be compounded if the family or local and this can be either a positive or radicalised within their own families community had not stepped up to negative influence: because of the transmission of the challenge of assisting young intergenerational grievances, beliefs “I come from an Asian culture people at risk by taking some and attitudes. Some respondents where the home environment has responsibility for their education and cited the instance of families arriving a very great influence. My boys development. One such instance, from war-torn countries who bring are well mannered because I keep nipped in the bud because the their past experiences when they telling them about it! It’s the same family was able to offer good settle in Australia and pass this on with radicalisation. If they are not support to the young person in to their children so that the children happy at home and they see anger question, was outlined by a focus internalise this as part of their own all the time they must be thinking, group participant: identity formation, an example of ‘Well, there must be another way’.” what the American scholar Marianne (Community leader) Hirsch terms ‘postmemory’.4 These “If you look at a child and their families have often experienced such environment, and they see what’s severe violence or disadvantage going on, see terrorism going on, in their lives that it can be hard to or see violence and they think they move beyond this, and their children can get a desired thing by violence, inherit their sense of vulnerability and that creates the problem.” (Focus frustration or else wish to avenge group participant) their family’s previous suffering:

4 Marianne Hirsch (1997), Family Frames: Photography, Narrative and Postmemory, Harvard University Press. 34 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“I know someone [previously Different views were also expressed The role of family history in exposed to radical viewpoints about the influence of parents with the normalisation of violence through university] who went distinct roles defined by gender. Normalisation of violence or through a period when he was This issue was seen as especially acculturation to political violence trying to get a job, but felt he had challenging when the prevailing view because of family influences or to change his [Muslim-sounding] within the family was thought by experiences was also a significant name to get a job. His friends participants to be narrow or limited, theme for a range of participants. were saying, ‘What’s the point? for example in the case of allegiance In some cases, this was seen We are never going to fit in’. This to a particular religious or political to originate in the experience or individual luckily has a good family perspective. Some focus group endorsement of political violence and support but if he didn’t he may participants saw radicalisation as in countries of origin, which has have gone down the wrong path. stemming from the lack of children’s then been transferred to the He started to look at conspiracy exposure to alternative views in current generation through family theories but his family supported families that strictly monitor their or their immediate community, him and changed his views. There social and educational contacts, whereas in others it was seen as are colleagues in positions of while others addressed the issue more aligned with domestic family responsibility who are supposed of gender relations within Muslim circumstances such as a history to understand and help these families, commenting on the of or predisposition for resolving people, but they don’t and then influence of the father’s perspective issues through violence: these people do not feel part of over not only the children but the community. The outside world also the mother in relation to “I think it starts from the home is not accepting, even the Muslim progressively radicalising the entire where domestic violence is world does not accept. So then it family or, alternatively, forestalling condoned and people see that becomes personal and they turn the mother’s radical views from violence leads to some sense of to crimes of hate. They fall into being absorbed by her children. The superiority of one person over the the hands of the wrong people.” issue of siblings influencing each other, and then this translates to (Focus group participant) other’s views, particularly amongst a much larger scale. In a lot of male family members, in relation to cases, where extremists resort progressive radicalisation was also to violence, they think they are raised. A focus group participant merely standing up to a bully.” commented, ‘Young guys get (Community leader) these negative thoughts from their parents or older brothers. I have “Thinking about Northern Ireland, a friend who says he thinks the for example, it is partly inter- Bali bombing was a good thing. generational – there is an We had a fight about it. He got acceptance that if it has already that perspective from his parents.’ happened in your community in the The isolation of children from past, you accept it as part of your broader social networks was also history and culture to be in this considered a significant factor by struggle. So that’s an enculturation several participants. thing.” (Government stakeholder) The notion of individuals, families and communities becoming habituated to a certain level of violence through experiences in the country of origin was further reinforced by two participants, a Pakistani Muslim community leader and an Eritrean Christian community leader, reflecting on their own young adult experiences in their countries of origin: CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 35

“When I went to school we had no Psycho-social vulnerability “In [some Muslim] countries violence in Karachi, nothing. A lot Some participants thought that there’s another perception, it’s of sectarian violence began in the psychological trauma, mental a poor country, if they have late 1980s when I was in college – imbalance or personality disorders lots of sons, people to feed, if the odd occasional guns in college, contributed significantly to an he commits an act, the rest of and we used to get scared. Then individual’s predisposition to the family is taken care of. He’s at uni, that was the be-all and end- radicalisation and extremism, making a sacrifice for family as all – we saw people carrying guns, so that becoming involved in well.” (Focus group participant) random shootings became the radicalisation and extremism is Thus the desire to help or reward norm. So once we started seeing it perceived as the manifestation of a one’s family is seen as a mechanism all the time, it stopped fazing us so pathology rather than a conscious with which to transform vulnerability much. You became a bit blasé and or rational choice: it became normalised. Because I or weakness into heroism and saw all that back home you can “For some the desire to take a sacrifice for the benefit of other become a little desensitised to new path in life is related to some family members. violence and extremism – you no sort of trauma – this relates to the Several participants thought longer feel so scared and take its psychological factor mentioned that a general predisposition to presence for granted. It becomes earlier.” (Government stakeholder) extreme views and behaviours part of the landscape of your daily was more generic than specific in life and this can be a problem.” “I think that many people in this situation may have personality nature and could find expression “I became politically active at 14. I disorders, such as narcissistic through a variety of mechanisms was carrying a gun at 18. I joined personality disorders, manic- including but not limited to up because I was the best student depressives, etc. These are political violence or extremism: in my family out of my brothers. disorders that can be very “What makes a person to be My brothers were not interested in dangerous in radical and extremist extreme? If you come from the joining Eritrean politics and activism contexts.” (Community leader) left and are very extreme and – but I was groomed by someone you have chip on your shoulder, who saw something in me.” However, a more compelling psycho-social explanation was you do drugs, steroids, etc. A minority of participants attributed offered by several focus group and then you can easily go to the normalisation of violence to participants who spoke of the another extreme. To go from an cultural sanctioning rather than way in which extremist recruiters extreme point of view to another historical or family influences, a manipulated vulnerable young extreme is easy. If you have a view summed up by the following people into believing that becoming moderate point of view you will comment from a community leader: radicalised would help or reward generally stay with moderate.” their struggling families: (Focus group participant) “That is their cultural tradition. I have no doubt about this. Some “It could be related to the “I had a friend who told me he had people come from countries psychological backgrounds of a friend with radical ideas. He where they have a way of sorting people, people say if you do this said the friend had just started out problems violently. That can you get this, you’ll have peace practicing Islam, whereas before even apply to Western countries. and security after, and then he hadn’t. This guy had grown In recent years, if a man killed his we’ll take care of your family up in Australia. He was formerly wife’s lover in Sicily, he would only afterwards and give them money. clubbing, drinking, using drugs. get a few years of jail. This was If you are weak, you will believe He found there was no end to it a value system that the Italians this.” (Focus group participant) and he saw his destruction in it. in that region kept alive. This He wanted a remedy. He thought kind of violent heritage can be “I met a guy from , he was he found it in fully practicing carried to other countries through told by a sheikh in Somalia, if Islam. He went from one extreme migration, such as the Italian crime you blow yourself up, 70 of your [of self-destructive behaviour] syndicates that went to the US.” family will go to paradise. His older to another extreme [of religious brother showed me a video of who devotion]. It’s like a ball bouncing he chooses to go to paradise.” from one side to another but (Focus group participant) then settling down into one place.” (Community leader) 36 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Identity and sense “I came here dreaming that I would “You have this anxiety when of belonging work hard, send my children to applying for a job maybe your Lack of sense of belonging in a good school, buy a house. surname is different from the Australia was a key issue for many But how can I do those things if others and they will not call you. participants when thinking about the I am not given an opportunity to When all the young people are underlying drivers of radicalisation share in a system that I see as together you feel left out because and extremism. A significant belonging to me as well? Those they can’t pick up what you’re number of respondents thought kinds of things are the problem. talking about or are suspicious of that when there is no sense of When you are talking you are also what you are going to say. You social belonging there is little if any excluded because what you say can see some social segregation sense of responsibility towards the makes people feel they are being at university about where you sit. community and country one lives in: criticised. But you have to speak But we are human and we deserve the truth. If people keep doing the same rights as other citizens. “It all boils down to identity. Usually the same thing over and over, But at a time when things just click people getting radicalised are where do you find this respect?” because you feel undermined by young, they are not in their own (Community leader) certain things you can become country. If they don’t feel like radical.” (Community youth leader) they belong they don’t feel the “The elements are lack of place and same sense of responsibility they sense of belonging coupled with Multiple cultural allegiances would to their own people or an alternative that offers a sense and loyalties country. If you don’t feel Australian of being welcomed, supported Compounding the problem for you don’t feel the same [sense and looked after.” (Government many participants around sense of of] care about the Australian stakeholder) belonging was the issue of multiple people.” (Community leader) or divided loyalties and sense of This driver resonated not just identity in relation to culture and intellectually but personally, “I do not see my identity in anything nationality, particularly for those particularly for young participants Australian. If you include people in from migrant backgrounds. This with leadership roles in their Australian society and make them was sometimes a personal issue communities: feel this is their home, no one will for participants themselves, as the attack their own home. It’s just “It radicalises you if you don’t researchers noted during interviews simple things that make us feel like feel you belong. As I think you and focus groups that many we belong.” (Community leader) can see from what I say and my non-Anglo-Australian-background participants, even those who might These participants stressed emotions, I am radical although feel well integrated within Australian the importance of a person’s I don’t condone violence, but to society, thought of ‘Australians’ understanding of their place speak I don’t fear. These are the only as Anglo-Australians and in society and the need to feel things that are driving us crazy.” excluded themselves from the anchored by place and community. (Community youth leader) category of ‘Australian’ altogether. They commented that it is when “For refugee people who come At its most pronounced, this people feel disengaged from or here, as young people we have view was succinctly expressed alienated by the social processes major identity crises. If someone by one second-generation focus that occur around them, even when presents an idea that seems group participant: ‘Jihad, it’s they appear to be participating, that so concrete and that provides not about holy war, it’s about they are most vulnerable to radical me with a sense of identity and defending yourself. If Australia or extremist overtures: belonging, of course I’m going invades my country, we have to buy it. It shows me I can be the right to fight back.’ someone and have some ultimate form of meaning in my life.” (Community youth leader) CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 37

Respondents noted that the “In the Lebanese community, if you The search for cultural and experience of multiple or split go to the homes of these people religious authenticity national and cultural allegiances can and look at their bedroom wall, A range of participants felt that express itself in a number of ways: most of the posters are Afro- sometimes people sought to resolve for example, as a result of conflict American rappers. Their music the crises of identity described between a strong sense of identity is not Arabic, it’s Afro-American above through seeking a greater and allegiance in relation to both the rappers. I think the theme and sense of cultural and religious country of origin and the country of music of the cheated, oppressed, authenticity, what one participant destination, or because a previously victimised under-dogs cause described as a process of filling up strong sense of cultural identity in over-identification with this group. the ‘empty space’ left even after the home country begins to fray If these people were thrown in the material needs and desires have and fracture under the pressures of middle of Beirut they’d be misfits, been met: integration in the new environment, but they’d fit in well in the Bronx.” creating tension, guilt and confusion (Community leader) “Religions have tended to be built for those who are trying to adjust on finding people’s weaknesses in to their new lives. They pointed “Young people do want to get out the social make-up of a community out that this can sometimes take and get involved. Those who are and feeding off that, in so doing several generations to peak. having problems in the family and providing a sense of belonging. We rebelling, they go into crime, they are pack animals, we like to live in The tensions and uncertainties get arrested and there are self groups, and feeling included and produced by a sense of lack styled imams in prison and they part of something is important to of belonging can make young indoctrinate them and say they will human beings. This is helpful when people from migrant backgrounds forgive their sins and this is the true you’re trying to set up something in particular more vulnerable path to follow and they brainwash like that – whether it’s the Catholic to extremist influences. Some them.” (Focus group participant) Church or any other religion.” community leaders were very (Government stakeholder) concerned about this, saying: Such rebellions can also manifest themselves in explicitly religious “Even with a beautiful family and “When a 13 year old African girl contexts. According to one focus money, both of which I have, you from a [refugee] camp comes here group participant, feel as if something is missing – and is expected to go into grade you want to fulfil something, for “[Young people] don’t fit in with 8 having never read a book in her example, a duty to God if you are the culture of their parents but life, the system is then very flawed religious. Under certain conditions don’t fit in with the norms of the right from the start. Sometimes it this can lead to radicalisation.” West either, so they are cultural feels like such a huge thing that (Community leader) you can’t ever reach your goals. in-betweeners, second and So radicalisation becomes an third generation Muslims, male A number of participants outlet for the frustration and anger or female. They take Islam as emphasised the importance of that people feel in this situation.” a conscious rejection of their understanding that when people (Community leader) parent’s Islam, girls wear [head] live in diasporic conditions, scarves when mum didn’t particularly those who are second Rebellion against family or and grandma fought not to, generation migrants, their sense of community norms so that has to do with identity cultural grounding is challenged, as In some cases, participants dynamics for Muslims in the discussed above. For many young thought that young people who west, what is more powerful, people whose parents come from are struggling with such issues and the master identity becomes religious backgrounds and have may also manifest this through more rigid, if religion becomes sought to continue this as part of rebellion against their parent’s more central to my identity.” their children’s upbringing and value values or norms as a way of system, the conflict is perceived trying to resolve conflicts of as one of wishing to gravitate identity, which also makes them toward mainstream culture but vulnerable to extremist influences: finding that activities popular with mainstream Australian youth, such as clubbing, drinking and sexual experimentation, do not fit well with Muslim perceptions and values. 38 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Thus, these respondents thought Focus group participants noted that “We hear often of cases where that young people who grow up in this can work to the advantage of people are made to feel like Australia and who have no direct proponents of religious dogmatism nobodies and then they become connection to their countries or or extremism, as can the freedom radicalised in order to be heard regions of origin can nevertheless for individuals to negotiate and live a and to feel like somebody. If you feel disconnected across the board chosen rather than decreed identity can’t get recognition for doing from being properly ‘Australian’ but in a relatively open multicultural and something good in the community also from being ‘properly Arab’ or democratic environment: you end up doing something the ‘properly Muslim’, for example. This other way.” (Community leader) was felt by participants to be the “What I have observed here at genesis of the search for a culturally the moment – [we had] Muslim “I’m Lebanese background and I authentic identity, one that forges a student associations which were used to work with street kids in valued sense of connection to the created earlier that were initially gangs in [a capital city]. They’d lived reality of their experience. As Muslims and others from different say, ‘We came from a war-torn one community leader commented, faith backgrounds, but the zone, my parents chain-smoke, my the effort to unpack ‘what it means character of these are changing teachers keep telling me I’m a loser to be ‘Arab’ or ‘Muslim’, or Arab- now, because we have more nobody, girls aren’t interested in Australian or Muslim-Australian, in students from the Gulf who speak me. The only time I’m a somebody this place and this time’ can leave Arabic, and when they talk about is when I hit the streets and hang people feeling disconnected and Islam they are seen as having an out with my friends. People in alienated unless there is a coherent authentic voice, and so now these public part like the Red Sea when narrative of identity in which they associations and the students are they see us. We love that sense of can locate their own experience. being indoctrinated into what it attention and power. It’s the only means to be a Wahabi Muslim, time when I feel like a somebody.” Radicalisation, with its emphasis rather than it just being a social (Community leader) on a ‘black and white universal space.” (Focus group participant) religious doctrine that offers a The notion of going down cultural value system, identification “I think it has a lot to do with the path of radicalisation as and cognitive coherence that being a new religious minority a form of redemption from a maps onto sense of identity’ in a multicultural society – they previously ‘bad’ way of life (government stakeholder), can develop their own identity because was also mentioned by several seem to reinforce the integrity of multiculturalism and democracy community-based respondents: such a sense of connection: give them that opportunity. These groups are clever and “If you’ve been a nominal Muslim, “One valuable insight from intelligent in manipulating the engaged in crime, you need to community workers is if a young law and the ground rules.” find ways to redeem yourself, and person is beginning to distance (Focus group participant) you find religious scholars who themselves from their family and tell you one way to do this is to has no other support system to Gaining approval and become a martyr, and it also has turn to, it seems like one of two attention to do with proving to yourself as ways can be taken: either more Another psycho-social driver well as others that you are a good liberal than your parents or more of radicalisation identified by Muslim.” (Focus group participant) conservative than your parents. An participants was the desire to get interesting case is a young man attention and gain the approval of who had gone the second way, peers or the broader community. didn’t want to accept his parents’ view and ran away from home Most participants felt that the and was protected by a doctor desire to be, and be seen as, who saw an opportunity to bring a ‘somebody’ was directly this young person’s views around linked to earlier experiences of to the doctor’s way of thinking, marginalisation, exclusion and being which was a radical perspective.” made to feel different or less worthy, (Government stakeholder) with the predictable negative impact on sense of self-worth and value: CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 39

Lack of resilience Socio-cultural factors “I come from a war torn country A large number of focus group and am traumatised but I also Marginalisation and have useful ideas that can be participants also raised the issue social exclusion of low individual or community exploited [for good] to make An overwhelming majority of resilience as a perceived driver for changes to society. To participate participants across all three cohorts radicalisation and extremism. These I need to share, to be respected, of government stakeholders, respondents felt that an inability to not to be treated like an outsider.” community leaders and focus withstand traumas or frustration, a (Community leader) group participants perceived tendency to see things in black- marginalisation and social exclusion Many participants directly identified and-white terms, and the lack of to be fundamental drivers of the marginalisation of specific strategies to negotiate conflict or radicalisation and extremism. In the ethnic and religious groups manage negative experiences was words of one community leader, as a risk factor for developing a factor in making people reactive, ‘Radicalisation and marginalisation radical or extremist views: rather than proactive, in dealing with are so intertwined it is difficult to problems or grievances: “Marginalisation can be a breeding untangle – they go hand in hand.’ ground in terms of being or “Converts are very susceptible to Lack of social inclusion and feeling excluded from the broader this – they have had lives which are the rejection or marginalisation community and can take on the in many ways able to be described of minority groups by the rhetoric of radical groups. We need as dysfunctional and they are mainstream in particular was to see radicalisation and extremism seeking certainty. They are looking felt to play a key role in creating in the context of marginalisation for yes and no answers. A radical the conditions that nurture and our role is to see that these group can come in and provide radicalisation and extremism. A people are helped not to feel certainty and people are attracted number of participants made the marginalised and vulnerable to to that. Resilience is key. It’s hard point that it is not just a case of prevent their being susceptible to generalise, but I think there is individuals who feel they cannot to these agendas. When they something to be said for terrorism fit in with mainstream culture, see mainstream society as being being particularly attractive to but a broader sense that their unsupportive or hostile, this tends those who see things in black-and- entire community is marginalised to further push people into those white terms.” (Community leader) and socially excluded. While this positions.” (Community leader) “Well, it depends, there are two might begin as an acute feeling “People are driven to radicalisation if kinds of people, there are those of being rejected or marginalised, they continually feel really offended. who when they are bullied become a dangerous threshold identified If people are discriminated or subdued and upset, and others by participants was when such teased about their name they can who will lash out, hit out and try feelings become chronic rather become really angry and this can to protect themselves, but feeling than acute, reflecting long-standing lead to becoming isolated from the cornered from all sides is a big experiences of and frustration with community. A person can become factor.” (Focus group participant) being disadvantageously positioned radicalised if there are personal in relation to mainstream society. “When I think about what I have attacks on them and most of the experienced before and after 9/11 Most participants agreed that one’s time it is about religion.” (Focus – it’s your experiences which build social environment plays a central group participant) up over time, it’s the small little role in shaping a person’s attitudes In the eyes of participants, the things and whether you can take and behaviour towards others: ‘It cumulative sense of rejection them in your stride or not.” (Focus is how the society treats you that and frustration that is fed by group participant) makes you who you are. It can the chronic experience of being influence you to be a good person, marginalised, however trivial or or else push you to the edge so that petty particular incidents may you are never thinking that there is seem at the time, can make a life out there for me or that life is those at the receiving end of such worth living.’ (Community leader) treatment easy prey for recruitment Consequently, it can be difficult by radical or extremist groups: to develop or regain a sense of belonging and being valued when the perception of being excluded becomes chronic: 40 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“I think there may be an agenda “I am a youth worker and what I Insularity and self-exclusion for radical groups who prey on find is we live in a world where from the mainstream weakened and vulnerable people stereotypes exist. I have seen Several participants noted that the who are marginalised – for and know of people that I think phenomenon of social exclusion is example, people in prisons who could cross the line and become not always driven by mainstream are already angry with society are radicalised. I feel they could society’s rejection of those who vulnerable to people who ‘nobilise’ become violent because you are different or in the minority; a [make noble] a cause and give it constantly get comments as a number of individuals, groups and a greater value under extremist Muslim, for example people always communities were also perceived ideology. It can make their lives question why I wear the hijab. I get to consciously choose to insulate seem like they have meaning and really frustrated and this pushes themselves from exposure to or can offer a form of hope for those you.” (Focus group participant) contact with those outside their who are feeling stereotyped or own communities and to be “It becomes a problem when you bullied by the mainstream society.” reluctant to interact socially with get it in your head that you are (Government stakeholder) mainstream Australians. Sometimes being labelled. How can we fight this was seen as a defensive “They just get sucked up; when back? Some people cannot think response in order to preserve you associate with people who through the situation clearly. I know a sense of cultural identity that understand what you’ve gone people who are like this, they may risked being fragmented through through, marginalised, bullied, not blow things up but they will integration with another, more similar background, they want start trouble. They will aggravate dominant cultural paradigm. At to fight against it, but most the situation and try to start a fight. other times, however, participants wouldn’t consider violence. But If they fall into the wrong hands suggested that it was driven more at the same time, when you have they are the kind of people who by fear and anxiety about the others who are compassionate can get manipulated.” (Focus unfamiliar than a desire to conserve to your reasoning and give you group participant) one’s heritage and cultural identity. a way out [that involves violent A community leader elaborated on extremism], that’s the scary part, Yet exclusion or marginalisation this view, saying: it’s when they feel like that, I’m does not have to be related to Islam or indeed any religion rejected for being Australian “[People with this attitude] remain in order to contribute to because I’m different, where do bubbled within extremist thought radicalisation and extremism. I go?” (Focus group participant) patterns and don’t connect. I know As one participant remarked, plenty of people employed and Marginalisation of minority groups working as chartered accountants can include stereotyping and “I’m not a practising Muslim, I’m who are still excluded from subtle as well as direct forms of running away from the Islamic the broader society. They are discrimination. Many focus group Republic of Iran, but I harbour excluding themselves rather than participants stated that repeated extremist views that while not being excluded by others. They stereotyping and targeting of related to religion are the causes do this because of their fear of the ethnic and religious minorities on for extreme anger or frustration. unknown.” (Community leader) the basis of cultural background There is an intangible dimension [to feeling marginalised], how can sometimes anger and Those in focus groups echoed much are new people welcome demoralise people to the point this, believing that those who in the new context as well, I don’t of tipping the balance even for isolate themselves do so because mean locals have to bend over those who might otherwise not of lack of education or language backwards, which is part of the be susceptible to extremism: barriers, or through the fear that illusion that newcomers have, they they will experience even greater come thinking I’m an engineer, marginalisation or rejection if they where’s my job, misconceptions attempt to join in: go both ways. Place and identity, people go back to their homelands “But some people think, ‘Why in their heads and grasp it hard.” would I want to know more about (Focus group participant) society, because it will just make me more segregated’.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 41

Yet most participants felt that, “You can do it around white Australian-born focus group whatever the causes or origins Anglo extremism, like Neo-Nazis. participants from Anglo or of social exclusion, such an Potentially, where you have— European backgrounds tended experience creates a climate of people need the ability to learn, to concur with this view, noting hopelessness for people who earn, be valued in society. If they that while ‘we are often portrayed come to believe that they cannot don’t fit in that mainstream or don’t as better than we are, when you achieve their potential and have see any potential for themselves have conversations with friends no meaningful prospects for or their kids to fit into this, then or others you realise just how the future. While they may have that could create an environment racist we are’ and suggesting that arrived in Australia with high (and, where some people could be ‘in terms of Australian society, in the eyes of some participants, targeted [by extremists]. They used there is a lot of closet racism. It unrealistic) expectations, they to join the French Foreign Legion is not something that is always have experienced disappointment, and now they become terrorists.” obvious but racism is there’: frustration and sometimes despair (Government stakeholder) because their new lives are not “Australian racism is due to a lack what they had envisaged. Such Discrimination and racism of knowledge. I have conversations experiences of disenfranchisement In addition to marginalisation with my friends who don’t know can lead to or further entrench and social exclusion more about other cultures and don’t mix social isolation and lack of sense of broadly, specific experiences of with other cultures so they form belonging, which in turn increases discrimination and racism for their views from media and from vulnerability to radicalisation. Nor minority groups were keenly felt to what other people say.” (Focus does this apply only to the first be a driver for radicalisation and group participant) generation of new or recently extremism for a large number of This perception was unexpectedly arrived migrants. As a community participants, especially those who reinforced during the research leader put it, were themselves from minority project itself when interviewing a religious and racial backgrounds. European-background community “When you have an inability to A number of respondents related leader, who remarked to the achieve your full potential, this first-hand encounters of such researchers that his perception that makes it easier to fall prey to scenarios and their impacts, ‘Africans are black and cannot be radicalisation. Home-grown illustrating the insidious relationship seen in the dark’ understandably terrorism comes from a lack between being perceived as a scares people. of integration. People who are threat and becoming one in actual caught between two cultures fact. Discrimination seemed to be The perception of contemporary not feeling integrated. Although particularly felt by participants from Australian discrimination and racism home-grown, they may not feel African backgrounds, who said: was not limited to encounters with part of the mainstream, and they individuals at the local community will search for radical groups. “It’s just about the colour, we’re level, with community leaders My children were born here, but African, it’s not about the religion; pointing to more structural forms of they are still wondering when I think they think we’re all the discrimination at the level of state they become Australian?” same.” (Focus group participant) government, particularly in some of Indeed, feeling and being “Radicalisation is occurring within the smaller states: disenfranchised -- whether Australia but is currently not socially, politically, economically within our African communities. or a combination of these – was [However,] the way authorities seen as a more important driver of negatively represent Africans to radicalisation than religious ideology the Australian community causes for a number of participants: African communities to become angry and frustrated.” (Focus group participant) 42 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“In [this state] it’s just like a transit For the majority of participants A few focus group participants, centre – you stay here for some who thought the risk was low, however, were more concerned time and then you go. You don’t however, the perception was about the risks of home-grown find anyone working in a position that Australia has a sufficiently terrorism in Australia, arguing that in our [state] government who is a friendly and peaceful domestic ‘Australia is not immune to [world] person of colour who comes from culture, democratic processes and events’, that ‘reverts’ (i.e., formerly a migrant or refugee background. freedom of expression, reasonable moderate Muslims who adopt You have to go to Sydney, Perth or approaches to social inclusion and more extreme or fundamentalist elsewhere for that. We lobby just to a relative lack of political aggression, religious views) pose a particular highlight these issues to politicians conflicts and dissent, and as a threat to domestic harmony, and and the community to correct the consequence . Representative that terrorism ‘can happen [in community capacity building, but comments in the national focus Australia] if the government doesn’t there is no political will in [state] groups on this theme included: do something serious about it. They Parliament to speak out on behalf have already caught people’. of our communities as new arrivals. “In Australia it’s hard to provoke, There are a few projects here because I think it’s really nice Group dynamics and and there but they don’t work.” here, it’s a both-way handshake, peer influence (Community leader) they treat you good, you be Peer influence or pressure and a good citizen. If you don’t group dynamics were also The likelihood of home-grown cause problem, it’s okay.” important underlying causes for extremism in Australia participants in thinking about “We had open day at the mosque Despite the strength of perceptions why people, and especially and the topic was Australian that marginalisation and young people, become radicals culture against Islam and the result discrimination are key drivers for and extremists. In effect, these is it is not. I love Australia more radicalisation and extremism, respondents emphasised the fact than so-called Islamic countries however, a large majority of focus that radicalisation is an inherently and they do more for Islam and group participants nevertheless social process. Belonging to or Muslims here. Australia promotes thought there were fewer drivers becoming part of a group, sharing multiculturalism you have that right for violent extremism in Australia similar views and attitudes with to practice religion and believe compared to elsewhere. In the like-minded people, feeling well- what you want. If your right is view of these participants, Australia supported and valued, and feeling taken away you can sue the is less at risk (though not entirely secure and safe in relation to one’s government. This is amazing. This unthreatened) than a number of identity and sense of self is an is good leadership.” other states and regions around the important part of most people’s world. In some cases, the relative “I reckon it’d be harder to radicalise lives. When any or many of these absence of drivers was seen as people here, because over experiences or supports are due in part to Australia’s relative there…just compare some of the absent for people, the desire to geographical isolation from other differences, a person who’s the create or replace these missing parts of the globe: same age here and there, here elements can play a key role for there are more comforts, there’s those who are attracted to or “We are not at risk in Australia. security, no matter what else become caught up in radical or It would be different if we were you’ve got a home and a bed, extremist activities. Young people near the Middle East. In Australia you know you’ll wake up in the who may still be in the process we hear about terrorism but morning, there’s less risk of you of exploring or negotiating their it doesn’t affect us. However, getting killed. Over there you might sense of identity and place in the it could be headed our way.” not have any of those things.” world, and for whom peer approval (Focus group participant) is particularly important and often more deeply felt compared “In Australia there are issues and to adults at later stages of life, there is violence but Australia were thus seen to be especially is much more isolated and not susceptible to the influence of like UK and US. Australia is peers and group dynamics. not like the other countries.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 43

Community leaders and “It is easy. Get one person with “There are aspects of cult government stakeholders alike hatred in a certain group, he dynamics, but not all of them saw group dynamics as absolutely can preach that hate and get are cult-like. There is danger in core to radicalisation as a social people doing what he wants. drawing too close an analogy to process, describing these as A person who is a leader who cults which can lead governments the ‘engine of radicalisation’: does this can lead people down to apply strategies used for cults the wrong path. It happens here.” to what are in fact merely elements “There are processes in small group (Focus group participant) of mainstream religious fringes. dynamics that are critical in getting This risks alienating large-scale people moving from talking about “‘Mob situations’, young people numbers of adherents to that something to doing something. see their peers going to a religion who are more moderate.” It becomes a continuum and particular imam and they think (Government stakeholder) then the entire group moves. it is the right thing to do so they [With] mutual reinforcement of follow their peers. I don’t think Focus group participants, however, people getting together and they go because they want to, I had more expansive views on becoming increasingly isolated, think they just hear about them the process and mechanisms the leader becomes more and in the circles they hang around.” used by extremist groups to more important – it’s an echo (Focus group participant) target and recruit members to chamber. You can have a leading their activities. There was broad figure or central personality Tactics of selective targeting consensus amongst respondents playing a role there, and in other by extremist recruiters who spoke to this theme about cases it is all members of the A few government participants the nature of the vulnerabilities group egging each other on.” compared the process by which that made some young people in (Government stakeholder) extremist groups attract and particular become prime targets for retain members as similar to cults, recruitment by radical or extreme “The company that you keep is particularly in relation to targeting organisations. Many in this group very, very important. There is a the vulnerable, the disenfranchised saw it as a result of young people lot of peer pressure to be part of and those seeking certainty or being failed by the family or social that group and think along the direction in their lives, but others systems that were supposed same lines. So falling in with the cautioned against over-emphasising to support and protect them: wrong crowd has an important such comparisons because they influence on whether they overlooked significant differences “I think about the teenager become attracted to extremism and could lead government to Somali in the US who has been or not.” (Community leader) adopt ineffective and potentially accused of plotting a terrorist alienating strategies in dealing with act. He feels excluded from the Focus group participants supported counter-extremism: mainstream and he is approached these observations, describing the by other groups who allow him to need to feel accepted, the desire “Alternative group settings can connect with others who teach to ‘go with the flow’ of what others be appealing because they offer him these negative views and in their social circle are doing, and a kinship style system that may he accepts them because he is naivety about the consequences be lacking in other sources – cult vulnerable. Radical groups target of their choices as a continuum of leaders also offer this. People who those young vulnerable people.” factors that can lead to exposure are highly vulnerable who have a (Focus group participant) to and involvement in radical or sense of disconnect to society can extremist settings. help explain drivers in this context.” “But people that turn to extremism, (Government stakeholder) I think that most of the time in a “On the dynamics that can lead country like Australia, it happens to radicalisation – they need to because the system fails you in feel they belong somewhere, and many ways. The [Neath] Somali feel accepted in a larger setting. boys were on drugs, they were Knowing you are accepted in trouble, then they meet one becomes very important for young person who cares about them for people.” (Focus group participant) the first time, takes them off drugs, his ideas become gold to them, so he’s picking on the vulnerable.” (Focus group participant) 44 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Others saw it more in terms “They target people who can be “They have interviewed failed of selective monitoring and turned around easily, they will suicide bombers, those that sent identification of particular pressure know when to start and where them are the strong decisive ones, points in young people’s lives, to start on someone, these guys and the bombers are patsies, whether these are material or know about the feelings and coerced, bullied, and when they’ve psychological in nature: they use them. ... Intermediaries failed and come back – a lot of who recruit people are becoming them were brainwashed, actually.” “Financial crises, these can be more and more important.” (Focus group participant) a good factor – when there is (Focus group participants) no money for food, people take For others, however, the concept advantage of weakness, they will Drugs, kidnapping and of ‘brainwashing’ was more keep on talking and brainwash brainwashing aligned with being misled through vulnerable persons. If their families For a significant number of focus ignorance, lack of education, have no money, or if the people are group respondents, narratives choosing the wrong path or being not educated, or if they have had that involved the reported use influenced by the wrong people or people killed by drone attacks. ... of drugging, kidnapping and environment: In Pakistan they recruit kids, who ‘brainwashing’, or subjection to “They are being inculcated to are vulnerable, aged from 7-13, repeated propaganda – what one believe these things. They are from families who are killed by participant termed ‘hammering’ – looking for answers to questions American forces or who are poor by extremist organisations seeking and if these people who try to and need money.” to expand their membership brainwash them give them answers were powerful elements in their “There are those who are full of to their questions, they will believe thinking. The implication for emotion and don’t have a sound them.” (Focus group participant) many of these respondents religious understanding, they have was that some individuals who a wounded pride. I could persuade “Radicalisation is the same as become extremists have at times young kids to do something if brainwashing. In my [Muslim] been recruited by illegitimate or I wanted because I could get community I have seen people deceptive means. Consequently, them all pumped up and they who are radicalised and are not they may be seen by some of would listen to me. These young very educated. They are attracted their peers as less responsible people do not have a proper to people with similar views who for their actions because their understanding of religion and are generally older than them. The participation is perceived to be they do not practice it properly. younger people are radicalised coerced and involuntary rather They can be sparked if you hit the through misinformation.” (Focus than based on ideological or emotional cord, it can happen.” group participant) religious commitment to a cause: And still others emphasised the “It’s always about the child – “I have heard that they drug them extent of planning, preparation and that happens when from early before they do that, a bit of drug strategic misdirection that went into childhood young people are before the act, they numb them, targeting and recruitment activities: brainwashed, it is so much in them and they are usually young, that they can’t accept the reality “I don’t think these people who and don’t know better, [at an] [of how things are] and that causes radicalise are from outside the early age they are kidnapped.” them to [take] the wrong path; community. Once they have (Focus group participant) even if they blow up and cause your confidence they will control harm to brothers, they think it’s a “It’s like if you tell a twelve-year- you, they will not disclose their sacrifice.” (Focus group participant) old that it is good to die for your intention straight away. You don’t religion, it is good to die for your know who is Al-Shabab, it could religion, it is good to die for your be anyone, even someone from religion – [then] if you ask him if he the madrassa. These radicals do would kill people, he will say yes.” exist. Al-Shabab could become (Focus group participant) the new Taliban.” (Somali Muslim focus group participant) CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 45

Religious and community There was a pervasive belief that “The problem is that people will leadership people with devoutly religious turn to the imam at the mosque, views, particularly if they themselves but the imam doesn’t have the The issue of religious leadership are relatively uneducated, can often full understanding of Islam and or its absence was a very strong be easily convinced about the right the Qur’an, they are missing theme among Muslim participants, way to practice their religion, do the basics. They give the wrong particularly within the focus not question what they are told and picture about Islam. These groups. These respondents often uncritically trust any leader claiming Muslims do not follow the true emphasised the critical role that religious authority, particularly if that Islam but they follow some ideal, religious and community leadership leader is charismatic or popular. and then non-Muslims listen to has in influencing community One community leader, referring to these people and think that they standards and attitudes either extremist community members with are talking about true Islam. If they positively or negatively, particularly whom he was familiar, said: saw the reality of Islam they would in the case of young people. There see the right way. We need to was a general view amongst “It was the people they looked study the religion properly.” (Focus participants that if a person is up to and saw as their role group participant) Muslim, s/he is supposed to live models who they followed. So a according to the Qur’an and the person who says the solution is In the second category, numerous teaching of the Prophet. However, a peaceful solution, they might examples were offered from a wide range of participants follow that. But if a leader says participants’ first- or second- noted that when it comes to the the only way to resolve this hand experience of imams and interpretation of more elaborate situation is through violence, other leaders whom they felt concepts within Islam, religious then people following them will were deliberately misleading their leaders become aligned with a take that road to violence.” followers with respect to religious number of different paths and teachings for their own political strands of Islamic thought that are Misleading followers by purposes, a sample of which is then taught and followed. ignorance or design provided here: Religious leaders who were Lack of guidelines or perceived to have negative “We had an imam who had a small accreditation for religious influences by virtue of promoting prayer centre at uni. I went once, leaders and educators radicalisation and extremism he was young, with a beard, and Focus group participants in were divided into two types he gave akubra in English first, nice particular were very concerned by participants: those who and peaceful, and then he did it in about the absence of unified lacked sufficient education or Arabic, and he was denouncing guidelines or criteria to become understanding of religious issues to everyone, girls in miniskirts, and a leader. They felt that anyone preach and lead effectively against all the Saudis were nodding and can become a leader and that violent extremism, and those who agreeing, but the others, Indians, community members often do not deliberately misled people in order etc., they didn’t understand have the inclination or skills to do to propagate extremist viewpoints what he was saying, but he was their own research and compare and behaviours. denouncing the Australian culture what one imam is saying in relation and way of life, and how they think to another, instead merely accepting In the first category, a number about the Middle East and how whatever is said out of respect for of focus group participants they think about Muslims. I never the authority of the leader; as one thought there were imams in their went back there, I felt it was pretty focus group participant put it, ‘If community whose lack of education full on.” (Focus group participant) you don’t have the knowledge you and religious understanding caused cannot challenge it.’ specific problems, both for the Muslims who followed them and for perceptions of Islam by non- Muslims more generally: 46 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“I know of people radicalised, “The sheikh tells me not to sit next Parental oversight of there was a person at a particular to a girl and he doesn’t know that I children’s religious education musallah. He was from Jordan am sitting next to girls at university. The importance of parental and a strong believer of Salafism. He needs to know the time and involvement in and monitoring I spoke to him. He was about place and that this is Australia, of their children’s religious 35 years old. ASIO got involved you have to adapt. I work in a instruction to avoid young people’s because of his weird views. He primary school and the kids walk exposure to radical or extreme preached to people, to build away from music because the views was also highlighted by them up emotionally to a point sheikh tells them they cannot listen a number of participants: when it could become violent. to music. These sheikhs are so He drew on the religion to put powerful. These sheikhs have to “I grew up here and then went a seed of doubt in their head.” be qualified to teach at madrassas. back to Kenya. After I came home (Focus group participant) But our standards are low for a I would criticise what my mum religious figure. There are too many wore and it was because of things However, one focus group imams who are not qualified.” that I picked up in the madrassa participant thought that religious (Focus group participant) in Kenya – it was rituals. Our leaders who preach violence do so parents don’t question the quality through fear of losing people: not Nevertheless, with increasing of leadership in the madrassa and just from the perspective of losing access and ease of global they accept the teachings. There followers who may want to depart communication, those who may is less focus on the content that from their particular teachings, doubt the religious efficacy of they teach. It’s ongoing; once you but from that of losing out in a their local religious leaders are leave the madrassa you are given more profound sense to modernity sometimes turning for guidance to the messages to address others.” and the lure of secularism. In overseas sheikhs, particularly when (Focus group participant) this participant’s view, it was this their own home-grown leaders are dimension of fear and anxiety that preaching violence, according to Participants noted such teaching at drives some radicalised imams to some participants: times went as far as attempting to deliver more extreme teachings. turn children against their parents “[Religious leaders in my Australian – a first step toward isolating Some participants spoke of new community] listen to our Prophet young people from family and Muslim migrants to Australia whose but do not follow the religion other support networks so that need to work led them to become properly. I have read the Qur’an they are more reliant on a radical or an imam as a way of earning a living and I am listening to the Prophet’s extremist group leader: and becoming more embedded stories. It does not say to be within a new community. However, violent. I have a Sheikh overseas, “As a teenager you are taught these respondents said many such not in Australia. My dad is overseas that you cannot visit your mother, freshly minted imams were not seen and I ask dad to speak to a Sheikh you cannot have a relationship as properly trained and did not have overseas when I need advice. with your mother and that is the a good understanding of Australian I have asked Sheikhs here in teaching. It is quite controversial society, which these participants Australia about different things like and this knowledge is used to turn felt could easily lead them to teach piercings. When I asked the Sheikh you against your parents. A weak things that sit uneasily with many here about piercings he said I minded person could be easily moderate Australian Muslims, as in could not have three piercings and turned.” (Focus group participant) the following example: this didn’t make sense to me, and stuff like that makes me realise that This was seen as linked to the this Sheikh is not great, so I refer to tendency of some imams to the Sheikhs overseas and they say develop friendships and social that the number of piercings do not relationships with people, matter.” (Focus group participant) especially the young, as part of the process of radicalisation: CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 47

“Prior to the radicalisation process “Politics can guide a person “Hatred rather than love drives is the socialisation process. And and it can be driven by populist radicalisation. Older generations this is where trust relationships are views and [the] use [of] religion have living memory of the direct established, so the radical imam to drive this view. Influential experience of colonisation through who will radicalise the person, they people get together and say their parents or grandparents. In have a history, they are friends, al-Qaeda says this and other Australia, there was a celebration that’s why they will follow this people start to believe it.” of D-Day. Our community was person.” (Focus group participant) (Focus group participant) invited to the celebrations. An Australian WWII veteran was “In an uncertain world, it’s Other focus group participants standing up and talking about what understandable that some desire argued that moderate Islam needed this meant to him. [Three African- a narrow certainty to hold on to be reclaimed from its more background men] got up and left. to. If you have an imam who politicised or extremist proponents: Next day we confronted them. can prey on vulnerable young They said the day that the war “Young people want good people, between ages 17-24, ended was the day colonisation leadership and knowledge. We young men and some women of their country began. The seeds need to gain traditional Islam too – women get something from may only be sprouting now but back from those who have being supporters of that – it gives the ground was planted a long turned it into a violent religion.” meaning in a very narrow world, time ago. It is a time bomb and (Focus group participant) and anyone can be vulnerable to makes it easier to exploit people.” that.” (Focus group participant) “We have crazy sheikhs in the (Community leader) community who the media always Religious leaders and International politics, foreign go to but they are not the right ‘political Islam’ policy and transnational people. There should be guidelines There was a general view grievances for government and media about amongst Muslim participants in who to go to for comments and Many participants, particularly those the focus groups that a number to make sure the right people are from Muslim backgrounds, believed of extremist religious leaders in heard.” (Focus group participant) that internal socio-political problems Australia explicitly bring politics in various countries, regional into their religious teachings, what Political factors politics in areas such as the Middle a number of respondents called East, Africa and Asia, and the ‘political Islam’. Participants who The role of what one community foreign policies of Western nations, spoke on this point were generally leader called ‘the history of including Australia, all play a crucial uncomfortable with the intersection hatred of developing countries role in the radicalisation of Muslims of religion and politics, however, as for the developed world’ based around the world, regardless of they felt it went against the grain on inequities in socioeconomic which side of the political fence of their perception of Islam as a standards and access was seen you are on. As one community religion of moderation: by many participants as central leader said, ‘In relation to Islamic to the issue of how long-standing radicalisation, the political situation “People make the religion extreme grievances and perceptions of in the world – where lots of people and bring politics into the religion. injustice can lead to chronic feel marginalised and are looking for Islam is a moderate religion but disenchantment towards Western an alternative way to resolve these people bring these extreme ideas societies that can be very difficult to issues – that’s a driver because into the religion. Yes, there are overcome. As the same community there’s political frustration there.’ those with extreme ideas that leader went on to say, can lead to violence. I go to lectures and talks with imams and scholars from overseas who talk about infidels and that it is OK to cheat Centrelink. They say things that can be counterproductive. I have seen this happen.” (Focus group participant) 48 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Most focus group participants “On that, different rule for people, Related to this, many participants identified Australia’s involvement it’s the injustice and disparity also thought that the kinds of in Iraq and Afghanistan as a key concept. It’s like two siblings, deeply felt multiple or split national cause for some Muslims becoming two brothers, same rules but and cultural loyalties discussed radicalised in Australia, and many one favoured, the other follows above, as well as genuine dissent participants identified the Israeli- the rules gets less favour, he or sense of injustice, could serve to Palestinian conflict as the underlying psychologically starts to hate trigger extremist responses fuelled cause of all contemporary his brother, and has a sense of by events that occur overseas: terrorism and radicalisation. inequity and injustice.” (Focus As one participant stated, ‘It is group participant) “If we’re talking internationally, inseparable. Recruiters use these I’m Palestinian, so I can relate, examples, of Afghanistan, Iraq, This included the way in which empathise, and sympathise with that’s a driving force overseas international events were covered these experiences. I’ve been factors and radicalisation.’ by mainstream media, as detailed in denied the right to go back to Chapter 6 below. Palestine, but I work with Jews The Western geopolitical alliance in the Together for Humanity was seen by a significant number Identification with the ummah Foundation, so I see another side of respondents to implicate Conflicts elsewhere in the world as well. You see these things affiliated nations in the impact and were often cited as being used happening, your family hurt, consequences of world politics and by extremists in order to justify dislocated, dispersed, you get events, including terrorist responses violence at home and abroad angry, you want to do something. mounted in these countries: through appeal to the emotions For some youth, life becomes rather than the intellects of viewers meaningless so they put hope into “The primary cause of radicalisation and readers. In this context, the the afterlife, so it’s a lot to do with is Western foreign policy [in the concept of the ummah emerged frustration if we’re talking about Muslim world]. This is the key as especially relevant for those international conflict and context.” ingredient and main source of focus group participants who Similarly, a number of participants grievance that drives people to said that the suffering of their said the impact of footage on radicalisation. There is a debate Muslim counterparts elsewhere YouTube and other internet about whether it is foreign policy in the world was felt personally and media sites of the killing of or interpretations of Islam, but by Muslims in Australia: civilians in countries such Iraq or you have to have a causal driver Afghanistan ‘induces feelings of regardless of this debate. The “Because if you look into so- strong emotion [that] feed into foreign policy gives rise to material called , I think it’s part of your identity, creating an grievances, e.g. Afghanistan because these people have strong emotionally laden identity’. (Focus or Iraq. Various acts of terror attachment with their brothers and group participant) are caused by Western foreign sisters and they feel that if one side policy – for example, Osama bin of the party was abused, the guy Redress for injustice Laden said very clearly after 9/11 that abused them should feel the and disparity that you had military bases in the same.” (Focus group participant) The idea of radicalisation and Holy Lands, you keep supporting extremism as a route to redressing “You have to understand something Israel, you occupy Saudi Arabia perceived injustice when other else about Islam: when they hurt with military bases, etc. In the means have failed was prominent we hurt. We are a unified body UK, in Spain before, you can see for some community leaders and regardless of disciplines.” (Focus there was a link – whereas New focus group participants. In some group participant) Zealand is completely off the map.” cases, this was seen as either a (Community leader) “It’s not too hard to relate to, it’s skewed form of idealism or else a generalised response where The injustice and hypocrisy not too hard to find the connection social conditions and institutional that many Muslims perceive in ... sometimes you feel more than mechanisms failed to meet people’s international affairs was seen by a others, you feel that pain more needs or expectations: large number in the focus groups than others, you feel it like you’re to serve as a rallying point for there.” (Focus group participant) ideologies of hate and violence. CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 49

“For a minority group, if there is “Al-Qaeda is an example, “Where it starts to create further a perception of inequality and espousing the removal of Western complications is [with] our inflexibility which can reach the influence and nation-state regimes, political leaders [who] should be point of being unable to address return of Israel to Palestinians, accountable for what they do. the problems and people can feel restoration of the caliphate – these When they say they will petition the only way to change is to do are still overarching strategic goals for human rights and then ignore something outside of the norm, of Al-Qaeda and they still resonate Palestine – when you hear outside of the status quo, things amongst parts of communities. comments like this it creates a become gridlocked, you can’t do The theological part of the strategy sense of hypocrisy. Let’s be fair, anything. If you get that sort of is that Islam is under siege there are other human rights perception on a local level about by the West and Muslims are violations where Australia turns a an injustice and can see no way under obligation to act wherever blind eye, and this creates a sense in the system to address this, they are. This is obligation as of marginalisation and anger.” this can lead people to become opposed to duty. Distortion of (Focus group participant) violent.” (Focus group participant) theology is part of ideology.” Feeling politically silenced “At an even higher level of idealism, Yet contradictory rather than or targeted a sense of injustice and needing overarching or unified foreign Some focus group participants a method to right the wrongs policy targets were cited by felt aggrieved that as Muslims and looking for a panacea that other respondents as the they perceived the need to be can convert injustice to justice source of grievances that careful about what they said in – this is the point at which the contributed to radicalisation: general because their comments moral compass can become very might be interpreted as un- “What we have today is the product skewed.” (Community leader) Australian or indicating a level of the last sixty years of world of radicalisation. They felt their Others, however, thought history, in particular the Middle ability to freely sympathise with or that governments had some East and specifically Palestine. critique international politics and responsibility in failing to It is common knowledge how events was stifled and that even heed the warning signs of the Israel-Palestine situation has their travel history, for example discontent amongst the affected the Arab world. The visits to various Muslim countries, populations they govern: problem is that I cannot preach would make them looked upon democracy and at the same with suspicion by authorities. A “Governments can contribute time appoint a gangster to run Somali respondent observed, to this through misinterpreting, the country – this applies to all teaching things badly, can shut the Middle Eastern countries. “If we go home [to Somalia] and their eyes and ears and don’t want Contradictory and deliberate fight we can be seen as terrorists. to know – so the driving force is foreign policy is helping If we were to fight with Hamas [government] leaders who pursue radicalisation. These are the we would be seen as terrorists. their own interests and are not conditions that can cause people Anyone who tries to sympathise interested in what others think to take up radical approaches.” with them is seen as a terrorist. or who ignore consequences.” (Community leader) Muslims believe we are all brothers (Community leader) everywhere in the world. We Some participants discussed understand globalisation, it is the power of the claim by some happening everywhere.” (Focus extremist groups that Western group participant) foreign policy was explicitly aimed at undermining Islam. One government stakeholder observed, 50 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The idea of West/non-West political Conclusion The most significant category for relations as a reciprocal cycle of participants when thinking about The risk of overgeneralising violence and hatred was also a socio-cultural factors that informed radicalisation narratives, compelling explanatory narrative the processes of radicalisation and processes and responses for how international relations drive extremism was the broad domain extremism for some participants: The very wide range of factors of marginalisation, discrimination, ‘The West is violent and if they identified by project participants racism and social exclusion. are violent then they must accept in this chapter confirms that This included the rejection or other to be violent’. (Focus group there are no easy or single marginalisation of minority groups participant) Another focus group answers in trying to gain greater by mainstream society, as well as respondent saw this ‘vicious cycle’ insight in how to understand and the phenomenon of self-exclusion as a multiplier for future generations address the underlying drivers for and insularity by minority groups of radicalised communities: radicalisation and extremism in from the mainstream in an effort to Australia, as elsewhere. Participant preserve a coherent cultural identity, “It is terrorism that creates responses to this issue covered and the corrosive and frustrating terrorism, it’s a vicious cycle, but a broad spectrum of explanatory experience of discrimination and terrorism creates its own fount frameworks in thinking about this racism in the community, particularly of terrorism, because every time issue. For the vast majority of for Muslim- and African-background you bomb in Pakistan, there is respondents, these causal factors participants. The role of group collateral damage, and those were interrelated, often intimately dynamics and peer influence, people who are affected then or even indistinguishably, and can especially for young people, was become drawn to terrorism, best be classed as falling into what identified as significant, as were the they have anger and they are a we have called a convergence tactics and techniques of selective great contribution to terrorism.” paradigm, in which a combination targeting by extremist recruiters, of personal and environmental including a number of participants These perceived grievances against factors need to coalesce and who focused on the reported use of Western foreign policy in particular crystallise for an individual before drugs, kidnapping and brainwashing were seen by some participants to they find themselves on the road to in advancing their perceptions of contribute directly to radicalisation radicalisation or extremism. how responsible some extremists and extremism here in Australia. As may be for the actions they take. a religious leader noted: Specific drivers identified by Lack of education and the inability participants ranged across “Also, I know in Australia, many, to apply critical skills in independent personal and individual factors many young people are very upset thought and analysis in order to such as the influence of family about the slaughter of people challenge extremist viewpoints and early life, including the role of and they want to do jihad. Three were also seen as relevant by family history in the normalisation weeks ago I had a young man some participants. of violence, and the psychosocial come and say to me, ‘I want to vulnerability of individuals, including Religious and community go overseas and fight, what are lack of resilience. For a very leadership was another major the rulings about this?’ He was in large number of participants, driver for participants, who a hurry, he wanted me to give him issues around identity and sense identified concerns around the lack a quick answer. I had to ask him of belonging were seen as key of guidelines or accreditation for to sit down so we could talk. So underlying factors in helping drive religious leaders and educators; far people talk more about going people toward radicalisation and the misleading of religious followers overseas [than staying at home] to extremism. These included the either through ignorance and lack fight, but for others, they do want implications of lack of belonging; of education or else in order to to bring it here, they want you to the tensions of multiple cultural promote deliberately a variety of see what it feels like to see your allegiances and loyalties; rebellion ‘political Islam’; the uneven nature sons killed, to feel what is feels like against family or community of parental oversight for children’s to have your homes demolished.” norms; the yearning for cultural religious education, and the (Community leader) and religious authenticity, and the consequences of this for isolating need for approval and attention, children and young people from the particularly for those whose self- familial and social support networks esteem or sense of self-worth is that can serve as protective factors fractured and who consequently against radicalisation and extremism. strive to feel like a ‘somebody’ rather than a ‘nobody’. CHAPTER 2: CAUSES AND DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 51

Finally, a range of political factors However, a small minority of A number of community leaders were canvassed that included participants disagreed with this and government stakeholders the perceived frustrations and view, with some believing it was thought there was no ‘single model injustices for Muslim-background only a matter of time before an of pathways to radicalisation’ and participants in particular of attack occurred and noting that spoke of the challenges in trying international affairs, Western home-grown terrorist events had to develop strategies to deflect foreign policies and transnational already been planned, even if people from going down the road political dynamics and events, with successfully thwarted by authorities. of radicalisation and extremism. the Israel-Palestine conflict and In particular, they cautioned the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq Because of the very wide range of against the consequences of over seen as focal points for the ability interlocking factors and frameworks oversimplifying our understanding of radical and extremist groups identified, in concluding this or analysis of these phenomena: to attract and maintain support. chapter of the report we want to Participants also emphasised the draw special attention to some “There are too many factors we implications of identification with of the comments by government don’t know about and on which the ummah; the appeal to emotion stakeholders and community we need more research. Mainly rather than reason in the discourses leaders who see significant pitfalls we can blame academics who of extremism that circulate through and problems in attempting to write for a populist audience who alternative media, particularly the overgeneralise or profile the reduce radicalisation to these internet; the strength of the desire mechanisms, pathways, and oversimplified drivers. People for means to redress perceived processes by which people can identify with groups for all sorts of disparities in power and in political, become radicalised or develop into reasons.” (Community leader) economic and social wellbeing, violent extremists. The participant The words of the participant below particularly between developed responses analysed in this chapter effectively sum up the implications and developing countries; and the support well the observation of one of the themes and analysis anxieties created for some Muslim government stakeholder that ‘we relating to the underlying drivers of participants by feeling stifled from need to keep reminding everybody radicalisation and extremism we free expression and critique of that all the stories are different.’ have discussed above: international events through fear Another participant from a state policing agency observed: of being labelled as radical or “What we’re talking about here extremist themselves. “It’s an interesting perspective is a whole series of small things rather than one big thing. This is Despite the focus by participants where you can explain behaviour partly because the ways in which above on some of the perceived through either visionary ‘this is people become radicalised are so gaps in Australia’s ability to manage what I want to achieve’ or through individual and communities are so both elements of its domestic a defensive reaction to a particular diverse that our responses have agenda of social inclusion and threat or a frustration. One is to be very carefully targeted and of its foreign policy framework in reactive and born of frustration, the tailored.” (Government stakeholder) ways that minimise the prospect other is proactive and visionary. It of radicalisation and extremism argues against profiling except in at home, a significant number of the broadest sense in relation to participants said that they thought terrorism. I think it’s what you do the prospect of home-grown with profiling that’s most important, terrorism in Australia was fairly not the profiling in the first low, citing Australia’s relative place. If I stopped every person geographical isolation, a sufficiently walking in a dark alley under 17 friendly and peaceful domestic years of age, you’d probably culture, good access to democratic prevent 80% of graffiti – but not processes and freedom of everybody of that age walking on expression, reasonable approaches that alley would be out to graffiti. to social inclusion and a relative lack [Profiling] has some cautious of political aggression as the main value. If you’re not cautious then reasons for believing the risk was we have racism, for example.” relatively small. CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS

All participants were asked two related questions about violence in relation to the social and political contexts of radicalisation and extremism. First, they were asked about their perceptions concerning the causes of violence and why some people resorted to forms of violence to address grievances or resolve problems. Second, they were asked about whether they felt that violence as a political response could be justified under any circumstances. It is important to note that the use of term ‘violence’ in the discussion below takes into consideration the intersection of social, personal and political modes of violence that may, singly or in combination, contribute to violent extremism and terrorism. CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS 53

Broadly speaking, the most The use of violence as a “It is not culture or religion that significant perceived causes response to grievances leads people to adopt violence of violence in the context of or problems as political solutions. It is their radicalisation and extremism were individual experience and life identified as: Belief systems and histories that lead to adopting such allegiances an approach. In the end, it’s how • Ideological belief systems and Many participants felt that ideology, people interpret religious books allegiances, including religion religious or other belief systems or teachings, not the teachings were one of the main reasons that themselves necessarily. For • Social, cultural and family people resort to violence; as one example, there are women who norms and experiences that community leader said, ‘I think it’s won’t wear the burkha because legitimate violence purely ideological and conceptual. their interpretation of the statement • Social exclusion, marginalisation You’ve grown up being exposed to in the Koran regarding modesty and disenfranchisement different ideas and then it’s about doesn’t mean covering the face, individual inclination to different whereas others do interpret that • Failure or inadequacy of ideas.’ In some cases, this was statement to mean face covering. political processes to effect seen as an instance of sincere but People will always point to certain peaceful change misguided thinking and values, verses and passages that can while others perceived a failure to prescribe violence, e.g. Christian • Reaction to political suppression recognise that meeting peoples’ holy books – but this is still and state violence material needs and expectations is interpretation.” (Community leader) In relation to whether or not political not all it takes to sustain a personal “You can’t say they’re doing it violence can ever be justified, sense of wellbeing: because of religion. You can say responses were varied. Two main “Ideology is a dangerous thing. they did it because they had strands of response emerged from Young people are hungry for it as hatred, but it’s not about religion.” the data: I was. Young people here have (Focus group participant) • There is never any justification everything. Having all your needs Religion and hatred can for violence met can be boring if you don’t engage them.” (Community leader) drive violence • Violence can be justified in However, not everyone agreed certain circumstances Some participants stressed that with this view. Some participants religion alone could never be the thought that religious beliefs and These perceptions about the primary driver for extremist violence convictions, however spuriously causes of and justifications for in the absence of other converging derived or constructed, did play a extremist and political violence are influences and pointed to the role in justifying what one participant discussed in more detail below. instability of how religious doctrine called a ‘theology of hate’: can be interpreted when it is used to justify violent action: 54 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“If one talks to those people who Solidarity with the ummah Social, cultural and family use a political form of Islam and As also discussed in Chapter norms that legitimate violence cherry-pick the Koran to find 2, some Muslim-background Many participants did not think things that justify violence, they participants thought there that family or cultural background can build an ideology that says were blurred lines between contributed significantly to the use that violence against anyone religious convictions and sense of violence, instead placing more who isn’t us – most of the rest of of solidarity with or grievance emphasis on either socio-political the world – is justifiable because on behalf of the ummah: drivers or on personal vulnerabilities people who are other, who are and predispositions. Several not righteous, who don’t have “ in Indonesia participants thought, for example, the right view of the world, who think they are doing a favour for that there is simply a ‘proportion are not the true believers, are all Muslims by attacking the west, of people who adopt a violent eligible targets. Certain types of and they misinterpret the hadith or approach to any situation, not just political Islamic crusades about the Koran without mentioning the politics’ (government stakeholder), 750 years ago are still seen as a whole message, they take it out of and that personal anger, frustration justification for doing something in context.” (Focus group participant) or mental instability could play a key this view. So it works for all sorts role in whether or not individuals “Religious motivations – when of extremist violent behaviour.” chose violence as a means of something wrong happens, (Government stakeholder) dealing with others. especially in Muslim countries, “There are people who kill innocent and other Muslims sympathise Yet a number of respondents did people, for a cause. They may say with them, and when they have no believe that family background if you want to serve God then you medium or approach, they adopt and cultural context contribute must kill the non-believers. They certain aggressive ways to show strongly to whether or not people kill due to the theology of hate.” their sympathy, certain people use may choose violence as a means (Focus group participant) that sympathy in a way that can be of solving problems or addressing violent.” (Focus group participants) grievances, particularly when people Such hatred was not always had experienced early or frequent perceived to be religiously This in turn was perceived to exposure to violence in the family, based, however. While many make such individuals particularly culture or community – a perception participants had varieties of Islamic susceptible to extremist influence well supported by research on the fundamentalism or other forms of and indoctrination: social normalisation of violence.5 religious doctrine in mind when In addition to the focus on the thinking about this issue, the “Religion is so powerful. People normalisation of violence through perspective of Western Australian who have a faith or follow family history or intergenerational participants was also directed religion also have a conviction community violence discussed toward the use of violence by white and so if they are infiltrated in Chapter 2 above, some supremacists motivated by hatred by someone who sells their respondents also placed special of other races or cultures, rather message using the religion you emphasis on the impact of both than by religious convictions: can get them to do anything.” (Focus group participant) early and later life experiences of “The biggest threat and the most war, violent conflict and trauma violent people in Australia are “In Australia, the violent approach in making people more easily led white supremacists. Jack van has been a case of people towards violence as a solution: Tongeren here in Western Australia feeling they should become “When I was overseas, I remember with the Australian Nationalist the torch bearers for a certain hearing little kids who were Movement – they promote a lot ideology, way of thinking, etc. talking about seeing people die of race hate. Van Tongeren blew They want to become martyrs or being shot, they were so used up a lot of Chinese restaurants. for this particular point of view, to it. And that affects people.” He is out of jail now. You can see either locally grown or whether (Focus group participant) them gathering occasionally here it comes from someone they in Perth. Combat 18 in the UK look up to, a mentor or someone has had an impact here as well.” like that, who guides them (Community leader) towards this supposed wisdom.” 5. See Changing social and cultural (Muslim community leader) norms supportive of violent behaviour, World Health Organisation, 2009, p. 3 and ff., http://whqlibdoc.who.int/ publications/2009/9789241598330_eng.pdf CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS 55

“When you get children growing Social exclusion, “In the Irish context, violence up in a fear or survival situation marginalisation and was more attractive when times it can retard their development. disenfranchisement were tough, but when things It can affect their whole psyche, got better economically and decreases their learning ability, A significant number of participants the future looked rosy, the kids which then feeds into that easy believed that using violence to were influenced by global culture way to radicalise people, offering solve problems was driven by and didn’t particularly care.” an opportunity to get ahead a sense of economic, social (Government stakeholder) through violence rather than and/or political marginalisation, other means. The longer we deprivation, powerlessness, Frustration and keep people in refugee camps frustration, or hopelessness. For powerlessness in unsafe environments, the these respondents, individuals or For most respondents who more easily they become the groups who feel routinely excluded addressed this issue, however, target of extremists. Basically, from political decision-making and the key point was the use of the needier, the better is the rule from access to social and political violence as a means of addressing in terms of who gets targeted power structures, or who perceive grievances or disadvantage and nurtured as extremists.” that their claims, perspectives based on extreme frustration (Government stakeholder) and needs are unheard or unmet and/or sense of powerlessness by social or political institutions, in bringing about change: Still other participants felt that for are far more likely to resort to some people, family and/or cultural violence to address these issues “It is the approach of violence to influences made violence as the first than those who have a stronger the resolution of their political port of call for dispute resolution sense of social and political grievances. The masses feel almost inevitable: inclusion and enfranchisement. they are being held back and the only way is violence. The “Because they don’t know Poverty and disadvantage people in power feel the only way any better. Probably in their Some government stakeholders to keep power is also through family or their culture, that’s and community leaders linked violence. Underlying this is greed, how things were resolved, issues around violence, deprivation selfishness, power struggles – and by violence. They don’t know and powerlessness to the relative I think when you ask this question how to make representations deficit in material comfort and – we may say that people feel to decision makers, to lobby.” security for disadvantaged that those in power, in politics, (Community leader) groups and communities, for example, who are causing noting that when circumstances problems for the mass of people, “Many people [from non-Western improved the threat of violence people will say enough is enough. cultures] say that when they look was more likely to recede: Too much red tape, feeling to the state to provide justice it powerless and unable to intervene is not forthcoming – they have to “As much as there is poverty in successfully – it’s like teasing a do it themselves. It becomes an developing countries, here [in child, do it enough and the child issue of feeling the state is not able Australia] there is anger for young will snap.” (Community leader) to comprehend these issues and people when they see their families that resolution or redress must be not achieving a good lifestyle and “The key issue is where people sought or affected by some other economic security. When this can really see no other option, means.” (Community leader) is concentrated in highly dense or believe they have no means localised areas, e.g. housing other than violence to resolve estates, this is a pressure cooker their problems – it’s a sense and makes it easy to exploit those of desperation, the end of the with a sense of being left out of a line, a sense of powerlessness.” good lifestyle. ” (Community leader) (Government stakeholder) 56 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Lack of education Perceived failure or Violence occurs when other or other resources inadequacy of processes to options have been exhausted Others pointed to the problems effect peaceful change A number of participants thought created when reasonable formal Many participants also felt that violence as a means of access to political processes is that various social and political effecting political change was not provided but people are unable processes were themselves merely an anomaly of the present, to use these to achieve their flawed and saw this structural pointing out that history is peppered goals, whether through lack of deficit, rather than personal or with examples of people taking up education, insufficient interpersonal social disenfranchisement per arms against a dominant power skills and resources, low rates of se, as a primary driver of violent structure and fighting for a cause social or political participation, action. These respondents through violence to achieve their or a range of other structural or suggested that perceived failures goals. However, most respondents social factors. Lack of formal, or limitations of mainstream social across all cohorts believed that social and religious education and political processes to deliver one consequence of chronic and a corresponding sense of improvements in people’s lives social exclusion, marginalisation efficacy regarding alternatives to were likely causes of the decision and political disenfranchisement violence were seen as the most to take up violence. They felt these was that people or groups chose important of these issues: limitations led to loss of trust in violence as a last resort when non- mainstream political institutions and violent means of bringing about “When you have an argument and structures and lack of engagement change or improvement had been it finishes, then fists start as far with mainstream authorities and exhausted or when their patience as some people understand it. support networks, both of which with peaceful political processes The Australian way of life always were identified as potentially that failed to deliver had worn thin: solves problems by talking, leading to violent responses: criticising, argumentation, using “[Violence occurs] when people verbal means. It’s not common “Traditionally I see violence as lose any sense that they can in Australia to use physical ... born out of frustration with influence the views of others violence to resolve conflicts the current system, or through through discussion or reason and when it happens it is pretty loss of faith in or abandonment or engagement, so that their limited compared to some parts of the current political system. I only solution is an extremist of the world. It’s all to do with suspect when you look at everyday perspective. [...] They may have the education. Those people domestic violence or other kinds gone down a path and tried who do use violence to resolve of violence, you can see that to do it by the book and the political conflicts lack the verbal our entire community is based system, trying to make change, skills to do otherwise. The cause on some trust in our processes but they’ve been unsuccessful.” of conflict is misunderstanding that then breaks down. Where (Government stakeholder) each other and education is people lose trust in authority and the key. When you eliminate lose a sense that engagement “If a group feels they have run misunderstanding, then conflict with family or community is out of options, have explored all melts down.” (Community leader) going to be positive for them, possibilities to resolve an issue, that’s when the problems start.” and have run out of patience and “It is a misinformed approach (Government stakeholder) resources and avenues – courts, to resolving grievances – mediation, community elders, misinformation, not understanding “If you feel deprived you seek other etc. – then I think frustration non-violent alternatives and alternatives. I see people who do breeds the desire for justice and the power of these. I don’t see some radical things who think that equality or for resolution, and it as something necessarily violence is a solution. That’s where this is where people get into an caused by frustration – it is we come to the point, because extreme position where they more about a sense (or lack) of in politics you can see the head consider [violence] to justify their alternatives, not being educated and I can see the tail. They think, goals and the achievement of their and skilled in exercising these.” ‘we have come this far politically objectives.” (Community leader) (Government stakeholder) but nothing is changing – what else can we do?’ [They think] life is meaningless to me, so let’s destroy it.” (Community youth leader) CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS 57

‘You can’t hear our voice, Several community leaders agreed Violence as a political so you will hear our noise’ with this view, noting that while as shock tactic For focus group participants in a strategic political tool terrorist Closely related to the use of particular, the use of political violence against society or the violence to gain attention for violence to command attention state was generally not successful, a cause or grievance was the for a cause or grievance when it had greater impact as a means perception that violence has some other means of being heard have of getting one’s cause onto the utility as a political shock tactic been unsuccessful was a powerful political radar. However, some when directed against mainstream explanation for why they thought focus group participants disagreed structures and authority, particularly violence could occur. While one that violence was unsuccessful as in times of conflict and instability. focus group respondent thought a strategic tool, believing it might A number of participants from that ‘using violence’ was simply fare better in driving change when the government stakeholder and ‘an easy means to get attention’, other means had failed or were community leader cohorts saw this for many participants this was unavailable. These participants as a compelling reason for why bound up more deeply with issues tended to feel that non-violent violence becomes attractive to around perceived lack of respect means of redress were ineffective those who feel that other means of for a religion, identity or community, for at least some parts of the achieving social or political change and the desire to crash through community who struggle to get their are inaccessible or ineffective: barriers that prevented their voices voices and issues on the agenda: from being heeded by those with “In contexts where the economic “Often these organisations do the authority and power to respond or social circumstances are in calculations, aiming to gain the meaningfully. As one participant crisis, [violent extremism] can grow maximum affect, with little effort, noted, the experience of not being because people are being made [and find that] violence works. heard can characterise not just to feel they need to do things that Non-violent political movements individuals but entire groups: ‘An are harmful to others because of haven’t historically worked very individual Muslim who has a lack their problems – you can’t hear our well, except for India, civil rights in of voice could be a product of the voice so you will hear our noise.” the USA, and apartheid in South whole community not having a (Community leader) Africa, but not many have felt that voice.’ (Focus group participant) that is a viable option in the first “Violence is used by some terrorist “I think the violence comes, place.” (Focus group participant) groups to shock us out of some or affects you when you get kind of ideological slumber. “Maybe [violence arises because distressed, and when they ignore There may be political answers. of a] feeling that doing the normal you. But if you respect somebody It may be such fundamental ways and writing letters of else’s opinions, then there wouldn’t change and so systemic that complaint doesn’t help and isn’t be any of those actions.” (Focus it requires a radical break – making a difference. For example, group participant) straightforward revolutionary when we sent those letters to politics.” (Government stakeholder) “A big thing about terrorism Channel 9, it didn’t change their 6 is that it gets the message views.” (Focus group participant) across if you have no other way of venting your frustration.” (Focus group participant)

“It’s when you run out of options. They think, I can’t go to the UN, but I can pick up a gun.” (Focus 6. This is a reference to the 60 Minutes group participant) (March 2011) and A Current Affair (May 2011) television broadcast interviews with controversial Australian Muslim convert Ibrahim Siddiq-Conlon. A number of other project participants also mentioned the same Muslim community group letter to Channel 9, which deplored what they saw as the over-reliance by Channel 9 in using controversial, anti-Australian figures such as Siddiq-Conlon whom they feel do not represent the majority of Australian Muslims and a corresponding lack of balance in presenting a diversity of mainstream Muslim viewpoints. See also Chapter 6 below. 58 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Violence as a reaction to “The Muslim brotherhood in Egypt There is never any political suppression and was suppressed and suppression justification for violence state violence radicalised them. There are a Some participants held very firm, The final theme in the context of number of people from non- even absolute views on this topic, drivers for violence relates to the English speaking backgrounds believing that violence of the kind issue of political suppression and who are elected to public office they associated with terrorism violence perpetrated by a state in Australia relative to proportion can never be justified regardless against its own population. Some of population. But compulsory of the cause, provocation or participants noted that when a voting means people feel involved circumstances. For many in the state curtails or denies the rights and this can help them integrate community, this was often based on and freedom of all or some of its better. If they cannot get involved their understanding that terrorism peoples, when the demand for such in politics they could get frustrated. involves the targeting and death rights is responded to by repressive The number of ethnic minorities of ordinary people who are simply measures, and where there are no in Australian politics is low.” going about their everyday lives: legitimate democratic channels to (Government stakeholder) express grievances or negotiate “No, I don’t think terrorism can And community leaders made dissent and diversity, then a resort ever be justified. I understand similar points about both to violence as a means of bringing terrorism to mean indiscriminate past and present responses about political change is far more violence against people merely to state-led oppression: likely. The events of the so-called in order to make them afraid. So when Israel describes an attack Arab Spring in 2011, which steadily “No one lifted a finger against on a military post as terrorism, I gathered pace and commanded Mubarak but we know through don’t accept that as terrorism. global attention during the time the people we associate with But if someone blows themselves that interviews and focus groups how violent he was, how his up on a bus stop, that to me is were being conducted, were given regime suppressed people who certainly terrorism, and I’ve always as examples by many participants protested against the regime. believed that if people are going as instances in which people were It started as non-violent but to listen to you and hear you, you compelled to use violence against towards the end it did become must be prepared categorically the oppression of their state. As violent, and other countries are to say that, for example, suicide one government stakeholder going through the same situation bombers terrorising civilians is observed, when ‘the state is seen now. It may start off as a non- terrorism. I don’t think there is a as wielding violence to maintain the violent movement but along the moral or political case for terrorism.” status quo it is seen as legitimate way if they are not being heard (Community leader) to use violence to combat this as a and getting results, obviously strategic choice.’ people will go to take other “No, we don’t believe in violence. measures.” (Community leader) Another government stakeholder You cannot justify Bali or September 11 in any way.” (Focus group noted that even prior to the Can violence ever events of the Arab Spring, political participant) be justified? suppression of dissenting groups Predictably, the broader political in the Middle East offered a As noted at the beginning of this views of participants at times clear path to radicalisation and chapter, participants across the informed their responses. One extremism, and emphasised three cohorts held different views community leader brought a feminist the importance of political on this issue which can be grouped perspective to her perception of enfranchisement for new arrivals into two main categories: those this topic: ‘Can terrorism ever be in Australia for similar reasons: who felt that political violence justified? That’s a categorical no. can never be justified under any I tell men, if you spend the money circumstances whatsoever, and you spend on arms on food, the those who felt that under certain world would be a different place’, circumstances or for certain while a male community leader reasons some modes of political from a Pakistani background felt violence could be justified. that Gandhi’s commitment to non- violence under all circumstances provided a guiding principle even for the political crisis in Libya current at the time of interview: CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS 59

“Look, I don’t think violence of Other focus group participants, Those who did not believe any sort can ever be justified. I’m however, were more equivocal. that political violence under more a Gandhi believer in that Respondents in this group any circumstances was ever respect. Even in relation to current acknowledged that while they justified also stressed the situations such as Libya, Gandhi themselves did not condone importance of understanding sets the example. In India, Gandhi violence, they could understand the that positive change can be showed that a non-violent situation reasoning and motivation behind achieved through non-violent was possible – even though I such actions: approaches to conflict resolution: shouldn’t be saying this as a Pakistani!” (Community leader) “You’re saying innocent people, “Listening to the Palestinian story but the thing is you have to see the other day on the ABC7 was Other participants believed that the the back story, know what a very powerful. I cannot imagine use of violence merely promotes terrorist thinks, I’ve seen a lot of what that doctor who lost all his a vicious cycle of violent response documentaries, and they think daughters went through and and counter-response: – you killed me, you killed my [how he] still stayed peaceful and family, my people, so I’m going to continued to stand very strong so “Violence begets violence. Look at be the one to stand up and take that he didn’t want to embrace violence in the community context revenge, I’m going to take the law violence. He continued to do the and the family context, and every into my own hands, as revenge for things that he wanted to do and act of violence becomes an excuse killing my people. I know they’re to use non-violence to resolve for another round of payback or innocent, but that’s the way they the issues. This was a very, retribution – it’s self-perpetuating. think.” (Focus group participant) very powerful message for me.” Depending on which side (Community leader) you’re on, you can always find a “To base an attack on religion is not justification. You can’t do anything right. But if you were attacked and Violence can be justified in about the past, but you can do you quote the Qur’an and say it certain circumstances something about the future – but if says you must defend yourself, it is In the domestic context, you go down the path of violence, ok but not to kill innocent people.” virtually no government it will never be any different than it (Focus group participant) stakeholders or community is now.” (Government stakeholder) leaders thought there could be A number of focus group any justification for resorting Some Muslim participants were participants also pointed to what to violence within democratic particularly resolute in rejecting they considered the inherent societies such as Australia: violence when it comes to non- hypocrisy of condemning combatants, and felt that those terrorist violence by extremist “It comes back to the social who committed violence against groups targeting innocent compact here. We are a secular ‘innocents’ in the name of Islam or people while at the same time country and we expect people to any other religion was a profound sanctioning the violence that abide by our set of laws. But we distortion of religious doctrine: sees innocent civilians killed by are a democracy so if you don’t Western government armed like the laws you can protest or “In Islam, if you read the protocol forces in military conflicts such as seek to get them changed. But of going to war, it says you cannot Afghanistan, Iraq and elsewhere: if you can’t, it doesn’t entitle you harm women, children or animals. to go out and throw bombs.” Religion has stipulated specifically “When we talk about terrorism, (Government stakeholder) what you can and cannot do. If it is only if high value targets someone kills innocent people are killed that it’s terrorism, for the Q’uran forbids this with poor people’s deaths there’s specific statements. It depends nothing. We have many drone on what you define as political attacks in Pakistan and they kill violence and terrorism. Even if many innocent people, but this is you justified 110% the reason not terrorism. There are double to go to war, if you are not sure standards. When any innocent then better to leave them [the person loses their life it is not innocents] from the point of view good.” (Focus group participant) of the Koran – abstain from violent 7. ‘Palestinian doctor promotes peace amid tragedy’, PM, ABC Radio, 18 May 2011, action.” (Community leader) www.abc.net.au/pm/content/2011/ s3220529.htm 60 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“Domestically I’d say no, because Some government stakeholders “Political violence can be justified of our open democracy. Even in and community leaders if there is oppression – it is the the most extreme circumstances questioned whether we can really duty of the people to stop that my own answer would still be no – draw such clear lines between oppression, particularly if the it is not the violence that achieves legitimate and illegitimate uses government does not address the the change. There are other ways of political violence, particularly issue. It is first the responsibility of attracting attention and support where democratic structures of the government to stop and violence is not one of them.” are fragile or non-existent: oppression, but if they don’t, it is (Government stakeholder) the responsibility of the people. “When states argue they If the government is doing the However, a number of respondents have the monopoly on use of oppression itself, it is the right also drew careful distinctions violence, others say why can and duty of the people to stand between state- and non- you use violence and we can’t? up and stop that oppression. state-sponsored violence and Political theory says we can’t It is the responsibility of foreign between combatants and non- make this distinction so easily.” governments also to step in and combatants in both Australian (Government stakeholder) help the oppressed people.” and overseas contexts: (Community leader) “If the state can’t respond to the “On the killing of innocent people people’s will, it is a sickness of In such cases, several participants such as through suicide bombing – democracy in those states. They noted that the goals of both state and this is cold-blooded murder and it are so sick that they ignore the non-state, or terrorist, violence can is absolutely forbidden. No matter needs of the nation and don’t be the same: to protect one’s system how desperate the circumstances, acknowledge that the needs of or world from a perceived threat: it is not permissible. In the situation the nation have changed. Then of a war, they are under certain they feel the pressure and then “To take al-Qaeda’s perspective, guidelines, and they would be able it explodes on them. I don’t see they are fighting against a to harm those who are fighting this as political violence – it is globalised immoral system of them, but not their families or a legitimate uprising even if it capital that they think is destroying friends, innocent bystanders. It is involves violence. If democracy values and morality, so we need to the same for any other conflict, was working in those places, understand the violence in relation including other forms of political these things wouldn’t happen.” to that which you are seeking to violence.” (Community leader) (Community leader) protect from some kind of threat.” (Government stakeholder) And one government stakeholder However, an overwhelming felt this reflects a ‘split set of values’ majority of participants, including “But if the army is surrounding you, in relation to domestic versus government stakeholders, thought as in Libya, you have to defend foreign policy: that in certain situations violence yourself if you are surrounded – against the state can be justified. that’s different. But you are not “As a government official working in For example, a significant number the one to start this. There is a fine an Australian context, my answer of respondents commented that line between defending yourself would have to be that it can’t be political violence against the state and your rights and taking away justified. [But] looking at the rebels could be justified when there is a the rights of others through using in Libya – we support them as a threat to democracy, human rights, violence to infringe on the rights of government. The set of values we civil liberties or insurgency against others.” (Community leader) apply is a split set of values. We as oppression by an occupying power: governments can be accused of Those focus group participants who hypocrisy because of this. We’re “International law says people felt that political violence could be not arming the Libyan rebels, can use violence against the justified in certain circumstances but the Australian government’s state if the state is behaving with largely fell into the categories of position is one of wanting to extreme oppression against its these last two themes: those who remove a totalitarian dictator.” own people. This would not be felt violence could be justified when (Government stakeholder) terrorist but legitimate insurgency the state no longer responded to against an oppressive regime.” or actively worked against its own (Government stakeholder) people, and those who saw violence as legitimated to protect people or groups from a perceived threat. CHAPTER 3: VIOLENCE AS A SOLUTION OR RESPONSE TO GRIEVANCES AND PROBLEMS 61

Focus group respondents who In keeping with this perspective, Those who did feel that violence thought that political violence the most common drivers of violent could be justified under certain against the state was an action highlighted by participants circumstances, particularly in the understandable response when were often seen as interrelated or focus groups, thought that violence people were perceived to be co-dependent. Responses ranged as a response to a perceived threat oppressed commented: across personal factors, such by a government or occupying as mistrust, family history, early power against one’s own people “My view is that it can be justified, exposure to violence, peer influence or group was legitimate. Several and when the shoe’s on the and lack of educational or other government and community other foot you see that. ... personal resources; socio-cultural respondents also pointed to the Look at Palestine, the violence factors such as ethnic or cultural politically shifting sands of how we there can definitely be justified.” background, social environment, define and draw the line between (Focus group participants) marginalisation, limited or no sense when violence may be considered of other options, and the desire legitimate and by whom. However, “Hezbollah are not terrorists, to ‘be somebody’ through taking a minority of participants felt that they are the government. violent action; and political factors violence could not be justified under However, if I say that, my friends such as ideology, religious or any circumstances whatsoever and tell me to be quiet because political solidarity, a strong sense of where this view was held it was non-Muslims would see personal and/or political grievance expressed strongly and with deep Hezbollah as political terrorists.” or disenfranchisement, perceived conviction, frequently reflecting an (Focus group participant) inability to effect peaceful political underlying philosophical, moral or Conclusion change, and the suppression of religious set of beliefs. political dissent – often violent in its Causes of violence: the own right – that leads to a violent ‘perfect storm’ counter-reaction. Most participants perceived the Justification of violence under causes of and justifications for some circumstances extremist violence to revolve around the ‘perfect storm’ In relation to whether political paradigm, in which some or violence could ever be justified, all of the vectors of personal a strong majority of government vulnerabilities, environmental stakeholders argued that it could circumstances, group dynamics be justified as a legitimate response and proximity to extremist narratives to state-sponsored oppression or or influences converge to enable the denial of basic civil liberties and or encourage violent responses human rights. However, virtually to grievances or problems: ‘I no government stakeholders guess it’s that combination – if or community leaders thought a person feels disengaged from that political violence in Australia existing processes, they have could be justified because of grievances, they feel they are the strength and accessibility of not part of the society or can’t domestic democratic systems participate in these means, and it and structures. Strong distinctions is suggested to them that violence were drawn between perceived is a legitimate way of achieving legitimate political insurgencies their aims, they can respond to targeting governments and the this’. (Government stakeholder) military, versus terrorist violence targeting non-combatants and civil society as a whole. CHAPTER 4: THE EFFICACY OF DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES TO ADDRESS POLITICAL GRIEVANCES

In this portion of the study, participants were asked for their views on whether democratic processes were an effective means of addressing political grievances. In thinking about this issue, the vast majority of respondents in all three cohorts felt that democracy was the best possible system available for a reasonably fair, open and non-violent pursuit of political claims and differences. However, a number of criticisms and reservations about the limits of democracy under certain circumstances and in relation to certain groups were also expressed. CHAPTER 4: THE EFFICACY OF DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES TO ADDRESS POLITICAL GRIEVANCES 63

As we discuss in greater detail Democratic processes are “I like democracy [in Australia]. It’s below, many participants thought effective in addressing more fair and equal and gives that democratic processes political grievances individuals a chance to speak are a robust and effective up. In my country [of origin], means of addressing political A clear majority of participants although it is a democracy we grievances. However, others felt that democracy was effective have a lot of political nuisance felt that, while democracy may in allowing people to legitimately – democracy is just a word and be the ‘least flawed’ system express grievances, engage really they just do what they we have, it also has limitations in lawful forms of protest over want.” (Community leader) and challenges, including: events at home and abroad and progress peaceful domestic Not in Australia, no. That situation • Democracy is only as good change. While for many this did may vary in other countries, where as the people who participate not mean that democracy was democratic processes may not in its systems. a perfect system incapable of work so well, but there are not improvement, democracy was significant limits or problems here. • Democracy does not always nevertheless perceived largely in the (Government stakeholder) deliver justice or live up to its following way: ‘Churchill summed own principles. it up by saying, “Democracy is the Freedom of speech is worst system apart from all the democracy’s most • Democracy can frustrate through important asset the slow pace of its processes. others.” It is a flawed system but the alternatives are worse – so For those in this group who felt • Democracy privileges majority democracy is the ‘least worst’ positively about democracy’s rule at the expense of minority system.’ (Government stakeholder) efficacy, freedom of speech was the needs and concerns. most highly valued attribute: Democracy is valued • Democracy does not always in Australia In Australia, one good thing is you tolerate difference as well as In the Australian domestic context, can express yourself, people here people think. most government stakeholders and are more down to earth, people will new arrivals or migrants from other tell you if they don’t like you and • Democracy cannot benefit those countries – in many cases, those you can accept that and get on with who lack capacity to engage with non-democratic governments it. I think freedom of speech is not with it. or else with governments felt to a problem in Australia. I say what I like and no one has touched my • More education about have betrayed their democratic shoulder yet. (Community leader) democracy is needed to keep ideals – spoke with strong feeling it robust and viable. about what they perceived to be In Afghanistan or Sudan, you the advantages of democracy over can’t sit and talk like this. But we • Sometimes democracy is not other political systems: are having it here. (Focus group compatible with religion. “Democracy in Australia is so participant) strong that many believe they I don’t think there are any limitations can positively contribute to the to the process of democracy. Given development of the country, and if our support for freedom of speech ever we are to experience such a and expression of thought, you [radical or extremist] group, those have the capacity to say almost people will not be supported.” anything you want within the law. (Focus group participant) (Government stakeholder) 64 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Democracy is only as good The limitations of “We hold up democracy as an as the social contract that democracy ideal but it is far from ideal. Where supports it the grievance is foreign policy As noted above, while only a tiny Other government stakeholders – US support for Israel which is minority of participants directly and some community leaders, at the forefront of any terrorist questioned whether democracy while they also saw democracy as organisation who wants to be was a good system for meeting an effective means of dealing with heard – these countries say we people’s needs and concerns, political grievances, were more can’t do anything about that. a range of critiques around the measured in their assessment, Democracy can give people a limitations of democratic processes pointing to perceived risks and voice but it doesn’t necessarily were also identified. For some challenges in maintaining the give them satisfaction. Every participants, democracy works viability of democratic systems terrorist organisation that has better in theory than in practice under a complex range of social put down its weapons and and does not always deliver justice and policy pressures. For these participated in the democratic or live up to its own principles. respondents, democracy works as political process has resulted in Accordingly, these perceptions well as the people who understand, a splinter faction forming that largely revolved around the value and participate in the system. continues the violence – ETA-M practical realpolitik of democracy However, participants in this group might be an example. And we have in particular contexts and with also suggested it can become yet to see what happens with Sri respect to particular groups, rather fragile if the social contract that Lanka. So, democracy on its own than representing a fundamental supports democratic processes is is not the only answer. [...] People disagreement with the precepts of challenged or ignored: [may] feel that in a so-called democratic rule per se. democratic society they are still not I think the social compact we have There is only so much getting justice. This is the limit of in Australia is that democracy has democracy can achieve democracy because the country to work in this way. You either write is not listening to the people. A number of participants felt that to your member and it achieves This breeds radicalisation and democracy had inherent limitations nothing, you vote and the same extremism.” (Community leader) in dealing with the array of political outcome, you write letters to paper problems and grievances than can or protest on the streets, but that’s A few Muslim community leaders arise in a globalised environment as far as you can take it. That’s were also worried by what they with wide disparities in ideology, our social contract. For some perceived as the tendency for social structures and the distribution asylum seekers, for example, [the democracy to emphasise political of political and material resources. social contract that limits political and civic freedoms without This view reflects the concerns that violence] is why they come [to a corresponding emphasis a range of participants had when Australia]. If you follow the political on the social responsibilities thinking about the limitations of process and this does not lead and obligations of citizens in democracy in both domestic and to an outcome, it might lead to a democratic environment. A overseas contexts. For example: violence. (Government stakeholder) perceived imbalance between rights and responsibilities was, for these respondents, a fundamental flaw in the way they see democracy playing out in various societies: CHAPTER 4: THE EFFICACY OF DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES TO ADDRESS POLITICAL GRIEVANCES 65

“The problem with democracy The power of lobbying and political “The amount of time it takes for is that it allows for independent interest groups, who were seen social movements to achieve freedom and liberties but generally, to employ a variety of methods results in democratic systems by providing that, the rules of (including media) to close out the frustrates or can frustrate responsibility get thrown out of voices of ordinary communities people who think change is not the window. Thus what happens seeking to get their message happening quickly enough. I is that democracy leads to across, was also a concern for a think we see that over time in a chaos, social breakdown and the few community leaders: variety of social movements.” disintegration of society. In a lot of (Government stakeholder) countries where democracy has “The problem is the extent of been applied they’ve disintegrated the lobbying and the political Democracy favours the into civil war because the interest groups that can influence majority at the expense responsibilities that come with governments, as well as the of minorities individual freedom have not been influence of media. There is a A large number of those part of the process – this makes it level at which people can end participants who identified a dangerous thing. [However], out up being frustrated – not to the limitations to democratic systems of all the systems that we have, point of taking up arms, but cited the issue of majority rule and democracy is the least flawed one, still... So when democracy gets the marginalisation of minorities so to speak.” (Community leader) corrupted or overtaken by large under a democratic system as a key interest groups, this is when the limitation of democracy. For some One Muslim community leader, problems start. But there is also this related to the inherent challenge however, felt that the main problem something like the tyranny of the within a democracy of having to was not the lack of balance masses – for example, support make decisions that inevitably will between rights and responsibilities for slavery in the US all those not achieve 100% consensus, but the deeper imbalance years ago. But any system is while others perceived a more between democracy as theory flawed, and the alternatives are direct link between majority culture and democracy as practice for far more horrendous in my view.” and majority rule at the expense of transnational Muslim communities: (Community leader) minority voices and perspectives:

“I would distinguish between Democracy can move “The majority vote is an important democracy as theory, which has too slowly aspect of democracy, and for a lot of benefit, and the practice Some government stakeholders minorities democracy doesn’t of democracy, in which over the suggested that a key limitation solve any of their problems. The last two centuries, [we have seen of democratic process is the minorities know in advance their that] the people running the show bureaucratic and time consuming candidate will not win. While they are the problem. Therefore the nature of its processes. They were can participate in the process, they system does not facilitate any concerned that this can wear know they will still be the losers at solution. How do you make the thin for those who feel rapid and the end of the process. I think it’s [Muslim] voice heard outside urgent change is required who then hard to sell democracy to these the mainstream without using become frustrated with the slow people. At a local Australian micro- violence? The voice will only be pace of change. Such frustration level I think the best thing that can properly be heard when you was seen as a trigger for those happen is giving these people a establish the Caliphate, which inclined to seek alternatives to valid voice. Five years ago when will give us our own state, our democratic avenues for addressing had a Muslim own army, and then we will have grievances or problems – for reference group happening, there equal footing with others. We example, those who split from was a lot of excitement about seek to establish the Caliphate broader social movements ‘to take being given a platform and validity.” and this is where the influence will direct action because they see (Community leader) come from. This has been a long the political process as too slow term objective but we think it is – this is the exigency argument’ imminent.” (Community leader) (government stakeholder). 66 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“When you talk about democracy, “Maybe it is the people behind “The democratic process within what does that mean? For the democratic processes. We Australia doesn’t work for example, when we were need to appreciate that Muslims African communities because sending troops to Afghanistan are part of the non-Muslim world they are not on a level playing there were rallies against it, but and we want the same. We field with other Australian they were ignored. In the US, subscribe to Islam but we still communities.” (African-background society is dictated by the Jewish want peace and happiness.” focus group participant) society. It is the same here. (Focus group participant) We don’t recognise Hamas. We need more education There are double standards.” “Democracy and multiculturalism about democracy and its uses (Focus group participant) can work together, but the Accordingly, there was strong challenge...is to understand the support amongst participants Democracy does not social context [... and] be prepared for increased education around always tolerate cultural to listen to that and understand participatory democracy: its difference well that substantive equality is critical flexibility, its accommodation of Another critique of democracy – this means people being treated diversity and differing viewpoints, across the three participant cohorts equally which sometimes means and most of all how to intervene was its failure to sufficiently address treating people differently. The effectively through participation in fundamental differences in world limit is the lack of understanding democratic processes to ensure view between people from different and preparedness to deal with the that diverse voices and standpoints cultural backgrounds, which in complexities and circumstances are represented effectively. One turn was seen to lead to problems of diversity that require a more community leader felt that ‘you with how modern democracies diversified response than a one- have to keep selling the concept’ deal with incommensurable size-fits-all template.” (Government to those who may be mistrustful ideas about justice and power. stakeholder, policing agency) or cynical about what democracy For some, this was an inherent can deliver, while others thought Democracy cannot benefit blind-spot of democracy at the level of education both about those who lack capacity to the level of political theory: democracy specifically and also engage with it more generally needed to be “Democracy itself disavows its Related to issues around improved. As one participant own intolerance under the guise democracy and multiculturalism, a noted, democracy is not a of being open and tolerant. But key concern for participants in all ‘magical medicine’ that is simply it’s built upon a set of historical three cohorts was the perception administered and then forgotten; it and cultural beliefs, values that to fully benefit from democratic has to be supported, managed and and exclusions.” (Government processes, you need to have the reinforced at various points and in stakeholder) means and the capacity to engage various ways: fully with these. Many participants For others, however, the challenge were keenly aware that not all “If you give people opportunities was perceived to exist mainly in the communities or minority groups and feedback and support for context of living in a multicultural have the social, cultural and/ their ideas and help educate them society that must acknowledge and or educational bridging capital about better ways to do things, this respond meaningfully to diversity necessary to do this, and felt is the way to go. If people cannot and difference at all levels of the this curtailed the effectiveness of come up with good ideas there social and political environment. As democracy as a system in which is a problem with our education. one community leader pointed out, grievances could be peacefully We can’t blame democracy ‘You either choose to go with the addressed and resolved as a result: because democracy has to be crowd or stand out. The moment managed – it is not a magical that you start having different views “There is a lack of capability amongst medicine.” (Community leader) you start to stand out and it’s not some groups, especially ethnic and easy, you will be hated by certain migrant communities – it’s easier for people – but we have to fight for an organised, white, maybe Christian social rights and social issues. We organisation to write an effective can’t always be asleep’: grant proposal. Capacity building is needed to help take advantage of democratic processes.” (Government stakeholder) CHAPTER 4: THE EFFICACY OF DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES TO ADDRESS POLITICAL GRIEVANCES 67

“I think the problem is not with However, a sizeable minority of In a related vein, some participants democracy itself but with a participants perceived that, at thought that incompatible values failure to understand how times, democracy and religious and precepts could not be accommodating and flexible beliefs could collide and that assimilated either easily, or in some it is. People impose their own in many respects they were cases at all, either by diaspora limits but may not understand fundamentally incompatible. This communities or those populations just how robust it really can be.” view was expressed by both Muslim into which they are integrating: (Government stakeholder) and non-Muslim respondents across all three participant “A pluralist secular society requires Democracy is sometimes cohorts. Community leaders and that the individual be able to incompatible with religion government stakeholders tended distance themselves from their As the discussion above suggests, to dominate in contributing this own set of beliefs in order to a clear majority of participants perspective. For some Muslim respect and tolerate the beliefs of felt that on balance they admired community leaders, the main others that may not be cognate democracy and were comfortable concern was that Western-style with their own values. It’s asking living within a democratic Australia, democracy was an alien concept individuals to de-historicise despite the deficiencies or in Islamic countries because the and de-culturalise themselves.” limitations they highlighted. All liberal democratic separation (Government stakeholder) of the participants in this group between religion and government “But to practice democracy you also thought that promoting and contradicted the notion of an must give up many aspects of managing democracy in the context Islamic state in which such your faith. In certain areas such of multiculturalism was in some distinctions are untenable: as marriage law, inheritance law, sense the best evidence of why etc. you can’t be democratic democratic systems are worth “The BBC would have you in that – Islamic laws take having, whatever the challenges believe that they are all calling for precedence and they are may be in ensuring that alternative democracy in places like Egypt, different.” (Community leader) views and needs are heard and Syria, etc. in the ‘Arab Spring’. But Muslims in these places don’t met to the greatest extent possible “A lot of those I talk to, who are mean ‘Western’ democracy. What within the limits of democratic rule. small ‘l’ liberal thinkers, have Muslims mean is accountable worked in refugee centres, A number of Muslim participants, government, a chance to vote, etc., and they have a nagging in particular, were at pains to a chance to choose who rules discomfort. When they are really dismantle what they saw as them. What they don’t mean is pushed about what it is, it’s the the widespread perception Western liberal democracy, in contradiction between Islam’s that Islam had neither a current which the people are sovereign sense and expectation about interest in nor any tradition of and secularism is therefore also freedom of expression of religion, democracy, particularly where sovereign. So you need to go but the freedom to leave that this is broadly conceived as beyond the superficial level to religion is not held up to be valued consultation with the polity: understand they are calling for an among Muslims generally. When accountable system of government that’s come up in discussion, it’s “Democracy is not something but with God as sovereign. The been something of an issue: how which the Muslim communities essence of Western democracy can you marry that? How can you are ignorant of. Although Muslims is that people are sovereign. If demand from your new society had kingdoms, they always you ask Muslims whether people or expect it to value these things had close knit consultation with should be sovereign or whether in the Australian context, which communities. [...] From where we God should be sovereign they are expressions of our values, but sit, democracy is THE solution. would have a definitive answer. not uphold all [of them] yourself?” Even very ardent supporters of So the only way to reconcile this (Focus group participant) other causes in Libya, etc. still is to understand what Islamic want democratic systems and people believe about democracy.” the freedoms that go with them.” (Community leader) (Muslim community leaders) 68 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

For government stakeholders, Democracy was described as Democracy can frustrate people however, the primary thrust accommodating, flexible, robust because of its bureaucratic was the broader incompatibility and capable of absorbing and structure and the slow pace of its between secular democracy and respecting a variety of perspectives processes, and this was identified any form of religious doctrine up to a point. Being able to speak as a risk by some participants, that seeks to govern society freely without fear of imprisonment, particularly government structurally rather just offering sanction or other forms of stakeholders, in relation to fostering spiritual guidance to its adherents: persecution was particularly receptiveness to extremist or important to those participants who violent means of achieving social “There is a section of the hailed from countries or regions change. Some participants were community for whom democracy where freedom of speech was concerned by the extent to which, can never be seen as a legitimate curtailed or absent. in its privileging of rule by majority means of resolution because at the polling booth, minority needs of religion. [Moreover,] secular However, a number of challenges and concerns may go unheard or liberal democratic societies and limitations for democracy as a unmet, and this was also identified have not been able to provide political system were also identified as a potential risk factor in relation a kind of policy or government by participants. These included the to radicalisation and extremism. framework that can deal with perception that while democracy a strong religious paradigm.” as a system may be admirable, it Other risk factors included the (Government stakeholders) must involve full participation and perception that democracy good understanding of its capacity does not always tolerate cultural Conclusion by the people who are subject to difference as well as people think, its rule. Democracy was seen by and that democracy cannot benefit The theme of democracy and some not always to deliver justice those who lack capacity to engage efficacy in addressing political or live up to its own principles, with with it, which in turn can discourage grievances elicited very detailed, many examples offered of hypocrisy or alienate them from relying on thoughtful and in-depth responses or failure to live up to expectations, democratic processes to resolve from community leaders and particularly in the realm of having their grievances. One solution to government stakeholders, an impact on foreign policy, for these issues offered by participants suggesting that this issue is a topic example in relation to the wars was that more education about of current interest and concern for in Afghanistan and Iraq and the democracy is needed to keep many from these cohorts. Focus ongoing Israel/Palestine conflict. it robust and viable, and more group participants contributed less Some Muslim community leaders in attention is required to ensuring to this portion of the discussion, particular were concerned about the that the least advantaged in our however. This disparity in responses perceived lack of balance between communities are provided with the may reflect the older and better the rights and freedoms offered means to fully use and benefit from educated age groups from which by democratic societies without democratic systems. community leader and government commensurate responsibilities on stakeholder participants were drawn the part of their citizens, while both A minority of participants thought compared with the largely youthful community leaders and government that at times, democracy is not cohort in the focus groups. For those stakeholders pointed to the gap compatible with religion. For some who did contribute to this theme, between democracy in theory and participants, particularly those in the vast majority of respondents democracy in practice. Overall, government, this was because were positive in their assessment most critiques of democracy of broader convictions about the of democracy as a political system were rooted in the realpolitik of incompatibility between secular that is reasonably strong, capable of democracy in action rather than government and religion. For a responding within limits to diversity with any fundamental disagreement number of Muslim community of viewpoint and orientation, and that with its premises or precepts as a leaders, however, the concern was is the best available political system political system, though a minority the contradiction between Islamic for guaranteeing highly valued rights dissented with this view. and non-Islamic understandings of and freedoms such as freedom of the state in relation to how liberal speech, movement, political beliefs democracy may be understood in and the right to practice religion or Muslim contexts. other forms of cultural identity free from discrimination and persecution. CHAPTER 5: PERCEIVED LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM

Participants were asked whether in their view there is a generally perceived link between Islam, extremism and terrorism, and if so, why they thought this was the case. While only a small minority of respondents held this view personally, an overwhelming majority believed that there is a general and well-established perceived link between Islam and terrorist ideology and activity in public discourse and the community at large. The primary driver of this link for the majority of participants was media, on which respondents had complex and wide-ranging views, as discussed below. 70 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Other non-media drivers of the Media drives perceptions Media is biased link between Islam, extremism and of the relationship against Muslims terrorism included the successful between Islam and The view that media is biased and dissemination of Islamist versions of terrorism therefore responsible, at least in what Islam stands for; non-Muslim part, for fostering and reinforcing a The most dominant theme perceptions of and prejudices perceived link between Islam and emerging from both interview and about Muslims and Islam; lack terrorism was held by government focus group participants around the of contact and understanding and community participants alike. drivers for this perceived link was between Muslims and non- As one government stakeholder the role of media and its influence Muslims; an over-emphasis on the asked rhetorically: ‘What proportion on mainstream communities. Most visible difference of Muslims from of the Australian community participants believed that: mainstream Australian communities; recognises that the media the perpetuation of an ‘us and • media sensationalism, reporting on Islam and terrorism is them’ mentality by non-Muslims stereotyping and distortion; largely responsible for driving this and Muslims alike; the influence of perception?’ In many cases such the post-9/11 environment; lack • media oversimplification or views reflected a more general level of educational opportunities to ‘dumbing down’ of issues of cynicism and disenchantment learn more about Islam; the lack around Muslims, extremism with commercial media in particular of publicity for diverse viewpoints and terrorism; and (see Chapter 6): across Muslim communities, and the lack of general community • the propensity of mainstream “Definitely, a lot of people [make this awareness that we should be and particularly commercial link between Islam and terrorism] concerned with forms of extremism media to marginalise, dismiss and the media makes this happen. other than the Islamic variety, or ignore diverse and/or I’m a Muslim and I find this such as right-wing extremism. moderate views across Muslim very sad. It’s just stereotyping.” communities were largely (Community leader) The influence of this perceived responsible for forging a link on participants’ own views perceived link between Islam “I think the link comes from media of Muslims and of Islam as a and terrorism in the minds of the and from how we have articulated religion was asked of non-Muslim general Australian population. the issues in Australia. ... Here participants and their responses fell we have the Plymouth Brethren into two broad categories: those In addition, a number of participants but no one calls them ‘extremists’ who said it had little or no impact attributed the commercial even though they hold some very on how they viewed Muslims and imperative of media organisations extreme views. .. I think 70% Islam, and those who said it had – to sell more papers or attract of the public are fed complete spurred them to develop greater more advertising – as the dominant rubbish by commercial media that knowledge of Islam and contact feature of media angles on Muslims severely limits our ability to make with Muslims in order to challenge and terrorism, with truthful, accurate informed independent judgments either their own ignorance or or balanced reporting taking a back about the dilemmas we face.” what they saw as the biased seat to the economic drivers of the (Government stakeholders) and ill-informed views of others. news cycle. However, a minority of non-Muslim Media marginalises moderate participants did say that for them, Muslim viewpoints a perceived rise in Islamic religious Moreover, some participants felt fundamentalism has raised keenly that marginalisation of questions and increased their sense more moderate Muslim views is of threat concerning Islam. commonplace, and that such views are routinely dismissed by a globalised media culture intent on sensationalising issues around Islam and extremism wherever possible: CHAPTER 5: PERCEIVED LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM 71

“No one really listens. Not much the more extremist the better, “How can we be so sure that attention is given by media to because it makes for better press.” they actually did it, still a lot of [Muslims] saying, ‘violence is wrong’, (Government stakeholder) confusion about 9/11 – I’ve as opposed to when violence is seen documentaries made called for [by Muslims]. Moderate “The media takes this [perceived by locals, by non-Muslims.” Muslims condemn violence and link] and portrays it as all Muslims (Focus group participant) extremism more than we realise, but doing [terrorism], so people see people are not out there reporting my beard when I am going to work Non-media drivers of the this in the media to the same and think, ‘I wonder what he’s up perceived link between extent.” (Community leader) to.’” (Community leader) Islam and terrorism “I think this [perceived link] is a The September 11 attacks Beyond the dominant theme of common feast on television. Is it were a media beat-up, media that emerged for almost the case that we need to create an invention or conspiracy all participants, a range of other enemy in order to stay interested In addition to these concerns with key issues emerged around what in watching TV? It certainly sells how the media is seen to promote contributes to the perceived link the newspapers. The images a distorted view of the connection between Islam and terrorism. would seem to support the view between Islam and terrorism, a Many participants felt that the that people who are of Muslim worryingly large number of focus assumed link between Islam and background are just a rabid rabble. group participants questioned terrorism was founded on a deeper .. After a terrorist event if you get the veracity of how the media and broader set of assumptions the Islamic Council coming out represented September 11. Some about Islam as an extremist or and condemning it, that view participants, while believing that fundamentalist religion, pointing to would be ignored in favour of these attacks took place, felt that the fact that not only Islamists but someone else saying there are subsequent discourses on 9/11 also many non-Muslims promote legitimate reasons [for the attack].” were a media ‘beat-up’, while the idea that Islam is a religion of (Government stakeholders) others questioned whether the extremism and violence. attacks were completely invented In turn, a number of participants and then peddled by media Islamist justifications of felt this had a multiplier effect organisations around the world. ‘political Islam’ on Muslim communities more For this group of participants, Across all three participant cohorts, generally. They perceived that conspiracy theory around the a number of respondents attributed through imbalance or bias, media events of 9/11 in particular was a this perception to hardline Islamist reporting routinely assumes and strong narrative driver, with many groups and individuals, whom they promotes a link between Islam and citing ‘conspiracy’, ‘conspiracy see as successfully perpetuating a terrorism. This was seen as linked theory’ and ‘government trickery’ as distorted view of Islam as inherently to the tendency to flatten out or the main rationale for the perceived violent and extreme in order to ignore the diversity of Australian link between Islam and terrorism: justify what some respondents Muslim community beliefs, values termed ‘political Islam’ (community and practices: “September 11 was fake, if it was leader) or ‘Islamo-fascism’ (focus real they would have blown up group participant): “There’s a view within Australia that the White House, think about it, it there is a ‘Muslim community’ in doesn’t make sense to blow up “People who commit highly visible the singular. There is a spectrum the Twin Towers and kill innocent acts of terrorism self-identify as of views [within Australian Muslim people.” (Focus group participant) ‘authentic’ carriers of Islam. Most communities], however, just as of the people watching this unfold there are for Christians and Jews. “They already have that perception take them at their word and don’t The media understands the about Muslims, it could have argue the point. In a sense, the difference between the different been anyone. We never knew confrontation between the ‘West’ Christian denominations, for who did September 11, and ‘Islam’ is taken as the major example – Uniting, Anglican, probably done by George Bush.” narrative and text of the history Brethren. But in relation to Islam, (Focus group participant) of these relations – so that Islam one Muslim is the same as is seen as somehow inherently another and one imam the same confrontationist, inherently violent.” as another in the media – and (Community leader) 72 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“There is a perception in large “There is a perception that Muslims “In Australia, they have the wrong sections of the Australian love Al Qaeda or Osama bin idea about Muslims though, community that portions of the Laden, and that is wrong. Many they see us like Sheikh Hilali, Muslim community provide Muslims disagree with how he did they think everybody is like this, support for terrorist activity. This is things, but those who don’t hate and that Muslims think Islam partly because of the success of him say they don’t because they should be the only religion, and the ideology put out by Islamists see him as the only person who they don’t understand other who have themselves made that ever stood up to an international views that other Muslims have.” connection through claiming – bully. ...They see him as less of a (Focus group participant) whether Al-Qaeda or Jemaah terrorist than the USA is.” (Focus Islamiah – that what they are group participants) “As to why [this link exists], that’s doing is what all good Muslims a really sad answer. The general should do, which gets reported Non-Muslims perceive Islam perception is that these people are and repeated. Ten years ago, most as a religion of extremism born angry and there is no point in Australians knew very little about and violence trying to reason with them or trying Islam, but such things as they Equally, many participants felt that to understand them. It’s a feeling know now they pick up from what non-Muslims were more generally of, ‘Not only am I misunderstood, Bashir says in his trial in Indonesia, inclined to perceive Islam as a but nobody cares why I got to or on the internet by Islamists, and religion of extremism and violence that stage – they only care that this is what gets reported in the because of broader cultural and they see me as Muslim and media.” (Government stakeholder) social ignorance about or bias angry.’ The fact that people don’t toward Muslims, including lack of ask ‘why’ often enough is one of “I’m a part of Aussie Muslims.com awareness of diversity across the the contributing factors for the and we have some, not many, who spectrum of Muslim beliefs. Such continuation of the violence you are have fundamental and strict views, ignorance was perceived to lead to talking about.” (Community leader) and even they are against Ibrahim stereotyping, overgeneralisation and Lack of contact and Siddiq-Conlon from 60 Minutes, lack of interest in understanding understanding between who gives a picture of Islam that why some Muslim individuals and Muslims and non-Muslims would make anyone hate it.” communities might experience a (Focus group participant) sense of social or political sense However, the strongest driver of grievance. In turn, this was beyond media influence for However, a minority felt that the perceived by some participants to perceptions of a link between casting of Islam as a religion that enhance rather than reduce the Islam and terrorism identified by espouses extremist violence is not prospect of radicalisation: both community and government wholly unfounded: participants was lack of knowledge “When we had some Muslim about Islam and lack of contact with “There are some unpalatable truths women coming up to my office, in Muslims by non-Muslim Australians: that need to be acknowledged. this very secure building, I rang the The concept of violent jihad isn’t security guards downstairs to let “If you don’t know anything you a new invention: it is a historical them know some Muslim women will take the first thing that is strand within Islam that has been were coming up to see me, as I thrown at you. There is a link there since the very beginning. The was a bit sensitive about this. The between Osama bin Laden and reputable Islamic scholars say that guard on the phone said, ‘Don’t Islam, but that only applies to the jihadists’ agenda is a distortion worry, I know how to deal with him and his followers. If you of Islam, but it does have built terrorists’. He equated Muslims knew what the Koran said and into it sufficient material to allow and terrorism just like that – snap. what Islam stood for, you’d that distortion to be made. It is This is the kind of thing we need to understand that he is wrong and just a distortion, not an invention.” change.” (Government stakeholder) that is not what the Koran stands (Government stakeholder) for and that he has got it really wrong. But if you’re ignorant There was also qualified minority you accept that this is what support in the focus groups for Al- Islam stands for – the bin Laden Qaeda’s political agenda in relation version.” (Community leader) to the West: CHAPTER 5: PERCEIVED LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM 73

“People use these terms (Islam, “But that’s when it becomes your “It’s deeply embedded socially that radicalisation, extremism, job to educate your neighbours when you see Muslims wearing terrorism) in the same sentence. against that. You have an uphill burkhas, you immediately think One of the things I’m party to battle. I thought about that, ‘terrorist’. It’s been way too through meetings with police, etc. yesterday, I was outside with some embedded. You see terrorists on extremism is uncomfortable people, some farmers who were on the TV wearing their [Islamic] conversations about Muslims. asking some questions – one gear and you take that as read.” There is a lot of misunderstanding asked me, are you from Sudan, I (Community leader) about jihad amongst the general said no, I’m not from Sudan, but I public.” (Government stakeholder) really want to know what they think “Yes, I find this, people on the bus, about us, they said we don’t know they ask me, ‘Why are you wearing “In Alice Springs where there are where you’re from, we know you’re a scarf?’ They keep asking me, I no Muslims, or in Perth in remote from Africa but you all look the feel like they hate it. They say you areas, also no Muslims – these same.” (Focus group participant) would have lovely hair underneath people also need contact first- that, why do you hide it under hand because when something Over-emphasis on visible that? This happens on the bus, goes wrong and the media has an difference of Muslims from and it makes me uncomfortable.” opinion that is wrong or inaccurate, the mainstream (Focus group participant) they can counter this based Another strong theme, especially Not all respondents shared the on their personal experience. from government respondents, view that community concerns Interactions between Muslims and was the perceived emphasis on about Islamic visible difference were non-Muslims will be critical to this the visible difference of Muslims, misplaced, however: effort.” (Community leader) and the ways in which this is used in the service of ‘Islamophobia’, As an extension of this view, “There is still the whole burkha as one government stakeholder many respondents felt that more argument – should they be allowed put it, to ‘legitimise continued education and interaction between in this country? Could you imagine hatred or dislike for difference Muslims and non-Muslims, us having an argument about through resort to visible signs particularly in relation to more the bikini in this country? So it’s of [Islamic] difference.’ moderate forms of Islamic belief something that people obviously find threatening but it’s just a piece and practice, was required to “One of the problems of the last of clothing.” (Female) combat this perception. However, decade is a quite direct association such educational and contact in the public mind between Islam “We don’t make the same judgment opportunities were perceived and terrorism. This is because all about Indian women’s clothes, as either ad hoc or very limited, the high profile cases of terrorism but that’s because you can see despite participants’ observations that we’ve seen have been done their face. Even with extremist of relatively modest levels of in the name of a perverted and publications on the internet, knowledge in Australia about other extreme form of Islam. But it’s also there are pictures of women with parts of the world: corresponded to a time where burkhas and AK-47s.” (Male) we’ve seen a more assertive period “In school there was one subject of Islam with women wearing “Yes, but [the weapons are] not called ‘Religion and Philosophy’ niqab, hijab, etc. Media has a role under the burkhas!” (Female) – it was an option and not many in this. I spent an afternoon in the people did it. I did it and changed (Exchange between female and Operation Neath trial last year. One my views. But now it has been male government stakeholders) of the things that struck me was dropped from the state [secondary the Somali families there – most of education] curriculum – ethics, “I grew up [in an African country], the women were wearing niqabs, religion and philosophy are no I see these people, they put on and all the media cameras focused longer offered. Last year it was that thing; you only see their eyes. right in on them. The strong dropped completely.” (Community If they wear that I think they are association in the public mind is youth leader) real bad people – I grow up in a there.” (Government stakeholder) community of Muslims, and then when they cover their faces, bad things happen – where they cover their face – I still think it is bad.” (Focus group participant) 74 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The ‘us’ and ‘them’ mentality Moreover, some recent arrivals Many in all three study cohorts The focus on the visible difference who came to Australia in order felt that the negative impacts of of Australian Muslims from to escape religious conflict, war the post-9/11 environment on mainstream society was in turn felt and persecution felt that ‘us and perceptions that Islam and terrorism to be linked to deeper perceptions them’ divisions continued to shape are fundamentally intertwined have about the irreconcilable nature of their perceptions and experience, been exacerbated through Western cultural differences between non- despite occasionally improved narratives that have exploited this Muslim and Muslim Australians. As relationships between such groups link for the purpose of the global one government respondent said, in the new environment. ‘war on terror’. One community ‘This link invigorates an old enmity leader put it this way: “Sudanese Christians and Muslims between Islam and the West. here are fine, but deep down there 9/11 is now the defining yardstick It’s about trying to differentiate is division, always will be because for a whole generation of ourselves from the Other – they of the war. But everywhere you children and young people, and are everything that we are not.’ go, Egypt, Muslims and Christians this has a strong influence on The belief that significant portions are divided, same people from them, including regarding the of Australian communities hold the same country but still there perceived links between Islam, an ‘us and them’ set of beliefs are divisions. ... We [still] have that terrorism and radicalisation. about Muslims and non-Muslims fear.” (Focus group participants) was primarily attributed to media He went on to say that the lack influences and Australian cultural Influence of post-9/11 of any ‘counter-narrative from the insularity and fear of change: environment West’ reinforced this, and that the perceived link between Islam and “Media creates an ‘us’ and ‘them’ Unsurprisingly, the influence terrorism is now ‘embedded’ and mentality. People want to hear of the September 11 terrorist it may be too late to backtrack, the ‘us’ side of their view, not attacks in New York City and despite some evidence of recent the other side’s view. They want Washington, DC were keenly government efforts to do so. something that supports their felt by a majority of participants to have created a ‘before’ and existing biases and ideas. For any Both Muslim and non-Muslim ‘after’ set of perceptions about the person who might think there is community members compared links between Islam, extremism a slight link between Islam and Australian ‘before’ and ‘after’ and terrorism. One government terrorism – the media amplifies experiences and perceptions in participant noted that while non- and fuels this and makes it the way that the media has used Muslim terrorism was a familiar worse.” (Community leader) the post-9/11 environment to concept previously through the strengthen the idea that Islam and “Why that perception? I think there activities of the IRA and the Tamil terrorism are connected: is a perception of that link because Tigers, for example, it was 9/11 that the fear is that ‘they’ want to really put Islamic-based terrorism “I came here in 2000, and the change ‘our’ way of life. It’s always on the ‘front page’ and front-and- people were very friendly when very much us and them. ‘They’ centre of global consciousness, I came, and it was very good. want to impose their beliefs and including in Australia. Another After September 11, the people change the way ‘we’ live and are government participant said, ‘I think changed, and it’s very changed prepared to do anything to achieve the perception we have of the link now, whether you are at work that. It’s that fear of being forced between these is only since 9/11. If college, study, everyone looks at to adopt or change or have your you asked most Australians about you, and for a woman, if they wear freedoms taken away from you Islam prior to that event, most the scarf, and women get abused.” – religious freedom, freedom to would’ve had a bland view, if any. (Focus group participant) dress the way you want, etc. For So it’s just 9/11, Bali and London, most of us in WA, we might know these three events, that have led a couple of Muslims, and the ones most Australians to have firm views I know are very moderate – but about the link between Islam, the perception is that ‘they’ are extremism and violence.’ the ones with the crusade and ‘we’ are the ones under threat.” (Government stakeholder) CHAPTER 5: PERCEIVED LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM 75

“There are two different Others, however, felt that the “I can give you an example of perspectives between then and negatives of post-9/11 discourse non-religious based radicalism – now, and 9/11 is the dividing line far outweigh the positives for [names prominent environmental here. Media plays a big part in this. Muslim communities, in some activist organisation]. There are I moved to Australia in December cases to the extent of blaming eco-terrorists out there who 1996 and people would ask me this discourse for encouraging will blow up a building rather where I was from. Their general radicalism and extremism: than see some chickens eaten.” perception of Pakistan at that (Government stakeholder) time was cricket and squash. “There are still many stereotypes At that time many people didn’t and enemies. We create people “You can find people like [right- understand Islam at all, and I’d be who become extremists through wing American fundamentalist] teased about multiple marriages, the language we use and the Timothy McVeigh in the US – he etc. These days, if I say I’m Muslim actions we take – we have driven killed lots of kids, didn’t just and from Pakistan, people’s people crazy. The impact of 9/11 blow up a government building.” defences go up immediately – even has been huge in this regard, and (Government stakeholder) just at the mention of my being this has led to many other things.” Pakistani, never mind Muslim.” (Community leader) Does a perceived link (Community leader) between Islam and “The whole war on terror is a terrorism affect people’s form of terrorism itself, makes “September 11 and the media have general view of Muslims? done a great deal to foster this Bin Laden bigger than he is, link. The early Muslims who came and gives these people credit.” Three major themes dominated this [to Australia] in the 1800s are (Focus group participant) section of the study, all related to fantastic. But we don’t hear about rejecting or qualifying the impact of Concern about non-Islamic the perceived link between Islam them now – only about bin Laden.” violent extremism (Community leader) and terrorism on participants’ own A range of government (but not views of Muslims. The first was the Despite this, a few community community) participants highlighted importance of personal interaction participants also thought that the importance of broader and contact between Muslims the post-9/11 environment has understandings of extremism and and non-Muslims; the second produced some positives for terrorism beyond Islamic-based was the importance of better Muslims, particularly in relation to extremism. Some participants felt education about Islam, particularly producing greater curiosity and it was important to do this in order for non-Muslims; and the third was awareness to find out more about to balance the ledger between disavowal of any impact based Islamic history and belief systems: perceptions of Muslim versus non- on their own previous experience, Muslim extremism; some thought whether in their personal lives, “9/11 has also produced greater any fundamentalism of any variety, working lives or both. awareness of Islam – most whether religious or ideological, Westerners didn’t know much could potentially lead to extremism; before then about Islam at all. and others saw it as a pragmatic People who are prepared not to be recognition of different threats in brainwashed by media have been different national, transnational or more prepared to explore it for local contexts: themselves.” (Community leader) “You don’t have to go far back “After 9/11 there was a lot of in any religion to find that it can radio discussion and someone support terrorism or extremism called in and said, ‘I have Muslim – think of Christianity during the neighbours, they’re not terrorists – Inquisition in the Middle Ages.” they are normal people, they visit (Government stakeholder) me, I visit them.’ If Muslims were not here you wouldn’t have that kind of comment and knowledge developing.” (Community leader) 76 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

More contact with and “From a personal perspective, “There’s a course I’m involved knowledge about Muslims it makes me feel quite a lot of in that has several elements on in the local community empathy and more of an effort suicide bombing interdiction and Many non-Muslim government to empathise and to advocate what motivates terrorists. It’s pretty and community respondents for Muslims. Even before this one-sided – it’s the axis of evil explicitly questioned the perceived job I felt the need to challenge presentation. They don’t talk about link between Islam and terrorism people’s racism. Growing up in the pillars of Islam or anything that on the basis that it sweeps up all a very multicultural area, I never is really inspirational. If you’re fed Muslims as a singular, homogenous saw people who felt as much that diet and that diet alone and group and ‘tarnishes’ the peaceful permission to judge people on the you don’t take the time to pick majority based on the actions of basis of culture, race or religion as up a few credible magazines to an extremist few. Their responses they do with Muslims. When I go read anything else or have contact highlighted the fact that their shopping and I see a woman in a with anyone who has different but individual efforts to move beyond the hijab I want to smile and say we’re equally credible ideas, you get oversimplifications of the generally not all racist and judgmental.” radicalised in the other direction perceived link between Islam and (Government stakeholder) as police. I think it should be more terrorism has made them especially balanced training.” (Government Educating oneself and others stakeholder, policing agency) conscious of the importance of about Muslims and Islam personal relationships or interactions Muslim community leaders also with moderate Muslim colleagues, A second and related theme stressed that the rise in perceptions neighbours and friends: centred on the way in which such a link emphasises the need both of a link between Islam and “I know differently through my for Muslims to educate others, and terrorism made them want to work marriage and raising 3 Muslim for non-Muslims to become better more proactively to counter non- children and having long educated themselves about Islam. Muslim ignorance about Islam: contact with Islamic people. Amongst government stakeholders, “As a Muslim it has made me want Very few Islamic people are this was an important point in to work harder to quell those fears friendly with Australians and particular for participants from and that association between Islam vice versa. Not much of a police services: and terrorism. It’s disappointing connection is happening.” but my faith is not in any way (Non-Muslim community “I developed a counter-terrorism shaken, neither in Islam nor in the leader with Muslim spouse) course for police in [state] where I spend about five minutes on community.” (Community leader) the flip side of Islam as a credible “[Some] years ago I went to No impact of perceived link religion, just to give them that [a Middle Eastern country] for on personal views of non- little bit of grounding before [a period of time]. I had many Muslims towards Muslims questions about Islam. My tour we start talking about suicide guide answered many questions bombing. I generally get a few The final theme to emerge from about Islam in a very positive way. questions afterward so I tell this portion of the data was the Without that I have no idea what them to go find out more and do disavowal of any impact on non- my views would be – probably some further reading. I think the Muslim participants’ personal views just the same as everyone else’s policing fraternity would do well of Islam and Muslims, spread fairly in my normal environment.” to do that in a more formal sense. evenly between government and (Government stakeholder) Most police officers are thinking community leaders. This view was individuals; you plant a seed and expressed primarily by those non- they’re inquisitive.” (Government Muslims with extended knowledge stakeholder, policing agency) of and/or previous contact with Muslim individuals, communities and cultures: CHAPTER 5: PERCEIVED LINKS BETWEEN ISLAM, EXTREMISM AND TERRORISM 77

“I think the link is in the general “When I was in Fiji, there was “As I said before, whether Jew, community but I don’t subscribe militancy, no doubt, but I was Muslim or Christian, we are to it. I spent a lot of times with oblivious to the level of exposure to human – there is nothing wrong Muslims back in England so guess Islamic terrorism and all that. It was or bad about people. But religion I was aware enough and had only when I came to Australia that can influence people’s behaviour. a clear enough understanding I realised it’s such a massive issue I am very concerned that if there of Islam to know that it’s a in people’s minds. It makes you are a huge number of Muslims in radical group who are Muslims stand up and question your own Australia, it will become a country and not Muslims themselves. belief systems and wake up to the not like the one we have now if the I don’t believe that all Muslims reality of what’s going on around power of Islam becomes huge. are extremists. It is a minority you. If you don’t question yourself They want to apply shari’a in within Islam who are driving the about what’s going on around you England for those Muslims. How extremism and radicalisation.” I think this is stupid, not to question can you have a rule within a rule? (Government stakeholder) it.” (Muslim community leader) This cannot happen but if they become powerful enough I reckon “I have a more benevolent view “When I started hearing the news in they will do it. I left [my country of of Islam going back to my earlier the 1980s, there were no suicide origin] on my own but my family is experience. I see that of 1.5 billion bombings even though there were still there. I came because I felt I Muslims, the extremists are only a killings in Russia [in the Chechen was discriminated against, didn’t fringe minority of a very big religion. conflict], for example. I wasn’t have the ability to go into politics, Over history, at the extreme end of confused then. But in the 1990s etc. Now I feel what happened in religion there has been terrorism when the Kashmiri issues came [my country of birth] could happen across the board, so it’s not just up, I started as a young person here.” (Community leader) Islam.” (Government stakeholder) to read the Koran and other materials, to try to see historically, Conclusion “I have not been swayed in any where was violence happening in fashion by the rubbish [in the Muslim history? How many times An overwhelming majority believed media] that I see. I’ve read the were they criminals and how many that there was a generally strong Koran and tried to understand it, times victims? In the mid-1990s and well-established perceived so this hasn’t changed my view, I made up my mind that in Islam link between Islam and terrorist which is that every single person there is no room for violence and a ideology and activity in public determines their outlook of life lot of room for forgiveness. People discourse and the community at based on their prior personal who take violence as part of Islam, large. The primary source of this experiences.” (Non-Muslim they do so for personal benefits link for the majority of participants community leader) – commercial, or otherwise. I still was seen to be the media – both commercial media and to a Religious fundamentalism stick to that view today. If someone is a criminal it is not related to his lesser extent public broadcasters causes a re-examination of such as ABC and SBS. beliefs about Islam religion. My faith is still in religion in that there is no room for violence. Most participants believed Despite the prevalence of these If people are ignorant of their own that media sensationalism, three main themes across the religion, however, this can lead stereotyping and distortion; media responses, however, a few them to justify violence by using oversimplification or ‘dumbing participants did feel that the religion as the excuse.” (Muslim down’ of issues around Muslims, perceived link between Islam and community leader) terrorism had either changed or extremism and terrorism; and the reinforced the way they saw and Only one interview participant, propensity of mainstream and felt about Islam as a religion. In the a member of a minority religious particularly commercial media case of Muslim participants, some community in a predominantly to marginalise, dismiss or ignore said the upswing in the perceived Muslim country prior to arriving in diverse and/or moderate views link had led them to re-examine Australia, felt that the perceived across Muslim communities were previously taken-for-granted link had enhanced his sense largely responsible for forging a assumptions about their own faith: of the risks of fundamentalist perceived link between Islam and religious beliefs, which he terrorism in the minds of the general associated strongly with Islam: Australian population. 78 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

In addition, a number of participants The influence of these perceived attributed the commercial links on participants’ own views of imperative of media organisations Muslims and of Islam as a religion – to sell more papers or attract fell into three broad categories: more advertising – as the dominant those from Muslim backgrounds feature of media angles on Muslims who said this perception had and terrorism, with truthful, accurate not changed their understanding or balanced reporting taking a back of their religion or their cultural seat to the economic drivers of the identity; those non-Muslims who news cycle. said it had little or no impact on how they viewed Muslims and A major concern for participants Islam, and those non-Muslims in all three cohorts was an who said it had spurred them to over-emphasis both in media develop greater knowledge of representations and at community Islam and contact with Muslims in level on the visible difference of order to challenge either their own Muslims from mainstream Australian ignorance or what they saw as the communities, and the corrosive biased and ill-informed views of effects of perpetuating stereotypes others. Personal interaction and of Australian Muslim communities contact between Muslims and non- and individuals. Muslims and importance of better education about Islam, particularly Non-media drivers of the link for non-Muslims, were seen as the between Islam, extremism and best approaches to addressing terrorism included the success of this issue. However, a minority of Islamist versions of what Islam really participants did say that for them, means; non-Muslim perceptions a perceived rise in Islamic religious of and prejudices about Muslims fundamentalism raises questions and Islam, and lack of contact and and increases the sense of threat understanding between Muslims concerning Islam. and non-Muslims. Other concerns related to the link between Islam, extremism and terrorism at community level included the perpetuation of an ‘us and them’ mentality by non-Muslims and Muslims alike; the influence of the post-9/11 environment; lack of educational opportunities to learn more about Islam; lack of publicity for diverse viewpoints across Muslim communities, and the lack of awareness that violent extremism across the political and cultural spectrum, and not just with Islam, also needs to be addressed. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 80 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Part I: Television, Participant views on the role and Accordingly, levels of distrust, radio and print impact of the media discourses cynicism and disenchantment with of radicalisation and extremism media were generally high to very A view of society as shaped by confirm other research8 that has high amongst study participants various discursive trends and identified a strong and widespread in all cohorts. The media were forces has saturated general social perception that media significantly seen by some participants as consciousness in the West for influences and shapes perceptions offering valuable information the last two decades. As a result, around the nature, impact and and positive effects in relation a general understanding that we implications of both radicalisation to fostering greater knowledge live in a world significantly shaped and extremism both in Australia about Islam as a religion, Muslims by identifiable (if also shifting and and overseas. Indeed, the advent as community members and competing) discourses, particularly of globalised media has meant a realistic understanding and those produced in the public that for many respondents, the assessment of the risks of realm, has led to increasingly distinction between ‘Australian’ and extremism and radicalisation. sophisticated understandings ‘foreign’ media is no longer seen However, as we saw in Chapter at community level of the role of as especially relevant, particularly 5 above, most participants felt media in shaping public perceptions in relation to global issues such as that the media in general was and views around particular terrorism and radicalisation. Others, overwhelmingly focused on issues. This includes the ways in however, felt that Australian- fostering a perceived link between which the media simultaneously based media had a particular Islam, violence and extremism. operate, and are operated as, responsibility to deliver accurate a social force, an economic and balanced reporting to the This theme continued throughout driver and a cultural industry. Australian community in the domain the discussion relating to media’s of terrorism, extremism and related role in broader social discourses ‘Media’ as used in Part I of this issues. Government stakeholders, on radicalisation and extremism. chapter focuses specifically on community leaders and community A large number of participants felt more traditional media formats members shared the view that that the media in general – and in such as television, newspapers, such accuracy and balance is particular, commercial media – were radio and print-based magazines often absent in contemporary responsible for significant distortions and journals. Perceptions of the media reporting on these issues, in reporting on issues relating to impacts of media structured and particularly in relation to Muslim Islam and to Muslims, of plying driven by new information and communities and individuals. their own version of extremism communication technologies, through sensationalised and often including the internet, on- imbalanced and/or inaccurate line newspapers, blogs, representations of perceived social media sites, websites links between Islam, extremism and other digital formats, is and terrorism, and of failing to dealt with in Part II below. question a range of assumptions, premises and claims that many in the community still believe it is a primary responsibility of journalists to question and to scrutinise.

8. Samina Yasmeen (2008) Understanding Muslim Identities: From Perceived Relative Exclusion to Inclusion, www.omi.wa.gov.au/ publications/Muslim_Identities_report.pdf; Mohamad Abdalla and Halim Rane (2007) The Impact of Media Representations on the Understanding of Islam and Attitudes toward Muslims in Queensland, www.griffith. edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/52083/ MAQ.pdf; Anne Aly (2010) ‘Shifting Positions to the Media Discourse on Terrorism: Critical points in Audience Members’ Meaning-Making Experiences’, Media International Australia 134: 31-46. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 81

Community members consulted Hot media were widely seen to “You only have to watch some of through national focus groups feed on and nurture ignorance the programs on TV, and not just were unanimous in their view that and prejudices by playing to on TV – there are radio shock jocks the media is enormously influential populist fears and bias in fostering who thrive on things that happen and at times insidious in shaping a perceived link between Islam, at the extreme end of the Muslim both ‘headline’ and day-to-day extremism and terrorism. Reasons world. People who subscribe to perceptions about one’s own society given for why hot media operates in radical views or sensationalist and the societies and cultures of this way ranged from the common views are given more airtime others, with tangible impacts and view that media pursues ratings at than they deserve.” (Non-Muslim consequences. In the views of many, any expense – ‘the media always community leader) the power of the media to shape looks to sensationalise, that’s their how people think goes hand in hand bread and butter’ (community The theme of media playing to the with a heightened expectation of leader) – to accusations of cultural lowest common social denominator responsibility on the part of media for stereotyping through ignorance or on issues of ethnicity, race and how they portray issues related to laziness, to analyses that see media cultural background was also Islam, radicalisation and extremism: as a socially irresponsible actor in prevalent amongst participants: fostering a version of community “I have not been here for a long “I think the media has the role to cohesion based on scapegoating time, but my thinking is kind of give Islam or whatever religion or creating fear concerning a changing. When I lived in Africa I a bad name or a good name.” perceived ‘outsider’ group. (Focus group participant) thought Australia is very advanced, Media routinely oversimplifies they think differently to the way I “It also affects the children who and sensationalises stories do, but [through the media] I find watch the news, they think these about Muslims and Islam it’s the opposite, the way they Muslims did this, Muslims did that, understand Africa is different, For a significant number they grow up and they think, you being African [is bad] and then of participants, what many are Muslims, oh, you are terrorist, being Muslim is even worse.” considered to be an exaggerated you see every house, they watch (Focus group participant) or over-represented focus on news, and it affects all the kids.” Islam in media reporting on (Focus group participant) “I tend to think, and I agree it can be issues related to extremism and out of balance, some of my friends “Things are slowly planted in terrorism is a taken-for-granted are very anti-Israeli, and they’ve people’s minds through media.” feature of contemporary life: got that just from media intake, (Focus group participant) and there’s always two sides of the “Islam is the bogeyman at the story.” (Focus group participant) ‘Hot’ and ‘cold’ media moment and it sells. If these things were to be objectively Many participants distinguished “One police guy was interviewed assessed they would not stand between what one interviewee saying that ‘carrying weapons and up to scrutiny. When it comes called ‘hot’ versus ‘cold’ media. hurting people is the Sudanese to Islamic stories, balance goes ‘Hot’ media denotes a reporting way of life’. But seriously, did you out the window. You can peddle and discussion style designed to see that TV? It was just broken any rubbish and it will sell in provoke strong views and emotions glass on the ground, it could the media, because the public that often characterises popular have been from anywhere! Just out there is in a feeding frenzy.” media formats such as opinion and dark people, not Sudanese, not (Muslim community leader) commentary in both newspaper anything related, just this footage, alcohol and violence, and then and digital formats such as blogs; “Why does Islam always have African adults, old ladies and men, talk-back radio; commercial to be the operative word [in alcohol, African, alcohol, African. current affairs programs; and media reporting on extremism]? This is the image they are giving.” some magazine or documentary- Australians aren’t against (Focus group participant) style television formats. By Islam, they don’t know.” contrast, ‘cold’ media were seen (Focus group participant) as characterised by the more neutral and balanced reporting and dissemination of information or informed perspectives in the public interest. 82 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

This had more resonance in some When thinking about commercial “The Insight program [on SBS] states than others, with Western media, however, the strongest last night [November 2010], it Australian respondents especially view was that of an inexorable was horrible, basically some sensitive to ‘shock jock’ media link between media reporting and quite intelligent Muslims speaking impacts. As one government economic profit with little regard with dumb and horrible people, stakeholder said, ‘The radio for the social consequences creating a lot of antagonism. It stations, especially the shock jock of ‘hot’ media discourse. A wasn’t a useful debate; it didn’t stations, e.g. 6PR, are the ones community leader summed up answer the question or take away where you get all the rednecks. In this view by saying, ‘Western the fear. Some of these shows WA, the descriptions of criminal media, because of its ignorance make the issue worse because activity have stopped using ethnic and the pursuit of ratings – you’re legitimizing intolerance descriptors and we have copped ratings are killing this world. And by going out and actively having some flack internally with some behind the ratings lies money.’ those who are lacking tolerance, struggles about this.’ and having Muslims who don’t Media organisations should know what they are talking about. Yet it is not only professional be better informed and There are so many different journalists and mainstream media better regulated sects of Islam, and none of them who are seen as responsible Coupled with the view that [on the program] could name for the promotion of ‘hot media’ mainstream media organisations them, and how Wahabism has approaches to these issues. are more interested in profits than hijacked the debate, and so many Referring to earlier research by balance in their pursuit of populist sects of Islam that are no less 9 Samina Yasmeen, one participant ratings is the belief that many legitimate, but when people say pointed out that the advent of journalists and editors are either Islam they mean extreme version internet and social media has misinformed or uninformed about of Wahabism and they are so off loosened some of the social and the diversity of Muslim communities base it’s hard to get them back.” regulatory constraints around public and cultures as an integral part (Focus group participant) commentary, intensifying the front- of modern multicultural Australia, and-centre positioning of Muslims in failing to recognise that the vast “They are biased. On SBS there public discourse around extremism majority of Australian Muslims are was a show on Insight and it and radicalisation: non-extremist and non-violent. As was called ‘Trusting Pakistan’. I one community leader noted, always watch SBS and Insight, “Samina Yasmeen did a big usually it is good at showing range of interviews with both “Muslims are part and parcel the other side. But I think Muslim and non-Muslim of Australia now and media they should stick to Australian people around perceptions of needs to take responsibility for documentaries – this was really Islam. The explosion of public understanding Muslim issues and bad.” (Focus group participant) commentary through blogging culture as part of Australia, not and other channels enables as something alien. Instead, they Many respondents felt that people to feel more empowered are relying on the internet and media organisations should be to say things that might not have YouTube.” (Community leader) bound by stronger government gotten an airing in earlier times.” regulatory controls: (Government stakeholder) Nor is it only commercial media that is seen as culpable in this context. “Some sort of control [is needed], SBS’s highly regarded current something that actually drives the affairs program, Insight, which many media to be more responsible.” participants expected to ‘know (Focus group participant) better’ than commercial media “The government needs to stop about the complexities of Islamic the media from branding the culture and belief systems, was Muslim community. Politicians particularly singled out for criticism: cannot control the media. How do you win the media over?” (Focus group participant)

9. Samina Yasmeen, Understanding Muslim Identities, op. cit. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 83

Participants suggested that the best “In the A Current Affair example, “It’s like that in Islamabad or Lahore, way to help achieve better-informed they pick this one guy [Ibrahim or in Karachi, you see this footage media on these issues was the use Siddiq-Conlon in NSW] who of bombs and things, and you think of expert consultants on Islamic represents only himself, but they everything must be exploding but beliefs and culture to promote ‘a say, ‘In the last ten years mosques you get there and you realise that healthy flow of information’ about have mushroomed’ – not been is only a small part of the city, the Muslim cultures and identities and built, mind – ‘mushroomed’, and rest of the city gets on as normal.” minimise inaccurate or negative then they use graphics to show (Focus group participant) stereotyping of Muslim communities the rapid growth of mosques, and individuals. say in Victoria. Ethics means However, a small number of nothing in those situations. How participants expressed the view that Media marginalises moderate do you fight that? Sometimes I’ve media were more reflective than Muslim voices in favour of called ABC’s Media Watch, but directive of negative community radical or extremist Muslim nothing. As a journalist I look at sentiment about Islam and Muslims: perspectives it from a professional view and “Media doesn’t shape perceptions In this context, participants spoke say this story needs correction so much as confirm views they about the tendency of commercial or balance, but there is nowhere already hold. What’s really media, particularly television you can go to get redress.” important is to understand current affairs programs such as (Muslim community leader) how people have arrived at A Current Affair, Sixty Minutes and the world views they hold.” Today Tonight, to go straight to “Media looks for the ‘right kind’ (Government stakeholder) controversial Muslim media identities of Muslims to fit their broader for comment on extremist issues narratives.” (Community leader) Media manipulates people while bypassing more moderate Negative media portrayals of and stories Muslim community representatives. Muslims do not correspond In focus groups, some participants Many Muslim community with reality at home or abroad were concerned by the perceived participants in particular felt that tendency of Australian media media organisations deliberately A broad range of participants also representatives to solicit, manipulate marginalised moderate Muslims in felt that media representations or misrepresent both people and order to sensationalise stories about stigmatising Muslims or promoting events in order to shape news or Muslims and extremism, preferring an assumed link between Muslims feature stories concerning violence to give airtime to inflammatory and extremism in general are or extremism to the biases of their Muslim extremists who themselves significantly out of step with the audiences. These participants felt represent only a marginalised realities of life both in Australian such practices played into broader minority on the fringe of mainstream communities and also overseas: issues of media untrustworthiness Australian Muslim communities: “Such a big Muslim population, and reinforced their belief that the “In the past I took the trouble to but how many do bad things? media manipulates and distorts write articles to try to give another A fragment, but the fragment facts for reasons of profit, culture kind of story. But nothing gets gets all the attention.” or ideology: published – after a while you say (Focus group participant) “On the media, there was one guy what’s the point? It’s not going to “In our community meetings with from Today Tonight, he went to make a difference. Why bother? Muslims here in Sydney, that is Broadmeadows and he came to Now I think for the community, their number one gripe. Their talk to us [in Carlton], and said I’ll people just feel we can’t be grievance is that things have been buy you slabs of beer, whatever bothered, but this is negative for misreported and that the media you want, I just want you to us as a community as well. The is making Muslims in general out wear ‘gangsta’ colours – the guy Multicultural Commission is naive to be terrorists, so much so that was literally trying to bribe us, to think we can just go to the we got Quentin Dempster from this guy from Channel 7, he had media and get a positive story in the ABC to come along and say machetes, brought them down the press. Although we are not that the journalists doing this to Carlton, and then he went to disenfranchised materially – we weren’t doing proper journalism.” Broadmeadows. They did it down have jobs, businesses, good (Government stakeholder) there, [but] we told him to piss off.” livings – there is a sense in which (Focus group participant) we are not listened to.” (Muslim community leader) 84 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“[Journalists who manipulate “I call it Muslim bashing on the “When I first came to Australia I the news] should be punished, news, I choose to ignore it, [but] didn’t know any Muslims here, there should be some sort of I used to get really angry, they and everyone told me before I legal process, because that’s always say Muslim extremist, came, oh, Australia is a racist incitement, but it’s already done Muslim extremist, Muslim country. I first became friends with the damage, calling it false extremist, always emphasise the Buddhists, Hindus, etc., and they information after doesn’t make any Muslim.” (Focus group participant) were good friends. But every time difference. It’s too late.” (Focus I turned on the TV, I got a different group participant) “But if you keep at them, saying picture...I know that people are not Islam is bad, if you look at Muslims against me because I’m a Muslim, However, while conceding that the on TV, the Muslims they show, and but watching TV makes you think, perception of media manipulation then you see Americans killing lots why do they hate me so much of people and news events may of people in Iraq, and you think because I’m a Muslim?” (Focus be widespread, some participants they did that on purpose, that group participant) also noted that this is not the can lead you to terrorism.” (Focus province of Western media outlets group participant) “A young Muslim might feel violence alone. As one participant put it, is the only way to be here. I can ‘Muslim media can also create In some cases, participants spoke understand their grievances with propaganda. It can happen in about the potential loss of those all that they see on the media, they Muslim countries. The same who might otherwise be allies for feel nothing is being done when is occurring here and you get authorities seeking to root out you look at the news.” (Focus labelled’ (Focus group participant). extremism at the community level: group participant)

Negative media stereotyping “In an attempt by the media to “We are given no Australian role of Muslims can alienate and clobber anti-social behaviour, models on TV, for example. When radicalise people they may think they are ridiculing I came here I expected to find a and discouraging this, but it has Most of the views above relate to home, but instead I find all these really backfired. This is because it the impact of media on perceived norms and ideas and stereotypes has alienated potential allies who links between Islam, extremism and that conflict with who I am. And would ordinarily be happy to work terrorism for the general community so I have to create an identity that with authorities to root out violent at large. However, there was is radical and extremist because extremism and dob in terror cells very broad consensus amongst it is my only choice.” (New arrival but instead feel so offended and community participants about the community youth leader) alienated they end up gravitating ways in which sensationalised, less toward the authorities and A steady diet of negative imbalanced or inaccurate reporting more toward these people who media towards Muslims on perceived links between Islam say, ‘I can really understand your damages social cohesion and terrorism could actually frustration’ – it makes them ripe radicalise those who become Finally, some participants noted for exploitation by extremists.” alienated, demoralised or outraged the ways in which the role of (Community leader) by a steady diet of perceived media in consistently focusing on links between Islam, extremism oversimplification and negative There was also concern amongst and terrorism damages social stereotyping in relation to Muslims focus group participants about cohesion to the extent of fostering and terrorism: the specific impact of this on what they see as two-way young Muslims, coupled with “Keep telling someone he’s a radicalisation, provoking mutual the lack of positive role models Muslim, he’s an enemy, over and antagonism and distrust between for Muslim youth available over and over again, and showing Muslims and non-Muslims: through Australian media: you examples from overseas saying this happened here, this “Media creates radical views happened there, stay away from on both sides, it makes him, on the wrong day he could do Muslims radical, but it also this too.” (Focus group participant) leads to bullying of Muslims.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 85

“[The media] separates both sides A number of participants, however, However, most participants felt further, it creates polarisation, not felt that Australian-based media that the media in general was just Muslims being radicalised, but had a particular responsibility to overwhelmingly focused on radicalising others in their attitudes deliver accurate and balanced fostering a perceived link between to Islam, and developing hate.” reporting to the Australian Islam, violence and extremism, with (Focus group participant) community in the domain of ‘hot media’ that sought to provoke terrorism, extremism and related conflict, passion and dissent in the Part I: Conclusion issues. Government stakeholders, community clearly in the lead. A community leaders and community large number of participants felt Participants were unanimous in their members shared the view that that the media in general – and in view that the media is enormously such accuracy and balance is particular, commercial television influential and at times insidious in often absent in contemporary and radio – were responsible shaping both ‘headline’ and day- media reporting on these issues, for significant distortions in to-day perceptions about one’s particularly in relation to Muslim reporting on issues relating to own society and the societies and communities and individuals. Islam and to Muslims, of plying cultures of others, with tangible their own version of extremism impacts and consequences. In the Accordingly, levels of distrust, through sensationalised and often views of many, the power of the cynicism and disenchantment with imbalanced and/or inaccurate media to shape how people think media were generally high to very representations of perceived goes hand in hand with a heightened high amongst study participants in links between Islam, extremism expectation of responsibility on the all three cohorts. This perception and terrorism, and of failing to part of media for how they portray was taken by some focus group question a range of assumptions, issues related to Islam, radicalisation participants to the extent of premises and claims that many in and extremism. questioning the reality of the the community still believe it is a September 11 terrorist attacks in Respondents’ views on the role primary responsibility of journalists New York, with some participants and impact of the media discourses to question and to scrutinise. believing that the attacks were of radicalisation and extremism media beat-up or outright invention. The media were seen as capable confirm earlier research showing Nevertheless, the media were of manipulating not only stories a strong and pervasive belief that seen by some participants as but people to produce the media significantly influences and offering valuable information desired outcomes rather than shapes perceptions around the and positive effects in relation reporting accurately on events and nature, impact and implications of to fostering greater knowledge movements. Participants identified both radicalisation and extremism in about Islam as a religion, Muslims risks in relation to radicalisation Australia and overseas. The advent as community members and and extremism as a result of their of globalised media has meant a realistic understanding and distrust in media motives and that for many respondents, the assessment of the risks of behaviours, saying that there was distinction between ‘Australian’ and extremism and radicalisation. potential for peaceful Muslims to ‘foreign’ media was no longer seen become radicalised because the as especially relevant, particularly steady diet of negative imaging and in relation to global issues such as discourse about Islam and Muslims terrorism and radicalisation. was so pervasive and humiliating. A further risk factor identified by focus group participants was the impact of such negative portrayals by media on young Australian Muslims, who were seen to have few positive role models available to them through Australian media (and television in particular) to counterbalance the distortions of ‘hot media’ programs and outlets. 86 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

A popular solution to some of • Social impacts of the internet The internet was also seen by some these issues for participants was, and other new media. as responding to and meeting the first, to better monitor and regulate real needs of people that other Australian media organisations • Social and operational social avenues or mechanisms were with reference to how Islam and challenges posed by the internet failing to address: Muslims are portrayed, and second, and other new media. to develop stronger balance of “Rather than focus on what it is The dynamics, impacts and and consultative relationships about the internet itself, we should challenges of internet and other with Muslim community leaders be looking at the interaction new media spaces in relation to and spokespeople who represent between audiences and websites. discourses of radicalisation and the moderate mainstream of What needs does the internet extremism are explored in more Australian Muslim society, rather fill for people who are seeking depth below. than the perceived over-reliance something, looking for answers?” (Community leader) on controversial Islamic figures at Social dynamics of the the fringes of the mainstream who internet and other Whether or not internet content are seen to serve the commercial promoting radicalisation or but not the moral imperatives social media extremism was ‘true’ or not was of media organisations. Radicalisation and the perceived as beside the point. As internet are both driven by one participant commented, ‘It’s Part II: The internet and social interaction not about truth on the internet; it’s other social media A number of government about engaging and interacting’ Unlike their views on more stakeholders in particular stressed (Government stakeholder). In fact, conventional media, in which the ‘social function’ of the internet the truthfulness and trustworthiness participants felt relatively powerless ‘in bringing people together through of internet content in this context to influence or intervene in media chat rooms, Skype, blogs, etc. were seen as major casualties of discourses around radicalisation Since radicalisation is a social internet discourse. In this sense, the and extremism, when it comes to process’, it followed for these internet was viewed overwhelmingly the internet, many respondents participants that ‘the internet has a by participants as a domain where emphasised the social and social interaction role in this regard’ persuasion and rhetoric, rather interactive dimensions of the (government stakeholder). than argument or logic, were the internet and other relatively new most powerful tools in influencing Some participants thought internet social media, such as Facebook how people think and act: ‘All this discourses of radicalisation and and Twitter, in how discourses material which has been carefully extremism catered particularly for and dialogues around extremism constructed [by extremist groups] is those who lack social skills, so that and terrorism are played out. The now widely available because of the those who are less comfortable internet and a variety of social internet’ (Government stakeholder). with face to face encounters can media sites were seen as dynamic, still plug into social networks. The The internet fosters immersive fluid spaces in which radicalisation internet was also seen as a space virtual community-building as a social process can be either in which people are emboldened to around radicalisation and reinforced or alternatively hampered express extreme views they might extremism by the way in which users of otherwise censure or moderate in internet and social media shape As a result, many respondents face to face social settings: and direct flows of information, also felt that the internet promoted opinion and perspective. “It allows people to connect a different kind and intensity anonymously; people can of engagement with ideas and The main themes emerging be braver and are prepared influences that is not available in from participants around the to say things and encourage more traditional communication role of the internet and other behaviours that they might not formats. There was a strong focus new media in discourses of be prepared to do in person.” on the ways in which ‘virtual’ radicalisation and extremism fell (Government stakeholder) communities are generated and into three broad categories: sustained through the sociality of the internet, transcending • Social dynamics of the internet geographical, cultural, national and and other new media. other differences or boundaries. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 87

The difference between The ability of the internet and other The internet and other social media conventional and new media, social media to sustain sense of were also seen as key mechanisms and the capacity of the internet to community by linking people across for allowing the isolated or lonely, normalise ideas and approaches multiple geographical, national and the disenfranchised and the that would otherwise be cultural boundaries and affiliations alienated to become part of a group considered marginal or extreme was seen by many focus group and develop a sustainable individual because of the sheer quantity of participants in particular to increase identity as part of a larger collective sites and users, was highlighted identification and involvement with through ICT10 networks: by several participants: political struggles in their country or region of origin. When this occurs “The other side of this is that the “The internet has a level of across intergenerational lines, focus people who are unhappy with engagement and immersion group participants thought it could these kinds of things, and who which you don’t get from books sometimes provide a mechanism are isolated and alone, can find and magazines. I think that’s a for increasing family or culturally a sense of companionship with real issue. It enables people who based social cohesion based on others who are upset and alone are geographically distant to feel ties to the past or to elsewhere, and angry through the internet. It a part of a community, because but also risk fracturing identification can be a fertiliser for radicalisation we see relationships form via with current ties to the Australian through bringing these people the internet where people want community for those who have together to form bonds. It to form a physical relationship, relocated to Australia from other helps you feel not so alone and such as internet dating. So in that countries, particularly when there is belonging to a larger community, way, and in the environment [of pressure from those in the country and people can egg each other terrorism] we’re talking about, it’s of origin to return some of the on.” (Community leader) the only way that someone can benefits of migration to those left “It is possible for someone to feel sufficiently part of a community behind. Those who have a fragile self-radicalise on the internet other than the one they actually live sense of belonging or identity in and never talk to anyone else.” in to make the sorts of decisions their new environment are seen as (Government stakeholder) that community would want them particularly at risk: to make. It’s harder to do that The internet is an important “The kids like to look at their home via print culture. I think it’s the social marketing tool for country where mum came from, immersive nature of the internet.” extremist groups (Government stakeholder) and they see message, about the war, about something going on, Consequently, the internet was “The internet is a media platform sometimes good or bad but they also seen as a useful tool that but different one. You can be a can read things that are not for enhances the ability of extremist consumer, you can react or you children.” (Focus group participant) groups to promote their ideological can create. One cannot become and political platforms. One radicalised on the net by itself “The internet plays a really big participant saw this as part of but it can facilitate group identity part. I saw a doco on YouTube, the broader prevailing social through the creation of virtual it was sending live streams of discourse on, and obsession groups. The internet is just a videos showing people getting with, marketing and promotion media platform but its features killed, like one with a man and a in Western societies, one that – interactivity and production as kid, and the army killing a kid, the extremist groups have been canny well as consumption – mean that US army, in Iraq, and it’s easy to in taking advantage of. As another there is no doubt that there is a see and think they are killing our participant put it, ‘Advertising and huge presence on the internet of kids, killing our generation, so creation of the “brand” around radicalised platforms, recruitment why not kill off their generation.” certain groups is important’ activities, etc. I believe there has to (Focus group participant) (government stakeholder). be some other intervening driver or cause for someone who becomes radicalised. Sheik Google is right there, alive and well. When people want answers they turn now to Google and the internet. Up come 50,000 answers and off you go.” 10. ICT stands for information and communication (Community leader) technology. 88 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Of significant concern to many “Many Muslims in NSW have tried “Whether it’s radicalisation or the focus group participants around to talk to Ibrahim Siddiq-Conlon, opposite, I think it’s a battlefield the country was the capacity he’s banned from at least one of ideas. That’s the key. Where of the internet to provide what mosque, all Muslims openly said you have a free flow of ideas, many participants saw as highly I don’t agree with his views. it’s very important. It’s not as if distorted or illegitimate versions And the internet is dangerous radicals can do more with the of Islamic belief, life and culture to because he’s been making clips internet – the AFP and the Attorney those whose capacity to critically for many years on YouTube, and General’s office are out there with assess such material is limited or many Muslims were never aware their agenda, we’re out there non-existent, making them more of the videos he’s been making with ours, other Muslims are out susceptible to being influenced by on YouTube for years. ... And for there with theirs. But because what they see on the net: many who watch these [ videos], of instantaneous media, social these figures turn into rock networking sites, etc., it is crucial “The thing is you can see that stars, they develop attraction.” for all of us.” (Community leader) nowadays terrorists are young (Focus group participants) people who want to transform Yet many felt it is precisely the free themselves, and they go to the Government stakeholders flow of ideas and the internet’s mosque, but it is humiliating commented specifically on the capacity to instantaneously reach because you should know these capacity to manipulate the internet’s so many people that creates new things, so you don’t want to ask multimedia nature to direct the flow challenges for gate-keeping and the questions, so he goes to the of internet traffic toward particular scrutiny of internet content and internet but he doesn’t get the right sites and views: flows. A wide range of respondents information – you have to decide if thought the internet and other new you go to internet and if what you “I think because it’s an open and social media present formidable find there is the right path, or not.” anonymous source of information, obstacles to traditional ways of (Focus group participant) if people are looking for a definitive regulating content, preventing statement, the internet is the first or constraining the ability of “YouTube is a perfect example of place they go to. If you type ‘jihad’ extremist views to be accessed people manipulating their religion into Google, the first pages will all and promoted, and demanding to get their [message] across. lead you to understand that jihad accountability for what is claimed: I saw a thing which showed a will lead to violence – and 80% of Sunni gathering information and people will not go beyond the first “I think the internet provides a putting it on YouTube about how page of sites. It’s the algorithms platform where an underground Shi’ites are infidels and inciting and there are ways of manipulating can be built without much scrutiny hatred among Muslims, it’s that to get your site higher up.” from the agencies. The nature very dangerous and influential.” (Government stakeholder) of the internet is such that you (Focus group participant) can hide in there in the maze of “Yes, people are getting influenced information for a long time, and “Google a sheikh, many aren’t by the internet all the time. Smart before you are detected you can qualified, just self-made clerics, users can influence groups of move to another area of the net.” and the wrong sheikh comes up.” people by what they put on there. (Community leader) (Focus group participant) The beauty of the internet is that it’s multimedia – it uses multiple “The radical Islamic preaching Others suggested that the internet channels and ports of entry. Wait by sheiks from foreign countries and other social media create until we get to Generations Y and who may not be welcome in opportunities for extremist figures Z – it will be a big issue for them.” other foreign countries are who have been ostracised in more (Government stakeholder) able to reach audiences there traditional face to face settings, because there’s nothing to flag such as mosques or community Still others saw the internet as it.” (Government stakeholder) centres, to reach broad audiences a socially dynamic ‘battlefield of without moderation or censure from ideas’, in which both radicalisation others within their community: and counter-narratives fought for the hearts and minds of those who surf the internet wave: CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 89

“One thing about the internet is “If you are that way inclined, the The internet can provide how private it can be. A person internet can provide you with a ‘the other side of the story’ could be communicating, learning, lot of the information you need. As an extension of this perspective, downloading at 2 am and no one Human beings need justification some participants felt that the would know. In those twilight hours for what they do – rightly or internet offered a valuable counter- where people are very vulnerable, wrongly. If I think something is the balance to what they saw as the there’s nothing there to screen or right thing to do to plant a bomb hegemony of conventional media counter what they are absorbing. and knock off a few people, I will in promoting mainstream reporting This lends itself to extremism need to find justification, and the and analysis of world events and because there is really no buffer internet is a good source of this politics. For these respondents, to say ‘stop, think, question what – websites exist that can support the internet offered a valuable you’re doing.’ They are connecting any point of view you can think of corrective in providing the ‘other with people crossing boundaries and can legitimise such actions.” side of the story’ to that offered and borders on the other side (Community leader) by mainstream media reporting of the world and it can be a very and information-gathering: insidious medium because it is Others, however, felt that the unsupervised.” (Community leader) internet was a more neutral space “But you can’t always see the accommodating a highly diverse internet as a bad thing, you can’t The internet reinforces range of views and information in think that showing those videos [of existing views rather than which personal judgement and US soldiers killing Afghani children] creating new views choice were paramount: is bad because it can influence Nevertheless, despite people, you’re showing it at least… “There is the side of the internet acknowledging the internet’s another side of the story.” (Focus in terms of what we see in the immersive power, collapsing of group participant) Middle East at the moment with geographical and cultural distance the spreading of a revolutionary and the difficulties of regulating the “The other side of the story, man, democratic movement connecting internet environment, participants you gotta look into it, because people into significant social were divided on whether or not it’s not presented to you. What’s action. Then there is the other radical and extremist discourses presented to you is danger, side of individuals with a narrow on the internet could radicalise terrorists could attack at any perspective finding others with those who would not otherwise time, but people don’t know the same perspective who be attracted or responsive to about the distraction on the reinforce that perspective and extremist perspectives. A number of other side, so I think the aim is keep out alternative knowledge.” community leaders and government to desensitise us so we don’t (Government stakeholder) stakeholders questioned the extent feel sympathy for those other people.” (Focus group participant) to which the internet could really “The internet provides easy access create, rather than merely bolster, to information – that’s all it does. The internet and the radical and extremist leanings. For While the internet may be a hotbed ‘’ these respondents, people go to for radicalism, it is also a source Similarly, there was little the internet seeking to confirm what of more moderate information and consensus as to whether the they already believe: way of living too. ...The internet internet specifically facilitated the can also be a healthy information “For many people the internet radicalisation of ‘lone wolves’ source for people but it all depends sustains already held views – socially isolated or inept on whether people accept it or not. rather than being the initial individuals who became active Personal judgment is important catalyst or influence.” terrorists solely or primarily based here.” (Community leaders) (Government stakeholder) on their internet-based reading or relationships. A minority of participants, particularly those who believed that concrete social interactions were fundamental to the process of radicalisation, felt that the ‘lone wolf’ paradigm was potentially overrated: 90 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“The instances of lone individuals Social impacts of the “The internet has really assisted sitting in front of computers not internet and other in both radicalisation and interacting with other people social media extremism and in getting a but being radicalised by what wired up reach for these ideas they read on the internet are Faster, broader access to to be accessible to a greater rare and probably exceptions.” radical and extremist views community. It has aided and (Government stakeholder) The internet and other new social abetted radicalism because it’s so media were widely seen by easy to access polluted versions “The internet facilitates proximity participants as ushering in profound of Islam.” (Community leader) to radical/extreme ideas for more transformations in how we think, people more rapidly than was know and communicate with other. “It makes it much easier. If possible previously – but how Not surprisingly, one major theme for radicalisation is about the message effective that is versus face to communities in relation to the social rather than the messenger, then face contact is another question.” impacts of the internet and other new yes. It has made the mechanics of (Government stakeholder) media revolved around the intensified terrorism easier (e.g. how to make speed and reach of communication a bomb) but also the mechanics of More pervasive, however, that internet and social media radicalisation have become easier was the view that the role of technologies have created. They – no question.” (Community leader) the internet in creating home- pointed to the way in which the grown terrorists who find both The internet is changing our ‘instant’ global communication the rationale and the means for perception of reality environment of the internet and engaging in terrorist activities was social media, coupled with the A second major theme to emerge well-established. Government enormous quantity of information from participants was the way in stakeholders in particular attributed now available and the ease with which the blurring of distinctions this to the internet’s ability to which this can be accessed, between ‘virtual’ versus ‘real’ reach across borders of both means far wider and unmediated worlds facilitated by internet time and space and to bring exposure to radical and extremist connectivity is bringing with it more sophisticated messages in messaging than ever before: new forms of individual and social more languages to more people consciousness – literally rewiring than was hitherto possible: “The new age of electronic media the way we conceptualise and is now like a wildfire that spreads distinguish between real and virtual “[Radicals and extremists] don’t really quickly – it wasn’t formerly scenarios and driving new identity need to go to a training camp. as quick or as frequent or as and cognitive frameworks as a They can learn in their own lounge accessible. Now young people in result. While some respondents room with no fear of exposure or Australia through Facebook, etc. thought it was simply a matter of standing out. If they’re socially are exposed much more quickly to extremist groups using any available inept, they can make a big extremist messages and hate upon popular communication technology impact just by going down to the hate.” (Community leader) for the classic purpose of exploiting, shopping centre. There is also manipulating or ‘brainwashing’ the convenience factor – you can “Pamphleteering has been going the vulnerable or naive, other still go to work during the day and on for hundreds of years but participants felt that more spend your nights doing ‘research’ always had limited geographical significant paradigm shifts in social [on how to be a terrorist].” reach. The internet is a like consciousness were now underway (Government stakeholder) a giant borderless pamphlet as a result of the cognitive where hundreds of millions “The internet has been talked transformations inaugurated by of people can now read and about as a source of the ‘lone internet use, particularly for younger access it instantly. Even 20 years wolf’ or home-grown terrorist. people who have never known a ago this was not possible.” He may not be well plugged into world without the internet. (Government stakeholder) his society but he finds a peer “The virtual world and the real community through the website.” A related concern for many world is a false dichotomy – (Government stakeholder) participants was how the internet they are now so intertwined. has made the mechanics of ... The internet is now part of both disseminating extremist normal existence for people views and providing practical 5 years of age and onward.” knowledge for engaging in (Government stakeholders) terrorist acts much easier: CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 91

This was especially significant for The internet deals in flows In addition to the selective use a number of participants because of emotion as well as of text and images to mobilise of the way in which it can shape information affective responses to internet knowledge and understanding of In keeping with the discussion content, a number of younger Islam. As Olivier Roy has pointed above concerning the internet focus group participants pointed out in recent work on Islam and and other social media’s reliance out that the internet is an ideal 11 globalisation, on mobilising rhetoric rather than setting in which to feed people’s argument as a primary mode curiosity about taboo or semi- “Radicalisation and extremism of transforming people’s views, taboo subjects. Like pornography, are linked to processes of a number of participants made extremism and terrorism can be de-territorialisation and de- the important point that new socially difficult subjects to explore culturalisation, the formation communication technologies are in face to face conversations or of a global identity that has no particularly well suited to mobilising encounters, but for those who are roots in a geographically defined emotion, rather than reason, in the curious about non-mainstream sense, only in virtual terms. That display and orientation of various views or alternative perspectives on in itself is seen to be an important kinds of radical and extremist global events or who are seeking characteristic for the formation of content. The internet’s capacity to the controversial, the internet and a radical identity, one that gives blend words, images and sounds social media are increasingly the over to fantasising about ‘pure in emotionally provocative ways first ports of call. This was not Islam’ and its birth, for example.” makes it especially hospitable to necessarily seen as a problem, but (Government stakeholder) such uses, and participants noted it in the minds of some participants it did imply the potential for extremist This emphasis on a virtual world can be difficult to resist the affective sites to capitalise on natural in which a borderless variety of impact of what you read and see curiosity, interest or boredom: ‘pure Islam’, untainted by material when using the internet and other social media: circumstances or debates on the “I think usually people who go ground, can be constructed and “It’s one of the factors, going and check on terrorism websites sustained is important because: on Facebook and stuff, that’s have an interest, not to join, but curiosity.” (Focus group participant) “In many ways the type of radical a very good point, we’ve been mentioning the poor and rich, but that we are talking about “I’ve gone to some internet the factor of emotions and feelings primarily exists on the internet. sites -- a friend from Somalia, exist to everyone, soft hearted It’s not, generally speaking, the he told about one, about or hard hearted, and emotion political ideology of any particular where he killed the family and can be carried out through any country; it’s not as if you can he was getting revenge, the medium, and that can really easily find mosques where this is site was an Al-Shabbab site.” create violence in personality.” preached, though they exist. It is (Focus group participant) largely on the internet, where you (Focus group participant) can find whatever you’re looking “Anything positive these days “They put things like beheadings, for and a way to justify your views. is boring, that’s what they say. and that’s the first thing you see.” It concocts a particular form ... It’s more interesting to go (Focus group participant) of Islam that goes through the to a site that is controversial.” Koran and takes all the cases and “Facebook is very provocative, (Focus group participants) quotes that can be found to justify one Facebook page published the violence and terrorism and can Danish cartoons, and said things create quite powerful narratives. about Muslims, one Muslim was But if you come to it without any against this and his account was real understanding of Islam, then blocked.” (Focus group participant) it can probably seem plausible.” (Government stakeholder)

11. Olivier Roy (2004), Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah, New York: Columbia University Press. 92 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The impacts of promoting “Anti-Islamic information on the “[My roommate and I] had a strong hatred and cultural internet is horrible and untrue. argument about sites. My idea was stereotyping on the internet In Australia, we have Cadbury just ignore it. It was general stuff, As in Chapter 6 on the role chocolate with the halal stamp on they were using Facebook about and impact of the media, a it – then the emails and internet Mohammed, peace be upon him, large number of participants started flowing around if you buy anti -Mohammed, and I said ignore were similarly concerned with this brand you are supporting it, there are lots of bad things on the impact of the internet and Al-Qaeda. This had an impact on the internet, it’s trying to get you social media to promote reactive people – if they hear this and are angry.” (Focus group participant) radicalisation as a response by unsure about Islam this can help “The thing is, don’t focus on it, those who feel socially excluded, them become hardened against it. ignore it, delete it straight away, despised or provoked as a result Other internet messages say Islam people trying to provoke you, you of their encounters with cultural is linked to paedophilia, domestic get provoked, you let them win.” stereotyping and hatred of ethnic or violence and beating your wife – (Focus group participant) religious groups over the internet: this leaks into the mainstream and can have a negative influence.” “Actually, most of the [Pakistani] “Facebook can be used to (Community leader) Muslim community deleted build hatred and pressure and Facebook because of the issue, YouTube and other resources “I think with the burning the Quran there were many bad things about can be used to gather action, thing, it was a very important Islam on there, and Facebook were mobilise people, make bombs, issue at that time, and I went to very slow to react, so we closed it’s an endless resource.” these websites which were talking our accounts. You can comment (Focus group participant) about it, and explained about it, and I read the comments, back, but what does that do? You “You have racist Australian people, thousands of them and they get more negative comments.” you see the signs , saying ‘Fuck were all basically supporting it, (Focus group participant) off, we’re full’ – I’ve been to that so when someone reads those group [on the internet] and the comments, it can make you Social challenges of things they say, and I was curious, angry.” (Focus group participant) the internet and other they say really bad things, it’s social media actually against everyone, Asians, The role of self-regulation Participants identified a range of Blacks.” (Focus group participant) in resisting provocation from internet and social social challenges thrown up by the Other participants, however, media sites internet and other social media in relation to countering radicalisation, were also concerned with the However, there was also strong extremism and terrorism in these reverse trend: the intensification support from focus group communication environments. The of mainstream bias toward and participants for strengthening key themes that emerged from the vilification of Muslims and other the capacity of people to engage data relate to two main areas: minority groups because of false in self-regulation and become information about other cultural more resilient when dealing with • How we might best think groups peddled by xenophobic or provocation on the internet and about the internet and other anti-Islamic websites: other social media in relation social media not only as a to anti-Muslim or extremist threat to social cohesion and messaging. Ignoring internet-based moderate viewpoints, but also provocation, avoiding anti-Muslim as a resource to strengthen websites and being ‘mentally social cohesion, counter violent strong’ in resisting the effects of extremism and support those extremist or hate-based content who are vulnerable to radical and were all stressed as strategies that extremist messaging. could be employed: • How to respond in practical terms to the challenge of controlling or preventing radicalisation and extremism on the internet and other social media sites. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 93

The internet and social media “It can also counter radicalisation “The internet is a useful tool can be used to counter or and extremism, but the problem and needs to be used in this facilitate extremism with this is that good people situation, because there’s so A large proportion of respondents don’t stand up against evil much information, and people are thought the internet and other that happens. There should be looking for the right information. social media could be used in people counteracting it using the If you put the info there, and if various ways to positively influence internet and other means, but there are enough arrows, people discourses around radicalisation the people who don’t believe will see it. On the anti-Islamic side and extremism. These participants in radicalism tend not to use there’s not enough information were unwilling to concede that [such] media, whereas the to combat that, [but] it is there.” the impacts of the internet radicals do. So in some ways (Focus group participant) in relation to extremism and the internet becomes a lopsided communication channel for those Balancing the benefits terrorism were the sole province and risks of the internet of extremists themselves: who want to express extreme views.” (Community leader) and social media “One of the arguments would be Related to the discussion about the that this is already happening with Many participants were also at internet and other social media’s generational change within Muslim pains to emphasise the multiple capacity to be used for constructive communities. Violent extremism functions and pathways of the rather than destructive or disruptive not seen as so sexy anymore – internet as a social force for either purposes was the importance it’s losing its sex appeal. Twitter good or ill in the world and saw of educating communities – in and Facebook herald a change this as an important challenge particular, young people and the – think of the Egyptian example.” confronting modern society: families of young people – with (Government stakeholder) respect not only to the benefits but “The internet is a double-edged also the risks that the internet can sword – it can be used for good “Regulating the internet can’t work – bring to people’s lives, including and bad – these days it is being too much information can get past viable alternatives to relying solely used about 70% for bad and about the gate-keeping and blockades. on the internet for the purposes of 30% for good. [There are] are It is better to educate the people education and leisure: and have a good communication problems in relation to the internet, between the people and the but it also can bring humanity “The internet can be fantastic, government, especially with together and I love it for this teaching our kids a lot of good community leaders – the internet reason. You can use a car for travel things. At the same time, there are can be used in a positive way in or to ram into someone else or to lots of inflammatory websites – not this sense.” (Community leader) rob a shopping centre – it’s the just Muslim but other groups.” same thing.” (Community leader) (Community leader) However, a few participants pointed out that these positive impacts “The internet also has other “I always tell my daughter, internet is are strongly reliant on people’s functions – if people put up good, but can lead you to danger. willingness to actively counter extreme material on YouTube Awareness about bad aspects of extremist messaging within the or other sites, there will be a internet should be taught in school, internet environment: response – you will get counter- and have community awareness.” material to radicalisation and (Focus group participant) extremist views. The internet can also be used to support the “Whether you’re radical or non- vulnerable as much as to exploit radical, you need a constructive them.” (Government stakeholder) way to channel that energy. ... As far as physical activity goes, they now spend lots of time on electronic media whereas in my day it would have been on the street, playing sport, socialising face to face.” (Community leaders) 94 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Notwithstanding this, some parents One view, prevalent especially Censorship won’t work in the study rued the lack of amongst government stakeholders For those who saw efforts to control they felt they had over their but also some community control or manage the presence children’s access to inappropriate participants, was that trying to of radicalisation and extremism material, including extremist censor or control the internet and on the internet as problematic, content, on the internet: other social media was futile in the prevailing view was that practical terms, could potentially censorship simply would not work “Older people are not so vulnerable backfire by making restricted either politically or practically. They to being persuaded by false material more desirable, and also were sceptical of the idea that promises and lies, but young posed significant and unacceptable the internet could be censored people are vulnerable like this. risks to Australian democratic or filtered in any meaningful way, Some of what the internet does is freedoms and rights. These and worried about the social and good, but not for young people.” participants tended to place high political risks in doing so: (Community leader) value on democratic freedoms and to be wary of assigning too much “I do not think putting a flag or “I think it’s dangerous for children, power to the state because of the censoring extremists sites will help it’s good for education but as potential for state-sponsored or – if we do that today, tomorrow a parent, what we like to tell sanctioned abuse of such powers, we find that human rights can be them is you have to use it for with a number of people citing infringed very seriously. We do your school things, and don’t China’s tight control of the internet not want to give a government go to certain things. But I don’t as a negative example. Overall, this a chance to abuse rights that know if there will be any control was the majority view for all three have taken us a long time to gain. about it, because they can look participant cohorts. We don’t want a China where anywhere, at school, or at the everything is censored. At the end library, they can use it anywhere, The other view, with slightly more of the day people are responsible but if you tell them about it, it can even cross-sectional support for the actions they take, but if we help.” (Focus group participant) across the cohorts, was that some provide education then we have The challenge of preventing form of surveillance, moderation or contributed to the choices they radicalisation and extremism control of the internet was needed can make.” (Community leader) on internet and social in relation to countering or limiting media sites radicalisation and extremism. The “Person ‘A’ might cut so much perception for this group was that content off the internet that is There were two prevailing views for government should play an active actually good and appropriate participants on the issue of how role in exploring and implementing simply through not understanding best to meet the challenge of trying such options. For participants who it or being cautious. Person ‘B’ to prevent or control radical and held the latter view, the value of might be too conservative and not extremist content and messaging democratic rights and freedom of remove material that shouldn’t be through the internet and other new expression was seen as counter- there.” (Government stakeholder) social media, with the majority of balanced by the need to protect comments on this theme coming communities from external and “One thing the government should from government stakeholders and internal threats to safety. This was not do is start to set restrictions, community leaders. a minority view within the overall or censor things, because straight study sample. away the rebel in people starts to emerge, and it takes around three minutes to get around search engine blocks – so don’t do that.” (Focus group participant)

Some participants in government roles also highlighted not only the political but also the operational challenges in trying to control the flow of extremist internet sites: CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 95

“Stopping internet sites spruiking Other participants focused more The social dynamics of the extremism would be a policing on the prospects for covert or internet and other new media function on an international/ overt surveillance and disruption revolved around a number of global basis. You’d need uniform of extremist internet sites. For inter-related themes, including a legislation across countries for this group, the anticipated broad perception that radicalisation that.” (Government stakeholder) protective factor of highlighting and the internet are both driven the consequences of being by social interaction and that the “How does extremism cross caught producing or consuming internet and other social media over to violent extremism or extremist content was a key play a significant role in incubating radicalisation – how do we element of this approach: radicalisation and extremism identify the line that gets crossed through forms of immersive virtual there? It’s a fine line sometimes.” “I take it the authorities can community-building. (Government stakeholder) perform covert surveillance as with any other illegal or criminal The internet was seen as an More should be done about activity. In terms of social policing, important social marketing tool surveillance, control and highlighting the consequences is for extremist groups, one that disruption of extremist not a bad idea, as they’ve done had become more slick and internet content already with child porn access. The sophisticated over time and was Countering these perspectives same could apply here – I could be increasingly directed toward were the views of participants caught and tracked, is it worth it?” attracting and influencing a who thought some type and (Community leader) younger net-savvy generation level of surveillance, control and/ of potential recruits to extremist or disruption of extremist internet Only one participant was causes. The sophisticated format content and sites was justified comfortable with full censorship of contemporary extremist internet or desirable. Some respondents of extremist sites and content on sites and messaging can mask the felt legislative control or content the internet: ‘You could completely crudeness of their content, and classification systems to minimise ban it. It is a balance between many young people in particular violent extremism on the internet my freedom of choice versus were not seen as being sufficiently were the most likely to succeed: mass destruction, and I think the critical or skilled to make this benefit of banning extremism distinction. Moreover, the internet “I think there does have to be a on the internet outweighs the was seen as a way of providing certain extent of control – maybe consequences of losing some access to and platforms and not blocking sites, but flagging freedom of information. It is more followers for radical leaders who or identifying them and letting important to protect humanity.’ had been ostracised by moderate everyone know that these sites (Community leader) or mainstream communities exist and educate them about who sought to minimise their the lies and lack of credibility that Part II: Conclusion interpersonal contact with they have. I think the government For many respondents the social communities more generally. can create classification systems and interactive dimensions of the for this – we do it for child internet and other relatively new pornography, so why not for social media, such as Facebook extremism? I think if something and Twitter, are critical in shaping brings harm to someone, we their perceptions of how discourses should be able to respond and dialogues around extremism accordingly. On Facebook, if and terrorism are played out. The I swear, someone can report internet and other social media me for abuse. It’s not different were seen as dynamic, fluid spaces for terrorism and extremism. If in which radicalisation as a social someone is saying they are willing process can be either reinforced to commit a crime, then why or alternatively hampered by the shouldn’t we go against this?” way in which users of internet (Community leader) and social media sites shape and direct flows of information, opinion and perspective. 96 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The internet was regarded by Hand in hand with this perception Participants felt that the impacts most participants as reinforcing went the notion that the internet of promoting hatred and cultural existing views rather than creating and other new communication stereotyping on the internet new views; in this sense, it was technologies are fundamentally represented a significant risk to not considered a primary driver altering our perception of reality social cohesion, increasing the of radicalisation from scratch. and our capacity to distinguish potential for reactive radicalisation Nevertheless, the internet was between what we currently think in response to being constantly perceived as a critical facilitator in of as the dichotomy between demeaned, humiliated or relation to making it easier for the the ‘virtual’ and the ‘real’, with scapegoated on internet sites. socially maladapted to gain a sense some participants saying this is In addition, they pointed to the of community and to learn more no longer a viable distinction to potential loss of those who might about radicalisation and extremism make, particularly for those born be in a position to help counter in private and convenient ways in an age in which the internet radicalisation by working with without ever having to interact in has always existed for them. authorities, but who became so face to face contexts. This was demoralised or frustrated that particularly a concern for those who Notwithstanding the collapse of they lost trust and confidence in worried about the rise of home- this distinction, participants still mainstream Australian society grown extremism, coupled with a drew a line between emotion and because of the steady diet of hatred recent focus by extremist groups information, with many feeling that they encountered on the web. Such on encouraging acts of terrorism it is the capacity of multimedia hatred was felt by many participants on home soil rather than having to technologies that combine text, to be another variety of extremism travel overseas for training or to sound and both still and moving in its own right. participate in international conflicts images to tap not just into people’s and hot-spots. intellectual understanding of Yet a number of young focus group political, cultural or social issues participants also stressed the The internet was not always but their visceral experience, importance of self-regulation and seen negatively in relation to the aesthetic sensibilities and emotional resilience to resist provocation from social dynamics of radicalisation responses – with implications and internet and social media sites. and extremism because some insights for how radicalisation and These respondents said that it was participants felt that what was extremism exerts its force and crucial to learn how to minimise considered by some to be ‘radical’ influence through these media. the impact of such material on or ‘extreme’ could also provide There was also discussion about one’s emotions and responses, ‘the other side of the story’ to the extent to which the internet and suggested strategies including mainstream media representations and other social media provide a avoidance, humour and cognitive of particular issues, particularly liberating space in which to explore processing to limit these impacts. around politics and foreign affairs. socially difficult or taboo subjects, More support for strengthening with a number of participants resilience amongst those In relation to the social impacts arguing that terrorism is now taboo communities targeted by such of the internet and other new in social conversational settings in hatred was also canvassed. media, there was broad consensus the same way that sexuality was for amongst participants that the an earlier generation. internet was like a ‘giant borderless pamphlet’, one that facilitated faster, broader, easier access to radical and extremist views than ever before. CHAPTER 6: THE ROLE OF MEDIA WITHIN DISCOURSES OF RADICALISATION AND EXTREMISM 97

Finally, in relation to the social and The challenges of preventing operational challenges presented radicalisation and extremism on by the internet and other social internet and social media sites were media in relation to radicalisation seen as complex by all participants. and extremism, participants The prevailing view held by most emphasised the importance of government stakeholders and many maintaining a balanced view of community leaders was that trying the ability of the internet and to censor or control the internet social media to counter as well and other social media was futile as facilitate radicalisation and in practical terms, could potentially extremism. Respondents focused backfire by making restricted on the challenge of providing material more desirable, and also alternative narratives and options posed significant and unacceptable to those who go to the net out of risks to Australian democratic curiosity or uncertainty about who freedoms and rights. Participants they are and where they belong. who held this view tended to place Many participants did not want to high value on democratic freedoms concede the territory of the internet and to be wary of assigning too as a social force to extremists, much power to the state because arguing that it can be used for of the potential for abuse of such good as well as for ill and that with powers, citing China or other non- enough imagination or resourcing democratic states’ tight control of it was possible to intervene in a the internet as a negative example. positive way through these media. Another view for a minority of However, most participants agreed participants across all three cohorts that much more awareness is was that some form of surveillance, needed about balancing the moderation or control of the positives and risks of the internet internet was needed to counter or and social media, particularly limit radicalisation and extremism, for young people, their families and that government should play and for new arrivals who may an active role in exploring and still be grappling both with the implementing such options. For language and the technology those who held the latter view, they encounter in Australia. Some the value of democratic rights and parents in focus groups felt that freedom of expression was seen as such education and awareness counter-balanced by the need to was all the more important because protect communities from external they had little confidence that they and internal threats to safety. could control what their children did or whom they contacted on the internet, given how widely available net and social media access now is outside the home. CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH

This section of the study explores government and community views on various aspects of two recent Australian counter-terrorism operations that resulted in the arrests and in some cases conviction of a number of people under federal counter-terrorism legislation. Participants were asked how they viewed these two operations, known as Operation Neath and Operation Pendennis, which were widely reported to the Australian community through the media. This included consideration of how the arrest, trial, conviction and sentencing phases of these operations were handled. CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH 99

Although all participants were Procedural integrity of “The investigations were justified, provided with an information Operations Pendennis and the police took the appropriate sheet documenting a summary Neath and their outcomes action and did it in a culturally of publicly available knowledge sensitive way and took great steps about Pendennis and Neath, These operations successfully to link in after the arrests with it should be noted that a large reflect Australia’s healthy the relevant communities so they number of community members democratic legal system understood what was going on. who lived outside Victoria and Most government-based The trials were the most open and New South Wales had either not participants familiar with Pendennis robust terrorist trials you would heard of these operations, had and/or Neath felt that the Australian expect anywhere in the world, only glancing familiarity with one justice system had dealt fairly and where some were convicted or both through news reporting, democratically with those who were and some acquitted, and the or had not formed a particular investigated, arrested and tried in judgements and sentencing view about them. Consequently, these operations. They saw these were transparent and done very the data-set reflecting informed operations as testament to the scrupulously. I think intelligence responses for this portion of healthy and transparent nature of and police agencies learned the study is more modest than both Australian democracy and the from the fact that they created a for other project themes. Australian legal system, in contrast lot of community mistrust from to the perceived ‘political failures’ earlier operations and these In addition, unlike the emergence of other recent operations such lessons have been learned.” of fairly consistent themes from the as the ‘Haneef inquiry’. A number (Government stakeholder) data across the three participant of people drew attention to the cohorts for the rest of the study, fact that only some of the people “Given the serious consequences this portion of the data reveals charged with terrorist offences were of a terrorist act on Australian sharply divergent views between convicted and sentenced, while soil, I think the very direct government stakeholders on the others had their cases dismissed, approach was perfectly justified one hand, and community leaders seeing this as further evidence in both cases. But if you reflected and focus group participants that the system worked fairly on some of the operations in on the other, concerning the well. A number of respondents Queensland you might have a perceived fairness, impact and also commented on the fact that different view, where there were efficacy of these operations. We lessons from earlier operations some significant political and have accordingly clustered the in which significant Muslim other failures, such as the Haneef contrasting views of government community mistrust and hostility inquiry.” (Government stakeholder) stakeholders alongside those of had arisen had been learned, One respondent also focused on community leaders and focus as evidenced by the attention the way in which the handling of group participants to highlight these given to community debriefing various phases of these operations discrepancies where they emerge. exercises following the arrests: was useful in focusing on terrorism as a crime, rather than as a political event that could be contested ideologically or treated as beyond the normal rule of law in relation to state powers: 100 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“For both cases, I think all phases “It is a luxury in certain situations “With Pendennis, at the verdict were handled appropriately and to think about using culturally stage we found that there was a for me, demonstrated the fact appropriate indicators. You need general lack of understanding of that terrorism is a crime and will to make sure of the safety of both conspiracy in law. It’s different to be treated as a criminal matter. the operating officers and the shari’a law – if you have a number The people who were arrested people being taken into custody. It of people involved in criminal had all the same opportunities will be fast. Cultural considerations conspiracy, how come someone and rights that any other person will come way below. Also, I’m with a small minor role is getting arrested for any other crime has. not sure if cultural considerations the same sentence as someone Their trial was conducted like any are different from the liberal who was much more centrally other criminal trial. There was idea of respecting someone’s involved? When the sentences very little information that wasn’t dignity in more general terms. came out some people likened presented publicly. The sentencing It is an intrinsically undignified them to the 44-year sentences in particular demonstrated that and invasive process, being the Skaf brothers got for sexual it was handled accordingly to arrested or being the target of an assault. They thought the Skaf standard court procedures. A operation. Culturally appropriate brothers and the Pendennis number had their entitlement methods may be what people sentences were both examples to parole taken into account; talk about in interviews but it is of extreme sentencing based on some didn’t receive maximum pretty low on the list in practice.” those convicted being Muslims.” sentences available under the (Government stakeholder) (Government stakeholder) law.” (Government stakeholder) Some government stakeholders “The other feedback we got on However, despite the admiration were confident that communities Pendennis was that the judge, in expressed by some government directly involved in these summing up, said he believed the stakeholders for the culturally operations saw them as conspirators were going to commit attuned debriefing given to the reasonable and justified: a terrorist act ‘somewhere’. Some target communities following of the community members the arrests, other government “We canvassed a number of NSW were concerned that it was not a stakeholders had serious Muslim communities at the trial specific event and they couldn’t misgivings about how far police and sentencing stage of Pendennis understand how you could convict should go in taking cultural and the arrest phase of Neath. We someone of a non-specific act sensitivities into consideration found that at the arrest stage of – this contradicts elements of during such operations: Neath, they had the opinion that Islamic law under shari’a. Also, the people who were arrested the lack of conspiracy anchored in “Why should arrests be culturally were criminals, it was justified and anything concrete [was a concern appropriate? Think about [UK they should’ve been arrested.” to some in these communities].” Prime Minister] David Cameron’s (Government stakeholder) (Government stakeholder) ‘muscular liberalism’ – we are not targeting individuals or Other government stakeholders, This concern with the perceived communities, we are targeting however, cited reported concerns vagueness of convictions for what behaviours and actions – why from communities about the people think rather than what they should culture come into it? integrity of the operations. These do was echoed by participants in The reality is that during an included community unease with the focus groups. One participant operation such as a siege or charges based on conspiracy in the focus groups spoke about his hostage situation how do you to act rather than on the actual discomfort with detaining people culturally sensitively resolve commission of acts, and also based on ‘terrorist talk’ because he that? You don’t. You use all perceptions of excessive sentencing felt it was highly unlikely they would of the tools at your disposal.” for those convicted. This excess act on their extremist thoughts (Government stakeholder) was perceived to be based more on or dialogue. He cited the case of their Muslim identities than on the acquaintances who were detained gravity of the crimes for which they in Perth for security reasons and were being sentenced: thought it was ‘because these guys are men and big and look like what you think terrorists would look like they get detained’. CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH 101

Some community leaders and focus “I don’t believe it. ... Allegations Perceptions of operational group participants also supported [about] Al-Shabbab…. Just policing during Pendennis the arrests and convictions, alleged they were. ... But then and Neath expressing confidence in the the government pushes [alleged integrity of Neath and Pendennis violent extremists] to make them The police handled these and seeing the subsequent trials say stuff and do stuff, and they operations well as fair and the sentencing as might admit to stuff to get out.” The police were generally viewed by reasonable. It was very important (Focus group participants) government stakeholders as having to several community-based handled these operations well, with participants that, as in the case In a similar vein, some focus a number of people seeing helpful of Neath, it was members of group participants questioned policy and operational lessons their own community who first the moral reasoning around who arising for future events: brought those convicted to is and isn’t sanctioned to use the attention of authorities: violence in various contexts, “The debrief by Victoria Police of seeing the state, and particularly the community following Neath “I think there were some acquittals the military, as fair game for was very rapid and also very as well as convictions. This attacks by violent extremists under successful, from what I hear. I showed transparency and that certain political circumstances: think that was really impressive. I the process works and it gave think there are some really good confidence to the community “Depends on how you define lessons to come out of these about the way the law works here.” criminal, this is the army, they two operations for future police (Community leader) are sent overseas to kill people, handling of these situations.” (Non- you see it’s acceptable for the Victorian government stakeholder) “In Australia – the community army, they have a uniform, they exposed them. They need are a government thing, but “I have the police view which is to realise that their own in reality they are just humans that they were two very successful community exposed them.” with a gun, and they are in your operations that achieved their (Focus group participant) country going to kill people.” objectives right through to (Focus group participant) conviction in some cases. I have “Benbrika was on the radar and some detailed knowledge of the so in the end it didn’t surprise “But in this case, nobody was operational aspects of it and some of us that he was exposed. innocent anyway, they were the I’ve not heard of anything that I It was a bit of a relief that he army, they don’t kill chickens. If thought was unacceptable. To was now arrested. With Neath [those arrested and tried] planned prevent something happening and the [al-]Shabab, the people to go to a school, and hurt them without serious physical harm to who wanted to blow things up [that would be wrong], but it was any person and garnering sufficient were a real worry to us, and the army where people had guns evidence to convict someone using we welcomed the arrests and and weapons to fight back.” a transparent jury system was the convictions.” (Community leader) (Focus group participant) best possible outcome.” (Non- Victorian government stakeholder) Operations Neath and “It comes back to different people Pendennis were not and different reasons, they all have Moreover, these stakeholders felt justified their purpose for doing things. Why that police were well supported in would a terrorist choose the MCG their investigations and actions by Yet a significant number of focus and another one the army, they the Muslim communities in which group participants saw things have their target, maybe you could those arrested were based: differently, expressing either doubt say they choose to bomb army or denial that those arrested were because they go fight Muslims involved in such events or that usually.” (Focus group participant) the official version of the activities leading up to the investigations, arrests and convictions was either accurate or justified. These comments are reminiscent of some of the doubts and denials evoked by discussion of the media and 9/11 above in Chapter 5: 102 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“The Muslim communities in “At the time of these operations, “It is our assessment that these Melbourne were pretty supportive around the world and in Australia anti-terror laws are more for of what police were doing and in there were very bad stories about intimidation of Muslims than for fact assisted in what was going [Australian] police treatment, for national security. Pendennis and on. From their point of view, these example the Doomadgee case in Neath, like the others, are not were people who had a very Palm Island. Sometimes it is too proper convictions. I’m not saying misguided view of Islam and it was late to reverse the damage done to they are not guilty under the law, proper that action should be taken the person by the police. We are I’m saying that they are guilty against them. In Neath and also living in a world with human rights under laws that were introduced to in Pendennis, the initial contact and the police have to have that make a big fanfare to show that we with Victoria Police was from restraint on them but this is not are doing something about security [people] within these communities always the case, and sometimes and terrorism. The convictions who had become concerned. we find out about it too late. Police are sound under the existing Even with Benbrika and so on, brutality is not a solution during the laws, but the laws themselves they essentially withdrew from arrest.” (Community leader) are unsound, which means the larger mosques and set up their convictions themselves are able to own because the community did Police and security agencies be discredited. Unlike people who not generally support what they are more interested in actually bombed something, these were talking about, so they set harassing Muslims than in laws changed to accommodate up their own ‘garage mosque’.” detecting and preventing just planning or thinking about (Government stakeholder) violent extremism doing something – ‘a’ terrorist act, Most overwhelming, however, not ‘the’ terrorist act. How can you And at least one community leader was the view expressed by both be a terrorist organisation when felt the police were between a community leaders and focus you haven’t done anything terrorist rock and a hard place during such group participants that intelligence yet?” (Community leader) investigations and generally had and security operations such as their priorities right: Pendennis and Neath are more “Our political analysis tells us that about harassment of Muslim this is primarily about silencing “Sometimes when you handle individuals or communities than Muslims on matters of foreign something roughly people want about the detection or investigation policy and radical extremists revenge. But if you handle it too of terrorism or related crimes. A – if you go this way, this is the gently it seems like you aren’t broad range of community leaders outcome, mind your own business enforcing things well enough. So suggested that such operations and look after your own career. it’s hard to win. But I don’t think were illegitimate exercises in We fight that in the community – pleasing people should be a priority power by the state designed to there is a fear that if you go to a when you are trying to protect intimidate and silence Muslims into peaceful demonstration, you will be people or prevent people from compliance with mainstream values, under surveillance by government.” being harmed.” (Community leader) attitudes and behaviours, and/or to (Community leader) Another community leader, showcase counter-terrorism efforts however, suggested that for political purposes: Australian police have a bad reputation for brutality both in Australia and overseas, which can unduly influence perceptions of police during such operations even when they are handling things reasonably well: CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH 103

“Is this kind of thing really about “Always they say it is a random “One of the things I have learned protecting Australian people and check but I have already walked that happens is that the people security and property, or is it about past and they randomly get me who are responsible for the cynical point-scoring? This is back – I am the random Muslim for security of the country are also one football you can kick as hard the day.” (Focus group participant) actually they are responsible for as you like. The push to expose creating the problems by enticing and extract Muslim extremists Aligned with this perception, these people and giving them in Australia – it’s go for your life. many focus group participants the means to arrest them. ASIO You can vilify as much as you also highlighted their view that the actually encourages this person like and there’s been almost no experience of being repeatedly to say or do something wrong. backlash. One of the problems targeted by police and security When they have enough evidence when you have this association agencies can make individuals and that this person is bad they can between a real event, a political indeed entire communities hostile to come in and arrest them or raid problem you’re trying to solve and/or fearful of authorities: their homes. This happened and a media circus is that it runs here and in the US. I wrote to “You keep raiding that house, your the risk of backfiring. Rather than government after the Somali friends and families know and that scaring people to think twice about incident had finished. The security builds a big nest of animosity.” going in this direction....people made the person angry by saying (Focus group participant) aren’t that stupid. They join the things, then they say I know a dots and realise it’s not so much “The stuff they do, you watch guy who knows a guy and then about Australian safety, it’s about the news, and people are they tap your phone and all you Muslim-bashing. They then end up getting locked up for the wrong have to say is I support so and gravitating more and more toward reasons – that makes hatred in so and that is basically the issue. the margins.” (Community leader) our hearts for governments.” They set them up.” (Focus group (Focus group participant) participant, Somali background) For focus group participants in particular, harassment on the “And then this triggers more “We are set up by police. There was basis of suspected extremism frustration, more aggravation, a case on the news and they show linked to cultural difference was people get scared that you’ll footage of some of the things this a significant grievance, with just grab any Muslim and say individual was accused of [in the many citing personal or second- they’re a terrorist and detain Benbrika case]. The government is hand stories about repeated them, and now less people are under pressure to get results and surveillance, stop and search coming to Australia because sometimes they create things that procedures or other instances of of the fear they will be seen as are not there to get the results. A perceived targeting and profiling terrorist. Why are Muslims being person sent to one of the guys, by police and security agencies: segregated by police themselves?” they went outside Melbourne in (Focus group participant) the bush and they show footage “You watch – every time a visiting of that. They went somewhere dignitary [comes to Australia], a Several focus group members to do the tests. This person they community is raided, computers also believed that police had cameras in the trees.” (Focus taken, searched [and] after they’ve engaged in deliberate acts of group participant) gone, no charges are pressed.” provocation and entrapment, (Focus group participant) luring those who might otherwise not have acted to become “I also believe that Muslims coming involved in terrorist activities: to this country may change their mind [about wanting to be in Australia], because everyone is watching, watch dog, the neighbourhood, everyone.” (Focus group participant) 104 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

A number of community leaders Australia favours intervention These views are aligned with those stressed the importance of rather than prevention in of focus group participants who using inclusive language and dealing with violent extremism felt that those caught up in Neath discourse when police make Some focus group participants felt in particular were let down by the public statements about terrorist that Australia is moving in the wrong lack of early intervention in the threats and efforts to prevent direction by focusing on surveillance circumstances that made them violent extremism. The importance and intervention in suspected cases vulnerable to radicalisation in the of police and Muslim community of violent extremism at the expense first place: leaders standing side by side in of prevention. In their view, this “Because [those involved in Neath] public was called for as a strategy leads to over-vigilance on security were bullied in schools here, to narrow the trust gap between matters with a corresponding misunderstood here, marginalised communities and the police and ‘too little, too late’ investment here. ... It may be just because send a more positive message in preventative resources and they are not working, and out to the general community strategies that address the causal uneducated. ... They fell in the about cooperative Muslim factors leading to violent extremism: community-police relations. One wrong hands when looking for respondent noted that, unlike “And then there’s the overprotection the meaning of life and religion.” the police, Muslim communities issue, when it becomes so (Focus group participants) have to live with the aftermath of overtly security [focused], like Operations like Pendennis inopportune statements made by the Dr Haneef case, and how he and Neath do long- police about their appearance or was treated – he was detained lasting damage to whole culture when publicity for anti- wrongly. You need to look at communities terror activities is at its peak: how overprotected you are, and sometimes you cross the line in Finally, many participants in the “You want our people to be on side needing to protect the country, but focus groups were concerned at and we do too, so don’t use terms you have to ensure human rights the ongoing impact that anti-terror like ‘of Middle Eastern appearance’ and freedoms are respected – is operations like Pendennis and which get taken up out of control it right to detain people wrongly Neath have on those left behind in by the media monster. The Chief to protect [other] people?” (Focus the community who are blamed by Commissioner can wash his hands group participant) association for the actions of a very of the affair after the arrests, but few. For these respondents, the the monster is already unleashed “The Muslim community say [the actions of a few violent extremists, in the community and no one government] are tapping us and and the perceived imbalanced wants to hear about it afterwards. following us. So at what point media treatment afforded such The authorities just say ‘that’s the does somebody step in? There is cases, can have long-lasting effects media, nothing to do with us.’ a responsibility for government to that damage the entire community, One solution is to ask Muslim play a role in prevention and not particularly if that community is community leaders who support just capture people when it is too already battling against prejudice cooperating with authorities on late.” (Focus group participant) and discrimination on the basis terrorist operations to stand side of race, religion and/or cultural by side in public from day one; this “Now Australia is spending more background. This was an issue is a symbolic part of the solution.” on prevention in terms of weapons particularly but not exclusively (Community leader) and mass destruction, but not highlighted by focus group on the people themselves. They participants from African Muslim need to spend more on prevention backgrounds: and people and less on security.” (Focus group participant) “When Tim McVeigh was arrested, he was marginalised with a personal history of trauma, that was one of his triggers, these are traumatised individuals, but we [in Australia] attribute it to the entire group.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 7: PERCEPTIONS OF OPERATIONS PENDENNIS AND NEATH 105

“When [Neath] came at that time, By contrast with the perception of and the media was talking a lot most government stakeholders, about Africans and there’s a lot of a significant majority of focus commentary – some people say group participants thought these no, it’s not all Africans, but the operations were not justified, and young people they can’t make that this view was shared by some distinction, understanding that we community leaders. Focus group only have a certain group of people participants overwhelmingly doing this. It got to the point that thought that Neath and Pendennis some of us felt the impact. You were more about harassing and can go to the supermarket and intimidating Muslim communities you feel it, you feel a tension, and than about detecting crime and some people, it happened to one preventing violent extremism, and friend, they just threw eggs at him, many in the community cohorts but that’s the minority, the majority also thought that Australia had is saying no, it’s not all Africans.” shifted its overall approach toward (Focus group participant) countering violence extremism from prevention to intervention. There “When the situation is not was uneasiness for community generalised it’s okay, but when participants about convictions it is generalised, it will have an based on ‘thinking about’ terrorism impact. Because let’s say those rather than engaging in concrete of Somali group themselves terrorist acts for which criminal are terrorists, and if media says charges could be laid. This unease Africans are terrorist, that will was commented on and linked to have an effect on all Africans.” a lack of understanding around (Focus group participant) conspiracy laws by a number of government stakeholders. Focus Conclusion group participants also felt that the Operations Neath and Pendennis aftermath of operations such as were generally seen by government Pendennis and Neath can do long- stakeholders as successful lasting residual damage to how and reflective of a healthy and Muslim communities are perceived democratic justice system in and to the agenda of intercultural Australia. This view was also shared harmony more broadly. by some community leaders. However, some government stakeholders also cited reported community concerns and unease with one or more aspects and impacts of these operations. CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM

The final section of the report examines participants’ perspectives on what policy and other solutions participants felt were required when thinking about how to address locally and nationally the issue of preventing or minimising the threat of extremism and terrorism. These discussions covered participants’ views about counter- narratives; how the appeal of violent extremism can be reduced; and what they thought government, the police, local communities and individual citizens should be doing to help counter the threat and presence of violent extremism. CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 107

Counter-narratives “Western governments find Muslim counter-narratives of radicalisation and themselves in a tricky position – have stronger credibility extremism partly influenced by history, partly Conversely, a very wide range by the Iraq war – which is that of participants across all three In thinking about counter-narratives, offering overt government support cohorts saw a clear role and participants were asked to give for any view can undermine that space for counter-narratives from their views on who is in the best view’s credibility. It has to be done Muslim leaders and groups. These position to develop and disseminate carefully and sensitively. I don’t respondents argued that Muslim- counter-narratives; who counter- think there are any problems generated counter-narratives, narratives are, or should be, with providing support, but particularly from within local Muslim aimed at; and what kinds of ultimately it’s not government that communities, are likely to be more counter-narratives are perceived is going to make the difference. credible, authentic, and have to be most effective. The themes We can’t force people not to greater influence and reach than emerging in this portion of the think or to act in certain ways.” parallel government initiatives: study focus on both the challenges (Government stakeholder) and opportunities for rethinking “The Muslim community has a approaches to effective counter- “The Australian government needs role in counter-radicalisation and narrative strategies. to be careful – don’t say this is can help to counter the problem, wrong, de-radicalise, and have provided there is a respectful Who should be developing twenty imams issue fatwas against engagement and they are not and disseminating it, because they will immediately marginalised.” (Community leader) counter-narratives? be seen as sell-outs, and radicals would go underground.” (Focus “We [Muslims] make things Government is not effective group participant) authentic, we say they are giving or appropriate for producing me the real information, and feel counter-narratives Of similar concern was the fact it’s more potent and valid from There was a notable lack of that extremist groups seem to be him than you because you don’t confidence amongst government winning the counter-narrative battle fit my idea of authenticity, and stakeholders, community leaders in terms of greater sophistication if you always say to me, this is and focus group participants and savvy packaging of their wrong, he’s wrong, you attack my concerning the efficacy of current messages, particularly in the on-line knowledge creation, rather than national counter-narrative strategies. environment of the internet and offering a different view.” (Focus Some government stakeholders social media: group participant) felt that existing counter-narrative “Terrorists have been clever and approaches to date have not had “Counter-narratives are important effective users of the internet and much impact and that government but they need to be credible – that social media and they’ve done a may not be the most appropriate is, presented by someone who pretty good job, such as Inspire source for such interventions. understands and is identified with magazine and other publications Specific concerns about the limited the same belief system. You need that ... [are] good at putting out effectiveness of government-based to align counter-narratives with a fast food version of the same counter-narratives centred on their the same belief system you are old content. ... But people putting lack of credibility with the people trying to influence and change. ...” together counter-narratives have and communities they are targeting: (Government stakeholder) been pretty slow off the mark.” (Government stakeholders) 108 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

There was also strong support for However, despite wide support “In terms of what they can do the idea that Muslim communities for such an approach in general, differently, if they have any have a moral and practical community leaders in particular positive news, announce this responsibility to proactively stressed that moderate Muslims with a Muslim person at their mount alternative narratives, should not be expected to do this side.” (Community leader) showcasing non-extremist varieties automatically or without government of Islam and drawing on their resourcing and support: Who should counter- ‘insider’ authority, knowledge narratives be aimed at? and capacity for leadership with “I don’t think it’s a fair expectation Selectively target audiences relevant groups and individuals: unless [Muslim communities] are provided with proper resources for counter-narratives “The ‘sorry’ speech by Kevin or capacity to do this. Waleed There was little support for broad- Rudd to Aboriginal people was Aly on [ABC] TV – other Muslims brush counter-narratives aimed a good example of that – it was are inspired to be better people at the general community. Most an alternative narrative to what and he makes a huge difference. respondents felt that counter- we’d all been taught and what Government should not just expect narratives needed to have the previous governments had him and others to do it as a routine specifically targeted audiences maintained, and that was very – they’ve done nothing wrong. in mind with aligning and powerful. So counter-narratives Why should they be blamed for nuanced messages that helped are very important ways of others’ distortions of Islam when prevent what one government speaking for a lot of people who it’s not their fault? If you want stakeholder termed ‘people at don’t necessarily have the words them to be influential in changing the crossroads’ from proceeding to express themselves in this perceptions via counter-narratives, further down the path of way. It’s the full story we need to you must support and resource radicalisation and extremism: hear. That’s when dialogue and them to do this. ... The important relationships can ‘kill’ violence.” thing is not to blame the whole for “Logically, we should be able to use (Community leader) the actions of a few, but to give the internet to divert someone from them the tools to help support the path of radicalisation. If you “Here [in Australia], if we see an those who want to do the right are already radicalised, probably atrocity done, under the banner thing.” (Community leaders) not. But if you are seeking of Islam, we need to be the first guidance, we might be able to critics out there, loudly. Forget Finally, participants across offer counter-perspectives that about pan-Islamism – we don’t all cohorts felt that greater can get someone thinking rather hear enough Muslims.” (Focus acknowledgement of cooperation than acting. It’s the people who group participant) between moderate Muslim are curious and perhaps leaning community leaders and who we need to be concerned “[Muslim communities are the government authorities should with in relation to influence.” only ones who can create and form an essential part of any (Government stakeholder) disseminate] counter-narratives counter-narrative strategy: with any credibility or authority. “In the 1980s we warned the They do have a responsibility to “[Government should be] Australian government about themselves and their community cooperating with the clerics, the young Africans heading toward and the general community to ones who are the sane clerics, Afghanistan and elsewhere for address this, since so much they need to go out and say [extremist] ‘training camps’. This recruitment takes place through this is not right, these [other] was in 1985/1986, before terrorism the mosques. Community leaders clerics have different motives.” was on the global agenda. How do have a responsibility to themselves (Focus group participant) you fight an ideology with another and their community to provide real ideology? It didn’t come overnight. “The fact that the Pendennis leadership and build up resilience [Extremists are] cultivating them, and Neath police investigations for that community in an authentic fertilising them from an early age. were supported by Muslim way.” (Government stakeholder) We need to address this now, communities is not well known otherwise they will just keep and that support should be part coming.” (Community leader) of the counter-narrative that’s not happening so well at the moment.” (Government stakeholder) CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 109

Counter-narratives are “I’m quite keen on the idea that “Governments should produce everyone’s business mothers have the capacity to not a counter-narrative but an However, there was also a view influence in an early stage – the assertive narrative of who we amongst some participants multicultural mothers can put are as a society and what we that counter-narratives were a lot of guilt on the kids. The stand for and need to protect.” a responsibility for Australian mothers have the capacity to (Government stakeholder) communities in general and should engage emotionally with socially “I went to the ECCV12 state not be produced by or aimed at distanced young people. Bringing conference, and a guy from Italian Muslim communities alone: it back to the effect on their immediate family can be powerful.” background was talking about “On occasions when people say (Government stakeholder) Islamophobia and saying it’s things that are racist or anti-Islam, unacceptable, we have to combat there are people who will stand up What kinds of counter- it, and that’s the first time I’ve against Islamaphobia. When you narratives work best? heard a non-Muslim do that, and it get that support, you are more makes you feel better – it made me Do we really need counter- likely to care about the people and feel, wow, somebody cares. We narratives? The alternative of your country, and we need more need to hear more positive voices.” affirmative narratives proper and moderate leaders to (Focus group participant) come into the spotlight.” (Focus The major theme emerging from “We are looking for unity in the group participant) participants in relation to what wrong places – not our skin colour kinds of counter-narratives work or our accents, but the fact that “It should not only be the Muslim best actually questions whether we are Australian – national identity community doing this. It should counter-narratives are desirable at is the only thing that unites us as be each and every human being. all or whether fresh alternatives are Australian. Otherwise we are all Extremism doesn’t derive only required. A significant proportion too different. We need [narratives from Islam – it can derive from one of community leaders, government that recognise] the fact that living person to another, one religion to stakeholders and focus group together here peacefully is really another, one culture to another. participants suggested that the what binds us.” (Community youth These counter-narratives should time may have come to replace or leader, new arrival background) be by everyone for everyone.” supplement traditional approaches (Community leader) to counter-narratives, which many From ‘us and them’ to ‘we’ respondents saw as potentially In a similar vein, many community- Personalise and localise the or actively divisive, with more based participants felt that such counter-narrative message affirmative, positive narratives narratives need to concentrate on Government stakeholders placed focusing on the positives of what bridging or eliminating the ‘us and special emphasis on the importance unites Australians from many them’ mentality that current national of ensuring that counter-narratives different cultures and backgrounds. discourses on culture, identity are designed for emotional rather They also believed that ‘assertive’ and belonging, particularly on than purely logical impact. They felt narratives of national identity and the political and media fronts, are that aiming counter-narratives at unity would help limit the success thought to have helped shape: families, friends and communities of extremists in setting an agenda that bear the brunt of anti-extremist against which traditional counter- “What they need is a lot of the interventions would be helpful, narratives are inevitably perceived reputable [Muslim community] rather than concentrating on as reactive rather than proactive: leaders to do a lot of the talking – abstract ‘master-narratives’ of this would break down the ‘us and countering extremism: “Radicalised Islam is a social them’ mentality and show it is just movement, a banner, it connects about ‘us’.” (Community leader) “Also the consequences need to be them to a big picture. To combat quite personal – some people have that social movement, you have said to us that if such a [terrorist] to replace it with another, a big act occurred here, the biggest banner of a call to cooperation victims would be Australian Muslims that others can see as a way themselves in terms of harassment, of building a better way/world.” victimisation and targeting long (Focus group participant) after the actual event was over.”

(Government stakeholder) 12. Ethnic Communities Council of Victoria. 110 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“Imam [name] – he does a great “I think the imam is important, How can we make violent job, I’ve attended his events, he must have good knowledge extremism less appealing? and he doesn’t talk about non- and be a real scholar otherwise Muslims and us, he talks about people, particularly those who Educate both Muslims mercy and humanity, he feeds are vulnerable, maybe at risk of and non-Muslims about the hungry no matter who they showing the wrong path. I think moderate Islam are, they donate blankets to that it is also very important that There was very strong support from churches for the homeless.” we train our own Australian born both government and community (Focus group participant) imams who understand Australian participants for the idea that formal values and the law. Although we education in schools was the “Australia works to increase have qualified international imams best way to reduce the appeal of and support multiculturalism, from overseas some of them violent extremism. They wanted to and that’s really important, I’ve say things against the Australian see a stronger educational focus known lots of Afghanis and government and they also teach on alternatives to violence and Lebanese, they say I’m Australian, this negative attitude to locals. If better understanding of moderate my parents are Lebanese or they were in their own countries interpretations of Islamic religious Afghani… and that’s a big thing.” they would be killed if they said doctrine in public and Islamic-based (Focus group participant) things against the government. schools for both Muslim and non- Muslim young people: The role of Muslim leadership That’s why it is important to in counter-narratives ensure overseas imams are trained to understand the Australian “I think education is the only A large proportion of community- context as well as to know how solution for this. Muslim kids based focus group participants to interpret the Qur’an in the right themselves need to be educated thought the main challenges in way.” (Focus group participant) [because] Muslims for a long developing strong Muslim counter- time have relied on imams. These narratives to violent extremism “Those young people don’t emerge imams were first generation, were issues related to the quality, in a vacuum, they are supported couldn’t speak English, and this orientation and public profile of by others, those who are teaching was a problem. Now it’s hard Islamic religious and community them, so stop the teachers, to find Islamic teachers and it’s leaders in Australia and overseas. change the environment. … The a problem. Our kids who grow They wanted to see more qualified policy lesson here is provide up here are critical-minded and leaders with stronger religious or establish youth centres for they know how to ask lots of and educational accreditation, Muslims and let them socialise questions. Here at our [Islamic] stronger relationships between with imams who do not have school we do our bit, but those moderate Muslims and youth, these views and can develop at public school, it’s not good better representation of moderate trust and relationships in different enough.” (Community leader) Islamic views in public forums, and settings and get different views.” more effective measures to limit (Focus group participants) “Teaching more about Islam in the influence those leaders whom schools would be a big help if they saw as inciting division and “It has gone to such mundane the moderate view of Islam is extremism within communities: levels in some places; [the view is espoused. Educate Muslims that] anybody daring to question who may be forming views or are anything about the prophet needs educated in more radical versions to have his legs chopped off. You of Islam that there are other can be talking about a particular alternatives. Part of the problem vegetable that the prophet used is that Muslims are a minority and to like, and then they’ll say all if they feel they are being treated people should like it – if they don’t, unfairly then this is the foundation they should be killed. Before we on which radicalisation and blame others we need to look at extremism can begin. If we reduce ourselves as Muslims.” (Focus that so they feel they are not so group participant) threatened or different, this would help. We need to educate non- Muslims to help make this happen too. So, education right across the board.” (Government stakeholder) CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 111

“If you can have an environment Yet while most participants were Provide peer-based activities for young Muslims where schools in favour of positive education that deglamorise violence and are more open and facilitate strategies as a means of disarming offer alternatives Muslim education this would or minimising the potential for Beyond formal education strategies, help. If roadblocks are put up radicalisation and extremism a number of participants also for local Muslim schools (as is amongst young people, focus stressed the need for more informal, now happening in Liverpool) so group respondents in particular peer-based youth activities. Peer- that they are not under state were less sanguine about the to-peer influence in reducing the government monitoring, then this prospects for success of explicitly appeal of violent extremism was means the children will be taught in targeted counter-radicalisation seen as critical because of the a backyard by the likes of Benbrika or re-education programs. While importance of peer approval, social or another radical. Whether a some suggested that to ‘control networks and group dynamics mosque, a school or community the specific groups that are at that characterise young people’s centre or whatever, it should all risk, education and the media lives in their communities. Many be on the radar and appropriately can play a major role’ and argued respondents spoke of the need certified. The backyard and that ‘you can convince kids to to develop and sustain peer- garage Muslim schools will then go one way [to] radicalise them, based youth anti-violence and disappear or at least be reduced.” why can’t we radicalise them the anti-extremism programs that (Community leader) other way?’, others believed that encouraged young people to ‘you can’t control the choices of ‘understand that violence is not Related to this was an emphasis, people and the radical sub-groups acceptable and making them speak particularly for focus group that emerge in communities that out against violence; changing participants, on using education make people go to extremist their belief system that violence is to encourage familiarity with thoughts’ (focus group participants) acceptable and supporting them and acceptance of critical and that such programs were to do something about it. Violence thinking and social norms that inevitably tainted by association isn’t an answer for them and they can help inure impressionable with selling out to ‘the West’. need to hear this from their peers.’ young people from becoming (Government stakeholder) vulnerable to radical suasion: Moreover, some focus group participants cast doubt on whether Similarly, some participants “Education, social education, is venues such as mosques or spoke of the need to de- that you tell people about the madrassas were the main sources glamorise violence and provide societal norms what’s acceptable, of radicalisation to begin with, while equally attractive alternatives make them differentiate between also conceding their influence in that ‘channel the anger and right and wrong rather than other respects: energy of young people into what forcing opinions. That lacks in they are good at’ (community our country [of origin], you are “Madrassas are a touchy topic, leader) while simultaneously fed information, not analyzing but 90 percent of extremists were developing youth leadership information. In Western countries not from madrassas but from skills that can be harnessed people are more critical thinking, universities in the west, engineers to anti-violence messages: so social education is a must.” and doctors. But madrassa (Focus group participant) people know the intricacies, and they know that for a religious “If kids don’t have the confidence opinion to be valid it needs to [to critically debate issues] they be issued, or based through this will not argue with their parent religious tradition. You follow the or their Qur’an teacher. They just authority of the traditional school believe what they say.” (Focus of thought, therefore religious group participant) scholars cannot emerge without knowledge of these things.” (Focus group participant) 112 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“[Violent extremism] can have a The use of humour and satire “I think unfairness at the top of the magnetic and adventurous appeal. as a way of puncturing the world is nurturing this violence. ... The logical answer is that we mystique of violent extremism I think the first thing is tone down need to have just as glamorous or was also recommended by some about some issues, like Australian pleasurable alternatives. Both here participants – ‘make it an object of involvement in Afghanistan and and in the US there are a lot of ridicule and laughter’ (government Iraq. ...There can be possibilities projects that talk about this kind of stakeholder) – while others pointed of having an attack here, because thing in the arts and sports arenas. to the cathartic impact of humour Australian military is involved in Provide funding for meaningful for frustrated young people who Afghanistan, etc. ... Australian projects that target young people’s may be toying with radicalisation troops are participating overseas, interests and channel their energy or extremism because of social and Australia policies are so closely in a healthy way. Boxing clubs exclusion, bullying or discrimination: linked with Bush’s and that creates have proven successful here in a negative feeling in countries Sydney. Youth spokespeople and “Comedy can be an unbelievable outside, they look it as Australia ambassadors is another avenue to release for dealing with the getting involved unnecessarily.” pursue – it can be a real adrenaline traumas of discrimination, bullying, (Focus group participants) rush for them.” (Community leader) etc. People think Muslim comedy is an oxymoron but it isn’t. These “For us it’s connected with the “You must deglamorise violence aren’t just superficial distractions.” causes. So you make it less and extremism. If you think about (Community leader) attractive by ceasing the drivers radicalisation as a process, there is and causes, which is Western an early point where you’re not as Address the root causes foreign policy. Also through fully desensitised and disengaged of foreign policy to avoid discussion and debate, you tell – so that you can intervene at home-grown terrorism people the way forward is yes, that earlier stage to deglamorise Finally, while government through resistance and intellectual extremism and violence.” stakeholders and community and political movements, but not (Government stakeholder) leaders generally thought that through violence. Our message greater internal sanctioning of is that you need to work for the De-glamorising violent extremism violent extremism by respected Caliphate, but violence is not by stressing its fundamentally moderate leaders within allowed. We don’t do this to criminal nature was also seen as Muslim communities, coupled help policy makers with national a useful strategy; one government with improved avenues for security, but because it is what we stakeholder argued that ‘treating airing grievances, was one really believe. If the foreign policy terrorism as a criminal act by element of making violence less continues you are not going to get focusing on victims and promoting appealing to those on the path anywhere.” (Community leader) stories of victims’ can challenge ‘the of radicalisation, the majority aspirational ideas of what terrorists of focus group participants want to achieve’. However, others and some community leaders struck a note of caution in this believed that the most effective regard, suggesting that it can be route to reducing the appeal of difficult to work against the tide violent extremism was to address of popular cultural messages what they saw as its primary glamorising violence as a heroic driver: foreign policy decisions rather than banal pursuit. or actions that provoked violent extremism as a political reaction: “But if we’re talking about broad society here, with the torrent of movies and shows that glamorise violence, this is all part of the equation. This will always be with us – the lone hero going out against the masses.” (Government stakeholder) CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 113

The role of police in “Often certain approaches by “And we need feedback, we never preventing or mitigating police can turn into harassment know what happens with things, violent extremism of particular communities. They with information about what we can stop you all the time just on said, but in general, things that Minimise police social the basis of profiling even though happen with the police, we need to distancing and strengthen you’ve done nothing wrong. The know.” (Focus group participant) community trust in police police need to create a relationship Many participants across all three with people and communities, “Some people came and talked cohorts said that in their view, because most people come from to parents about teenagers the most important role for police countries where police are seen and then nothing came of it, in preventing or reducing the as dangerous. They need to build we want to know if anything likelihood of violent extremism up harmony between police and changes or not, we want to was the enhancement of healthy minority communities. It will give hear.” (Focus group participant) and trusting relationships between them a chance to know who is Bring more Muslims into the police and local communities, and who and will give confidence to the law enforcement fold particularly at-risk communities. community to feel safe when they These participants stressed are around the police. But if police In addition, participants wanted that while ‘specialist’ police keep their distance and are thinking to see police engage in more and intelligence personnel – for that all these people in a community education and advocacy around example, those from ASIO, the are troublemakers, this can create reducing mainstream community AFP, and counter-terrorism or a reaction that will not help the fears that Muslims pose a ‘threat community engagement divisions police or the community – and can to a community or society within state police jurisdictions actually produce the radicals and more generally’ (government – were often well-versed in local extremists they are trying to avoid stakeholder). Some respondents community issues and had built or minimise.” (Community leader) felt one effective way of doing strong relationships with key this was to make Muslims police community leaders and other “I’d like to see more of a partnership and intelligence ‘insiders’ by stakeholders, significant work between communities and police bringing more Muslim-background remained to be done in fostering and government. We don’t want a recruits into law enforcement greater cooperation with and ‘dob in a terrorist’ campaign, but roles and highlighting this as an confidence in local operational we do need stronger relationships. explicit goal of police agencies: police at the community level. So a person who’s embarking on the radicalisation spectrum, “There’s the idea of having Muslim Respondents suggested that if people within the police which relations between communities and his or her own community is best placed to identify what would be useful, and within local police were already strained security agencies as well and because of chronic low-level issues is happening well before any action by that person is taken in government. It’s about not or routinely negative perceptions having them just as external to of each other, this would reduce and it becomes a real problem. We need to help at-risk people the decision making and law the prospects of timely or relevant enforcement processes but having intelligence reporting and gathering before they become a problem.” (Government stakeholder) them very much in the fold.” because of community reluctance (Government stakeholder) to approach any police (including Hand in hand with this concern those specifically tasked with went a desire for better “[Police] should actively recruit counter-terrorism intelligence and communication channels to be people from other cultures and engagement) based on previous established between police and religions.” (Community leader) negative experiences: local communities around initiatives and developments in relation to countering violent extremism: 114 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Providing alternatives to Three strong overarching themes “I think the government should violent extremism emerged from the data exploring be making available to the Finally, government stakeholders perceptions of what governments community what it needs to do from various policing jurisdictions should be doing in the area of it itself. If it’s going to have any around Australia emphasised the prevention and mitigation strategies weight or credibility it needs to importance of police involvement for countering violent extremism. come from the community. It’s in promoting and resourcing These are: not enough for the government alternatives to violent extremism. to say, ‘This community needs to • Empowering communities The most common approach do something about its radicals’ to identify how they can suggested was to balance the – it doesn’t work that way. The best help reduce the risk criminalisation of radicalisation and government needs to enable the of violent extremism. violent extremism with the resourcing community to help at-risk people.” (Government stakeholder) of ‘other activities as alternatives • Educating communities to to violent extremism. We need to understand and respect each “I know there are some activities attract people away from visiting other’s cultures and beliefs. being undertaken around the those sites and becoming involved in country with a view to identifying extremism’ (government stakeholder • Engaging communities in the people who may be involved in the – police agency). process of social cohesion early stages of being radicalised and community resilience. encouraging their own community The role of government in Empower communities to identify them and get that preventing or mitigating correction of views they need, and to identify how they can violent extremism we could do a lot more on this best contribute While a very small minority of – but it involves a lot of money. I community-based participants This theme relates to how think countering violent extremism saw the role of government in government can most effectively in that sense is worth doing, preventing or mitigating the threat empower communities themselves though, because I think that their of violent extremism in traditional to assist in preventing or mitigating own community is best placed terms -- for example, by maintaining the threat of radicalisation and to identify those people who are surveillance of suspicious people violent extremism. There was very at risk. They would know when a and groups and/or denying entry strong support across all cohorts for person has got material that’s a to those of existing or potential the role of government in facilitating bit out there or is knocking around concern to security and intelligence community initiatives and learning with people who are out there.” agencies – the vast majority of from communities about what (Government stakeholder) participants across all cohorts works best in this context. There However, the perceptual problem offered perspectives on the role of was a clear sense that ‘top down’ of ‘tainted’ government funding government that are much more initiatives from government are less and support in the eyes of closely aligned with social cohesion likely to have impact than ‘bottom communities who receive indirect and community strengthening up’ or grassroots initiatives that are resourcing through such community agendas. As one focus group owned by entire communities with a empowerment initiatives was once participant commented, the real reasonable level of consensus. again raised by some Islamic task facing government and Communities are best placed community leaders: also communities lies not in to identify and support the statistical measurement of at-risk individuals Australia’s cultural diversity, but how that diversity is managed A number of government with respect to social cohesion stakeholders suggested that and improving intercultural relevant local community groups awareness, tolerance and respect: are more knowledgeable and ‘I think very often we see political better placed than government leaders using statistics and representatives can ever be to figures, but it’s overkill – they produce meaningful impacts in just quote so many nationalities, relation to stemming radicalisation etc. but that doesn’t mean you and extremism in local settings: have successful migration.’ CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 115

“Yes, the Muslim community has a “The government needs [to “A lot of it comes from ignorance. responsibility to have this discussion. promote and resource] much People don’t know – we were But when it comes from the more education, when people in Shepparton once, and we government which is responsible are growing up, what’s Islam were playing pool and this white for the foreign policy that is the and Christian, they need to kid comes up to me, ‘Are you problem, how can you take them know what Islam means and Sudanese?’ I was like, ‘No, seriously? If there’s funding available, not just what Al-Qaeda do.” man, I’m not’, but he wouldn’t organisations would make up (Focus group participant) give it up – kept telling me I’m reasons to get hold of that funding. Sudanese, and I said to him, The infrastructure the Muslim “Perhaps the role [of government] ‘It’s close to my country, but community has currently is more should be in supporting and I’m not Sudanese’, and he said, than sufficient – the mosques, the receiving education about Islam. I ‘Aren’t you from Africa’, and I university campus clubs, etc. are went to a school where there were said, ‘Yeah, but there’s lots of strong enough to get the message no dark-skinned people. One of my other countries there’ and then across.” (Community leader) dad’s neighbours fostered a dark- I realised – he doesn’t know.” skinned child when I was about 9 (Focus group participant) Education and or 10 at the time. All I could call understanding can best on at the time was what I’d heard, “The problem with policy is that counter violent extremism which was very negative. Then I people are not involving religion played with him in the backyard in schools, because religion is The second strong theme relates to and I couldn’t reconcile what I’d considered something that can’t the government’s role in facilitating heard with my own experience.” be taught in schools, but they need education and understanding (Government stakeholder) information in schools.” (Focus between mainstream and culturally group participant) diverse communities to mitigate the “In Australia, when international risk of violent extremism. people come, we need to make Accordingly, many participants sure they know about Australian felt that the best way to improve Educate for social cohesion culture so they don’t get offended, social cohesion and cross-cultural and alternatives to violence and at the same time make sure exchange was to normalise Government stakeholders, Australians know what other cultural diversity, not only through community leaders and focus cultures are like so they don’t get transformative education content group participants were virtually offended.” (Community leader) and curricula, but also by bringing unanimous in their perception that young people from a variety of More emphasis on cultural greater investment by government in backgrounds into contact through diversity and integration educational mechanisms focusing on the mainstream schooling system at in schools tolerance, inclusion, understanding all age levels: of other cultures and religions, and A number of focus group “More education, break the non-violent alternatives to conflict respondents were also concerned stereotypes and myths. It is resolution and political dissent by what they saw as the lack of difficult to change the older were paramount in transforming formal educational opportunities to generation but the younger the underlying cultural drivers that help people learn more about non- generation are interacting and support violent extremism and Western cultures and belief systems living in Australia from a young social alienation, as well as fostering that are integral components of age.” (Focus group participant) greater resilience to the impact of contemporary Australian society. radical or extremist viewpoints. This was particularly the case for Many respondents provided those who felt their experience of personal examples of transformative discrimination or bias in Australia encounters with members of other could be traced directly to religions and cultural backgrounds ignorance about other cultures both for themselves and for their on the part of long-established children, but felt that broad access Australian communities: to formal and informal educational pathways around social cohesion were necessary to disseminate such change more widely: 116 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“I’m a real advocate of government “Listen, listen, listen from the heart Engaging communities schooling, not private, and my – not just another meeting. The in the process of social daughter went to Perth Modern government spends a lot of money cohesion School, and there were 74 and thinks everything is okay. It nationalities there. That’s a little is a safe environment now but it A key role for government in the unusual, but that happens a lot won’t be [in future] because people eyes of virtually all participants in primary schools in government get very upset here and no one across the study was that of schools – important because listens. It is very frustrating. I can promoting social cohesion as children can get on, at that level see if things go on as they are, a community-driven process, when they’re younger, it helps. there could be a problem here.” rather than merely an aspirational So I don’t believe in segregating (Community leader) condition or state of being. schools – schools are one of the Whether through sport, (multi) biggest communities we have, And some participants stressed cultural events such as festivals, and we haven’t appreciated that professional educators service provision, employment that. And what you experience themselves are not immune from programs, media and public as a child becomes the norm, the need to develop stronger skills interest campaigns or education so it is better not to segregate. around intercultural diversity and and training, government was I am a strong advocate of that.” understanding: seen as the key player in helping (Focus group participant) “I think the education system to bring people together in order Government can be educated here for the new arrivals, it’s a bit to reduce disengagement and by culturally diverse harsh, because when someone alienation and promote greater communities comes from outside, they are community resilience and basically put in separate classes identification with Australian norms However, there was also recognition from Australians and in a way and values through social inclusion. that learning from and about it discriminates. Also, with the While protecting democratic each other to prevent or mitigate schools personally, I went to see and secular rights was seen by extremism in the context of cultural the course counsellor to ask him many respondents as a core diversity is a two-way street, about getting into medicine, and role for government, a number and participants felt government he had this smile on his face, of participants acknowledged had an important role to play in and told me about other courses the challenges of doing so in not only supporting but actively – basically that smile meant you the context of significant cultural participating in such exchange, can’t get in, because it’s hard for diversity and the uneven distribution especially for those who think you.” (Focus group participant) of economic and social capital. they already ‘know it all’: As a recent arrival to Australia “There was a leadership program “Part of what I do in my daily succinctly put it, ‘We have to at two schools, they are sister life and the work we do here get everybody together first. and brother schools and they in [state government] is, while Otherwise, we build big house, bring the school leaders together not presenting any particular but one person can bring it with the vice-principal. One thing view, to try to get across that down’. (Focus group participant) [the vice-principal] said was jihad understanding is the key to is trying to destroy everyone. I “Australia is lucky because we’re acceptance and tolerance and couldn’t believe when she said so diverse and we’re educated, we need to understand what that, it shows how the principal so I think for example, the police people are thinking and saying doesn’t understand jihad. We were and federal government, they and not assuming that we know, shocked, I didn’t know what to need to engage with the Muslim and appreciating diversity and say [at the time], and I really regret community more positively. When difference. But this is sometimes it, but it’s hard to defend yourself, people feel the government is a difficult message to put out and you need the language to taking care of them, they will speak there when people think that they do it.” (Community leader) up if they think about something already know what you’re on is happening, because these about.” (Government stakeholder) operations aren’t very big.” (Focus group participant) CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 117

“The social cohesion strategy is “We need leadership around “Most of the people, the way they also important – to create a space multiculturalism – demonised one treat you, or the way they treat a where some of the risks aren’t minute, sought after the next. We group of people, is mostly what permitted to flourish. Being exposed need consistency about that.” they get from the TV or from to racism and feeling disengaged (Focus group participant) the internet, so that’s another from your community is one of way to teach them. If they can them. Our communication strategy “Our political leaders have a role to get wrong information from TV, should target both the broader play too. We talk a lot in Australia they can get right information community and people at risk. We about debates, but we very rarely from TV [from the government].” should not create an environment have a true political debate or (Focus group participant) where the issue is made worse. discussion; generally we seem to pit We should certainly focus on one personality against another. The Narrow the trust gap between both the smaller community and language they use is important and communities and government the general community and we that’s providing leadership, you do All of these strategies rely on do have this in our strategy.” have influence and you can change narrowing what some participants (Government stakeholder) people’s perceptions. I have never saw as a perceived ‘trust gap’ believed you can legislate to change between government and “The main issue is that service people’s views, but I strongly communities. Respondents with providers and local government believe political leaders have a role this perspective stressed the don’t have a continuous dialogue to play.” (Focus group participant) importance of establishing and and the public service doesn’t maintaining strong relationships The role of government in always know what’s happening. between governments and translational communication We need to build confidence communities at all levels of between communities and An essential component of such Australian society, despite some government, and we need political leadership for participants cynicism or doubt amongst continuous dialogue so people was the role of government Muslim participants about whether are not scared of each other.” in strengthening broad public governments remain trustworthy in (Community leader) communication and media strategies the post-9/11 environment: to help shift what many considered Strong and consistent formidable obstacles to shifting “I think that since September 11, political leadership in support public consciousness about social the trust between the community of multiculturalism cohesion and mutual acceptance of and the government is not there, Closely aligned for participants, cultural difference. Participants noted and more and more the media particularly those from focus that specific projects, programs and make things worse and people feel groups, with the key role played studies can come and go but rarely the injustice [of this]. You feel you by government in promoting and reach broad sections of the public, have been marginalised, you feel engaging communities in the whereas public interest media you are not trusted at all, you try process of social cohesion is the campaigns that translate the insights to be a good Muslim [but you are] need for strong and consistent and findings of such initiatives in labelled just because something political leadership that is unified in meaningful and accessible ways for happened overseas, and they its support for a culturally diverse the community at large are seen to don’t appreciate what you’re trying and tolerant Australia. There have real penetration and depth as to do.” (Focus group participant) was concern about inconsistent an agent of social change: messaging in relation to Australian multiculturalism from various “What federal government can political leaders and parties; lack of do is to try to untwine some of understanding by politicians of the the things people link together, complexities of how radicalisation such as immigration, refugees and extremism can take hold and and terrorism, as if they’re all grow; and the quality of debate similar. There are lots of things and discussion around how best that get published saying these to tackle issues relating to cultural are completely different things and diversity, extremism, social cohesion shouldn’t be conflated – but it is still and securing the safety of Australia difficult to have that discussion.” as a nation: (Government stakeholder) 118 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

“Early on after 9/11, governments “[For] young people so they are “In places like Sydney and intervened in a heavy-handed sent to the right people for the Melbourne certain kinds of and not always helpful way. right information, you need to ghettoes or enclaves have been The message was, ‘This is your have programs where they can formed and people have been problem as much as ours, get on learn those things – like the Mercy chunked in one place – certain with it’ – but the message was so Mission Islamic Conference, that ideas feed each other. Here in heavy-handed it put people offside, was held recently, there were [names state] we don’t have that so nothing happened for about 5 huge young crowds, some of here because the communities years because of the gulf in trust us from Aussie Muslims Forum are too small – we all mix together. and communication. Something went, and in one, this guy was Asians, Americans, Africans all much quieter and subtler was talking about non-Muslims, come together and we get to required. We are beginning to get and the amount of respect he broaden our views as a result. If there now, with imams now saying, showed, and was telling them, we could prevent enclaving and ‘We know there is a problem, can show non-Muslims love, who are feeding off each other’s extremist you help us?’ There are some you to judge anyone, and people ideas and expose people to more good relationships between police came out with a different view. moderate parts of the population and community leaders, so that if It’s very important to have that – that to me is true integration.” people ask for help they actually view.” (Focus group participant) (Community leader) get it. The signs are hopeful and once these things get underway Avoid social enclaving “Seeking security, many new arrival then government assistance can Still in the realm of social cohesion, communities stick only to each be provided by facilitating spaces, a few community leaders spoke other but this creates problems.” etc., but we haven’t got there yet.” of the challenge for government (Community leader) (Government stakeholder) of influencing state-based social “Start in early childhood, if you send housing and employment policies your child to a Muslim school, they Greater recognition and to avoid ethnically-based social don’t mix, if children mix they will support for moderate Muslim enclaving, particularly for new be friends and won’t want to blow groups and communities arrival communities in large each other up later, and make a A critical part of rebuilding that trust capital cities and regional centres little Iraq or Iran in Sydney.” (Focus in the view of some participants who have limited economic group participant) was the government’s role in options in choosing where to offering greater recognition and live. These respondents argued Participants also pointed out, support to moderate Muslim that such enclaving may risk however, that issues such as groups who are trying to contribute increasing the likelihood of language barriers and lack of constructively to anti-extremist incubating radicalisation and education were more significant agendas. Greater government extremism because of the barriers for the process of broader acknowledgement of non-extremist proximity of people and ideas social integration beyond one’s own Islamic community initiatives was that can be exploited by extremist cultural group. seen as a central plank in gaining elements within communities: cooperation and strengthening the “[Lack of] English, that’s why diversity of moderate Muslim voices they don’t want to get involved. as part of the national dialogue: ... The reason people isolate themselves is because they are uneducated, they don’t speak.” (Focus group participants) CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 119

Government should support “I think it’s a different culture, in The role of communities families to help kids stay on our culture back home, even if in preventing or mitigating the right track a child is a grown up person, violent extremism Finally, a significant issue for he will stay with his parents and new-arrival participants from the listen to what his parents say, All communities but in the western world there focus groups, particularly from the Normalise cultural difference is individualisation. When a child African countries of Sudan, South and community cohesion Sudan and Togo, was what they is grown up here, they can go In thinking about how communities saw as the obstacles they faced wherever they like and do whatever can help prevent or mitigate in trying to prevent their children they like. The government can violent extremism the majority of from becoming involved in groups have more connection with parents respondents focused similarly, as or activities of concern because of and communities and when these they did when considering the perceived government restrictions problems happen they need role of government, on the goals and interference in their parenting to consult the community and of strengthening social cohesion, styles. While this issue was highly parents about the background accepting the cultural differences specific to these cultural groups of children, why children do of other groups, and fostering in the study, it is important as a this, what government can do, understanding and acceptance of signpost of the challenges – and or what community can do.” culturally diverse perspectives: opportunities – that government (Focus group participant) faces in considering how best to Change Australian “Both the general and Muslim respond to the needs of those still foreign policy communities have a role to play, transiting the processes of social but we must first minimise the Finally, several participants from inclusion in a new environment. levels of animosity between the within the community leader and These participants make various two. If you talk about issues focus group cohorts felt that points about the role of government of conflicts or problems all the the primary role of government in their efforts in managing issues time, people’s perceptions in combating the threat of around parental control, monitoring become very negative and radicalisation and extremism should and guidance of children, hatred breeds. You have to be to focus on changing Australian particularly adolescents, who cause present things in a responsible foreign policy. As one community them concern: way.” (Community leader) leader put it, ‘Governments should, “I have another worry – in Australia, number one, stop the foreign “There is a misunderstanding of we found that if a child is 18, he policy, but so far most haven’t what the moderate mainstream can be independent, so parents even acknowledged that it’s the Muslim community is like. should back off, but sometimes problem, let alone addressing it. If If there is an understanding this can be dangerous for the this doesn’t happen, nothing else there will be better education. family and country, if my child will solve the problem.’ A lot of the moderate Muslim is associating with someone community just want to go about dangerous from where I came living their lives – they don’t from, I will get uncles and aunties want to be out there defending and discipline the child, what you themselves or their beliefs all are doing is not good, but here the time whenever something the child is considered mature so is presented negatively in the there is no control of parent, so if media.” (Government stakeholder) he step deeply in the wrong thing, I can’t do anything, and that’s “As an Islamic studies teacher, dangerous not just for me or my if you promote hatred against family but for the whole country.” Christianity or Jews, then you are (Focus group participant) promoting hatred in the same way the other side promotes hatred against you. If you promote Islam as backward and violent, then you are just disabling the prospects for harmony.” (Community leader) 120 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

However, they also stressed the “There isn’t a lot of cultural “We need to equip communities importance of ensuring such mixing here, outside of young in which radicalisation might take approaches are consistently people at the university. If we place with an understanding of encouraged at the grassroots have all the different community what’s going on and to have community level, rather than directly representatives coming together more of an open discussion than imposed from above, because of that would help – and it is the previously. To say, ‘This might the potential for backlash when responsibility of the ethnic happen, you need to be aware, people feel an attitude or behaviour communities to make this happen. can we talk about it if it does?’ is being forced upon them: Multicultural communities are not How does a family recognise that very inclusive sometimes – they something is happening and what “The trouble is that if you turn want to keep their own positions they can do about it? Some of this into a kind of conscious and they don’t want new people what the government can do is approach, rather than saying let’s coming into these positions.” to offer things such as the imam just be a community, that in itself, (Community leader) workshops. If someone comes that normalised context, should to them and says, ‘I think my son be better than forcing it down “Getting people to understand is getting involved in this stuff people’s throats. The demand and be tolerant when they and what can I do?’ I don’t think to treat people well can backfire don’t have the experience or most imams are equipped to and produce the opposite effect.” the exposure to the people in know what to do or how to help. (Government stakeholder) question [can be] very difficult.” There may be a tendency to try (Government stakeholder) to deal with it in-house, even if Similarly, the favoured an imam is more aware. Being implementation approach consisted Muslim Australian an extremist is not a criminal act of operating at the micro rather communities and often police knocking on than macro level when driving the door can make it worse. But community cohesion: ‘A very Equipping Muslim there need to be some strategies large number of very small things communities to recognize for people to intervene and to are important, and the role of and respond appropriately to have the authority to intervene.” government is to understand and emerging extremism (Government stakeholder) support that [within communities]. There were also a number of And individual acts are very specific points raised by Muslim- There was some evidence from important. None of them individually background participants in relation community leaders that such are game-changers, but collectively to what Islamic communities cooperation can work well if there they add up to something.’ across Australia can do to help is mutual trust and reasonably open (Government stakeholder) reduce the threat of radicalisation dialogue between all parties: and extremism. Chief amongst Encourage intercultural these was the importance “We are prepared to sit and talk and contact and reduce of better equipping Islamic we can sometimes ensure things community insularity communities, including families, happen differently. Discussion and In the context of broadening community groups and moderate cooperation with police can really acceptance and normalising religious leaders, to recognize help.” (Community leader) diversity, there was very strong and respond appropriately to emphasis placed by government emerging radicalisation and Challenges for Muslim stakeholders and community extremism. In order to do this, communities in leaders on the need to facilitate it was suggested that greater cooperating with counter- greater intercultural contact and openness in dialogue between extremism initiatives exchange for communities that may communities and government otherwise be insular and resistant about the risks and threats of However, significant challenges to other cultural groups for reasons extremism and its consequences both for intra-Muslim community of geography, mistrust, overreliance was necessary. As one cooperation and also for on media, limited education or lack government stakeholder argued, cooperation between Muslim of experience. This applies equally communities and government both to non-Muslims and Muslims were also identified by from various cultural backgrounds. respondents in all three cohorts. However, they also felt the challenges of achieving this should not be underestimated: CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 121

One of these challenges was Diversity and disunity In addition, a significant number of the perception of mutual distrust between different Islamic community-based respondents in between some government religious and cultural groups Tasmania identified their concerns stakeholders and Islamic Another challenge identified by with recently arrived Muslims from community leaders, with each focus group participants centred particular regions, particularly group feeling that the other tends on managing the diversity and those who come to Australia as to treat these relationships as dissent that can obtain between international students, as being a one-way street rather than a different religious or political factions extreme in their cultural and process of mutual exchange, within Muslim communities. This religious views, robustly anti- information and strategy sharing. can weaken or dilute efforts Western, and difficult to engage This has created some tension to forge a consensus around or include within more established and uncertainty in perceptions how best to address emergent local Islamic community networks: of how well these relationships radicalisation and extremism. “The division started about a year are working. Community Generally speaking, participants ago with the influx of Middle Eastern leaders in particular wanted to in focus groups favoured culturally students, Wahabis, Saudis, Qataris. be seen by police and other diverse Islamic congregations They all stick together, and this government authorities as assets that minimised the incidence of time of year they all go back home to be worked with, not around, perceived ethnic enclaving: in countering violent extremism: together, and they want everything “As there is only one mosque here, – and I mean everything – in the “There is a bit of a mantra from the congregation is really diverse. mosque to be in Arabic, and to be communities about getting Everyone has to mix, there is no strong, like with more leadership, them involved earlier and being segregation of cultures at the anti-west, anti-Israel, wearing the given more help. But they are mosque. However down south burkha; most of their women wear also saying if we had a concern the mosques are more ethnically the full burkha here.” (Focus group about someone we’re not going based. Here it helps communities participant, Tasmania) to tell you, we want to deal with to mix and to get on with each “And the Saudis are students, but it in-house. You could say it is other.” (Focus group participant) as much of a one way street they bring their whole families, and as their complaints are that There was also a contrast drawn over the last year and a half we’ve we are one way with them.” by focus group participants had about 300 Saudis [in Hobart], 2 (Government stakeholder) between varieties of religious years ago we had about 2 Saudis, teaching in developed versus and they don’t like to get involved in “This whole relationship between underdeveloped countries: Muslim activities at all, every month the police and community leaders we have a get-together, and have needs to be a two-way street. If “Mostly you find that in the food and prayer and meet and the police just regard community developed countries, the ulamas greet, but they don’t like that, they leaders as a source of intelligence, are better, they have a more polite have their own functions. Before there is no point. The police need view towards the communities. them it was Malaysian, and Imam to regard community leaders ... Also the way the ulamas teach [name] was towards there, but there as assets, not just intelligence the khutba is far better here than were tensions between Saudis and sources. We should be able to the ulamas in underdeveloped Malaysians but he quashed that, have a two-way reporting system countries. ... Back home, the but now, more Saudis are coming.” that means we can involve the ulamas are not like that, they only (Focus group participant, Tasmania) authorities when we also have preach one thing, what they are suspicions. But if they don’t trust told, and it’s all the same.” (Focus “They had a committee on us as community leaders to do group participants) who wants to be imam, it was that, the reality is that extremists between [a Saudi man] or another and terrorists who think that Bangladeshi man, and this [Saudi] everyone in the Western system guy, he gave a nice speech in is a fair target, they hide within the English to sugar-coat everything Muslim community. If you are going and then an extreme speech in to flush them out, you will need Arabic. But I can speak Arabic so the assistance of the community. I know what he’s saying.” (Focus Without that you won’t be able to group participant, Tasmania) do it.” (Islamic community leader) 122 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Communities are just as “Open condemnation [of extremism] “Like child abuse, stamping out responsible for preventing has been very sparse from the extremism and radicalisation extremism as government Muslim community. From a requires the help of Despite the challenges identified theological perspective, I think the communities, neighbours, above, there was strong imams do not know whether to relatives, etc. otherwise we consensus on the theme of condemn outright or whether this can’t address the problem.” community responsibility for is a legitimate thing being done by (Government stakeholder) preventing extremism. While many extremists, to bomb, etc. Because “There’s an issue with the model participants had suggestions of that theological confusion, of community self-policing that I about how government could some people think we shouldn’t know there are question marks support communities in tackling be public, or else fear that they around as well. I’m not saying the emergence of and vulnerability themselves will become targets if communities don’t have a role but to violent extremist ideologies, they speak out. But we owe it to I think it has to be very carefully they saw community measures our community to speak out if we thought about as to how you to address these issues as think others are wrong. Until we don’t play into the very problem equally if not more important than talk about it openly and confront you are seeking to resolve.” government-based initiatives. One it as a community it is just going (Government stakeholder) participant summed up this view in to continue to be pervasive, like a cancer in the body, until it is dealt the following way: “It’s the general community’s with.” (Community leader) relationships and knowledge “The government is there only of people that means they are to put it out there, but it is “The vilified communities in a prime position to observe the community who has to themselves also have a changes in behaviour and identify enforce these things. If the responsibility. Sometimes concerns. They have the best community doesn’t enforce their leaders can become very access to people at risk. Building these things the government kneejerk and not realising they are their capacity to identify that and can’t do much about it. It’s the reinforcing the stereotype. Australia to find the courage and capability community and the people who is increasingly secular and atheist to respond to what they see is have to learn and teach other and hearing that Islam is perfect – important. Community leaders people.” (Community leader) people just aren’t interested. There are much more sophisticated have indicated preparedness to Australian Muslims need to strategies they could adopt. For do this, but I’m not sure how they speak out publicly against example, [names Sydney-based would handle it if it actually came violent extremism Muslim community spokesperson] to pass.” (Government stakeholder) – with respect, I think he’s set A number of community leaders The role of ordinary felt that Muslim religious and things back by being a repeated people in preventing community leaders were not apologist as a spokesperson doing enough to voice their for the Mufti. He capitalised on or mitigating violent opposition to or condemnation a love affair with the media and extremism consequently hogged the limelight. of violent extremism as a means Participants were asked to think His is all a paper community – just of addressing political or religious about what ordinary people can do on paper. But the media portrays grievances. They wanted to in their everyday lives to prevent or him as the official spokesperson for see moderate Muslim leaders mitigate the threats of radicalisation all Muslims.” (Community leader) take a public stand against and violent extremism. Responses extremism and saw this as a There were mixed views, however, to this question overlap with many core community responsibility: amongst government stakeholders. of the themes that emerged during While some strongly supported the discussion about the role of the efficacy of local community communities. However, a few of the involvement in combating violent key themes worth noting include a extremism, others questioned focus on the importance of people whether such proactive approaches being prepared to speak out and should be encouraged and how intervene against violent extremism; well communities would cope with the role of families; and local efforts the actual demands of this: to foster social cohesion and intercultural contact through getting to know others in the community. CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 123

Be prepared to speak out The importance of families “Not everybody is the same. This Several participants said that being Family support and intervention applies to Muslims as much as prepared to intervene and challenge were also seen as critical to anyone else. You have Cathy extremist ideologies and values elements of everyday responses Freeman on the one hand and within communities by focusing to preventing radicalisation and people who sleep in the park on on positive alternatives was one of extremism, and some participants the other within the Aboriginal the most important things ordinary identified the intergenerational community – why is it different people could do: gap that can accrue between for Muslims? They are not more migrant-background parents responsible for what some Muslims “It’s probably about naming what and children as an additional say and do than all Aboriginals you see, acknowledging that there risk factor in this regard: are either for Cathy Freeman or is an issue in the community, for Aboriginal homelessness. ” in your family, in your school “If parents can communicate (Community leader) group, whatever, and challenging properly with their children this it. Challenge the narrative by would help. Poor parents – they “It’s probably building up our discussing the right path to be are working, busy, and the cultural knowledge of what’s right taking.” (Government stakeholder) gap is so great between first and and what’s wrong through an second generations – the parents understanding of other people’s For government stakeholders, don’t change but the kids do points of view. It’s about the education system, including change, and so the gap becomes understanding other people’s the higher education sector, was greater and greater. But in the cultures and beliefs so that while seen to have a particular role second and third generations it you get that what someone may in fostering the development is different, and it is harder for be doing is wrong, you know of skills in critical analysis and them to influence their kids. But that this doesn’t represent the independent thought that could if they keep their channels open, community as a whole; it is promote resilience to extremism. this would help. Most parents are more of an isolated incident.” protective and want the best for (Government stakeholder) “Become more critically astute. their kids; they don’t want anything Study humanities! It is about Participants also thought it to do with violence or terrorism.” fostering skills in analysis, critical was important for mainstream (Community leader) thinking and intellectual challenge Australians to get out and get to as the antidote to black and “The people closest to that know Australians from different white dogmatism. The university individual are more likely to see cultural backgrounds personally sector has a responsibility in this that change over time, unless rather than through the media: regard to enhance the ability of you’re talking about the frog in the One of my friends, I got to know students, who are also citizens, boiling pot. It is those closest who him three years back when I to be able to do this, and how to are more likely to detect changes.” started at university, he was very promote a critical discourse that (Government stakeholder) rejects oversimplified solutions extremist – he had many negative and views, especially in relation Get to know more Muslims in thoughts about Muslims, but to promoting a range of beliefs.” your local community now he is very changed, he has talked a lot with us, he has even (Government stakeholder) Contact with and respect for people shown interest in going to Afghan from other cultural backgrounds, “Rub shoulders with someone parties and communicating with not marginalising people on who knows a bit about them. As you say, it’s knowing the basis of cultural difference, things and ask them a lot of people – not accepting blind- recognising that there is diversity questions; get out of your box.” eyed what the media shows of viewpoints within particular (Government stakeholder) them. (Focus group participant) cultures and not judging an entire community by the actions of a few Finally, many respondents again were all prevalent perspectives in focused on the importance relation to how ordinary people can of highlighting what binds us strengthen community cohesion: together as Australians, rather than emphasising things that divide or separate us on the basis of cultural background or identity: 124 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Treating each other as Australians as More cooperation between Muslim There were questions raised by the main basis or criterion for how communities and government in participants about how effective we treat each other is the answer. general was also seen as important counter-narratives were because As long as we segregate our thinking by a large number of participants they focus on what can be called about other cultures and people across the cohorts. The role of the ‘negative case’ in relation then this will not work. Cross-cultural Muslim leadership in developing to violent extremism. These education about acceptance and and promoting counter-narratives participants – which included tolerance can quell many feelings of was seen as vital. However, doubts government stakeholders as well as being marginalised that can lead to and concerns around the quality, community leaders and members extremism and that lack of a sense orientation and public profile of – wanted to see more ‘affirmative’ of belonging. (Community leader) Islamic religious and community narratives that emphasise what leaders both in Australia and binds us together rather than Conclusion overseas were raised by focus what separates us as a culture group participants in particular, who and a society in Australia. The Counter-narratives worried about the lack of formal most popular version of such an There was a strong view amongst accreditation, education and training affirmative narrative was one that many government stakeholders and for Australian imams at present. moves from ‘us and them’ to ‘we’ community leaders that government in how it constructs Australian agencies are not the appropriate or On the one hand, many participants identity and allegiance. best source of counter-narratives, felt that broad-brush counter- particularly when these are trying narratives were not successful in Making violent extremism to intervene in religious debates achieving their aims and diluted less appealing or perspectives. In general, most the message being sent. On the Education was the key approach participants felt that Muslim other hand, some participants for all participants. Promoting communities themselves are in felt that counter-narratives are moderate Islam through curriculum the strongest position to develop, in fact everyone’s business, and development in secondary and disseminate and reinforce counter- should be both embraced by tertiary education and various narratives against violent extremism mainstream Muslims but not mechanisms for community where religious ideology is used aimed at Muslims alone. There education were all identified as to justify these actions. Muslim- was concern that continuing crucial in demystifying some of generated counter-narratives to target Muslim communities the ‘romance’ around violent were seen as more credible with exclusively or even primarily risked extremism in order to reduce its those whom such narratives are a backlash response from Muslims. appeal. Education was also seen aimed at influencing. There was Yet this view was contradicted as important in helping develop a strong call for encouraging by government stakeholders, and sustain the kinds of critical further cooperation and support who felt strongly that counter- thinking skills and understanding of for Muslim community-based narrative messages needed to be social norms that support resilience counter-narratives in this context. more localised and personalised against violent extremist ideology if they were to be effective. and suasion. CHAPTER 8: PREVENTING OR MITIGATING THE THREAT OF RADICALISATION AND VIOLENT EXTREMISM 125

By contrast, focus group The role of government in • Educating communities participants in particular did not preventing or mitigating feel that counter-radicalisation violent extremism Educating communities for social cohesion and alternatives to programs were particularly effective, The vast majority of participants violence was central in the thinking particularly because they were saw the main role of government of many participants around perceived to be ‘tainted’ by Western in preventing or mitigating the this theme, as well as increased ideologies and funding sources. threat of violent extremism in emphasis on cultural diversity and Peer based activities that de- terms of empowering, educating critical thinking and analytical skills glamorise violence and offer other and engaging communities by in classrooms and other educational alternatives for conflict resolution strengthening social cohesion settings. In addition, there was and managing political and and building intercultural capacity a strong sense that government ideological dissent were considered and resilience. The primary role should foster openness and to have greater potential efficacy. of government was identified as receptivity to being educated by facilitating rather than dictating Some community leaders and communities in order to learn more policy and initiatives in this context. a large number of focus group about the best ways to develop participants stressed that the only • Empowering communities effective strategies for countering viable way to reduce the appeal of violent extremism. violent extremism was to address Bottom-up grassroots initiatives the impacts of foreign policy that ‘owned’ by entire communities • Engaging communities were perceived to drive people are perceived as far more effective The key elements emphasised toward violent extremism. than top-down approaches. by participants under this theme Communities were also seen as included making social cohesion The role of police in better able to identify and support a community-driven rather than preventing or mitigating at an early stage at-risk individuals, aspirational process, showing violent extremism and the role of government should strong political leadership for The main mechanisms for police to be to support such interventions. multiculturalism, doing a better enhance their effectiveness were job at translational communication identified by participants as: building Yet there was also of government objectives around trust with communities; minimising acknowledgement that social cohesion and community police social distancing, particularly governments must balance this strengthening, and narrowing with culturally diverse communities; facilitative role with the perception the trust gap between at-risk strengthening their communication by at least some within the communities and government. and feedback skills, especially in community that any government support for programs that the context of keeping communities In particular, community-based counter violent extremism – even informed about local developments; participants wanted to see when these are driven by local and bringing more Muslims into much stronger recognition and communities themselves – can the law enforcement fold so that support for those Muslim groups reduce their legitimacy and appeal. the ‘insider-outsider’ gap around and communities who share a approaches to countering violent commitment to countering violent extremism was reduced. extremism. Gaining the cooperation of these communities in pursuing such an agenda was perceived as pivoting on acknowledgement that the social and political project of countering violent extremism was not just the province of government but one that belonged to and was embraced at community level. 126 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Social enclaving was also seen The role of the general community However, a range of challenges as a risk factor in encouraging was perceived by participants in fostering such cooperation and exposure to violent extremist to revolve around normalising dialogue were also identified by ideologies, interactions and cultural difference and community community based participants. activities. Community-based cohesion; and encouraging This included lack of trust; the participants felt this could be intercultural contact and reducing perception that cooperative better dealt with by government community insularity. A range of relationships between communities, through understanding and action strategies and approaches were police and security agencies were in the economic and social policy canvassed in these contexts, a one-way street; and disunity and planning domain to reduce including being friendlier, becoming and disagreement between structural disadvantage in housing, more knowledgeable and tolerant different Islamic religious and employment and education. of other cultures and religions, and cultural groups, which can make becoming involved with different managing and progressing The role of government in groups of people within local such relationships difficult. supporting families to help young community settings. people to stay on the right track by avoiding or rejecting violent The role of Muslim Australian extremism was emphasised communities was the focus of more by many participants. This sustained and detailed discussion. was a particular concern for Participants identified a strong need some members of new arrival for governments to appropriately communities from overseas who equip Muslim communities to felt that tensions between traditional identify and respond to emerging cultural approaches to managing radicalisation and extremism at their relationships with their children the local level. It was suggested were fraying in the Australian that greater openness and context, reducing their influence dialogue between communities over and knowledge about the and governments about the lives their children are leading and risk, threat and consequences increasing their children’s risk of of extremism and terrorism was being absorbed into radical or needed to support this endeavour. extremist groups as a result. There were consistent views expressed by community leaders The role of communities and focus group participants that in preventing or mitigating Muslim communities need to be violent extremism more outspoken in countering Both the general community and the religious, cultural and political Muslim communities in Australia justifications for violent extremism were perceived by a strong majority and in promoting alternative views of participants to have both a key that help counter the legitimacy of role and a key responsibility to play violent extremism as a response in preventing or mitigating the threat to dissent and dissatisfaction with of violent extremism. foreign policy. CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION: CROSS-CUTTING THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The findings of Community and Radicalisation are based on extensive national consultations conducted with over 500 community members and government stakeholders. As one would expect when exploring the perceptions and beliefs of a broad and diverse range of participants, discussion around each of the project’s central themes revealed highly variable views and understandings for each one of the study’s major themes. At times, many of the concepts and key terms explored throughout the study were interpreted differently by respondents within the same cohort and also across the three main cohorts of community participants, community leaders and government stakeholders. 128 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

A few participants were by turns Uncertainty around the While debate can and should frustrated, sceptical, hostile or relationship between continue to be encouraged around guarded when discussing particular radicalisation and extremism how best to deploy these terms themes or topics, especially around While there was a general both conceptually and operationally, issues such as the perceived perception that radicalisation greater shared understanding, impacts of social exclusion, foreign was a process of incremental particularly between government policy, government responsibilities influence and development, this agencies and between government or drivers for radicalisation and study found little consensus agencies and communities, would extremism. However, the vast around the relationship between help bridge this gap and reduce majority of participants displayed the concepts of radicalisation and the current definitional uncertainties a great deal of thoughtful analysis, extremism. Some government identified in the findings. candour, good will and sensitivity stakeholders and community Extremism and violence in thinking about the topics leaders felt that radicalisation led they were asked to consider. to extremism, while for others There was also little agreement Their openness in discussing extremism led to radicalisation, about the role of violence in uncomfortable or difficult issues and for still others there was little relation to extremism. It would be that can generate significant meaningful distinction, to the extent inaccurate to advance a definition of emotion and tension, particularly that the terms could be used extremism that locates violence as a in group settings, indicates that interchangeably. Especially notable necessary precondition of extremist such discussions are seen as were the divergent understandings perspectives and ideologies. constructive and worthwhile by for government stakeholders in However, a large proportion of Australian communities, and particular around the meanings government stakeholders offered a that those who contributed to of and relationship between working definition of extremism that the study valued the opportunity radicalisation and extremism. did place violence at the core of to have their voices heard and how they understood this term. their views taken into account This would suggest that at present by government policymakers. there is no unified narrative within By contrast, community members government at state and federal were more circumspect on this A summary of the key findings of levels about the meanings of subject, citing many instances of Community and Radicalisation radicalisation and extremism as extremist thinking or belief systems across its eight chapters appears either theoretical or operational that either did not involve violent in the Executive Summary at the concepts. While this may signal action or that explicitly rejected beginning of this report. Here, a healthy climate of informed violence as a legitimate means however, we want to tease out democratic debate about the terms of pursuing extremist goals. some of the cross-cutting themes ‘radicalisation’ and ‘extremism’ Moreover, it was clear to some and insights generated by these based on different strands of participants that violent action findings. We also want to explore theory or practice, it can also lead against individuals, communities further some of their implications to confusion and to disjointed or or the state might not involve for, first, how communities contradictory understandings and extremist thought or belief at all, currently perceive issues related approaches when thinking about and many such examples of non- to radicalisation and extremism, how best to operationalise these extremist violence were canvassed and second, what this means for concepts for counter-extremist throughout the project. The future directions and strategies and counter-terrorist initiatives at relationship between extremism and when engaging communities national, state and local community violence is complex, and further in the challenge of preventing levels. This is particularly the case disentangling this relationship at or mitigating radicalisation when trying to implement national the levels of both ideology and and extremism in Australia. dialogues with Muslim and other practice would help communities religious and cultural groups about better understand key government what radicalisation and extremism concerns about how extremism mean for government and and violence may be linked through communities in both Australian and terrorist or other frameworks. international contexts. CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION: CROSS-CUTTING THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION 129

The convergence of drivers As a preliminary response to this, Perceptions around for radicalisation and the current study’s findings suggest home-grown extremism extremism that, in the eyes of participants, and terrorism Despite the lack of consensus social exclusion, discrimination, Some participants were forthright around the place of violence in racism and marginalisation are a in acknowledging the potential relation to concepts of extremism, major element in making people for radicalisation and violent the vast majority of participants more susceptible to radical extremism to occur in Australia, and agreed that a convergence of or extremist suasion. This is a few pointed to the very difficult personal, socio-cultural and particularly true for young people. conditions in detention centres and political factors were needed to As a result, a great deal of emphasis also urban enclaves that concentrate understand the many different was placed by participants on poverty and disadvantage as pathways by which an individual the importance of what might be ‘ticking time bombs’ because they or a group begins the journey called early-intervention strategies lead to feelings of helplessness, toward radicalisation or extremist – in education, in supporting hopelessness, self-harm and thought and action. This is not new families, in strengthening local desperation. These were seen knowledge, but it does confirm communities and in providing as examples of the ‘unfinished the importance of continuing viable alternatives for the social and business’ of social cohesion, to assert the complex nature of cultural frustrations that can lead social inclusion and the repeal of how radicalisation and extremism to extremism. In this context, the socio-economic disadvantage in develop, persist and strengthen. role of local and state governments contemporary Australia. This assertion is needed particularly in developing cohesive and well- at times of pressure by communities resourced interventions, particularly However, a significant proportion of or others to simplify or streamline in the sphere of educational and respondents in focus groups thought both the explanations and also the family support mechanisms, seems the prospect of home-grown strategies brought to bear on these clear. The study yielded much terrorism in Australia was fairly low. issues. However, saying things are evidence of a strong desire on Reasons given for this included: complex is not enough. The data the part of communities, including Australia’s relative geographical from this portion of the study helps Australian Muslim communities, isolation; a sufficiently friendly and pinpoint the extent to which the to cohere, to cooperate, and peaceful domestic culture; good convergence paradigm holds true to feel and be included within access to democratic processes in the Australian context, and what national frameworks of civic and and freedom of expression; varying emphases and nuances can social life that respect pluralism reasonable approaches to social be teased out that help illuminate but strengthen identification with inclusion despite some continuing the precise nature of how these what it means to be ‘Australian’. challenges, and a relative lack of factors may interlock with one This is an important message political aggression. another on the ground in a range of from participants, and how both Only Western Australian participants settings and circumstances. government and the general community at large respond to this spoke of the potential for non- will be critical in finding new ways to Muslim violent extremism and minimise or neutralise the potential terrorism emanating from the for radicalisation and extremism in extreme right in that state, reflecting the Australian context. a particular history of social challenges, developments and influences in this region. However, there was also a broader view across project participants beyond Western Australia that it is very important to understand that the threat of violent extremism, where it is perceived to exist, does not emanate solely from Muslim communities and that diverse forms and sources of violent extremist ideology across the cultural and political spectrum need to be acknowledged and addressed. 130 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

The view of Australia as a country On the other hand, however, too Beyond counter-narratives in which home-grown terrorism strong a focus on the potential Also significant in this regard is is a relatively minor threat is for home-grown extremism and the emerging trend identified in positive in the sense that it reflects terrorism, especially at the level the study for participants across broad appreciation for Australia’s of counter-narrative and public government and communities to national approach to minimising information campaigns, risks further preference ‘affirmative’ narratives social conflict and strengthening eroding what many participants that help reinforce common intercultural harmony and social have identified as an already fragile Australian identities and values, cohesion. It is also a view that sense of social cohesion and inter- rather than ‘negative’ narratives accords with the absence to cultural harmony. The backlash aimed at internal or external, date of any direct experience against Muslim individuals and potential or actual threats. The by communities of terrorist communities whenever heightened study’s findings suggest that for at violence on Australian soil, in awareness or alerts about least some participants, reactive contrast to those in countries terrorism gain a foothold in public counter-narratives that focus on that have directly experienced consciousness is well documented. the negative case may have lost the impact and consequences This has been very well supported some effectiveness, whereas of extremist violence. This can by the study’s findings around proactive narratives emphasising pose a range of challenges for the perceived role of media positive shared community how public discourses around sensationalising around the links bonds may help rejuvenate violent extremism and terrorism between Islam and extremism, the effectiveness of current are conceptualised and driven. which participants said risked counter-narrative approaches. On the one hand, the lack of a driving less resilient members of discernible threat for the vast Muslim communities further down Nevertheless, it is important to note majority of Australians means that the path of reactive radicalisation. that quite a few participants did efforts to encourage people to be feel that current counter-narrative vigilant regarding early signs of This also has some implications for strategies were effective and that radical or extremist activity may fall how counter-narrative strategies it was important to continue with on deaf ears or else be regarded are adjusted to reflect the reality these, despite the almost universal as a political or social overreaction that there has not to date been view that counter-narratives seen to by government, including police a catastrophic terrorist attack emanate directly from government and security agencies. One on Australian soil. Because were the least effective in reaching consequence of such a perceived extremist violence and terrorism or influencing their target audiences. overreaction by governments is that are abstract concepts rather than it can make people more hostile concrete experiences for most The role of Muslim community to and suspicious of efforts to Australians, the balance between leadership in countering foster a higher degree of sensitivity narratives of ‘reassurance’ on the extremism to emergent radicalisation and one hand and ‘awareness’ on the Participants across all cohorts saw extremism at the local community other concerning the possibility it as a major responsibility of Muslim level. This can present challenges of home-grown terrorism needs communities to generate both in relation to building relations to be carefully thought through affirmative narratives and counter- of trust between government and calibrated. This may extend narratives that are widely regarded and communities. It may also to developing a multi-pronged as credible and authoritative. Both mean that communities feel little counter-narrative strategy that Muslim and non-Muslim participants urgency about the need to be can tailor the messages for thought that Muslim communities resilient in relation to the potential different sub-groups within can and should play a pivotal role in emergence of violent extremism the general community. speaking up and out in condemning in Australia should such a threat extremist violence and in promoting become more prevalent. a clearer understanding of Islamic religion, law and culture for non- Muslim Australians. CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION: CROSS-CUTTING THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION 131

Muslim religious leaders in particular Religious and community leaders Given the emphasis by participants were expected to play a critical role who are considered ‘moderate’ on the importance of social and have a stronger voice in this and who may be favoured as the cohesion and intercultural tolerance space. Participants wanted Imams public face of Islam by governments and understanding as a key element to cater more explicitly to young are thus often seen as sell-outs in reducing drivers for radicalisation people in their communities by because they model a form of Islam and extremism, the extent to which offering appropriate religious and more suited to a plural diverse sensationalised and imbalanced pastoral support and guidance, Australia and more accommodating media stories around Islam and while at the same time also of Australian values and lifestyles. terrorism is perceived to have set responding to the needs of older In this sense, the challenge for both back this agenda is troubling. members of their communities governments and communities is whose experiences can be very how to support the modulation of Distrust of and cynicism about different. The influence and authority perceptions of what is and isn’t media was very high for many Imams carry in their communities ‘authentic’ or ‘traditional’ Islam so respondents. While this is hardly was substantiated by the research that moderate versions of Islam limited to issues surrounding the findings, which suggest Australian do not become a form of debased role of media in linking Islam, Muslims will accept rulings, laws, currency. One way of facilitating this extremism and terrorism in the and decisions when it has the would be to advance the agenda of public mind, the comments of weight of their Imam behind it. education and support for Imams many participants and the passion that a significant number of Muslim with which they spoke of this Indeed, the question and role of community participants have issue points to the ways in which leadership in Muslim communities called for. This would help further a such distrust and cynicism has was a constant cross-cutting constructive relationship between become chronic rather than merely theme throughout the study. more conservative religious leaders, acute, especially for Muslim- Participant perspectives on these particularly those born overseas, background participants. The issues suggest that Imams can and Australian Muslim communities data gathered during this study face ongoing challenges in relation better able to negotiate the points to a close correspondence to perceptions of authenticity, intersection of religious and secular between heightened levels of public especially in terms of whether norms and expectations. cynicism concerning media and the they are seen as valid interpreters perpetuation and reinforcement of of Islamic frameworks and as Putting the brakes on media cultural and religious stereotypes effective community leaders more sensationalism by media organisations. This trend broadly. This is exemplified by the However, the strongest challenge needs to be stemmed if public tensions that can develop between facing Australian Muslim community confidence and trust, particularly Imams who are from, or financially leaders, and Australian Muslim amongst groups who feel they supported by, Saudi Arabia and communities more broadly, already have less access to Imams from other groups and is the impact of the media in representation via mainstream backgrounds. This was a particular creating and promoting a highly media outlets, is to be improved. concern for participants in Tasmania, sensationalised and often distorted who commented on what they representation of Islamic religion, saw as the cultural divisiveness culture and communities. The and exclusionary tendencies of study’s findings offer ample Saudi international students who support for how damaging the come to Australia to study. While tendency of commercial media the message of Saudi-influenced outlets in particular to focus Imams is often extreme, anti-West selectively on the more extreme and intolerant, many members of or outrageous statements of Muslim communities beyond this Muslim ‘community’ leaders – base nevertheless perceive them some of whom have no genuine as authentic because they speak legitimacy within communities Arabic and challenge Western social themselves – can be for the project norms that continue to provoke of enhancing social cohesion ambivalence and unease for those throughout Australia as a whole. Muslims still struggling to reconcile religious and secular ways of living. 132 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Media organisations have choices Meeting the internet challenge Accordingly, the internet and about how they design, shape and in the 21st century other social media represented pitch their content and their focus There was very little support across not only challenges but also in reporting on issues related both the study for increased censorship opportunities for participants. The to aspects of Australian Muslim life of or control over the internet as a most important of these, in our and to extremism and terrorism means of policing extremism, with view, was the strong emphasis at home and abroad. Pressure on many participants explicitly pointing on how the internet and social media organisations from Muslim to China and other authoritarian media can be used to counter as communities themselves has been state regimes as examples of how well as facilitate radicalisation and limited to date, in part because not to approach the management of extremism. Participants wanted to of their sense that their concerns relations between civil populations see alternative internet and social will continue to be trivialised or and communication technologies. media-based narratives and options unheard in favour of chasing ratings Nevertheless, despite the marked more easily available to those who and advertisers more geared to aversion to censorship – itself go to radical or extremist sites out populist sentiment. However, this closely linked to the very social and of curiosity or uncertainty about is starting to change as Muslim political freedoms cherished by who they are and where they community leaders become Western democracies – participants belong. They also called for more more vocal on this topic, and stressed the risks and challenges proactive educational approaches these efforts should be vigorously posed by the internet in relation to balancing the positives and risks supported by government. to fostering rapid transmission of of the internet and social media, radical and extremist platforms and particularly for new arrivals who Participants also said they wanted activities. In particular, the social may enthusiastically embrace new to see stronger political leadership and interactive dimensions of the technologies but be less aware of in getting across the national internet and other relatively new their potential to deliver risks as well message about cultural tolerance social media, such as Facebook as benefits. and respect. Linking this with and Twitter, were seen by many political leadership in relation to Education is the key to participants as critical in shaping media responsibility on issues of preventing radicalisation how discourses extremism and cultural pluralism, and rejecting and extremism terrorism are played out. These knee-jerk assumptions about communication technologies were The emphasis on more and better the always-and-everywhere link perceived as dynamic, fluid spaces education around internet use was between Islam and extremism, in which radicalisation as a social replicated across a great many would be one good place to process can be either reinforced or other themes addressed by the start. A concerted focus on hampered by how users of internet study. In fact, the most common greater media accountability and social media sites shape and response from participants and responsibility through both direct flows of information, opinion when asked what the solutions government and non-government and perspective. were to preventing or mitigating channels would also be relevant. the causes, drivers and risks of radicalisation and extremism and to fostering greater use of existing peaceful democratic mechanisms for resolving grievances was ‘education’ and ‘understanding’. In this sense, it is clear that participants, regardless of their own specific educational level or assets, placed enormous value on the power of education to transform or re-orient attitudes, perceptions and beliefs. The link between stronger social cohesion and stronger educational skills and capital was drawn by a great many participants in various contexts. CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSION: CROSS-CUTTING THEMES AND PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION 133

They believed that education – At the community level, the This was a particular issue in including, especially, the critical improvement of cross-cultural relation to policing approaches reasoning skills necessary for and inter-faith tolerance and when dealing with emergent independent thought and analysis understanding was, unsurprisingly, radicalisation and extremism at – were essential in helping people a crucial element in the thinking of community level. Many Muslim- distinguish between rhetoric and most participants. Both government background participants wanted to reality, and in working systematically and community respondents were see policing authorities and Muslim through ideas and claims in an adamant that grassroots initiatives community leaders standing side environment in which communities are generally more successful, by side in public. They also wanted are constantly bombarded with and also more sustainable, than the communication channels to be information, often packaged in slick large-scale, ‘headline’ programs two-way streets, and this concern marketing or other anti-reasoning or strategies that demand rather with reciprocal flows of information formats. This is a very important than encourage tolerance and and exchange was echoed by point, because it demonstrates cooperation between groups that government stakeholders within the extent to which Australian may have structural, historical or policing and security agencies, communities remain committed to other reasons for mistrusting or who also felt that at times the traffic the free flow of ideas and the free being wary of one another. As one could be unidirectional. Explicit capacity to critically evaluate and participant said, it is a question of a strategies to promote and embed assess them. Knowledge capital series of small steps that make the reciprocal communication and and skills in critical thinking are difference. These add up to a bigger exchange pathways would help essential elements in supporting leap of confidence and security in improve these relationships. democratic systems and in building working together towards common resilience to radical or extremist goals on the basis of shared values One issue emerging from ideology. How communities and and principles. Such small steps government participants was the government, working together, can need to be seeded and nurtured at extent to which some questioned most effectively meet this challenge the local community level, and there the value or viability of adopting is a key question raised by the was a great deal of interest and culturally sensitive or responsive study’s findings. support for how government might strategies in dealing with both best facilitate this, while still allowing the intervention and aftermath of Cooperation and reciprocity communities to lead the way. anti-terrorist operations. This is a A final issue arising from the concern because it runs against study’s findings relates to In particular, there was a marked the grain of Australia’s commitment participants’ strong emphasis on call for stronger steps to be to working with cultural diversity the importance of cooperation taken to enhance cooperation and pluralism as an integral and reciprocity in strengthening between Muslim communities part of Australian society, rather responses to countering and government agencies in than engaging in a ‘sunny days’ radicalisation and extremism. This countering radicalisation and approach to multiculturalism that cross-cutting theme relates to extremism. Participants wanted to dismisses its significance in times participant perceptions around see well-defined partnerships both of crisis or other political and the relationship between different between Muslim and non-Muslim operational pressure. religious, racial and cultural groups communities, and also between at the community level, and communities and local, state and between police, government and federal levels of government. To communities at the national level. create meaningful community partnerships with government, participants felt that government agencies needed to acknowledge the power of communities to drive change, to respect communities, and to explicitly acknowledge their contributions. However, they also saw this process as reciprocal, stressing that communities also need to understand government concerns and where government is ‘coming from’ more generally. 134 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

This response was all the more Overall, the picture that emerges unexpected because a number of from these consultations around non-Victorian project participants community perspectives on across both government and radicalisation and extremism is that community who were familiar with community leaders, community Operation Neath spoke highly of the members and government success of Victoria’s approach in stakeholders are reasonably dealing with the Somali community confident that Australia is in a in the aftermath of this operation. good position to meet and address Several government stakeholders some of the continuing challenges saw this as a transferable model presented by the threats of for other jurisdictions who may face radicalisation and extremism to similar operational and community a peaceful and open democratic engagement challenges in future. society. However, a range of Yet it was clear that this was not concerns, strategies and solutions a universal perspective amongst were offered by participants that government respondents, and help focus attention on what work it raises the issue of how unified still needs to be done, how this government representatives are can best be pursued, and what in pursuing a culturally aware and innovations may need to occur to tailored approach in these contexts. stay abreast of a social and political environment that is dynamic, fluid, Given these disparities, it may be occasionally volatile and still working worthwhile investigating whether a toward broad-scale resilience and common approach to how counter- social cohesion in local, national terrorist operations deal with the and trans-national contexts. variable of cultural diversity can or should be developed, and what training, support and development needs might need to be resourced in order to achieve this. CHAPTER 10: CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FUTURE The findings of Community and Radicalisation into the perceptions and beliefs of communities concerning radicalisation, extremism and terrorism offer a number of future strategic possibilities for consideration by government, policing agencies and communities. Below we discuss some of the findings’ implications for actions, models, strategies, partnerships and policies that may be useful to think about for the future. The chapter numbers in parentheses at the end of each area of focus below indicate where the bulk of the findings supporting these discussion items are located. 136 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Considerations for It is important that young Accordingly, both governments governments at all levels Australians in particular are better and communities may want to equipped with the skills, knowledge further examine and invest in the Terminology and resilience to negotiate a wide critical role of Australian Muslim Definitional issues around range of issues, claims and beliefs communities in developing and radicalisation and extremism around culture, politics, ideology, disseminating counter-narratives emerged as a prominent theme in religion and society. Strong support against radicalisation and the study. There can be confusion for disciplines and branches of extremism, and how this role can or disagreement at times amongst knowledge – especially humanities be explicitly acknowledged by government stakeholders and social sciences – that government (Chapter 8). concerning the meanings of and develop high level skills in critical distinctions between ‘radicalisation’ analysis, cognitive reasoning and Strengthening and ‘extremism’. Governments independent thought needs to be community resilience may wish to consider developing a considered. Consideration can also The internet and other social clear and common definition of both be given to how best to embed media are now daily parts of life ‘radicalisation’ and ‘extremism’ that these disciplines across all levels for many, especially young people. can be accepted and used by the of Australian educational settings Strategies and frameworks for Commonwealth and all States and (Chapters 2 and 8). how the internet and other social Territories across a range of policy media can best be used to help and operational settings, including Counter-narratives and young people and other social education and dialogue with counter-radicalisation groups become more resilient in communities and the general public A significant finding arising from relation to extremist messaging via (Chapter 1). In addition, it would be the research was the perception, the internet can be considered, helpful to consider whether and how shared by both government particularly in the context of actively any such common definition of these stakeholders and communities, promoting positive alternatives to terms could be inclusive of all forms that existing counter-narrative extremist ideology (Chapter 6). of radicalisation and extremism to strategies focused on radicalisation This can go hand in hand with avoid targeting any specific culture, and extremism now need to be leveraging community support for religion or ideology. This was a key supplemented by proactive and early-identification and prevention issue for communities in particular affirmative narratives focusing on strategies that draw on the in- (Chapters 2 and 8). shared values, goals and identity depth knowledge and involvement as Australians in the context of of communities to intercept and Education cultural diversity and religious re-route radical and extremist The research revealed strong pluralism. In addition, communities behaviour where it has not yet support from communities for the have identified the benefits of reached the threshold of criminality values and benefits of democracy. personalising and localising However, younger participants the counter-narrative message In many ways, such activities would across many States and Territories so it is less abstract and more be most effectively conducted were less knowledgeable about concrete. Local governments in the context of counter- democracy as a political system and have a role to play in this context radicalisation programs that are less confident about expressing their and can consider working in multi-dimensional, given the study’s views in relation to how democracy partnership with state and federal findings around the widespread compares to other political systems. agencies to develop localised perception of convergent causes, Government at all levels, in particular narratives and messages dealing drivers and factors leading to States through their education with radicalisation, extremism radicalisation and extremism systems, may wish to think further and inclusive approaches to rather than a single cause or about how best to support and shared community life across driver (Chapters 2 and 8). strengthen the development of cultures. There was also strong capacity building programs for perception that Australian Muslim young Australians through schools communities are themselves and other educational programs and best placed to develop counter- pathways to improve understanding narratives and affirmative narratives of democracy as a political system that can most effectively reach that delivers rights, freedoms and others within their community. responsibilities for all Australians (Chapter 4). CHAPTER 10: CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE FUTURE 137

Considerations for Considerations for Yet the research findings clearly policing agencies communities demonstrate the belief that mainstream Australian communities Improving trust and good Social cohesion and cultural also need to play a major role in relationships between police diversity and take responsibility for social and communities The issue of intercultural mistrust, cohesion and not expect others to The study’s findings suggest that suspicion and lack of knowledge bear this burden on their own. This it would be helpful for policing between various sectors of means participating actively at local agencies to consider developing the community emerged as a community level to develop better a multi-jurisdictional counter- persistent theme throughout the understanding of and tolerance for terrorism community engagement report. This can lead to forms of the diversity of Australian identities based on the identified successes alienation and disengagement that and cultures. It also means of the Victoria Police approach are drivers for radicalisation and challenging inaccurate or misleading to community consultation and extremism. Strategies that promote portrayals of other cultural groups engagement in the aftermath of greater intercultural dialogue and when these arise in both public and Operation Neath. Aligned with understanding in order to dispel private settings (Chapters 2 and 8). this at the policy level can be myths and prejudices between a focus by policing agencies different ethnic, cultural and Considerations for at state and federal level on religious groups through more government-community strengthening the recruitment, sustained and regular contact at partnerships training and retention of a culturally community level are needed and diverse police force to increase can be supported by all levels of Improving understanding community trust in police and government working together with and acceptance of Muslims reduce the risk of negative impacts relevant community organisations in Australia and reactions by communities (Chapters 2, 3, 5, 6 and 8). The findings suggest strong support targeted during such operations. for coordinated strategies that can Many Muslim community leaders leverage partnerships between Local intelligence and cooperation who contributed to this project government and local communities, with authorities is a key to early have called specifically for greater groups and organisations to detection of potential extremist visibility and involvement by increase intercultural contact or terrorist threats. The research Muslim communities in reducing between Muslim and non-Muslim findings indicate strongly the cultural and community isolation. communities in order to break down benefits that would arise from Accordingly, strong consideration stereotypes and myths and increase policing agencies considering can be given to how best to social cohesion (Chapters 2 and 8). how best to develop systematic support Australian Muslim ways of reducing social distancing community leaders and groups in In particular, many members of between operational police and developing sustainable mechanisms Australian Muslim communities local communities to enhance trust that promote active engagement, are disturbed by the ways in which and communication and to reduce interaction and relationship perceptions of Islam as a religion fear, suspicion and cynicism about between Muslim and mainstream and a culture have seemingly the role of police at community communities. A critical aspect of become inextricably associated level. This includes developing this involves the need for Australian with terrorism. Commercial and and sustaining explicit strategies Muslim communities to openly public press organisations and to promote and embed reciprocal acknowledge the wide diversity of broadcasters came under strong communication and exchange views, beliefs and practices that criticism from both government pathways to help improve these constitute contemporary Australian stakeholders and community relationships (Chapters 7 and 8). Muslim life and publicly challenge members in relation to this characterisations of Islam that seek perception. This has an impact on to narrow this diversity in the minds efforts to build trust and confidence of Muslims and non-Muslims alike between some Muslim communities (Chapter 8). and government agencies focused on preventing violent extremism. 138 COMMUNITY AND RADICALISATION

Accordingly, there was strong Susceptibility to internet-based encouragement from study extremism, particularly for young participants on the need for people, is also now a major concern media organisations to draw for a broad range of community on a diversity of credible expert members, as well as government Muslim consultants to ensure stakeholders. Strategies focused a healthy flow of balanced on young people to strengthen information about Australian Muslim education about and resilience to experiences and perspectives. internet-based extremism can be considered for joint development In addition, targeted communication and implementation by government, strategies, including public educators and communities. interest advertising on television, This includes a targeted focus on radio and the internet, can be strengthening resilience to how considered by government and people and communities respond communities working in partnership to racial or cultural provocation via to promote balanced and accurate the internet and other social media portrayals of Islam, Muslims and (Chapter 6). the diversity of Australian Muslim cultures and communities. There was also strong community support for seeing such strategies embedded in explicit policy frameworks (Chapters 5 and 6).

Equipping young people to become more resilient Communities have said they see their young people as especially susceptible to using violence as an answer to grievances and problems. Peer-based anti-violence and anti-extremism programs supported by joint community- government partnerships that encourage young people to reject violence and use alternative means of conflict resolution can be considered, particularly in relation to sustainable programs that are multigenerational (Chapter 3). ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dr Hussein Tahiri is Senior Research Analyst in the Counter-Terrorism Coordination Unit of Victoria Police in Melbourne, Australia. In the course of his career he has contributed to and led a range of key external and internal research initiatives and reports for universities and state and national bodies dealing with counter- terrorism and community engagement.

Professor Michele Grossman is Deputy Director and Research Program Leader in the Centre for Cultural Diversity and Wellbeing at Victoria University in Melbourne, Australia. She is a member of the Countering Violent Extremism Research Panel and has a significant track record in research and publications dealing with culturally diverse communities, refugee and new arrival settlement, community-engaged policing, and countering violent extremism.

Professor Grossman and Dr Tahiri are currently collaborating on a second project funded by the Australia-New Zealand Counter-Terrorism Committee titled Harnessing Resilience Capital in Culturally Diverse Communities to Counter Violent Extremism (2012-2013). DTPLI-7790/13