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Прогрес Европа Fortschritt Europa Progreso Europa Be- Progress Europe Progress Culture and cultural policy are of strategic signifi- sivystanti Europa Progres- cance in the process of European unification. The t r question is, what use is made of them? What is the state of cultural relations within Europe? How can so Europa Napredek Evro- epo

European cultural policies contribute to the for- r ming of a European identity? e

r pa Framsteg Europa Fejlõdõ The culture report “Progress Europe” attempts to find answers to these questions. Among the Európa Edistys Postęp Eu- authors are cultural policy makers, journalists, cultu education experts, theatre and film-makers, festival organisers and scientists from all over the ropa Progress Europe Ev- world. ropa Pokrok Eurooppa Pok- rok Europa Vooruitstrevend Europa Πρόοδος Ευρώπη L’Europe en marche Europas Fremskridt Progrese Europa

Euroopa edusammud Culture report Progress Europe Culture report Progress Europe

Preface europe Needs Emotions By Ingrid Hamm 4 Culture on the Rise By Kurt-Jürgen Maaß 5

I. Europe - Continent Without Contours?

1. The Perception of Europe 1.1 Self-Perception Invisible Public? By Bo Stråth 10 Brand Europe By Simon Anholt 18

1.2 Perception of Others Who is Schopenhauer? By Atsuko Onuki 30 Museum Europe By Andrew Ian Port 35 the Pale Continent By Rajendra K. Jain 38 Farewell to Europe By Adjaï Paulin Oloukpona-Yinnon 42 Identity Pitfalls By Leopoldo Waizbort 50 paradise Europe By Sergej Sumlenny 53

2. Culture in EU Policy Key Element or Ornament? By Enrique Banús 60 New Territory in Sight? By Olaf Schwencke 71 structure nurtures Culture By Christine Beckmann 82

3. Foreign Cultural Policy Not Promotion but Partnership By Michael Bird 90 escape from Huntington’s Scenario By Traugott Schöfthaler 97 euphoria in Croatia By Marija Pejčinović Burić 103 Bread and Games (Panem et Circenses) By Gyula Kurucz 107

II. Culture in Europe – Europe in CulturE

1. The Media the Continent of No Communication By Peter Preston 116 europa on Screen By Deirdre Kevin 123

2. Film reconciliation in lieu of Division By Michael Schmid-Ospach 132 Curtain for Niche Cinema By Dina Iordanova 137 the Power of Images By Wim Wenders 143

Table of Contents

3. Education the End of the National Education Fortress By Guy Haug 150 learning over Time By Andreas Schleicher 156 higher Education without Frontiers? By Franziska Muche 166

4. Language Do You Speak European? By Ulrich Ammon 178 Fortunate Babel By Etienne Barilier 185

5. Music the Sound of Europe By Jean-Francois Michel 194 Feeling the Blues? By Jonas Bjälesjö 199

6. Literature europa Reads By Albrecht Lempp 206 A House (of Literature) for the Continent By Florian Höllerer 215

7. Theatre A Stage for European Theatre By Bernard Faivre d’Arcier 224 Visionary Opera By Xavier Zuber 231

8. Art, Architecture, Fashion europe – Work of Art By Ursula Zeller 238 Fashion Shapes Europe An Expert talk between Ingrid Loschek and Sibylle Klose 249 Fashion World – World Fashion By Daniel Devoucoux 263 europe – a Shell? By Hans Ibelings 276

Imprint Publisher: Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen (ifa) and Robert Bosch Stiftung, in cooperation with British Council Germany, Schweizer Kulturstiftung Pro Helvetia and Stiftung für Deutsch-Polnische Zusammenarbeit Editors: Sebastian Körber, Jenni Roth (ifa); Detlef Thelen (British Council) Collaboration: Dr. Stephan Hollensteiner, Claudia Judt, Kornelia Serwotka Design: Eberhard Wolf Photos: Bettina Flitner Address: Charlottenplatz 17, 70173 Stuttgart Print: Offizin Andersen Nexö Leipzig Translation: Barbara Andrunik, Agna Baranowa, Małgorzata Gula, Dr. Stephan Hollensteiner, Krystyna Kopczy ska, Marielle Larré, Jenni Roth, Henning Schimpf, Angelika Welt, Birgit Wittlinger ń

Preface

Europe Needs Emotions

hen I was a boy, I dreamt of a Europe the Robert Bosch Stiftung has without borders. Now I am travelling launched this Culture Report in Wacross Europe – virtually and in rea- cooperation with the Institut für lity – without showing my passport. I even pay Auslandsbeziehungen. I would with one currency, but where is my emotion?” like to thank the authors who Wim Wenders asks himself in this report. Many have dealt with these questions citizens of Europe – particularly young people from various points of view. And who neither feel represented by the institutions of I am delighted that our projects the European Union nor see their needs addressed partners - British Council Ger- – feel exactly the same as the German film direc- many, the Schweizer Kulturstif- tor, which does not surprise Wenders. According tung (Swiss Cultural Foundati- to him, nobody loves their country because of its on) Pro Helvetia and the Stiftung politics or its market strategies. In its external re- für Deutsch-Polnische Zusam- lations and its internal interactions with its inha- menarbeit (Foundation for Ger- bitants, Europe always uses economic or political man-Polish Cooperation) - sup- arguments. Emotional aspects do not feature. ported the publication of this However, the representatives of the European report in English, French and institutions in Brussels have long understood that Polish. they have to revive the concept of European unity. “A soulless organism is dead. A unified Europe Ingrid Hamm needs a soul“, was the presumption the former Executive Director, Robert Bosch Stiftung President of the EU Commission, Jacques Delors, made once. His current successor José Manuel Barroso even goes one step further: “Europe is the cornerstone for the sense of cohesion required by Europe“, he stated at the Berlin Conference in November 2006. Europe – “having ‘invented’ tolerance towards individuals, their opinions, convictions and differences – has to make its special voice heard. Culture and cultural policy play a vital strategic role in the European process of unification. Yet what is their practical use? What is the situation of cultural relations in Europe? Which contributions can European cultural policy make to form a Eu- ropean identity? In order to find potential answers,

Preface

Culture on the Rise

hat do some have and do not want any perts, theatre and film-makers, longer and others long for so much? festival organisers and scientists WWhile most Americans admire Europe from all over the world. I would as the museum of high culture – even if they have like to thank all these authors emptied their Bordeaux bottle down the drain with as well as the Robert Bosch Stif- ostentation – as Andrew Ian Port describes wryly tung – which enabled the reali- in his contribution to this report – Europe is still sation of this book together with looking for an identity. Even fifty years after the the ifa. And I would particularly foundation of the European Union, pan-Europe- like to thank the many transla- an media projects are still progressing slowly and tors who enabled its publication even urgent transnational problems are mainly in four languages. Their work discussed in a national context. Is Europe really – largely taking place quietly be- just “an agglomeration amiably arranged – but la- hind the scenes - is not only an cking any wish or ability for deeper conversation”, essential requirement for a pu- as conjectured by the British columnist and former blication of this kind, but also editor-in-chief of the “Guardian”, Peter Preston? for a Europe that does not only Even if one does not agree with this pessimistic communicate about each other, view, one thing is certain: Those who think that but above all engages in direct the European Union would only need a bit more dialogue. PR to explain its agreements better are on the wrong track. Those who take the project of Eu- Kurt-Jürgen Maaß ropean unification seriously perceive a stronger Secretary General, Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen ifa challenge for European cultural policy than ever before to shift the actual substance of European unification to the foreground; Europe has a lot to offer to this world. It represents enlightenment, belief in progress and tolerance. It has a lot of experience with the transformation of countries and societies into democracies, constitutional states and market economies. It offers attractive scholarship programmes, international libraries and a rich world cultural heritage in the arts, in music, literature and film. This report examines the constituents of cultural Europe very closely. Among the authors are cultural policy makers, journalists, education ex-

Europe – Continent without Contours?

Women with Visions Portraits of 48 European Women

For two years, Bettina Flitner travelled through Europe to take photographs of “Great European Women“. She sat in Miep Gies living room in Amsterdam – the woman who hid Anne Frank and rescued her diary a long time ago. She stood in the laboratory of the German Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard, who was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. She accompanied Franka Potente to her ballet school in Berlin-Kreuzberg, visited Marion Dönhoff in Hamburg-Blankenese shortly before her death and went to the fiercely fought over olive fields in Calabria with Baroness Cordopatri, who is threatened by the Mafia. She created 48 portraits of great European women from the worlds of culture, economy, politics and society. The culture report Progress Europe introduces 12 of these personalities.

The Portraits: 8/9 Marion Gräfin Dönhoff, journalist • 28/29 Franziska Becker, cartoonist • 48/49 Christa de Carouge, fashion designer • 58/59 Maria Lassnig, painter • 82/83 Irene Khan, director amnesty international • 114/115 Kati Outinen, actress • 148/149 Inge Feltrinelli, publisher • 176/178 Lea Linster, cook • 192/193 Judit Polgar, chess player • 222/223 Pina Bausch, choreographer • 236/237 Magdalena Abakanowicz, artist • 254/255 Dörte Gatermann, architect

Europe – Continent without Contours?

Invisible Public? For the author, there is no doubt about the existence of a European public sphere. He however identifies a gap between public sphere and institutional practice. Debates mostly mirror controversial issues nationally and are not addressed at European institutions. For him, the Nice Summit was a missed opportunity to represent Europe as a whole and to culturally back up the economic unification process. By Bo Stråth

accumulation of national public spheres. One argument frequently used by advocates of this point of view is the issue of language barriers as an essential obstacle for a transnational public sphere. Definition problems have their origin in diverging starting points or perceptions about the structure of a public sphere. Democratic structures of Europe- an nation states in the second half of the 20th century are a popular benchmark. Often, this results in arguments against a European public sphere, based on a mere accumulation of national public spheres. hat is the European public One argument frequently used by advo- sphere? Does it actually exist? cates of this point of view is the issue of WAnd if so, when did it emerge? language barriers as an essential obstacle Who are the players, the senders and the for a transnational public sphere. receivers, the authors and the readers in- I believe in the existence of a Euro- volved in this continental communica- pean public sphere, though – in spite of tion, this transnational process of inter- language barriers that can be overcome pretation and re-interpretation that could with translations. And I even believe that constitute a European public sphere? And this European public sphere is constantly what are the issues implied in the title of growing. A European public sphere had this article? existed when a national public sphere was Definition problems have their ori- still a very alien concept and indeed begin in diverging starting points or per- fore this concept of the nation state gained ceptions about the structure of a public ground on the Continent. The history of sphere. Democratic structures of Europe- European integration – becoming mani- an nation states in the second half of the fest in an institutional context from the 20th century are a popular benchmark. 1950s - made the concept of a public sphere Often, this results in arguments against a more palpable. European public sphere, based on a mere The European public sphere had sur-

10 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

faced in the eighteenth century, during elitist approach towards an involvement the period of the Enlightenment, before of the masses - as indicated by the term the European nation states had even mass media - we are confronted with a emerged. The ‘République des Lettres’ diametrically opposed development, con- comes to mind in this context. Travelling centrating on a few media mouthpieces and corresponding with intellectual and addressing the masses in a unilateral way. political circles as well as the circulati- The old-fashioned idea of a rational de- on of journals and books on the Conti- bate based on the representation of inte- nent provided the breeding ground for rests has been turned upside down and an emerging market of ideas and opini- the former understanding of the concept ons – even though censorship restricted of representation has been replaced by the the access to this market, thus strictly creation of news and fiction. Thus, public confining the public sphere.1 Seemingly, sphere does not necessarily stand for par- language barriers did not play a role, as ticipation and it has to be considered to the players of the public sphere commu- what extent opinion clashes in the public nicated either in French or in Latin. Fur- sphere are based on rational calculation thermore, the topic of Europe was very and the communication of interests or high up on the agenda in this context. on manipulated thought patterns. Jür- The significance of the European civili- gen Habermas’ assumption of a sublimi- sation concept was discussed throughout nal ultimate truth and the pursuit of this the Continent.2 It may be that this once truth by policy and public debate must be penetrable public sphere was hermetical- critically challenged by any theory about ly sealed with the emergence of the nation a public sphere. states in the nineteenth century. Howe- ver, there are no comprehensive sources The European public sphere providing a reliable explanation for this paves its way development. Only one thing seems to be clear: The European public sphere has not Historically, the public sphere in Eu- been displaced by the nation states. rope has struck deep roots throughout Those with a sceptical attitude towards the nineteenth and the early twentieth the influence of a European public sphere century. It experienced its heyday within argue that the majority of Europeans does the Republic of Letters and active partici- not participate in this public sphere. Af- pation increased steadily. The growth in ter all, the Republic of Letters was a the literature market, the end of censor- closed elitist circle. However, it needs to ship, mass production of newspapers and be asked whether wanting unlimited ac- journals and the international character cess and mass participation is a sine qua of cultural life in theatres and concert non for the definition of a European pu- halls stimulated continental exchanges. blic sphere.3 Such a claim becomes even Furthermore, after the First World War, more explosive considering recent deve- international organisations such as the lopments in the media world in terms of League of Nations or international post technological and economic concentrati- and telephone associations enabled the on. Instead of expanding from a merely implementation of pan-European stan-

11 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

dards, thus enhancing transnational debate. The mobilising force of the Eu- communication. ropean public sphere does not seem to A public sphere can be perceived as be very high. Voter participation in the a communication platform - with play- elections to the European Parliament, for ers from the fields of politics and culture instance, is a clear indicator of a lack of exchanging and negotiating their ideas democratic legitimacy for the whole Eu- from an early stage. This was reinforced ropean integration project. by the development of the mass media, involving ever larger segments of the po- Harmonious Europe? pulation in the debate. A strong argument - among others developed by the social Nevertheless, the question remains why scientist Klaus Eder - is that this Europe- we should assume a link between the an public sphere has primarily emerged public sphere and European integration in transnational crisis debates in the con- at the European level. Originally, the text of the European integration process raison d’être of the European integra- during the second half of the last century. tion project was the protection of free The same issues - Haider, Berlusconi or markets and peacekeeping during the the concept of a European Constitution Cold War. At that time, free markets – are discussed all over Europe, thus over- were still a preventive measure against coming language barriers. The European capital concentration and the armed public sphere speaks many languages. peace was based on military strength. In some respects, the public sphere has According to Alan Milward, European always focused on problems. The intellec- integration research specialist, the aim tuals of the Republic of Letters invariably was to protect the Western European reflected on the same core issues, with the nation states through free trade as the number of topics growing significantly prerequisite for the welfare state.4 Eu- in the context of European integration ropean integration was intended to safe- since the 1950s. guard democracy in the member states, It gets problematic if we link the pu- whereas the issue of a supranational Eu- blic sphere with democracy. The public ropean democracy was never raised. sphere with its debates and social nego- The idea of a supranational Europe- tiations is often perceived as the backbo- an democracy can be vaguely dated back ne of Western democracies. The public sphere is the cornerstone of the civil society – the prerequisite for a functioning The same issue - Haider, democracy. Habermas’ point of view assumes the more or less automatic con- Berlusconi or the Idea of a nection between the public sphere and European Constitution – is de- democracy. In that case, if a European bated all over Europe and in public sphere really exists, why is there this way language barriers are no European democracy? One crucial question in this context is transgressed. The European about the degree of participation in the public sphere is multilingual.

12 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

to the EEC Summit in Copenhagen in ropean public sphere and the European 1973, where the concept of a European institutions is a legitimacy issue for the identity was introduced for the first time. EU. The gap as such is the problem - not The general opinion was that this could the actual question whether such a public stimulate integration during a time of sphere exists or not. economic depression. In 1979, this idea In terms of the legitimacy issue, two was reflected in the decision to introdu- other factors also play a role. Since the ce direct elections to the European Par- 1950s, market harmonisation has expan- liament and in the introduction of the ded into more and more areas of society concept of European citizenship in 1980. to abolish restrictions of free competition. However, the concept of supranationality Free trade between the member states, overcoming national identification and common customs barriers towards third policy patterns neither established itself countries, environmental and social stan- within the individual citizens nor at an dards, standards for food, transport, com- institutional level. The direct elections to munication, education and health – all the European Parliament did not lead to these areas were perceived as potential one European Constitution and the iden- technical trade barriers - to be overcome tity discourse did not lead to European by a harmonisation of standards and citizenship. In the end, public debates in rules. The more claims for Europeanisa- the emerging nation states in Europe led tion have penetrated social life, the more to parliamentarianism. The democratic sensitive European citizens have become dimension of the public debate was re- about this issue. Why should Brussels de- inforced by many overlaps in public and cide the size of a strawberry or the length parliamentary debate. This is hardly the of a banana? The answer lies in the logic case in the institutional setting of the EU. of market developments towards more The problem-oriented European debate is competition, because competition leads channelled towards national focal points to standardisation. of political decision-making, with a po- The second factor is the dramatically tential to erode the legitimacy and autho- growing social inequality in the EU after rity of Brussels as a political centre. It is the Enlargement from 15 to 25 member precisely the debate about values in a so- states. This growing inequality has pro- cial context that seems to demote Brussels voked fears of social dumping, which, in as the “Other”, not being able to fulfil the turn has provoked social protectionism. role of an adroit and diplomatic political A confrontation between social dum- centre that can handle the protests This ping and social protectionism is a great is a fundamental problem of the EU that risk for Europe, which must not be igno- is rarely discussed. At a European level, red under any circumstances. The politi- national parliaments and the principles cal pressures in response to the EU Ser- of parliamentarianism that have emer- vices Directive are a case in point which ged in response to protests and pressure demonstrates the risk potential. The ana- from public spheres of nation states, have logy to the role of the public sphere in the a different political agenda in terms of so- development of the nation states suggests cial criticism. This gap between the Eu- that a closer connection between the Eu-

13 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

ropean public sphere and European po- 2000 and the introduction of the euro litical institutions as a target of criticism one year later, on 1st January 2002. Media provided political legitimacy. coverage of the two events demonstrates The growing legitimacy deficit not how fast moods can shift and shows the only raises issues of power and gover- significance of the media play for these nance, but also, and perhaps most im- mood swings. It feels like speeding up portantly, questions of ethics and iden- time itself. When the European leaders tification. Will the EU stay together and met in Nice, they could have proudly and if so, does it have the potential to provide euphorically announced a project initi- EU citizens with a sense of belonging? ated by them. They had fixed a schedu- Does such a sense of belonging exist side le for the biggest EU Enlargement ever by side with national allegiances or are - marking the definite end of the Cold they mutually exclusive? What is the role War and the whole post-war period - and of current and future political leaders and thus the start of a new era. The agenda the mass media for these developments? of the unification of Europe had gained a new dimension and the spotlight was Media and shifting values on Europe as an entity. This potential for euphoria collapsed The media can be seen as the discursi- in a general chaos when the grande geste, ve universe, where national and Europe- the opening towards the East, was trans- an values, ethics and identities develop. lated into institutional questions such as: One major lesson learnt in recent years How many votes should be allocated to was the discovery of a moody, short-li- each member state in the Council of Mi- ved and fickle Europe - a far cry from nisters? Which majority is required for the perceptions of Europe as a firmly decisions? Representatives from the dif- anchored and rigidly institutionalised ferent member states accused each other continent – whether as a community or of narrow-mindedly pursuing their own in economic terms. Instability is lurking interests. The media thrived on descrip- behind an alleged stability. Solutions to tions of European leaders that seemed to one problem produce new challenges and participate in a big European poker game, new problems. On the one hand, Europe trying to see the other players’ cards and resembles an in-depth project, enhancing playing tricks on them. The distance to the its integration potential with “functional population was emphasised by the police growth”. On the other hand, Europe has fighting violent demonstrators in parami- manoeuvred from crisis to crisis over half litary street battles that more or less “be- a century. If there is a certain continuity long to” political summits these days. of a European public sphere in institutional terms, it is much more difficult to pin Euphoria and Europhoria down in terms of substance and values. Two spectacular events within one The leaders withdrew their initiative year demonstrate the extreme shifts in a year later. The 1st January 2002 was a the media coverage on Europe and its remarkable manifestation of European values - the Nice Summit in December unification. The euro was celebrated as

14 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

the symbol of a new Europe, more uni- aristocratic appearance and his triumph fied than ever since the Roman Empi- in Thessaloniki grew in May and June re. Political leaders getting their first 2005. banknotes from cash machines among The crucial question is, of course, ordinary people in the streets dissolved what this oscillation between extremes, hierarchies between elites and masses. between euphoria and feelings of crisis, Europe was really unified - horizontally really mean in terms of the stability of as well as vertically. The euphoria was a the whole institutional setting. To what europhoria - and it was exactly as a sym- extent are the dramatic shifts ephemeral, bol for unity that the new currency was rapidly stirred up by the media and as celebrated. The media and the elites did rapidly calming down in the face of new not focus on the strictly economic side of spectacular events? Does the fast shift the event very much, rather emphasising of media opinions about the EU result the symbolic aspects. Proud references in long-term de-legitimisation? Or will were made to the Roman Empire and the growing level of attention for the EU Charlemagne. Critical questions about - positive or negative - result in a “natu- a harmonisation of fiscal systems in the ralisation” of the EU as a polity, i.e. to its course of the monetary union were not reinforcement through its function as a discussed. platform for conflict and debate? What The schizophrenic pattern continues. does a problem-oriented European public The debates about the European Cons- sphere really mean? The media can be titution and the Iraq War are two clear seen as the discursive universe shaping examples. The Iraq debate was a da capo national and European values and iden- of Nice, although more intense and with tities, but it seems clear that these values a greater mobilisation of the population cannot be defined in a simple way. De- in some member states - opposing other pending on external circumstances, va- member states. The contrast between the lues in the context of Europe can always beneficial new proposal for a Constitu- be contested and might change. There is tion at the summit in Thessaloniki in no such thing as a European canon of June 2003 and the ensuing pessimism at values - no matter whether it is defined the next summit in Brussels half a year from a Christian, rational, enlightened later is another example that confirms or scientific point of view. and emphasises the pattern. As we know, Perhaps we can talk about a large in- the distance to Valéry Giscard d’Estaing’s ventory of values which can be accessed and used depending on the context. The EMEDIATE project is a Euro- pean research consortium coordinated If there is a certain continuity by the European University Institute in of a European public sphere in Florence and financed by the EU Frame- institutional terms, it is much work Programme. The acronym EME- DIATE stands for Ethics and Media of a more difficult to pin it down in European Public Sphere. From the Treaty terms of substance and values. of Rome to the War on Terror, we have

15 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

investigated the degrees of conflict and The theory of a European change during phases of experiencing in- public sphere tensive crisis - from the 1950s to the Iraq War. Considering all these conflicts and In many respects, the theory of a pro- changes, it is difficult to see the concept blem-oriented European public sphere is of European values as a linear develop- based on Habermas’ world view, putting ment from the Ancient World and Chris- the public sphere on one level with ratio- tianity. The quality and the substance of nal communication – with the result that the media debates on Europe and its role problems are approached rationally. The and responsibilities are subject to cons- public sphere is the locus of rational ar- tant changes. gumentation – leading to constitutional The period between 2003 and 2005 was patriotism and the development of a “Eu- particularly dramatic in terms of Euro- ropean demos”. A European Constitution pean values. Europe as a bastion of peace would be the spin-off of the European in the commotion of the War on Terror public sphere and a European identity a was unable to find a common denomi- spin-off of the European Constitution. nator for its communication of values to In the 1990s, Dieter Grimm and others the public sphere. With Europe actively challenged this view by arguing that – in supporting – or not supporting - the USA direct opposition to Habermas’ theory on the side of the “axis of good” against - a European public sphere could only the “axis of evil” – Western values were emerge from a European demos and not played off against European values. Hu- the other way round.5 This discussion man rights as European basic rights were between Habermas and Grimm looking played off against the Hobbesian tradition for the ideal solution does not take us any of state reason in the Kosovo and in Iraq. further. A more relevant objection to the The question of social solidarity, which model developed by Habermas was rai- had been so crucial during the nineteenth sed by Reinhart Koselleck. He described century nation building process in Euro- modern times as a constant and accele- pe, became a controversial European core rating movement between criticism and issue after the EU Enlargement from 15 crisis. Acceleration increasingly reduces to 25 member states in 2004. Different the space between our experiences and member states accused each other of so- their translation into future expectations. cial dumping and social protectionism. Our horizons have broadened to such an One (dangerous) way to try and resolve extent that it is getting increasingly more the tension about social values seems to lie in redrafting the question of European social borders into a question of external There is not such a thing as cultural borders and to define culture in a European value basis, irre- ethnic and religious terms. Turkey is a spective of whether it is cal- case in point here. In view of European led Christian, rational, en- history, we should know the risks inherent in any form of evoking the power of lightened, science-based, or cultural cohesion. something else.

16 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

difficult to keep an overview as the basis saying that Habermas’ theory is outda- for new experiences. The very founda- ted in every respect, but I think that his tions of the public sphere as a mediator of assumptions need to be confronted with information have been shaken at its core other, more pessimistic or more realistic by the acceleration and exponential grow- prospects. We might need Habermas as th of the amount of information. This de- a source of inspiration and ought to keep velopment of a closing gap between ex- using his point of view as a benchmark periences and expectations seems to have that we need to watch. However, in order been particularly strong after the end of to prevent naive perceptions about the fu- the Cold War. At first, the events in 1989 ture of Europe and its values within the were interpreted as a dramatically gro- European public sphere, Habermas can wing divide and the expectations in the simply not be ignored. one unified world did not know any borders in space or time. In the eyes of many, Editing: Angelika Welt a chapter in history had been closed. The developments in Yugoslavia demonstra- Professor Dr Bo Stråth since 1997 holds the ted the presumptuousness of these new Joint Chair in Contemporary History at the History Department of the European Univer- expectations and led to the rapid closure sity Institute and the Robert Schuman Centre of the gap between experiences and ex- in Florence. He has been a visiting fellow at pectations. The most recent contributions numerous universities across Europe and in to these developments are undoubtedly Japan. From 1990 to 1996 a professor of histo- the growing signs of a social conflict in ry at Göteborgs universitet, he in 1990-1991 was a counsellor and head of the European the wake of the Enlargement, which is Division of the Swedish Government‘s Natio- an ironic development indeed, given all nal Board of Trade. the eloquent expectations about a final European unification proclaimed on 1st May 2004. Habermas is perceived as an optimistic theoretician with regard to a Euro- pean public sphere. Developments du- 1 E. François and H.-E. Bödeker (eds.): Aufklärung/Lumières und Politik. Zur ring the last 10 to 15 years demonstrate politischen Kultur der deutschen und französischen Aufklärung (Leipzig, that a closer examination of Koselleck’s 1996). 2 J. Osterhammel: Die Entzauberung Asiens. Europa und die asiatischen more pessimistic view is required. Ha- Reiche im 18. Jahrhundert, (München, 1998). 3 In fact, research about the period between WW I and WW II has shown that bermas’ theory also needs to be confron- it was not just the intellectual, political and economic elites that participated ted with alternative views in another re- in a European public sphere, dealing with pan-European issues, but also the wider population. See K. Orluc: “A last Stronghold against Fascism spect. I particularly think of Adorno’s and and National Socialism? The Pan-European Debate over the Creation of a European Party in 1932”, in: Journal of European Integration History, 2002, Horkheimer’s critical views of the mass Volume 8, Number 2, pp. 23-43. 4 Alan S Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation States. London: media as instruments of mass consump- Routledge 1994. tion and market manipulation rather 5 Dieter Grimm,”Does Europe Need a Constitution?“ in European Law Journal 1:3 1995: 282–302. Jürgen Habermas, Jürgen. “Verfassungspatriotismus than messengers of rational arguments, – im allgemeinen und im besonderen” In Die nachholende Revolution. Jürgen Habermas. Frankfurt/Main: Suhrkamp 1990. Ibid, “Ein Ruck muss durch as market-conditioned manipulators of Europa gehen“ Die Weltwoche 21, 2004. Peter Graf Kielmansegg,. “Läßt sich opinion rather than neutral distributors die Europäische Gemeinschaft demokratisch verfassen?“ in Europäische Rundschau 22:2 1994: 23–33. Fritz W Scharpf,. Governing in Europe: Effective of information and knowledge. I am not and Democratic? Oxford 1999.

17 BRAND EUROPE Individually, European countries score high in the global reputation of nation rankings the author publishes in his Anholt Na- tion Brands Index since 1996. According to the principle of „the whole is more than the sum of its parts“ Europe in theory should score perfectly as well. But if you look at Europe as the totality of its member states the continent struggles. A blurry image creates problems in a world that demands simplification and tangible clichés. By Simon Anholt

one market; the rapid advance of globalisation means that every country, every city and every region must compete with every other for its share of the world’s consumers, tourists, investors, students, entrepreneurs, international sporting and cultural events, and for the attention and respect of the international media, of other governments, and the people of other countries. In such a busy and crowded marketplace, most of those people and organisations don’t have time to learn about what other places are really like. We all oday, every place on earth wants navigate through the complexity of the to do something to manage its in- modern world armed with a few simple Tternational reputation. Yet we are clichés, and they form the background of still far from a widespread understan- our opinions, even if we aren’t fully aware ding of what this means in practice, and of this and don’t always admit it to our- just how far commercial approaches can selves: Paris is about style, Japan about be effectively and responsibly applied to technology, Switzerland about wealth and government, society and economic deve- precision, Rio de Janeiro about carnival lopment. Many governments, most con- and football, Tuscany about the good life, sultants and even some scholars persist and most African nations about poverty, in a naïve and superficial interpretation corruption, war, famine and disease. Most of ‘place branding’ that is nothing more of us are much too busy worrying about than standard product promotion, public ourselves and our own countries to spend relations and corporate identity, where too long trying to form complete, balan- the product just happens to be a country, ced, and informed views about six billi- a city or a region rather than a bank or a on other people and nearly two hundred running shoe. other countries. We make do with sum- Yet the need for proper understanding maries for the vast majority of people and in this area is crucial. Today, the world is places – the ones we will probably never

18 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

know or visit – and only start to expand regional administrations in the twenty- and refine these impressions when for first century. some reason we acquire a particular interest in them. When you haven’t got time How place image is built to read a book, you judge it by its cover. These clichés and stereotypes – whether Most countries and regions – indeed, they are positive or negative, true or un- most places – communicate with the out- true – fundamentally affect our behaviour side world, and thus create their images in towards other places and their people and the minds of certain publics, through six products. It may seem unfair, but there’s basic channels or areas of activity: nothing anybody can do to change this. It’s very hard for a region or a country to 1. their tourism promotion activity, as persuade people in other parts of the world well as people’s first-hand experience to go beyond these simple images and start of visiting the country as tourists or to understand the rich complexity that business travellers. This is often the lies behind them. Some quite progressive loudest voice in branding the nation places don’t get nearly as much attention, or region, as tourist boards usually visitors, business or investment as they have the biggest budgets and the most need because their reputation is weak or competent marketers. negative, while others are still trading on a good image that they acquired decades 2. their exported products and ser- or even centuries ago, and today do rela- vices, which act as powerful ambas- tively little to deserve. sadors for each country and region, All the places with good, powerful and but only where their place of origin positive reputations find that almost eve- is explicit. rything they undertake on the international stage is easier; and the places with 3. the policy decisions of the region’s poor reputations find that almost every- governments, whether it’s foreign po- thing is difficult, and some things seem licy which directly affects us, or do- virtually impossible. mestic policy which gets reported in So all responsible governments and re- the international media. Diplomacy is gional administrations, on behalf of their traditionally the main route by which people, their institutions and their com- such things are communicated to the panies, need to discover what the world’s outside world, but there is an increa- perception of their place is, and to deve- sing closeness between the policy-ma- lop a strategy for managing it. It is a key kers and the international media. part of their job to try to build a reputation that is fair, true, powerful, attractive, 4. to business audiences, the way the genuinely useful to their economic, po- region or country solicits inward in- litical and social aims, and honestly re- vestment, recruitment of foreign ‘ta- flects the spirit, the genius and the will lent’, and expansion into the country of the people. This huge task has become or region by foreign companies. one of the primary skills of national and

19 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

5. through cultural exchange and cul- every aspect of international relations. tural activities and exports: a world Competitive Identity, just like any tour by a national opera company, other national or regional project, needs the works of a famous author, the clearly stated and properly agreed goals. It national sports team. is quite common for regions to set a mix- ture of precise, shorter term goals (such as 6. The people of the region themselves: a certain increase in foreign direct invest- the high-profile leaders and media ment or the hosting of a prestigious inter- and sports stars, as well as the popu- national event) and longer-term changes lation in general; how they behave in national image, which might be decades when abroad and how they treat visi- away. Countries and regions with a pow- tors to their countries. erful and positive identity should find:

For clarity, these ‘natural’ channels o Clearer domestic agreement on regi- of communication can be shown as the onal identity and societal goals points of a hexagon: o A climate where innovation is prized and practised o More effective investment promotion o More effective tourism and business travel promotion o A healthier ‘region of origin effect’ for exporters of goods and services o greater profile in the international media o simpler accession into other regional and global bodies and associations The Hexagon of Competitive Identity © 2002 o More productive cultural relations Simon Anholt with other countries and regions.

The basic theory behind managing the That sounds like a lot to be asking for, identity and reputation of a country or re- and it is. But without a powerful and po- gion is that if you have a good, clear, belie- sitive regional identity, few of these aims vable idea of what the region really is and are possible at all. what it stands for, and manage to coordinate the communications, investments, A portrait of ‘Brand Europe’ today actions and behaviours of all six points of the hexagon so that they reinforce this In early 2005, I began a collaborati- message, then you stand a good chance of on with Global Market Insite in Seattle, building and maintaining a powerful and USA, to develop regular global surveys of positive internal and external reputation consumer perceptions of countries and – to the lasting benefit of exporters, im- cities: these are known as the Anholt Na- porters, government, the culture sector, tion Brands Index (NBI) and City Brands tourism, immigration, and pretty much Index (CBI).

20 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

In 2006, I started to include a ‘guest tainly expect it to be highly ranked: more slot’ in the quarterly NBI reports, so in than half of the top 20 nations in the Q1 addition to the 35 countries that are re- survey are European. Few places in the gularly monitored in the survey, we can world could be more attractive than a com- take a global snapshot of perceptions of posite of Brand Italy plus Brand France any other country which happens to be plus Brand UK plus Brand Germany plus of interest at the time. Brand Sweden, and so forth. For the Second Quarter of 2006, I deci- And here is the point. One of Europe’s ded to devote the ‘guest slot’ not to a coun- many reputational issues is a technical try, but to the European Union. Fourteen one: the word ‘Europe’ can mean quite of the 25 members of the EU are already different things to different people in dif- included in the NBI, so we have a clear ferent contexts, and it’s sometimes quite picture of how they rank as individual hard to know which “brand” one is actu- ‘brands’, but no sense of worldwide at- ally measuring. For many people in Asia titudes to ‘Brand Europe’ as a whole. It and the Pacific, the Americas, the Middle therefore seemed like a good idea to use East and Africa, ‘Europe’ simply refers to the NBI to measure Europe’s overall brand the continent of Europe – in other words, health. a fairly loose geographical, historical and From the point of view of our 26,000 cultural entity rather than a precise politi- NBI respondents in 35 countries, a large cal one. For these populations, the idea of and diverse region is a rather different ‘Europe’ embraces a wide range of attrac- proposition from a nation-state, and it is tive concepts, including a wonderful coll- correspondingly harder to offer general ection of desirable consumer brands (think opinions about it. Nonetheless, a fasci- German cars and domestic appliances plus nating picture emerges of how the world Italian and French food, fashion and life- sees Europe. style plus Swiss technology plus Scandi- Very favourably indeed, is the clear ver- navian design), one of the most attractive dict. This is a surprising result to some clusters of desirable tourism and cultural people, especially within Europe itself, destinations, a bloc of some of the world’s where the EU is not always thought of most stable democratic governments, seas an admired or even aspirational glo- veral of the biggest and fastest growing bal “brand”. In fact, the European Union economies in the world, and so forth. The takes first place in the ranking in the NBI, fact that we specify “The European Uni- above the United Kingdom, the previous on” rather than just “Europe” in the sur- top scorer. The region scores no top ran- vey doesn’t appear to affect this perception kings on any of the individual points of – informal research suggests that many the nation brand hexagon, but its perfor- people in other parts of the world simply mance is sufficiently strong and consis- take “The European Union” to be an of- tent to give it a higher overall score than ficial name for the continent of Europe. any of the 35 countries in the list. People are also relatively imprecise about In one sense, this should come as no which countries are perceived to be Euro- surprise. If Europe is perceived as the sum pean (because they are on the continent of total of its member states, one would cer- Europe) and which are actually members

21 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

of the European Union. tries see it as a good place to live, work and This perception of Europe-as-conti- study. Its industry and research and deve- nent only changes when we specifically lopment are seen as strong; people value ask questions about governance: here, re- having Europeans both as friends and as spondents are compelled to think about senior employees. Again, EU governance the governance of the European Union as is not seen so positively, particularly by a region rather than as a group of separate its own citizens, but this is not a serious states, and on this point of the hexagon problem area. The rankings for Europe- the average ranking of the EU is ninth, an contemporary culture are strong, but by far its lowest score. A picture begins to perhaps unexpectedly, heritage and tou- emerge of very high esteem for Europe- rism – including the welcome our respon- as-continent and relatively low esteem for dents expect to receive from European Europe-as-institution. people – are its weakest areas. For Europeans, “The European Union” The countries where people rate the isn’t the same thing at all as the conti- brand image of Europe most highly (1st, nent of Europe, and their strongest asso- 2nd or 3rd place) include four of the foun- ciations are with Europe-as-institution. ding members of the Union (Belgium, For them, the phrase “European Union” France, Germany and Italy), some later stands unequivocally for the political and accessions (Ireland, Portugal, the Czech administrative machinery of Europe, and Republic, Poland, Spain and Hungary), a is associated by some Europeans with small group of far-flung countries (Argen- factors that are at best tedious and worst tina, Brazil, China, Indonesia and Mexico), dysfunctional, even corrupt: bureaucracy Egypt, Russia and Switzerland. Turkey, gone mad, reams of petty and interfering one of the EU’s aspirant member states, legislation, outdated ideologies, and so on. is just outside this positive group, ranking These are doubtless the same associations Europe in 4th place. The Netherlands, the that prompted a majority of Dutch and only other 1952 member of the original French voters to reject the Constitutional ECSC (apart from Luxembourg where the Treaty in 2005. NBI is not carried out), also ranks the EU Not surprisingly, there is a distinction in overall fourth place, with noticeably in viewpoint between the long-standing lower scores on several points of the he- member states and the more recent and future accession states. For the latter, the brand image of Europe is associated with prosperity, with finally joining the ‘com- For Europeans, the phrase “Eu- munity of free nations’, an act of closure ropean Union” stands unequivo- for the ex-Soviet states. The table above shows how each of the cally for the political and admi- 35 countries in the Nation Brands Index nistrative machinery of Europe, ranks the EU for each point of the Nation and is associated by some with Brands Hexagon. The data shows that the factors that are at best tedious broad perception is of the EU as a region of opportunity: most people in most coun- and worst dysfunctional.

22 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

xagon than its founding partners. How the World Sees Europe The countries with the least positive per- Ranking of EU‘s brand dimensions by the 35 panel countries in the ANHOLT ceptions of Europe (those which rank the NATION BRANDS INDEX (Quarter 2, 2006) EU in 7th place or lower) include Sweden, All Exports Gover- Culture/ People Tourism Investment/ Denmark and the persistently Euro-scep- nance heritage immigration tic Norway – although it is interesting to All Countries 1 4 9 7 4 7 4 note that our non-EU Norwegian panel is Argentina 1 4 10 6 6 4 3 Czech Rep. 1 3 9 4 2 4 1 more favourably inclined towards the EU Egypt 1 4 4 4 6 4 1 than the EU member states Sweden and Poland 1 3 9 4 1 6 1 Denmark. Nordic-leaning Estonia also Portugal 1 4 10 10 2 3 1 ranks the EU poorly; the UK (bearing out Russia 1 3 9 4 2 6 3 Brazil 2 3 6 5 7 7 2 the result I noted in the last NBI that our Hungary 2 4 13 3 1 2 2 UK panel consistently ranks other English- Belgium 2 1 9 3 5 4 3 speaking Commonwealth countries higher France 2 4 9 2 6 7 3 than its European partners); the old Com- Germany 2 3 7 2 7 5 2 Ireland 2 3 4 10 6 6 2 monwealth countries themselves (Austra- Italy 2 3 9 2 3 2 2 lia, New Zealand and Canada), the United Spain 2 4 7 3 2 3 2 States (where respondents really only rank Switzerland 2 3 10 5 6 10 3 China 3 3 5 6 4 5 3 the EU highly as a provider of branded pro- Indonesia 3 4 3 6 3 10 3 ducts), Malaysia and Japan. Mexico 3 4 15 7 5 6 3 Taking the governance dimension, India 4 6 8 4 8 3 6 the picture changes somewhat. There Netherlands 4 4 12 11 9 17 3 Turkey 4 3 6 4 11 8 2 are fewer EU countries in the most posi- Singapore 5 7 9 10 10 5 7 tive group: only Ireland and Spain (both South Africa 5 5 12 9 10 8 6 of which are acknowledged to have done South Korea 5 5 3 7 8 8 8 well economically out of their member- Estonia 7 4 11 12 6 7 2 Norway 7 8 11 13 12 8 7 ship) and Germany rank the EU higher UK 7 5 12 11 10 16 6 than 9th for governance, whereas 7 non- Japan 9 6 7 7 12 14 9 European countries plus Turkey are in New Zealand 9 7 9 11 12 4 8 this group. Those least positive about EU Sweden 9 5 12 15 15 20 7 Canada 10 6 10 11 14 13 10 governance include Hungary and Nether- Malaysia 10 5 11 14 11 13 8 lands. The investment/immigration pic- Australia 11 9 12 10 13 16 8 ture is closer to the all-question one. One USA 12 8 13 12 17 18 11 exception is that Estonia moves up to join Denmark 16 7 11 20 15 21 7 Source: www.nationbrandsindex.com the other new accession states in the most positive group. Some other results are interesting at a the rest of the EU culturally, unlike the more detailed level: for example the Ne- Treaty of Rome heartlands and Spain. therlands‘ and Denmark’s strong lack of identification with the EU in terms of its Defining “Brand Europe” culture, its people and tourism. Portugal, Ireland and the UK – three Atlantic na- There has been a great deal of debate tions – similarly do not seem to warm to recently about the image of Europe, both

23 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

internally and externally. Even the Eu- and widely-agreed internal brand, a sense ropean Commission, in the week before of common purpose and common identity. the Q2 edition of the 2005 NBI went to Asking for logos and slogans for Europe at press, announced a Europe-wide student this stage is like walking into a restaurant competition to design a new logo and and asking for the bill – it is most certainly slogan for Europe in celebration of the doing things the wrong way round. 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome. When the memory of two world wars The decision to base the competition on was still fresh in people’s minds, Europe a ‘brand identity’ is no coincidence: for did not have this problem because its foun- young people especially, Europe is un- ding principles of ensuring lasting peace dergoing something of an identity crisis, and prosperity were highly relevant. To- and it would certainly be most conveni- day, the EU is suffering the price of its ent if Europe suddenly found itself able own success: it has gone so far towards to unite under a single slogan and a sing- creating peace and prosperity that it may le logo. (The chances of such a consensus have done itself out of a job, or at least done occurring are undoubtedly greater if the itself out of a defining purpose. proposal originates with innocent young And yet the defining purpose is plain- people rather than the Commission itself, ly still there, and merely needs defining, or one of the member states). updating and crystallising. Europe finds The competition is just a piece of fun, itself once again at the heart of an issue but it does reflect an important point which threatens global stability just as about the reputation of places: just like surely as it did in the first half of the commercial and corporate brands, a pow- twentieth century. The increasing tensi- erful brand identity tends to stem from ons between the Moslem world and “the a powerful and united sense of common West”, and the critical need to avoid the purpose within the organisation itself. self-fulfilling prophecy of labelling this as Ask any company about its brand, and a clash of civilisations, is nowhere more it may well talk first about its corporate visible than in Turkey’s EU accession pro- culture – how the staff “live the brand” cess, and in the ways in which most EU – rather than questions of external pro- member states are now struggling with motion and publicity. updating their own national identities to So just in case anybody should fall into include expanding immigrant populati- the trap of thinking that logos and slo- ons from different regions, different cul- gans can achieve anything more signifi- tures and different religions. cant than mild publicity for an important The challenge for all countries in Eu- anniversary, the point needs to be stressed rope and beyond is to find ways of conti- that without a common purpose there can nually presenting and re-presenting their be no community, and without commu- past cultural achievements alongside their nity there can be no identity. One reason modern equivalents in ways that are fresh, why the brand image of Europe-as-insti- relevant and appealing to younger audi- tution falls so far short of the powerful ences. This task is made ever more com- ‘natural’ brand of Europe-as-continent is plex by the increasing plurality of mo- because the region is lacking a powerful dern societies – to celebrate the glories

24 The Perception of Europe – Self-Percept ion

of a typically somewhat mono-cultural indeed, have on several occasions drop- past without marginalising or seeming ped quite noticeably following internati- to ignore the multi-racial reality of the onal media focus on its inner-city distur- country’s modern day population is a real bances; and the NBI is a survey which is quandary for most countries. Still, since notable for the almost unwavering stabi- the only solution is to give equal empha- lity of its results. sis to present-day cultural enterprise, it is Many countries now need to reassess basically a productive dilemma, because it the way they identify themselves and com- lessens the temptation for countries to rest municate that identity to the world in the on their laurels and live in the past. light of their changing populations. It‘s Race is a critical factor in national and one of the biggest tasks facing govern- regional identity, and indeed is one of the ments today, and is an acute challenge main reasons why so many countries – for the way in which countries and regi- richer European countries in particular ons understand and manage their external – need to start thinking very hard about reputation and internal purpose. how well their traditional international Another reason for the EU’s weak image reflects their present reality, even “brand image” is the long-standing habit though that image might appear to be of member state governments to ascribe in very good shape. Perhaps this is one all successes to their own country and all part of the explanation for France‘s cur- failures to the EU. It is certainly not im- rent racial tensions: the „brand story“ of possible for people to feel multiple loyal- France, the way the country is viewed, ties – to community, to region, to country, and to some extent the way it still rep- to continent – but wherever those loyalties resents itself to the outside world, is still are weakest, it provides an opportunity an old story of a white Christian Europe- for politicians to use the place as a scape- an power. But many French people who goat or dumping-ground for anything un- are neither white nor Christian feel that wanted, negative or undesirable, and over the national story leaves them out: and of time this habit will further weaken and course that causes bitter internal resent- eventually kill the brand. ment as well as impacting on the country’s Finally, if a strong image is the result external reputation. France’s scores for of a place proving itself to be competent, governance in the Nation Brands Index, innovative and attractive on all points of the hexagon, the EU as an institution really only fires on one cylinder: it seldom Today, the EU is suffering the touches its own populations through any of the points of the hexagon that really price of its own success: it has inspire them (culture, tourism, people, gone so far towards creating business and brands) and almost always peace and prosperity that it may through the one that they are most like- have done itself out of a job, or ly to find boring or unwelcome (governance). at least done itself out of a defi- The identity task for Europe is the- ning purpose. refore mainly an internal one: to defi-

25 Self-Perception – The Perception of Europe

ne what its job must be for the next fifty years, and to generate consensus, passion and ambition around this. Unless this purpose is relevant, credible and inspiring to people in the areas that they care about most, the brand of Europe-as-institution will never be more than a weak shadow of the brand of Europe-as-continent. Perception, whether we like it or not, is inseparable and often indistinguishab- le from reality. Unless the institutions of Europe can learn to treat the issues of identity and reputation with as much gra- vity and respect as they do the ‘harder’ issues, they may find that real progress on Europe’s most significant challenges will remain beyond their reach.

Simon Anholt is the founder of the Anholt Nation Brand Index, City Brands Index and State Brands Index. He is a member of the UK government’s Public Diplomacy Board and has been an independent policy advisor to the governments of numerous countries, cities and regions as well as for the United Na- tions Conference on Trade and Development and the World Bank. He is a member of the European Cultural Parliament and the founding editor of the quarterly journal „Place Branding and Public Diplomacy“.

26 Europe is not only Dachzei le a market for economic goods, but also for values and cultures. In the value system, culture ranks above economy. The economy is indispensable to life and culture makes our lives worth living.

José-Manuel Barroso, President of the EU Commission

WHO IS SCHOPENHAUER? For Japan, Euro- pe is near and at the same time far away. The Ja- panese happily spend large sums on a bottle of French wine, an Italian handbag or on tickets for a German opera. Yet they are increasingly influenced by the US – no longer just in economics and politics, but also culturally. Japanese people are less and less interested in learning European languages – Kant and Schopenhauer have all but disappeared from the vocabulary. By Atsuko Onuki

flat and a diet of cheap fast food dream of owning a French designer handbag at a price that is double their monthly salary. If it wasn’t for the Japanese market, Eu- ropean companies barely keeping afloat with their traditional brands would have perished a long time ago. Europe is also a very popular travel destination that many Japanese aim to visit at least once in a lifetime. Many of these travellers embark on a quick tour across the entire continent to visit Rome, Paris, Vienna, London and the sights of these cities – contented if they find exact- n August 2006, the exchange rate of ly what they know already from Japanese the Euro against the Japanese Yen hit television or films. At the airport, they Irecord levels. Yet Japanese economic proudly present their ’booties’: Ferraga- experts remained largely unperturbed. mo or Gucci handbags, Chanel perfume According to them, the developments had and sometimes the original ‘Mozartku- no effect on day-to-day life. Only the lu- geln’ (truffles with marzipan). xury goods imported from Europe, such ’Old Europe’ is also very much in de- as Vuitton and Chanel products, BMW mand in the cultural scene. Exhibitions and Mercedes Benz cars or the French with French Impressionist paintings al- wines fanatically sought after by the Japa- ways attract large numbers of visitors; ti- nese were affected. This observation com- ckets for a tour performance of any Euro- pletely matches the predominant Japane- pean opera house quickly sell out in spite se view of Europe. In spite of a sluggish of their high price (around 300 Euros). economy that lasted for over ten years, The exchange rate of the US-Dollar, branded products from Europe have al- the oil price and thre relationship to Ko- ways remained very popular. The com- rea and China are much more important. pany Louis Vuitton generates almost one The differentiation between ‘old’ and third of its overall sales volume in Japan. ‘new’ Europe by the former US Minister Young white-collar workers with a tiny of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld, in the con-

30 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

text of the debate about the legitimacy of the time was largely modelled on Euro- the military invasion in Iraq hardly influ- pe, French and German were obligatory enced the image of Europe in Japan. With foreign languages in grammar schools a few exceptions, hardly anybody listened and at universities. Texts by European to the arguments used by the countries philosophers such as Descartes, Kant and from ’old’ Europe – France and Germa- Schopenhauer were compulsory reading. ny’– against the military intervention. Yet who knows the names of these philosophers in today’s Japan? Who is Schopenhauer? Even a lot of students of Romance or German Studies have never heard of these Around 130 years ago, when the mo- philosophers and the number of people dern nation state was created under the learning German or French has drastical- Meiji government, Europe not only ser- ly gone down over the last ten years. ved as the model for the foundation of the What are the reasons for this growing state, but also for a particular lifestyle disinterest in European culture and lan- – including fashion and cuisine. “Say guages? It is certainly related to the ge- good-bye to backward Asia and join in neral orientation towards America after with the great powers of Europe!” – so World War II – not only noticeable at go- the motto of catching up on modernisa- vernment level, but also in everyday life. tion and the establishment of the nation The constitutional monarchy established state. Europe was the role model for the before the war following the German mo- constitution, the parliament, the military del - incorporated the concepts of demo- structure and the educational system. The cracy and basic human rights absorbed government sent the elite representing from European Enlightenment only to the interests of the state to universities in a limited extent. The citizens were the Europe. As Japan’s political approach at Tenno’s subjects and already restricted basic human rights were abolished in favour of national security. These deve- This is Europe as most Japanese lopments started in 1937 with the begin- imagine it. Far away from their ning of the war against China (and the Japanese invasion in Asia). Only under day-to-day lives, it represents American occupation after World War II, traditions that have stood the the Japanese experienced real democra- test of time, sweet romanticism cy and freedom. Jazz, chewing-gum and and a refined and sophisticated chocolate stood for America and a new feeling of liberty. attitude. Epoch-making econo- Since that time, Japan has become in- mic and political experiments creasingly dependent on America – both of the European states - for ex- economically and politically. In internati- ample the European Union – go onal economic relations, a cynical saying states that “a sneeze in America causes largely unnoticed and rarely a cold in Japan”. Due to its military de- feature in the Japanese media. pendency, Japan marches lock-step with

31 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

American foreign policy. At the time of of future quality standards. the invasion into Iraq, many people la- Another world-wide by-product of glo- belled the Japanese Prime Minister Ko- balisation can be observed in South Korea izumi as “America’s faithful poodle“. On with the dwindling significance of Con- the other hand, America has a particular tinental European languages. According cultural attraction for many young artists to a recent report in the German maga- and pseudo artists, which is probably a zine “Der Spiegel”, the global number result of the American society’s potenti- of learners of the German language has al to absorb foreignness. Regardless of decreased by 3.4 million learners in as the latest adverse political developments, little as five years (from 2000 to 2005). American subculture still excites a lot of This development is all-too understan- young Japanese people. No matter what dable considering that globally 90 % of is currently ’in’ in the United States - it all scientific publications are published is immediately copied in Japan. in English and only one-hundredth of all publications in German. Nowadays, The declining importance of the cultural and linguistic diversity that Continental Europe continues to exist in Europe seems to be steamrolled by ’global standards’ in the In the field of academics, the orienta- academic world. tion towards America is also increasingly The latest developments at German noticeable. A series of more recent scien- universities with their anticipatory ob- tific approaches from the USA such as edience to adhere to ’global standards’ ‘linguistic turn’, ‘cultural studies’, ‘post- are equally worrying. In Japan, we are colonial studies’, ‘gender studies’, etc. observing this development with a cer- have become so dominant that English tain sense of déjà-vu. The dismantling of has also turned into the lingua franca in the egalitarian principle, the reduction in those subjects relating to Continental Eu- education budgets and the introduction rope. In the labour market, English is the of the economic competition principle prevalent language and even among Eu- were all developments pushed under the ropean companies, there is little demand neo-liberal governments of Thatcher and for French or German language skills. Reagan. Japan followed in the nineties, Subsidiaries of German companies in Ja- when the efficiency of science became pan prefer graduates with good English the single benchmark. The humanities language skills. Who would still invest suffered the greatest damage as their ‘ef- any effort into learning another Conti- ficiency’ is difficult to measure. In terms nental European language in the light of of the willing introduction of ‘global stan- these professional opportunities? Forced dards’, Japan has already gained the ne- by declining student numbers, Depart- gative experiences. ments of Philology at several universi- This also applies to the concept of the ties either had to close their institutes or welfare state - a positive Japanese anti- to merge with neighbouring disciplines, thesis to American capitalism – at least which leads to diminishing numbers of among the scientists with an orientation next generation scientists and a lowering towards Continental Europe. Yet what

32 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

will remain for those who thought they industry and the market leader in music were able to identify a certain critical po- distribution is Bertelsmann. In view of tential against the ongoing globalisati- the growing share of European capital on led by America in ‘old’ Europe, if this in the overall American market (as much concept is gradually reversed? If nothing as 65 per cent until 2000), the American further can be expected from the so-cal- journalist Tom R. Reid states in his book led ‘old’ Europe, an interest could only be “The United States of Europe” (2004): sparked in Japanese students by telling “The actual winner of globalisation is them: Go and travel to Europe, where you Europe.” Nevertheless, he adds, it is will be able to experience everything you surprising that even Americans seem to already know from McDonalds, Rap and barely notice this fact. They still believe hip hop – coupled with old castles that you that the brands they know are produced know from Disneyland in Tokyo! with American capital. What is not very well known in America is even less well- Globalisation equals Americanisation known in Japan, as the Japanese look at equals Europeanisation the world with American-tinted. Hence, the increasing importance of European What is perceived as globalisation in capital in the global market will hardly Japan nowadays seems to be identical change the view of Europe in Japan. with a cultural Americanisation - with Yet, the consequences of globalisati- Europe seemingly losing its outlines. on are not solely limited to the economy. At the same time, people overlook that Ulrich Beck counters it with the political the USA are not the superior winner in dimension of globalisation, which has led the global market. Globalisation also to the foundation of transnational orga- provided great opportunities for Euro- nisations like the European Commission pean capital. A large part of the compa- or the European Court of Justice with nies that once stood for ’America’ have their positive potential for autocorrec- since been overtaken by European cor- tion. Unfortunately, founding transnati- porations or merged with them. Chrys- onal organisations in Asia – where the ler is now owned by Daimler-Benz and long historical process of the EU could some originally American products such function as a role model – is not realistic as Vaseline, Dove and Pond’s belong to a in present-day Japan. The country is not British-Dutch group. The Swiss compa- ready to take the first step to establish ny Nestlé dominates the American food such an organisation by coming to terms with the past and by seeking reconciliation with other Asian nations, above all with Korea and China. The strong neo- What is perceived as globalisa- conservative and neo-nationalist voices tion in Japan nowadays seems in the government itself as well as in the to be identical with a cultural political public have enhanced this tendency even further over the last few years. Americanisation - with Europe A similar approach to come to terms with seemingly losing its outlines. the past as in the Federal Republic of Ger-

33 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

many which enabled the reintegration of currently promoted by the Japanese go- the country into ‘Europe’ was considered vernment can be in today’s world. Com- by the political left in Japan approxima- pared to the Japanese tourists travelling tely twenty years ago. In the meantime, to Europe, the number of these exchange German neo-conservatism and neo-libe- students is low, yet their experiences in ralism are used as rather negative examp- Europe will bridge the current divide in les. It is said that Germany has traded in the future. Rather than official relations, its national pride for its economic boom. it is primarily the young people’s expe- On the other hand, those voices wanting rience and the volunteers working on the to learn from the distressful past of Eu- exchange programme that have contri- rope and its ensuing commitment to the buted to the global network of AFS – an al- concept of transnational self-organising together different approach to globalisati- perceived as an alternative to globalisation. We should not look at the relationship on are barely audible nowadays.. between Europe and Japan which will always be of a bilateral nature. It would Exchange and networking rather be much more important to think about than division the contributions Europe and Japan could make to the development of multilateral- For Japan, Europe is near and at the intercultural relations. same time far away. There is a deep divide between the two concepts of Europe. Translation: Angelika Welt The question is how to bridge that divide? I can see one possibility in multilateral Atsuko Onuki studied Philosophy and Ger- youth exchange programmes such as the man Studies in Tokyo (Waseda University), Bonn and Berlin (FU) and is a Professor of school exchange programme organised German Studies and Cultural Sciences at the by AFS (formerly ‘American Field Ser- Gakushuin University (Tokyo). In 1994/1995, vice’, in Germany ‘AFS Interkulturelle she was a research fellow of the Alexander Begegnungen e. V.’). One of the main von Humboldt Foundation and received the objectives of the AFS programme is the Philipp Franz von Sieboldt Award in 2004. promotion of mutual understanding, particularly between non-English speaking countries. This programme sends around 100 Japanese schoolchildren to a Europe- an country every year (including ’smaller nations’ such as Norway, the Czech Re- public, Denmark or Hungary). Smaller cities are deliberately chosen as the places to live as the Japanese students have to function without English. After one year, they return and have learned how important linguistic and cultural diversity are - particularly in times of globalisation - and how dangerous complacent nationalism

34 MUSEUM EUROPE For most US-Americans, Europe is an attractive and picturesque museum that they gravitate towards and are disgusted by at the same time. Comments on a mutual love and hate relationship. By Andrew Ian Port

on. Europe set the standard, in short, and served as the arbiter of taste and culture in all of its guises. That changed profoundly over the course of the last century, long before unelected American officials began to speak dismissively of “old Europe” and thanks in large part to the Second World War. That conflagration, as well as its predecessor three decades earlier, demonstrated that culture alone – however impressive and however broadly defined – had not been enough to prevent the Europeans from descending into bar- ot unlike European views about barity at home (their behavior in their the United States, American per- overseas possessions had already amply Nceptions of Europe and its cul- demonstrated what cultured Europeans ture are marked by a curious ambiva- were capable of abroad). Shrewd obser- lence: one of admiration and appreciation vers even suspected that it was that very tempered with disdain and tinged with culture itself that had somehow helped resentment. Most Americans may find produce those two epic conflicts. Among German art house films dull and stodgy, those who thought so were several of the and they may chuckle at claims that the intellectual and artistic luminaries who French are nothing more than “cheese- had fled fascist Europe for safe haven eating surrender monkeys.” But most across the Atlantic – and who brought maintain a steadfast respect for the im- with them to America the more positive pressive achievements of European high aspects of European thought and culture. culture and have done so for centuries. They educated a new generation and hel- Beginning with the first settlements of ped transform elite American universi- the colonial period, Americans long looked to the old world for inspiration and guid¬ance, emulating its fash¬ions in thought, behavior, and artistic expressi-

35 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

ties into what they are today. The artis- symbolic and suggestive) to make a poli- tic and intellectual torches consequently tical statement, but – and this is the point passed from London, Paris, and Berlin to – Europe and most things European still New York, Chicago, and Cambridge, all enjoy great cachet in the United States. of which represented a re-Europeaniza- American universities continue to buy tion of America, so to speak. But at the up many of Europe’s best professors, and same time, and as a result, it paradoxical- American academics who fail to doff their ly made Europe itself, prostrate after the caps to Foucault, Habermas, or Bourdieu war, much less interesting from an intel- in their papers and articles do so at their lectual and cultural point of view. own risk. But there is another point as well: Much of what has long made Euro- The Europeanization of the USA pe so culturally attractive to Americans is now widely accessible in the United There has been a new wave of Euro- States itself. Fine wines and superior cui- peanization over the last two and a half sine, world-class museums and top-notch decades, one that arguably came in the architecture – all of this and more are no wake of mass travel following the dere- longer limited to elites living in New York gulation of the airline industry in the late or elsewhere along the East coast. 1970s. Americans began flying to Euro- pe en masse and on the cheap, and they A museum with patina apparently liked what they saw. This has had a profound effect on their tastes, both Yet Americans still continue to flock to literally and figuratively, and largely ac- Europe, despite that increased availability counts, I suspect, for the discernible im- and despite the rising costs of travel, the provement in culinary offerings in recent weakness of the dollar, and the dangers years. In most American cities and sub- of terrorism. What explains the continu- urbs, it is now possible to buy an astoun- ing attraction? It has proven technically ding variety of imported European foods possible to reconstruct the London Bridge and beverages, as well as domestically in Arizona and medieval cloisters in the produced “European-style” wares. And north of Manhattan. Americans have also American innocents who have spent time learned (again) how to bake “real” bread, abroad can now, in the comfort of their brew strong coffee, and cultivate fine wi- own continental-style cafes and bistros, nes that would satisfy perhaps even the relive at home the trauma they once experienced sitting for the first time in front of an inscrutable French menu. Some Americans may be renaming How happily American tou- French fries or pouring bottles of Bour- rists sit for hours in outdoor deaux down the drain once again (how cafes, lazily sipping wine while “people watching” on a central square devoid of cars and full of sauntering pedestrians!

36 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

most discerning European palette. But le sitting at an outdoor table – upon their what they have not been able to recreate return home, they will undoubtedly re- with much success is that which they ar- vert to their customary practice of sip- guably find most attractive about Europe: ping out of a paper cup while on the go its patina. How American hearts begin to or seated inside the sterile, smoke-free, flutter when they see an old church, a me- artificially lit, air conditioned environ- dieval town gate, or the ruins of a castle! ment of a Starbucks franchise located in The inflationary use of the term historic a local strip mall. In the end, the love for to designate every other tourist attrac- American-style convenience apparently tion in the United States strongly hints trumps the visceral affection for Euro- at this deep-seated longing for a greater pean-style quaintness. sense of permanence and (at the risk of cliché) history – a longing that Europe Andrew I. Port is a professor of history at still seems able to satisfy. Wayne State University in Detroit. He earned a Ph.D. in history from Harvard University But what also attracts Americans are and a B.A. in history from Yale University. He the less tangible, immaterial aspects of has published numerous articles on modern European culture writ small, namely tho- Germany and his first book, Conflict and Sta- se webs of practices and patterns of eve- bility in the German Democratic Republic, ap- ryday behavior so foreign from their own peared with Cambridge University Press. back home. How happily American tourists sit for hours in outdoor cafes, lazily sipping wine while “people watching” on a central square devoid of cars and full of sauntering pedestrians! They are enamo- red of the slower pace of daily interaction in quaint old Europe – but within limits, of course. The grumpy waiter, the bu- reaucratic inefficiency, the secondhand smoke, and the arrogant sniff of cultural superiority all cast a slight pall over the museal atmosphere that is so appealing because it subconsciously awakens, perhaps, fond childhood memories of a fairytale or bedtime story. But in the end, no matter how much the fellow Ameri- cans I occasionally see at one of the recently opened Starbucks in downtown Berlin seem to enjoy the coffee they are drinking out of an earthenware mug whi-

37 THE PALE CONTINENT India plays its cards in the globalised economy but European culture does not feature highly anymore, common historical roots are fading. To a certain degree the media are responsible because they show no profound interest in Europe. In addition, intercultural dialogue is hampered by language barriers and by complicated visa regulations. By Rajendra K. Jain

ments regarding India’s history, its intellectual heritage as well as its cultural and religious identity.

Independent India’s Perceptions of European Culture

After independence, there has been a clear domination of Anglo-American imagery in the Indian media and popular culture. The Indian elite’s perception of Europe’s cultural face has been essentially conditioned by the Anglo-Saxon media. This has resulted in a rather fragmented he Indian encounter with Eu- and partial view of Europe and its culture rope has been unprecedented in since it tended to reinforce and sustain tra- Thuman history as no comparable ditional stereotypical images and clichés. rich and complex civilization had such a For instance, France continues to be the long period of direct European dominati- land of food, wine and fashion – an image on. European ideas and values profoundly which French cultural policy deliberate- influenced the English-educated elite and ly seeks to sustain. Switzerland has been gave rise to various movements by Indi- immortalized by Bollywood as the ulti- an leaders from the nineteenth century mate paradise for romance and till today onwards. Two broad strands were visible remains the first preference for honey- in the century after the second half of the mooning couples. For the great majority nineteenth century: one sought to emu- of Indians, however, most of Europe is a late the West, trying to adopt and adapt strange land, an exotic place for tourism, Western value systems and Western ins- to which only a privileged layer of society titutions to the Indian milieu; the second had had access. strand asserted the importance of basic European nations have actively promo- Indian values, criticized the arrogance ted the teaching of European languages of the Western rulers, and passionately in India (with French and German being questioned Western analysis and assess- the two most popular). Cultural institu-

38 tes like the Alliance Française, the Max Perception of Ot hers Mueller Bhavan, the British Council, etc. have contributed greatly to providing the diverse facets of European culture to In- dian audiences. In the 1990s, in the wake of globalization, unbriddled consumerism, the proli- feration of satellite TV channels profuse as some member states had traditionally with American soap operas and the ons- prioritized in their former colonies. With laught of Western values, habits, dress the end of the East-West divide, there was codes, etc., some cultural purists feared a massive increase in financial allocations that all this posed a grave danger to long- by most European countries as well as cherished values and were concerned that by the European Union for Central and Indian cultural identity would be lost. Eastern Europe for teaching European Their critics, however, argued that an an- languages, cultural diplomacy, mobility cient civilisation like India need not be programmes, civil society dialogue, and unduly apprehensive because it has been a cultivation of political elites. This led to culture of assimilation and should be able cutbacks elsewhere, especially for Asian to withstand such intrusions on the basis nations. of its inherent strengths. In recent years, The foundations of the European most educated Indians have tended to feel Union’s cultural policy rest on fostering that Europe confronts social and political the idea of ‘Europe’ and a European iden- difficulties in dealing with its diversity of tity and its efforts to build a cultural iden- cultures, that multiculturalism does not tity for the Europe of the EU. The rejec- seem to be working in Europe, and that tion of the draft European constitution European societies have not been able to by France and the Netherlands in 2005 is meaningfully integrate non-Western eth- perceived as giving rise to competing vi- nic minorities, especially Muslims. For sions of Europe – its borders and values. many in India, the admission of Turkey For most Indians, there is nothing like a would be a real litmus test for the secular European culture, but many cultures and and pluralistic credentials of Europe. identities. This is partly the result of the There is a glaring lack of articles on ambiguity of the discourse about EU cul- the critical political, socio-economic and tural identity within the European Union cultural challenges faced by contempora- itself, which has been seeking to foster a ry Europe in the English language press. European identity and common European Most of the articles on Europe are infor- values, and partly the result of a fractured mative and descriptive, rather than cri- European demos. tical; they tend more to record the event The European Union suffers from weak than to analyze it. With over six million visibility and low profile in India. The Indians traveling overseas, many news- bias is evident in the importance given to papers and magazines, both in English Washington in the Indian media and in and the vernacular, now carry regular fea- both intellectual and cultural ties with the tures on various facets of European cul- United States. Despite a growing informa- ture, places to visit, food, etc. tion and awareness about the European Union in India in recent years, there still EU Cultural Policy and European persists a wide gap between peoples partly Identity as a result of mutual indifference. With English having become the lin- For decades, European cultural poli- gua franca of intercultural dialogue and cy has generally tended to ignore India processes, the Internet offers many open-

39 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

ended possibilities for the wired-in middle ding a commitment to democracy, plura- class in India. This poses a major challenge lism, human rights and the rule of law. for European channels like Deutsche Wel- Since culture is most often the window to le TV (which are hardly known or gene- a country or region, both India and Euro- rally provided by cable operators), which pe need to foster greater cultural dialogue offer standardized and undifferentiated and exchanges with one another in order cultural products which are unable to ef- to better comprehend our differences and fectively compete with popular English how they can be used in achieving com- channels like CNN and BBC. mon goals. Despite the inherent constraint (sub- With the declaration of 2008 as the sidiarity) of developing a more vibrant “Year of Intercultural Dialogue” by the European foreign cultural policy and European Commission, the European the reluctance of member states to more Union must proactively promote dialogue meaningfully contribute to EU cultural with rising powers like India. Many of the policy, there are increasing attempts to historical and cultural bonds and terms of overcome the lack of strategic neglect of reference which traditionally linked India India for decades by the introduction of with Britain and, in turn, Europe have innovative programmes. These have in- considerably withered away with time, included the EU-India Economic Cross Cul- cluding globalization and the growing in- tural Programme. The Joint Action Plan fluence of American television and Holly- adopted as part of the EU-India Strate- wood. A wired-in middle class is no longer gic Partnership (2005) builds on the EU- greatly interested in European history, art India Cultural Declaration (2004). The or society. There is an imperative need to introduction of the India Window to the develop a more robust framework of edu- Erasmus Mundus programme has genera- cational exchanges and encourage Indian ted considerable interest amongst Indian elites to study in Europe. A key goal should students. There is a growing civil society be to induce a greater number of students dialogue, which for the most part is go- to study in Europe, which has so far been vernment-driven, but which needs to be constrained because of the language barri- broadened and sustained. Nevertheless, er and because Europe does not provide a there is urgent need to supplement bila- structure of post-doctoral fellowships and teral efforts by more meaningful multila- employment prospects that is available in teral initiatives in order to develop more the United States. This requires modifica- effective synergies. tion of visa restrictions and employment possibilities, at least part-time, during stu- Cultural alienation?

As the largest democracies in the world, India and Europe have a multitude of cul- For most Indians, there is tural similarities – both are multilingual, nothing like a European cul- multicultural, pluralist, secular and complex societies. They are natural partners ture, but many cultures and sharing common values and beliefs, inclu- identities.

40 dy periods, especially as India’s new generation looks mostly towards the United States and hardly towards Europe. There is a need to persevere despite the peren- nial dilemma of being unable to answer the question if cultural diplomacy really leads to concrete results or not. There is a need to promote both “high culture” and “mass culture” and strengthen media relationships, academic and intellectual linkages and seek to promote tourism as well as foster greater intellectual and elite interaction. India was established on the basis of “unity in diversity”, which is the proclaimed objective of the European Union. Gre- ater inter-cultural dialogue will enable both Europe and India to gain from each other’s experiences. A dialogue on Islam with India – which has the second largest Muslim population in the world and with whom it has peacefully coexisted for centuries – may offer new insights into integrating Muslims in Europe. Similarly, there is much that India can learn from Europe about the virtues of interdependence and regional integration.

Professor Rajendra K Jain has been teaching European studies at Jawaharlal Nehru Uni- versity, New Delhi for over 20 years. He is the Director of the Europe Area Studies Pro- gramme at the Centre for European Studies at JNU. Between 2002 and 2004, he was the Network Co-ordinator for the JNU European Union Studies Programme. A former Alexan- der von Humboldt Foundation Fellow at the University of Constance and Visiting Fellow at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University of London and the Foun- dation for Science and Politics, Germany, he has been a Visiting Professor at Leipzig and Tübingen university and in Paris. His latest publication is called India and the European Union: Building a Strategic Partnership.

41 FAREWELL TO EUROPE According to the author, there is no intercultural dialogue between Europe and Africa and cultural cooperations are mostly limited to school projects. People increasingly object to the cultural role model once forced on the African continent by colonial powers. By Adjaï Paulin Oloukpona-Yinnon

ture of their white role models in order to be accepted as human beings. Writer and mastermind of colonisation Frantz Fanon aptly calls such “wannabe-Euro- peans“ “peaux noires, masques blancs“ – “black skin, white mask(s)“. However, that generation of Africans has long become obsolete and its times are over. No- wadays, the uncritical adoption of Euro- pean culture is merely a side issue. Those who are still playing the game only do so for pragmatic political or business purposes. Otherwise, European culture has become a rarity in Africa. The presence ntil very recently, the Europeans of Europe in the life of Africans is more have left the deepest traces in Af- of a political than of a cultural nature. Urica in the cultural sphere. Euro- Many decisions of the African heads of pean culture – in the form of education, state would not be made without Euro- fine art, music, literature, architecture, pean influence. As far as the economy is etc. – was the most obvious sign of a Eu- concerned, the American business and ropean presence in Africa. “Modern” Af- efficiency model is increasingly getting ricans always distinguished themselves the upper hand. by adopting traits of European culture: Unlike for example in colonial times, the language, the clothes, and a certa- Europeans living in Africa nowadays are in attitude. Having learnt tiny bits of a from different European countries. The- European language, Africans believed refore, European culture in Africa is no to have climbed the heights of Europe- longer as homogeneous as it still was in an culture and looked down on their fel- colonial times. The cultural institutions low countrymen – now illiterates in their of European nations (“Goethe-Institut“, eyes – with conceit. This arrogant attitude “Alliance Française“ and other similar has its organs during the times when the institutions) are trying to organise more Africans were denied the right to their joint events to demonstrate European own culture – they had to adopt the cul- unity and diversity, yet the results are

42 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

generally a far cry from the intended ob- pean culture is a luxury that only very jectives: European jazz concerts in Africa few Africans can afford. or African tours of well-known European It cannot be denied that more and more theatre companies are only frequented by Africans drink Dutch beer or French “insiders” these days. The majority of Af- wine, eat Italian pasta and drive Ger- ricans does not even notice such events. man cars. However, this only applies to The black continent, which was large- a small group of the African populati- ly shaped and influenced by Europe in on and is only an expression of confor- the past is slowly bidding farewell to the mist behaviour or wealth. Culture plays cultural role model previously imposed a very marginal role in many Africans’ on Africa. perception of Europe. It has no effect on In actual fact, Africa has long said the majority of the African population. good-bye to the all-embracing “civilisa- Those Africans longing or striving for tion model“ imposed on the entire con- European culture generally only adopt a tinent, including Christian religion and diluted version or a vague notion of this ethics, European culture and art, fashion culture. Turning the back on European and lifestyle, etc. The Africans shape their culture also – and above all – has an ide- own identities, following bequeathed Af- ological reason: Contemporary Africans rican values and embracing contempo- cannot identify in a straightforward and rary global challenges: The explosion of convincing manner with a culture which population figures and poverty force Af- has denied them the right to their own ricans to invent new forms of life in or- identity over centuries. der to be able to survive. An ever increa- The founders of the “Negritude“ for sing amount of prophets found their own example – the former President of Sene- nondenominational churches here and gal, Leopold Sedar Senghor and the wri- there, because the established churches ter and politician Aimé Césaire – had to are preaching without considering the fight hard for this right. However, their actual needs of the people. Informal trade efforts ultimately led to Africa rediscove- and the recycling business provide help ring its past and slowly rescuing it. Thus, for the increasingly uncontrollable un- most Africans nowadays have gained a employment in African metropolises. Se- new self-confidence which allows them cond-hand shops dictate fashion in many to form their own identity based on in- countries. There is absolutely no doubt disputable values. that Western cultural models remain very attractive, yet with the daily fight for sur- Cultural values vival, the desire for European culture is increasingly utopian. Nowadays, Euro- The cultural historian Ulli Beier, one of the most knowledgeable experts of West Africa world-wide, once made the Nowadays, European culture is case that these cultural values have their origin in people’s minds, where they stri- a luxury that only very few Af- ke roots and establish themselves as “in- ricans can afford. disputable values” passed on from one

43 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

person to the next. He proves this theory scue “endangered minority cultures“ or using the cultures of West Africa as an ex- with the search for the “traditional”, the ample, which always adjust to the facts of “original“ and the “authentic“ in African time and space, continuously restructu- cultures. Quite a few European cultural ring themselves: “The West African cul- scientists would probably rather see Afri- tures do not use a script to preserve their cans still living in straw huts to provide history for their descendants. […] Instead them with research material. of a script, the Yoruba invented the “spea- Seemingly, the dialogue of cultures king drum“. They were able to convert can only take place if Africans introdu- their history and their poetry, their wis- ce their ancient culture when Europeans dom and their humour into music using offer “high-tech“. The situation is similar the language of the drums. […] In order for many Europeans who – for various to make all these contents accessible for different reasons – travel to Africa. Du- a larger audience, they constantly had to ring their holidays, all they want to see be revived by the drummers. It was the is the sun and a sandy beach lined with particular strength of the culture that the palm trees – far away from poverty and concepts changed in the process. It was slums. But if they travel in the context of a never dogmatic and always remained fle- town twinning programme, they want to xible.“ A photo documentation with por- experience Africa as it smells and oozes. traits of people who belong to the West Af- The yearning for a “pure Africa“ makes rican ethnic group of the Yoruba – among most Europeans blind and they forget others the Nigerian Nobel Prize laureate what is essential: People and their minds Wole Soyinka – is another proof of this as origins and environments of culture. theory. The “undisputable values“ of the Particularly for that reason, the “dialogue Yoruba culture were reflected in the facial of cultures“ is still impossible. expression of these modern Nigerians. Dialogue of cultures? Modern straw huts The “dialogue of cultures“ is a buzz Beier wants to prove a theory that also phrase proclaiming the necessity of cul- generally refers to both the Africans’ cultural cooperation between people and tural perception of Europe and the Eu- nations without actually implementing ropeans’ cultural perception of Africa in it. Reasons are given for the necessity of a generalised fashion. While culture in a “dialogue of cultures” and it is justi- Europe continuously develops, very often Europeans still see African cultures in the light of the old “tradition“ of Afri- ca, completely ignoring that Africans are Quite a few European cultural also going through an adjustment pro- scientists would probably rather cess. Even European “cultural scientists” see the Africans still living in exploring these cultures and identifying their individual values mainly seem to straw huts to provide them with content themselves with wanting to re- research material.

44 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

fied, but there is a great misunderstan- a stand against racism, power structures ding about the actual and potential nature and repression. With regard to the pre- of this dialogue. In the everyday lives of sent, according to him this means the people from different cultures living to- involvement of art in the fight against gether – whether in Africa or in Europe globalisation as a “mathematical logic“ – “dialogue“ is simply reduced to mutual of capital, working towards an anti-co- tolerance. Apart from some members of lonialist global community .“ the European “avant-garde“, not many Since the end of the Documenta 11, people attempt to understand the African we are missing the positive outcomes of people and to learn from this understan- such an innovative concept of art. Par- ding. Hence, the “dialogue of cultures” ticularly because initiatives of that kind generally remains just a catch phrase for and the related cultural changes in Afri- politicians to adorn their speeches to gain ca are not appreciated enough in Europe, voters. It is also used in reports of non-go- a “dialogue of cultures“ between Africa vernmental organisations in order to pro- and Europe remains mere wishful thin- vide reasons for particular projects and to king. And because the African artists feel raise funds through donations. However, ignored by the European cultural scene, only very few people want to see the real they turn away from Europe and develop value of a culture and the mutual benefi- their talents in the self-contained scene cial aspects of two different cultures. of Africa. The fact that the Nigerian writer Wole The process of renunciation, which Soyinka received the Nobel Prize for Lite- was initiated by African intellectuals at rature in 1986, seems to have been a mere the beginning of the 20th century, acce- political issue nowadays. It has certain- lerated over the last three to four decades ly not led to a higher level of popularity and the Europeans have been unable to for African literature in Europe. The fact stall it. Nowadays, Africans are increa- that it was also a Nigerian – Okwui En- singly dismissive of European culture. wenzor – who managed the world-famous The so-called African intellectuals are art exhibition Documenta 11 in Kassel, the strongest critics of European cul- only generated little more attention for tures, even if they like to adopt certain the black continent in the field of fine aspects – gastronomy, fashion, freedom arts. Many hoped after the nomination of of thought, progress and general comfort the Nigerian that he was going to break for their lives. the crumbling dominance of the white Naturally, culture is still a very impor- West in the world of arts. And Enwenzor tant aspect of institutional cooperation actually tried precisely that – not only between Europe and Africa. Bilateral as by representing multicultural positions well as multilateral development policies from all continents, but also by radically spend large sums of money for cultural rejecting the theory of autonomous art. cooperation, yet the results remain to According to Enwezor, the avant-garde be seen. The film festival “FESPACO“ had lost itself in formalisms too many in Burkina Faso – meanwhile well-es- times. Art only matters if it is socially, cul- tablished in Africa – could be one step- turally and politically relevant and takes ping stone for selling African films in

45 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

Europe. But how many cinema fans in Europe are interested in African films? The biennial Dak‘Art was also supposed to pave the way for African artists into the European art market. Most of the time, cultural cooperation covers funding of school and university facilities. Rarely, a long-term project is introduced with the objective to build bridges and to establish a genuine “dialogue of cultures”. It would be wonderful if one man who has not only preached, but lived and brea- thed the dialogue of cultures got more attention: The West African writer Ama- dou Hampâté Bâ, who has coined an impressive phrase for the cultures of Africa: “The rainbow owes its beauty to the diversity of colours”. Could there be a better way of equally describing European culture these days?

Translation: Angelika Welt

Adjaï Paulin Oloukpona-Yinnon was a student of German Studies. In 1978, he obtained his doctorate in Tours, followed by his ha- bilitation in Bayreuth and in Lomé in 1996. Since 1978, he has worked as a lecturer at the Department of German Studies at the Univer- sité de Lomé (Togo). Oloukpona-Yinnon is the director of ArtELI (Atelier de recherches thé- matiques Ecritures, Littératures et Identités) at the Université de Lomé and the chairman of the network A.v.H.N.i.A. (Alexander von Hum- boldt-Network in Africa).

46 It is impossible to playDachzei lein an orchestra and to concentrate either exclusively on playing or listening. If you concentrate only on what you are doing, you may play very well but you might also play at such a high volume so loud that you’re drowning the others out or alternatively at such a low volume that your own voice is drowned. And of course you cannot limit yourself to listening - the art of playing music is the art of simultaneous playing and listening: one enhances the other.

Daniel Barenboim, Pianist and Conductor

IDENTITY PITFALLS History has connected Europe and America – alien and familiar at the same time. However, Europe has not defined or distinguished itself yet. At least that is the perception of the Old Continent’s lacking sense of unity in Brazil and the whole of Latin America. By Leopoldo Waizbort

– in varying dimensions, intensities and time formats. In its relation to the ’new Europe’, ‘old Europe’ has renewed itself – not only due to the exploitation and accumulation of gold and silver stolen from America and all the ensuing consequences. The active traffic did not just fill the royal treasure chests, but also those people’s thoughts who continued to see themselves in a different position - reflected by the alien. The colonisation process realised by the Europeans continues to be the most formative and prevailing cultural as- alking about cultural ties between pect for the life of the American peoples Europe and America also means - with lasting impacts until the present Tdiscussing the capitalist expansi- day. Hence – to phrase it quickly – the on process that led to the “discovery” of difference between America and Euro- America and its colonisation. A large area pe is mainly a strategy of self-perception of continental dimensions is considered to and own identity, developed by the Eu- be the New World - yet it did not develop ropeans throughout their history, which out of nothing. It is a child of Europe with has reproduced itself in the geographical European blood in its veins. Hence, Euro- and imaginary space of overseas Europe pe is not just the alien facing the familiar – in America. of Europeans past and present – it also This complex relationship between the represents the familiar itself. America is identities is so deeply rooted that Ame- an extremely diverse version of Europe rica is mostly perceived as a ‘non-Euro-

50 The Perception of Europe – Perception of Ot hers

pe’, even if everything has become a lot Spanish, German, French and Italian clearer after centuries of emerging mo- presence in Brazil has always been very ments of dependence and independence strong – and continues in this position in politics and economy. But the actual of strength – under the umbrella of na- benchmarks ‘America’ and ‘Europe’ are tional identity. The fact that internati- as much a mere construct as the distinc- onal gastronomic specialists agree that tion between America and Europe. In the it is possible to sample the same quality end, everything returns to the realm of of Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French history and only history can provide the and German cuisine in São Paulo as in appropriate criteria to explain this mul- the countries of origin themselves (mind tifaceted identity process. you, not English cuisine – with the exception of cakes and tea) is a clear example Europe – a search for identity of this - if food is considered an aspect of culture. Yet how does the Brazilian public per- Cultural institutes from various Euro- ceive Europe – primarily in terms of cul- pean nations operate in São Paulo: Cir- ture? The desire for a clearly defined iden- colo Italiano, British Council, Goethe- tity implied by the concept of “Europe” Institut, Alliance Française and others does not seem to be very pronounced in organise a large variety of activities and Brazil. In spite or everything that is said try to establish the cultural presence of about Europe and the European Union their individual countries in the cultural in this country, the notion of the nation life of the city. However, with a few ex- states is still prevalent. We do not talk ceptions, they never cooperate. about Europe, but about France, Italy, Their activities focus on disseminating Spain, Portugal, England and so forth. their respective cultures – always from Supranational structures cannot really the point of view of a national culture compete with deeply rooted, long-stan- where the European concept always – or ding national realities. In spite of many most of the time – comes second (if it is differences, the Portuguese, English, incorporated at all). This European concept is certainly not anchored as strongly in our view of Europe – seeing it mainly as a geographical area. The extraordi- The difference between Ameri- nary wealth of cultural manifestations ca and Europe is mainly a stra- of this geographical area is defined and tegy of self-perception and own classified by national identities, as we talk about theatre, literature and ideas from identity, developed by the Euro- France, Italy, Germany, and so forth. peans throughout their history, which has reproduced itself in the geographical and imaginary space of overseas Europe – in America.

51 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

There is still little evidence of a Europe merging its peripheral regions – for example Greece or Albania. It seems to me that there is no real concept of merging the individual nations, but merely one that identifies them one by one, positio- ning them within a larger geographical area called Europe. We would have to overcome the common distinction between the familiar and the alien. Maybe a glimpse at the history books could help. But that would lead to questioning America and Europe and at the same time the search for identity. But for the time being, the concept of Europe above all seems to be limited to the Eu- ropean Union. This perception does not correspond with the political, economic or cultural forces shaping the life of the Europeans at present.

Translation: Angelika Welt

Leopoldo Waizbort is a Professor of Socio- logy at the University of São Paulo and a former scholarship holder of the German Academic Exchange Service (1993-1995) and the Alexander von Humboldt Foundati- on (2005/2006). Among other works, he has published a biography about Georg Simmel and is the editor of the Brazilian edition of Max Weber’s ‘Die rationalen und soziolo- gischen Grundlagen der Musik’ and Norbert Elias´ writings.

52 PARADISE EUROPE In Russia, Europe is perceived as an attractive partner for culture and business. Due to a lack of resources and the laws of the journalistic trade, the media describe the Eu- ropean continent in a particularly clichéd and positive way. By Sergej Sumlenny

great importance for Russian literature. What was mere abstraction and – like the knowledge of foreign languages - rarely applicable in the former Soviet Union has been part of everyday life for 15 years now. Since the collapse of the So- viet Union, the whole of Europe – from Finland to Portugal – has been the most favourite travel destination of the Rus- sians. Cheap flight tickets, which make a trip from Moscow or Yekaterinburg to Paris or Berlin more attractive than travelling to Vladivostok in the far Eastern corner of their own country, complete the lobally, no other region and no picture: “Europe is close and attractive, other economic union or commu- Europe has a good image, Europe is po- Gnity of states is as popular with pular.“ the Russians as Europe and the EU. This Every second student in Moscow car- is not only due to the close historic ties ries books by Erlend Loe or Michel Hou- or geographical closeness. In the schools ellebecq in the original language. The of the former Soviet Union, European new films by Pedro Almodóvar or Jean-Pi- history was the most important part of erre Jeunet fill the cinemas. Probably the the compulsory subject “world history“. last bastion rejecting European culture Children had to learn at least one Euro- is modern art. Only very few Russians pean language, and a “canon of Europe- (and I do not belong to this small group) an literature“ – from Homer to Ibsen and appreciate modern paintings, sculptures Dickens – was part of the school subject and installations from Europe. From my world literature. European literature also own experience visiting the Neue Pina- had a strong influence on Russian classic kothek in Munich in the company of Rus- literature. Those who know the Russian sians and Americans, I can say that 80 to romantic poets well automatically have a 90 percent even of those Russians who good knowledge of Schiller’s ballads, as generally value the culture and cultural their translations and adaptations were of history of Europe perceive contempora-

53 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

ry European art as a blind alley or even of all interviewees stated that they had a degradation of the fine arts of the past. improved over the last year and only 9 The general motto is: “Dürer and Remb- percent thought the opposite. randt are a thousand times better than any modern painter“. The media: The power of clichés Yet modern art is the only aspect of Eu- ropean culture which is normally not held Nevertheless, the beautiful concept of in high esteem by the Russians. The Rus- integration, cooperation and mutual har- sians have a very positive attitude towards monisation also has its dark patches, par- the European tradition of the constituti- ticularly in areas where we least expect onal state, measures to prevent corrup- them – in the work of the media. tion or successful examples of building The image of Russia through the eyes preservation and nature conservation and of European journalists and vice versa is are looking for opportunities to exchange little more than a cliché or a rather crude experiences. The positive perception of distortion of reality, which is not the fault European culture defines an important of malicious journalists (which would be regularity: The better the economic si- easy to change), but has more objective tuation in Russia, the more sympathetic reasons (which are much more difficult the Russians are towards European cul- to change). Considering the increasingly ture – an understandable phenomenon: shorter documentary programmes on TV, With an increasingly better economic journalists are almost forced to repeat situation, the Russians can be less self- the stereotypes that have already settled conscious about adopting the experiences in the minds of their audience instead of of other nations in their role as free and disseminating new information. News on equal partners. television that appeal more strongly to the It is true to say that Europe has never emotions of the viewer than to their rati- been more popular in Russia – also thanks onal thinking suffer most from this rat- to our economic success, which does not her sad fact. Newspapers and magazines only enable us to finally feel on an equal either have to follow certain clichés or footing when exchanging ideas with Eu- prejudices – or lose their readers. In ad- rope, but also stimulates us to cultivate dition, Western and Russian journalists economic cooperation with Europe. Ac- working as foreign correspondents also cording to the most recent surveys of the have further, very different problems pre- leading Russian polling institute FOM, venting them from a comprehensive and the large majority of Russians (80 percent) cliché-free news presentation. thinks that Russian policy should expand It is hard to believe, yet in spite of the relations with the EU. According to 68 billions generated with Russian oil that percent, an even closer cooperation with allow for a real start-up boom in the Rus- Europe would be necessary. And only one sian media industry for the first time in in ten Russians considers the relationship years, the foreign studios of even the ri- with Russia as too close. There has never chest TV stations, for example the nati- been as much enthusiasm for the Russo- onal “Rossija“, remain the “orphans” of European relationship before: 39 percent the economic boom.

54 Even the richest media normally only Perception of Ot hers have one correspondent in Germany (additionally also in charge of Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands), one cameraman (who works as a sound assistant, driver, technician, etc. at the same time). The less wealthy TV stations such as the private business broadcasting sta- than real life in Europe, but like every tion RBC-TV - founded two years ago distortion, it is not in touch with reali- - do not have their own correspondents ty and hampers an objective perception in Europe, but work with stringers from of European politics. For the majority of the respective countries. Hence, due to Russians, Europe remains the role model time and economic restraints, reports are for a successful political and economic very often full of clichés.The station Eu- system – a conviction which is obviously ronews is probably still the only source well founded. for comprehensive, diverse and up-to-date Yet this conviction is obstructive for information about everyday life in Euro- a realistic evaluation and understanding pe. It is funded by European and Russian of the existing (and sometimes deeply- broadcasting stations, with journalists rooted) economic and social problems. from the national station “Rossija“ wor- The absolutely correct view that “Europe king in its Russian editorial department. has been greatly successful over the last The only problem of Euronews is its dif- few decades“ often develops into the in- ficult position in the Russian media in- correct statement: “Problems do not exist dustry. Most Russians have no idea which in Europe“. And those pointing towards sources Euronews uses and are also led these problems are often labelled as “old- astray by the name. Thus the station has school Soviet propagandists“ and “anti- the reputation of “propaganda TV of the democratic populists“ – which is of course European Union“, which is of course com- complete nonsense. pletely wrong. In June 2006, when I wrote an article A distorted representation of Euro- for the leading Russian business maga- pe in Russia (even without malicious in- zine “Expert“ about the conflict between tent!) naturally leads to a distorted view German university hospital doctors and in the minds of the spectators and the rea- their employers which had already gone ders. At first sight, the situation seems to on for a good six months, I was criticised look very fortunate for Europe – Russia’s in the same way. “This could not happen perception of Europe is certainly better in Germany”, one reader wrote. ”Why are you trying to convince us that the German medical system is in a crisis? Maybe you Russia’s perception of Europe is want to gloss over the crisis in the Rus- certainly better than real life in sian medical system?“ others wrote. The Europe, but like every distor- strongest reproach was that I “had been tion, it is not in touch with re- commissioned by the Kremlin to write propaganda”. Maybe the only area of Eu- ality and hampers an objective ropean domestic politics seen as wrong perception of European politics. and unacceptable is its immigration po- For the majority of Russians, licy. Seeing burning cars in Paris on TV Europe remains the role mo- (the camera teams of the major Russian TV stations were attacked by rioters du- del for a successful political and ring live broadcasts) and the protests of economic system. Muslims in Denmark and the UK after the

55 Perception of Ot hers – The Perception of Europe

publication of the Mohammed caricatures not been part of the political scene in the have convinced the Russians that the Eu- country for a long time. For the Russians, ropean way of an immigrant-friendly so- they are marginal figures whose words ciety is very risky. But even this excep- receive as little attention as the statements tion only confirms the otherwise deeply published by the spokespersons of the rooted belief that Europe is a “problem- NPD (extreme right) or the ‘Neue Linke’ free region”. (left-wing movement) in Germany. Only the German media court these people as Ghetto of concepts “politicians“. And the worst aspect is that those people often receive money for the The big problem for German journalists interview from the Germans because of in Russia is their lacking knowledge of the their precarious income situation. Thus Russian language. It might sound surpri- they come to depend on these interviews sing, but most German journalists coming and constantly repeat what is expected to Russia do not actually have a command of them – a vicious circle which is very of the language. They are accompanied hard to break. to interviews by Russian producers who Nevertheless, I am optimistic that the- interpret throughout the talk. The daily se problems may not be solved completely, summaries of reports in the Russian me- but will certainly diminish over time. The dia – a very important part of a journalist’s more Russian and European journalists job – are also prepared by the producers. disseminate a realistic picture of Europe Even now, Russian journalists remember in Russia through broadcasting stations a correspondent of a German TV station. similar to Euronews and the more journa- He worked in Moscow for 15 years and only lists (also through cooperations between spoke four sentences in Russian that he Russian and European magazines and asked his interview partners every time: TV stations) show a comprehensive pic- “How are you?“, “Was it better previous- ture of Russia in Europe, the easier it will ly?“, “Is your President a good person?“ become to continuously grow the flow of and “How is it all going to continue?“. This truthful information in both directions is certainly an extreme case, but not that – and the fewer clichés and misunderstan- far off from the average situation. dings can settle in the minds of Russians However, not real knowing the Russi- and Europeans. an language is certainly not the biggest problem of Western journalists in Russia. Translation: Angelika Welt The biggest problem is that Western journalists often voluntarily and consciously Sergej Sumlenny trained as a journalist. He lock themselves away in a “ghetto of con- has a doctorate in political science and works in Germany as the correspondent for the cepts”. The circle of interview partners is Russian business magazine ”Expert“. He pre- very limited and mostly remains the same viously worked in the ARD radio studio in Mos- over the years. cow and for the private economic broadcaster Most people granting interviews to RBC-TV. In 2005/2006, he examined the rela- the German media on current affairs of tionship between the media and politics as an Alexander von Humboldt Foundation scholar. Russian domestic and foreign policy have

56 The soul of EuropeDachzei le does not agree with the language of accountants and notaries, which is so widely spread in the institutions of the European Union. We have to ask ourselves very simply questions: Why do we want to live together in Europe? How do we want to live together? These questions will lead us to the spirit of Europe.

Bronislaw Geremek, former Polish Foreign Minister, MEP

KEY ELEMENT OR ORNAMENT? Dear Jean Monnet did not actually say it - yet even official publications circulate his dictum on the new significance of culture in case he was to start Euro- pean integration all over again. We do not seem to come close to the fulfilment of his wish anyway – if it ever existed. There is room for doubt whether cultural policy at a community level exists at all. By Enrique Banús

The “Brusselsification“ of culture – ex- cuse my daring neologism – would certainly not be met with great enthusiasm. Not even the basic documents can provide fundamental guidelines in this context. Although the Commission has been entrusted to look after the “joint cultural heritage“ in the Maastricht Treaty, it actually only comes second, with cultural diversity even mentioned twice in said Ar- ticle (now Article no. 151). The emphasis is on preserving diversity and on highlighting the common heritage. The common heritage is not in a very ith these conclusions, this strong position, which is additional- contribution could end very ly weakened by the lack of a clear de- Wquickly. Yet as it is often the scription – let alone the definition of this case with the delusions and confusions concept. Which might be just as well, of the European Union, matters are not though... quite so simple. It is correct that the trans- Nevertheless, the significance of cul- fer of responsibilities for cultural affairs ture and its consideration in Community to the Community is relatively timid. policy has to be analysed on three levels: Certainly, this is partly due to the fact Firstly, we can examine the impact of the that the main cultural responsibilities are Directorate-General for Education and with the individual countries or – since Culture in charge of the goals stated in the start of rapid decentralisation in the Article 151, which secondly makes it easy eighties - sometimes with the regions – to observe that other political areas (from both being rather watchful custodians of the traditional Single European Market traditional or new responsibilities. Their to financially strong regional policies) position also remains unchallenged, as it have an effect on culture. A third level is is the predominant and prevalent opinion the increasingly growing importance of a that culture should develop in very close cultural dimension in foreign policy over contact with the citizens. the last few years. And finally, culture

60 Culture in EU Polic y

could also be considered in a wider, not of François Mitterrand’s presidency, there very precise sense by linking it with the was a strong push to support European notion of a “European identity“. films and to increase their market share, using the argument that European films Audiovisual culture communicated European values to counteract a growing Americanisation in the Cultural and educational policy have global film world. Not only did this trend always been part of one Directorate-Ge- lead to public film funding, but also to re- neral within the Commission’s organisa- gulations that apply to television – with tion chart. Sport also falls into this area its most well-known aspect, the “Europe- of responsibility. A recent addition is lan- an quota”. This has also led to a strict po- guage policy or rather: The concern about sition adopted in some negotiations on in- multilingualism, but also about young ternational trade liberalisation – known people and the civil society as a whole. as “cultural exception“: Liberalisation “Audiovisual media“no longer belong to – yes please – but not for cultural objects. this department. The new Commission The state is not just a state sponsor, it also with 25 member states incorporated it in has demands – for example adherence to the D-G “Information Society and Media“ the applicable quota. Under the influence (the website only seems to be available in of these developments, the European at- English – not really in line with the multitude towards film has not changed sig- tilingual approach of the neighbouring nificantly: The great successes in the Eu- D-G... even if it only provides the site on ropean film market are still produced in multilingualism in 5 languages). None of the United States and around 70 % of the this sounds particularly exciting – and money generated in European cinemas in fact is not. Yet this separation of audi- can be allocated to US productions. At ovisual media from culture is neverthe- least some rather remarkable films have less noteworthy – as they were considered been produced in Europe with Commu- the favourite aspect of cultural policy for nity support. And quite a few film festival a while, receiving more funds than all participants largely owe their existence other cultural segments together (which to the MEDIA Programme. is still the case to the present day). The France was on its own during those story goes that film and television contri- years (it was the official negotiation posi- buted more to shaping (in this case Euro- tion of the European Union), but the other pean) awareness than literature or music. member states did not share the country’s It is also obvious that this sector promises enthusiasm. Since then, the situation has greater financial revenue. Hence here – relaxed slightly. What remains are the between cultural and trade policy – in- MEDIA programmes that were initiated in dependent activities have developed that 1991 – operating as MEDIA Plus and ME- are no longer placed under the overall DIA Training until the end of 2006. The organisational umbrella “culture“. European Parliament and the Council of Indeed, the audiovisual segment was Europe gave the green light for the follow- the sphere where most “political” agita- up programme on 16th November 2006. tion took place. Mainly during the period The reasoning behind this decision was as

61 Culture in EU Polic y

follows: “The European audiovisual sec- A second attempt to introduce the tor has a key role to play in the emergence Directorate-General of European citizenship because it is one of the principal vectors for conveying the Cultural policy as developed over the Union‘s common and shared fundamental last 20 years by the Directorate-General social and cultural values to Europeans in charge (in 1986, “Culture” is added and especially young people.“1 to the name of the Directorate-General Further reasons for the envisaged pro- in charge of information policy), has ex- ject based on various documents follow. Is perienced a process of clearance. Even it only by accident that commercial aspects before cultural responsibilities had been are also massively involved? The project formally allocated to the Community, is called the Lisbon Strategy and in that things had started to move. Commission context it is also mentioned that the Coun- activities – particularly in terms of listed cil of Europe recorded that “information buildings (it is common for cultural poli- providers added value by utilising and net- cy to start with the relatively uncontro- working cultural diversity in Europe“. In versial “conservation of monuments and the world of culture, this “utilisation of buildings”) have been anticipated – na- cultural diversity is not always perceived turally with the permission of the mem- with great enthusiasm (even less so if the ber states. It was a time without a legal term “exploitation“ is applied) – but it is no basis, hence resolutions were passed as great surprise: Culture and commerce mix resolutions of the “Council of Ministers”. in a way here which some people may find This was followed by a time of frantic ghastly (“utilisation of culture“), whereas activity, including financial support for for others it is most natural. The approach translator meetings to grants for the trai- is certainly not liberal – it is in line with ning of cultural managers or for exhibi- ordinary cultural policy practice in many tions of young artists – a very colourful countries that try to help with funds. Sales palette with very blurry outlines. After initiatives and festivals, but also the pro- this period of searching for a definition duction process itself are sponsored – the of cultural policy (which was not allo- latter generally with no more than 50,000 wed to be actual cultural policy, but only € for each film. to feature as “activities in the cultural Hence MEDIA 2007 will last until the sector“), three fields emerged, leading to end of 2013 (the trend to adjust the du- programmes with melodic names such as ration of the programmes to the already “Raphael“, “Ariane“ and “Kaleidoscope“ agreed financial framework is obvious) in 1993. The first programme is dedica- and will have € 1,055 million at its dis- ted to the European cultural heritage, the posal. A new activity will be added: “i2i second to books, reading and literature Audiovisual“ to ease access to bank fi- and the third remains open for a large nancing for film producers. But that’s not variety of initiatives - always to be orga- really the point here as all these issues – if nised as collaborative projects involving they belong anywhere at all – are atypical different partners. aspects of cultural policy. These programmes lasted until the beginning of the 21st century – to be re-

62 placed by “Culture 2000” with the aim Culture in EU Polic y to contribute to “the flowering of the cultures of the Member States, while respecting their national and regional diversity and at the same time bringing the common cultural heritage to the fore“ . It continues that this should be realised by “promoting cultural dialogue, the creati- promote the dissemination of live cultu- on and dissemination of culture and the ral events using the new technologies of mobility of artists and their works, Euro- the information society“. “Integrated ac- pean cultural heritage, new forms of cul- tions covered by structured, multi-annual tural expression and the socio-economic transnational cultural cooperation agree- role of culture” . ’Culture 2000‘ supports ments“, “agreements that follow either a “cooperation on subjects of common inte- vertical (concerning one cultural field) rest between cultural institutions and/or or horizontal (associating several cultu- other operators ral fields) approach“ and finally, “special in the Member States and those in cultural events with a European and/or third countries” . Again, this is a broad, international dimension” are supported, yet traditional support programme. The if they “help to increase the Europeans European Union does not get very invol- sense of belonging to the same commu- ved, the main part of the budget (only nity“. All not terribly concrete and as al- 10 % are excluded and can be used for ways – the devil is in the details. The offi- “miscellaneous expenditure“) delights cials have always had an ample margin of the hearts of creative artists, facilitators discretion and now external experts are and organisers in the cultural sector if involved in the selection process, yet this they have the patience to comply with all continues to be a “broad field”. the forms leading to the promised land Looking at the projects sponsored in (should the selection committee be in fa- 2005, a pattern emerges as the result of vour of an application). the European Commission’s “cultural Between 2000 and 2006, € 236.5 milli- policy“(or rather the grant policy in the on were available “to provide support for cultural sector). The very varied partici- specific and innovative measures“, parti- pation of the different states - partly, but cularly “encouraging the emergence and not only due to their individual size - is spread of new forms of expression, within quite conspicuous. 25 projects from Ger- and alongside traditional cultural many, 35 from Italy (top of the list) and Fields, placing the main emphasis on only 6 from Spain or Bulgaria (already facilitating access to culture and wider part of the group of nations), the Nether- cultural participation by the people in Eu- lands and Slovenia have been sponsored. rope, in all their social, regional and cul- The country that sent the application is tural diversity, in particular young people counted and organisations from other and the most underprivileged and also countries are then involved in the project). This is not the right place to analyse these data, yet they can certainly be reve- aling in terms of how different “cultures” The transnational dimension is apply EU funds (the examples mentioned a result of linking several play- above are meaningful enough for those ers covering all intercultural occasionally involved in such issues). The areas covered by the projects are dialogues required to spend the more interesting, as they reveal the as- money successfully. pects of life perceived as “culture“: “Cul-

63 Culture in EU Polic y “Industrial Mining Heritage“ – certainly representing diversity and hopefully also the common ownership of cultural heritage stated in the Treaty, which is much more difficult to verify. At least at first sight it seems that only a few projects actually target creative artists and tural Heritage“, “Translation – Litera- performative outweighs creative. ture“, “Performing Arts“, “Translation It is difficult to identify a real focus of – Science“, “Visual Arts“, “Literature a dedicated cultural policy. With the al- Books & Reading“ – those are the catego- location of the lion’s share of the budget ries – not very original indeed: They sort to “patronage“ (an allocation of mercies), of match the department in a Ministry of drawing up powerful outlines are diffi- Culture, marking an area where the par- cult. The overall image emerges from the ticular emphasis on translations at most mosaic of applications from individual in- highlights what is specific (50 projects for itiatives unconcerned about general pri- literature, 20 for science). 63 out of 218 orities. projects (almost one third) are dedicated The millions allocated to other acti- to “Cultural Heritage”, which is also in vities resulting from the Community’s line with conventional cultural policy. 56 direct initiative are not tied to specific projects are allocated to the “Performing applications, which could be considered Arts“ – again quite similar to national cul- a separate own policy. The vast majority tural policies. “Literature“ and “Visual of funds are allocated to the respective Arts“ feature a lot less. cultural capital – an initiative that has be- Often, the projects are about commu- come quite popular – with a large number nicating cultural contents from one state of cities as applicants for every round. The to another and about a general promotion selection process initially takes place at a of cultural dialogue (in the category Lite- national level and afterwards at the com- rature, translations are often involved). munity level (one example: it will only They are about our cultural heritage and be Spain’s turn in 2016 – and 10 years frequently transnational, yet sometimes before, there are as many as 7 definite only referring to a particular area with candidates). Another project-independent an allegedly “European“ heritage. They activity supports financial organisations are about festivals and time and again with a commitment to culture at a Euro- about joint projects with partners from pean level - for example the European different countries – the transnational Bureau for Lesser Used Languages or the dimension is a result of linking several information- and documentation network players covering all intercultural dialo- Mercator – also working with these lan- gues required to spend the money suc- guages - or the concentration camps built cessfully (after all, a total of 1198 part- by the National Socialists that have been ners have been involved in the various authorised projects). Throughout this analysis, we have actually fallen into the trap: How to quan- Throughout this analysis, we tify culture? How many projects, how have actually fallen into the many special areas and how many part- trap: How to quantify culture? ners are involved? It would undoubtedly How many projects, how many be more important to analyse the contents of the projects, but they form such a mot- special areas and how many ley group - from “Canto della Pace“ to partners are involved?

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turned into historic memorials: All the- Shooting Clubs or Euroballet this time. se initiatives are mentioned separately Among the new participants, I should and cannot be left empty-handed. This mention the Mediterranean Youth Or- is followed by the list of “entities refe- chestra with its 91 musicians from 16 rred to Annex I, Article 3, Activity Area countries; also Ancient Music is consi- 2, Number 2)” (which would be suitable dered – following the latest trend. Some answer in a quiz) and which states that aspects have shifted for choral music and a public invitation to tender is normally other categories, yet the overall picture required – with the exception of the years remains unchanged: The revolutionary 2004 and 2005, when the selection was sounding “Riot“ Foundation from Po- supposed to be made from a closed list land is a film festival, “Bootlab“ from with 39 privileged candidates, for examp- Berlin stands for the sponsoring of inde- le orchestras (youth, chamber and baro- pendent media projects and the Italian que orchestras of the European Union or “Fondazione Fabbrika (sometimes with the Philharmonic Orchestra of Nations), a k, sometimes with a c) Europa per le The Choral Federation (and other choral Arti Contemporanee“ follows very far- music institutions), the European Opera reaching goals - always somehow with Centre in Manchester, some Jazz (“Swin- an urban theme. The “principle of equal ging Europe“), The European Association shares for all” continues: 5.5 million are of Conservatories, the European Theatre earmarked for 34 organisations – leading Convention and the Union of European to an average allocation of approximately Theatres (plus some other initiatives lin- 162,000 euros. ked to the theatre), the European Wri- After all these comments that potenti- ters’ Congress, the European Network ally provide too much detail, everybody of Cultural Organisations for Children may go out and find his or her answer and Young People, the Artists’ Villages, as to whether a cultural policy exists or the training centre for cultural adminis- whether the European Union has turned tration, the museum organisations, Euro- into a patron with some key aspects em- ballet and finally the European Associati- phasising its transnational character. on of Historic Shooting Clubs. The list is long – yet it was necessary to draw it up Culture everywhere in order to identify how much lobbying was behind it and that the “principle of However, the Directorate-General for equal shares for all“ is still very common: Culture is not so alone after all. Those There is not much to give, but it is given aware of national cultural policies know to many. And yet one can assume that se- that it is worth while looking at other veral of these institutions depend on EU ministries in France to see high level of grants and that their existence would be state commitment for culture. Even the difficult or even impossible without it. Ministry of Defence has a budget for cul- However, that was once upon a time. ture. And within the European Commu- In 2006, a public tender took place and nity, it is almost mandatory to look for 34 organisations were selected: Many of culture in other areas, because the Tre- the familiar organisations again - but no aty states as follows: “The Community

65 Culture in EU Polic y more direct. Projects digitalising historic films, music archives, historic maps, etc. are also sponsored. Yet again, we are confronted with a sub- sidisation policy whose quality depends on the quality of the applications and those involved in the selection process. shall take cultural aspects into account We could certainly identify cultural in its action under other provisions of this aspects in other fields of activity: Analy- Treaty, in particular in order to respect sing agriculture and rural development, and to promote the diversity of its cul- health, consumer protection and employ- tures.” It is not clear whether this refers ment, social aspects and equal opportuni- to all clauses of the Treaty, but it seems ties, but also environmental issues (more very likely, which renders a nice utopian than 10 % of projects sponsored by the touch to it. The fact that only the so-cal- LIFE programme are directly linked to led “First report on the consideration of culture) or development aid (also becau- cultural aspects in European Communi- se of the topic “Tourism and Culture“) ty action“ was published in 1996 – after would certainly be productive – maybe the Article had already been valid for 13 even including trade in the analysis as years, seems to confirm the difficulty of the area dealing with intellectual proper- ensuring the ubiquitousness of culture. ty rights and the exciting topic of inclu- Ten years later, we are still waiting for ding audiovisual products in the global the second report. negotiations on trade liberalisation. Since Where can we find other EU activi- the Uruguay Round, the topic mentioned ties with an impact on culture? Audiovi- earlier has disappeared from the lime- sual media – now part of the informati- light to a certain extent, but with regard on society are certainly an option, also to the ensuing talks of the stalled Doha including the Internet, with a cultural Development Round taking place now, significance that can hardly be undere- the website of the Directorate-General for stimated. Indeed, the Directorate-Gene- Trade states: “…the EU is also committed ral knows a section on the Web with the to defending the right of WTO members title “Culture in the digital era“, dealing to promote cultural diversity“. with audiovisual media, radio broadcas- In the EU’s Framework Programmes ting and the Internet and in many places for Research, significant cultural pro- with technical aspects, for example the jects are listed as part of the 5th and 6th security of electronic communication, Framework Programmes (approximately the new technical possibilities of radio 115 projects) covering a very broad ran- broadcasting and similar aspects. The ge, using melodic and sometimes asto- Internet is mostly used in areas such as nishing acronyms, for example AMICI- health, business, learning, administrati- TIA for “Asset Management Integration of on and also the inclusive society. In the Cultural Heritage In The Interexchange strict sense of the word, this is not really between Archives“ or MATAHARI “Mo- related to culture, yet in a broader sense it has massive impacts on culture. Alt- hough there is little concrete information, it is evident that worries about those The “principle of equal shares impacts of the Internet are considered for all“ is still very common: – which is something. Programmes to digitalise museums, libraries and archives There is not much to give, but it and opening them up for the Internet are is given to many.

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bile Access to Artefacts and Heritage at grant legislation, there are also cases af- Remote Installations”. It seems that a lar- fecting culture. A number of Directives ge number of these projects are linked to explicitly state that they can be applied the European cultural heritage. to cultural activities. Some years ago, it was already establis- Yet a collision between freedom of mo- hed that many of the sponsored projects vement – the basis for life in the Com- have a cultural content – again mostly to munity – and the protection of culture do with the European cultural heritage. explicitly allows for exceptions in terms Projects dealt with the transformation of of freedom of movement in order to “pro- a disused mill into an ecological muse- tect (...) the national treasures possessing um or about the development of an area artistic, historic or archaeological value“, for cultural tourism, etc. In this context, as stated in the Treaty of Rome. The le- the EU Commission has been riding on gislation of the European Court of Justice a wave that has been relatively popular also refers to “Culture“, often not only, since the eighties of the last century: The but increasingly dealing with questions view that culture could be very suitable of copyright, but also with questions of to further economic growth, but also to freedom in the context of cultural life (or revitalise regions in crisis. the media). At times, states argue that a Hence it is obvious that culture is not measure limiting freedom is justifiable to ubiquitous in the Community’s activi- protect culture. However, the European ties (and not even plays a dominant role Court of Justice frequently does not share or takes priority), but that it emerges in this opinion….. many places. The investigation of the role The importance of culture for the life of culture at the core of the Communi- of the European Community is often re- ty continues. Since the fifties, the goal vealed in unexpected contexts. In 1997, was to create a Common Market, to ab- the Commission sent a communication to olish trade barriers and to create equal the Council of Europe and the European opportunities. The term “culture” is not Parliament (stating its decision) “about the mentioned in the Treaties of Rome. One sector of olives and olive oil (including eco- could easily get the impression that cul- nomic, cultural, regional, social and envi- ture only became relevant with the intro- ronmental aspects)” . It is nice that a link duction of the already mentioned Article between olive oil and cultural aspects is 128 (nowadays Article 151) of the Maa- acknowledged (although it is unfortunate- stricht Treaty – or very shortly before- ly not specified further in the document). hand by silently anticipating this Article. Regrettably, the famous verdict from 1987 However, that would be short-sighted: on the German purity law for beer did not The Common Market does not exist in a refer to the effects on culture, but only to vacuum – it is part of society, influenced the effects on health... by it and in turn influencing it – just like culture. And indeed it was stated soon Culture and Cultures that freedom of trade for goods also includes cultural “goods” and that labour By mentioning olive oil, we have al- mobility also covers creative artists. In most reached another area where cultural

67 Culture in EU Polic y To support intercultural dialogue on a large scale - not limiting it to some organised forums - plus the relaxed combination of necessary openness and the conviction of the importance of fundamental values in a democratic society seem to be great challenges in this context, where policy is becoming increasingly impor- many and very valuable concrete projects tant. It developed in the context of the have to be presented. Some of them are Euro-Mediterranean Partnership – Ro- effectively supported by the Euromed mano Prodi’s hobbyhorse – and is inden- programme. ted to turn into an important pillar of The focus on the Mediterranean region the new neighbourhood policy, with the now merges into a new policy with the year 2008 being specifically dedicated to other neighbours. In its foundation do- the idea of ‘Intercultural Dialogue’. The cuments, intercultural dialogue is rarely Mediterranean that has always been an mentioned explicitly. However, the bor- intersection of civilisations and an agora der is not described as a separation, but of manifold, not always positive encoun- as a meeting space for culture, which is ters (glorification is not desirable in this often transnational. The positive descrip- context) – has again turned into the Eu- tion of the melting-pot effect of the border ropean Sea of Destiny. With immigrati- region is indeed remarkable. There is also on as one of the serious challenges over a request for intensified cultural collabo- the next few years and with more than ration and it is stated that the “exchange one neighbouring state struggling to find of human capital, ideas, knowledge and peace, with a number of misunderstan- culture” should be supported: A diffe- dings and threats - the abundance of op- rent take on freedom! At some point, the portunities of this geographic and cultu- dialogue between the cultures is identi- ral area seem to degenerate and turn into fied as a “free exchange of ideas between evidence for the stupid proposition of the cultures, religions and traditions” – not “clash“ of civilisations. Whether it would always easy, certainly not for the citizens be wise to see the development of the in- of some neighbouring countries. tercultural dialogue as an answer to this For 2008, the Year of Intercultural Di- proposition remains to be seen. Prodi has alogue, ten million euros have been bud- certainly stimulated significant efforts in geted – primarily for culture, education, this area: Over the last three years, the young people, sports and EU citizenship. Commission has organised at least three The Commission explains the introduc- large-scale conferences on intercultural dialogue in Brussels. Romano Prodi himself has employed a group of consultants at the highest level. Their final document In principle, European integra- is not free of some obsessions, yet provides tion has been a project of dialo- valuable hints about dialogue not just league – and even if cultures in the ding to more tolerance, but also to more respect. This document from 2003 states member states share a common as follows: “On the one hand, new own denominator, the differences reference points have to be sought in the are still very obvious. There- dialogue with others and on the other fore, the dialogue has always hand, everybody needs to share the desire to create a common civilisation beyond been intercultural to a certain the diversity of inherited cultures“ . extent.

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tion of this themed year as follows: “To exist – intercultural dialogue is one of promote intercultural dialogue as an ins- the stars. The programme starts from the trument to assist European citizens, and following assumption: “All Community all those living in the European Union, in activities are currently too fragmented.” acquiring the knowledge and aptitudes to This is followed by the suggestion to set enable them to deal with a more open and three priorities: “Promoting transnati- more complex environment.“ Maybe the onal mobility of people working in the expectations towards this dialogue are cultural sector, promoting internatio- raised too high by stating that it wants nal dissemination of artistic and cultu- to contribute to “raising the awareness of ral works and productions and support European citizens, and all those living in of intercultural dialogue“. The detailed the European Union, of the importance of analysis has to take place when the nob- developing active European citizenship le objectives can be compared with the which is open to the world, respectful of practical implementation. It is certainly cultural diversity and based on common remarkable to what extent intercultural values – the protection of human dignity, dialogue has now become a main goal of freedom, equality, non-discrimination, cultural policy. solidarity, democracy and constitutional legality as well as respecting the rights Identity? No, thank you of minority groups“ . Definitely worth a try. In principle, European integration Not so long ago, the question did not has been a project of dialogue – and even even arise whether a European identity if cultures in the member states share a existed, what it consisted of and whether common denominator, the differences are it was to be supported. It featured in the still very obvious. Therefore, the dialo- Tindemans Report (1975) in the context of gue has always been intercultural to a a new attempt to strengthen the Commu- certain extent. nity. In 1973, it even triggered a declarati- In this context, culture is linked to the on by the heads of state which did not re- way the outside world perceives the Euro- ally refer to aspects normally understood pean Union and its role for the future of as culture, though. Democratic values are the world, which enlarges the spectrum mentioned, even equating them with the and moves culture away from just being identity of a Europe that is not only a re- a nice addition, putting it centre-stage ality, but also a goal and a project. “Cul- instead when it comes to working on a tural identity” has often been discussed peaceful, humane world rather than just in general terms since the eighties of the nurturing the desire for it. Culture should last century and hardly anyone has ques- not mainly be understood as an element tioned that culture is a cohesive element. of separation and conflict, but of bringing Yet does this approach not contribute to people together. focusing on separating aspects of culture Within “Culture 2007“ – the follow- rather than its unifying aspects? Inter- up programme of “Culture 2000“ of the nally unifying, but externally differen- Directorate-General Culture – the key tiating? Thus the notion of the European element of “cultural policy” should it identity can include or exclude – depen-

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ding on the applied criteria. Wouldn’t it “Brussels” as the scapegoat to justify not be wiser to let culture be culture and to reaching goals in negotiations. emphasise how much it thrives on the mix of influences and trends - particularly in What comes next? Europe? And on the fashions on the “Eu- ropean marketplace”? Hence, “Europe“ Culture is “in“. From being the step- also becomes the antipode of nationalism child in politics and economy and adop- which always evokes a monolithic “We“ ting a merely cosmetic role, culture has - but also of faceless globalisation with moved centre stage in international poli- its “ketchup“ levelling the diversity of tics – now apparently in charge of dealing flavours. The culture of Europe has a lot with conflicts, which is a very ambiguous to offer, it is too varied and far too inte- honour. Particularly within the Europe- resting to be exploited for processes of an Union, the positive effect of culture on inclusion or exclusion. international social interaction and wi- In the meantime, we have also learnt thin a society needs to be demonstrated. from the theoretical debate about identity The Community is fully aware of the fact that it is not a monolithic concept. The rat- that it does not develop a real cultural po- her hapless concept of “multiple identities“ licy. The document introducing “Culture made us realise how multi-faceted identity 2007“ self-critically states that the citi- is. Hence it would be childish to build up zens “are not aware of the extent of efforts artificial identity conflicts between Eu- required to maintain and develop their rope and the specific national characters. cultures and to integrate the cultural di- European and national elements (in com- mension of building Europe“. To a large bination with regional and local characte- extent, the European Union contributes ristics) can be presented as additional as- as a sponsor by awarding grants, which pects of our self-perception. may not be altogether tragic. “Culture” is It seems important not to get caught in certainly very present in many areas. And identity traps, but to support the closeness at least we are spared the flood of inau- to European projects with other means: gurations of cultural institutions shortly Activities geared towards the citizens – before elections. accompanied by a high-quality communication policy, which has been required Enrique Banús is Professor of European Lite- for a long time – coupled with a greater rature and Director of the Centre for European Studies at the University of Navarra in Pam- presence of European contents in schools plona. He also holds the Jean Monnet Chair plus national governments avoiding the for European Culture. “Brussels effect“, which implies using

1 Decision No 1718/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 November 2006 concerning the implementation of a programme of support for the European audiovisual sector (MEDIA 2007)

70 NEW TERRITORY IN SIGHT? The EU has long been aware of its deficiency to lack a real own identity. In 1992, Jacques Delors, then President of the European Commission, wanted to infuse “life and spirit“ with the Maastricht Treaty. The current President of the Commission, José Ma- nuel Barroso, is even in search of a “paradigm shift“. He is convinced that the political unification process will remain a utopian concept if cultural unification fails. By Olaf Schwencke

some earlier tentative attempts of promoting culture. 50 years ago, the six states unified in the European Economic Com- munity did also not deem it necessary to include a cultural dimension because the Council of Europe was responsible for cultural policy. Moreover, for a long time the EEC member states insisted on their exclusive responsibility for national, regional and local cultural policy. It was easy to reach an agreement with the Council of Europe, which was in charge of fundamental and overall issues, which were he Treaties of Rome were ratified ultimately not really binding issues. With 50 years ago (1957) was the start of the agreement of all member states, it had Tthe success story of the European ratified a European Cultural Convention Economic Community (EEC), which later (1954), stating cultural support and no- also became a monetary union. To cre- tably the “protection and support of the ate a European Community with a com- common heritage“ as well as the mutual mon culture and shared values was not assurance of general accessibility to this intended with the foundation of the EEC. common heritage. This already featured Hence, all articles of the Treaty had an in the Charter of the Council of Europe economic focus, culture was not menti- that had been agreed by ten (West) Eu- oned at all and education only featured in ropean nations in 1949. Together with the context of professional training. the very significant Human Rights Con- vention (1950) of the Council of Europe, European cultural policy without cultural policy could develop into its se- contours? cond pillar until the late seventies. Thus the Council of Europe turned into the It was a long way that finally led to the main authority on cultural policy, soon Maastricht Treaty (1992) of the European followed by the UNESCO as a sub-orga- Union, formally including culture after nisation of the UNO, with the EEC still

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a long way off. The UNESCO addressed cy, but the actual turning point came with the public with important declarations the Maastricht Treaty (signed in 1992). on “cultural policy in Europe“ (Helsinki The Maastricht Treaty (formally coming 1972) and later with the “Declaration of into force in 1993) was the first legal basis the World Conference on Cultural Poli- for a European cultural policy – and thus cy“ (Mexico 1982) and received quite a introduced a new dimension into Euro- lot of attention. pean politics: Which role was allocated Thus, on the eve of the first direct elec- to cultural policy by legally anchoring it tion to the European Parliament in 1979, in Article 128? Which competencies did noteworthy concepts on cultural policy for the Community receive in cultural policy a “cultural democracy“ in Europe – also and how did it use these competencies for taking social change processes into ac- a common cultural policy? count - already existed as early as 1979. It needs to be added that besides some EP initiatives in the eighties, culture European cultural policy - march hardly mattered in the EC before Maa- through the institutions stricht: Even the “Single European Act“ (SEA, 1986) did not contain a paragraph Direct EP elections were the starting on the future development of culture in point of a new phase in the development the EC, although pointing towards the of the European Community (EC). Im- general apparent lack of “identity” as a mediately after its formation in 1979, a deficit of the Community could have been cultural committee was founded and that useful at that time to identify how to in- was initially also in charge of education, volve the citizens of Europe in the process sports and information. It became the of Europeanisation. After all, attempts most important body for cultural policy had been made at several summit mee- within the EC, using all its (still limited) tings to rectify this deficiency of the Com- possibilities to strengthen the cultural munity – thus indirectly dealing with the dimension of the Community in coopera- topic of culture. tion with the Commission and the respec- These discussions took place at the tive (compliant) Council Presidency. The summit meeting in The Hague (1969), first cultural report (Fanti Report, 1983) Paris (1972) and with the greatest inten- was on the one hand geared towards eco- sity in Copenhagen (1973). Not least did nomic objectives and corresponding key the Tindemanns Report with its propo- data, but on the other hand also confident sal for a European Cultural Foundation enough to plan concrete objectives for the declare culture as a future element of EC Council of Europe’s cultural policy – for policy (1976). Furthermore, an EC Coun- example the budgeted margin of one per- cil of Ministers of Culture had existed sin- cent for cultural expenses. In addition, ce 1984. Immediately after its establish- the Heads of State and Government inten- ment, a project was initiated following ded to issue a declaration (Stuttgart 1983) expressing their support for “complemen- tary Community activities in the cultural sector“. This was the start of cultural poli-

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the initiative of the Greek Minister of on cultural aspects. Culture, Melina Mercouri which – alt- Based on German and Hungarian ap- hough lacking the legal basis at the time plicants for the title of 2010, international – developed into the most successful cul- discussion contexts have emerged whi- tural project in the EC (now the EU) so le developing, realising and evaluating far: The programme of the “European cultural capital concepts - increasingly cultural capitals“. This initiative is glo- enabling culture to become a driving bally associated with glamour and pre- force and a valuable resource for social stige and is copied in Russia and in the developments – with still unforeseeable USA. As early as 1990, it already shows positive effects for the enhancement of indications of a new qualitative approach. the integration process. (Budapest De- Glasgow completely reinvented itself in claration, 2005). its role as a cultural capital in the process During the negotiations for the Maas- of developing and realising its concepts, tricht Treaty, the member states decided not just improving its outer appearance, that the EC should not limit its activities but enhancing the quality of life for its to economic cooperation, but also use its inhabitants in a way that is a long-term competencies in the political spheres of justification for this new image. This ex- social, cultural, educational and research perience with urban development influ- policies. The negotiations mainly focus- enced by culture can also be seen as a ed on creating a European identity of di- new original impulse for a European in- versity and the consideration of cultural tegration process consciously focusing aspects in all areas of the Community. Thus, the Community became a political union, going beyond economic boun- Glasgow completely reinven- daries, with culture as an intellectually developed entity rather than a loose con- ted itself in its role as a cultural glomerate of national and regional units capital in the process of develo- - merging the citizens of Europe more ping and realising its concepts, closely together, thus speeding up inte- not just improving its outer gration. Or in other words – the idea was to take the integration process initiated appearance, but enhancing the with the foundation of the EC one step quality of life for its inhabitants further and to strengthen the solidarity in a way that is a long-term jus- between the people of the member states, tification for this new image. respecting their history, their culture and their traditions. This experience with urban de- Therefore, the qualitative change in velopment influenced by cul- the political concept of the Community ture can also be seen as a new also created a framework for cultural ac- original impulse for a European integration process consciously focusing on cultural aspects.

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tivities. Culture became an EU objective. less valid. The dynamics of the concept The principal guidelines of the EC Treaty of culture will play a role for all future (Article 3p; Amsterdam Treaty - Article spheres of activity, which helps to re-es- 3q) state the following: “Community ac- tablish priorities in culture and in cul- tivity ... includes .. ‘contributing’ to ‘ed- tural policies. ucation and training of quality and ‘to the flowering of cultures of the member Culture and Article 128 of the states.“ The legal recognition of culture Maastricht Treaty created a high level of intrinsic value for the member states. Article 128 of the Maastricht Treaty (Amsterdam Treaty Article 151) sets boun- Culture – attempt at a definition daries and states opportunities for Euro- pean Union activities, describes the legal What does culture mean in the context basis for cultural affairs and has thus in- of the Maastricht Treaty? “Culture is not fused the EU with “life and spirit”, as an abstract concept: Culture is the sum of Jacques Delors put it. As these regulati- numerous different customs and practices ons have also been adopted by the text which find their expression in all areas of of the “Constitution for Europe” (CFE) our daily lives. Our individual lifestyle, without substantial changes, an exten- our traditions and our ideals are all re- sive analysis is required, which will then flected in culture. Our dialects and our form the basis for demonstrating the de- songs are firmly rooted in our culture. It ficiencies. defines how we declare our love or bury our dead people. Hence culture is the (1) The Community shall contribute to most significant and strongest characte- the flowering of the cultures of the ristic of the human community. Culture member States, while respecting is closely linked to direct and indirect their national and regional diver- learning processes and human develop- sity and at the same time bringing ment as such. As a dynamic, continuously the common cultural heritage to the changing element, culture forms a link fore. between the past and the present.“ This is how the advisory body of the This paragraph stresses the dialectics European Commission – “Culture for of the concept of culture. National and Citizens in 2000“ defined culture. This regional diversity as well as the common interpretation is not elitist, it is about cultural heritage are the main criteria of everyday cultures. As before in the Basic EU cultural policy. The antithetic cons- Papers of the Council of Europe (and abo- tellation is supposed to maintain diversity ve all the Paper by Arc et Senans, 1972), on the one hand and to support culture culture is understood in a broader sense with a strong common cultural heritage here. This definition was not adopted ver- batim in the Maastricht Treaty in order to avoid limiting the potential scope for action from the onset, but it is neverthe-

74 Culture in EU Polic y

on the other hand. If the focus was only nificance; non-commercial cultural ex- on diversity, this would contradict the changes; artistic and literary creation, political concept of the European Uni- including in the audio-visual sector. on (“unified in diversity“). On the other This second paragraph defines an area hand, exclusively supporting the common of activity for cultural policy, stressing elements could harm the plurality of Eu- the “improvement of the knowledge and ropean cultures and turn them into one dissemination of culture and history of European “monoculture” in the long run. the European peoples“. Its objective is to There is a firm link between the common contribute to developing a European awa- elements of these cultures and their di- reness among European citizens further. versity. Thus the Community commits itself to This first paragraph thus supports support the dissemination of the respec- a balanced cultural policy of the EU tive cultures of the individual member through a dialectical combination of the states through exchange, cooperation and diverse and the common elements of the information programmes. This field of different cultures, allowing national cul- activity is mainly geared at the material tural interests priority over joint activi- cultural heritage of European significan- ties. This is also expressed by the plural ce. However, this passage is also inten- form “Cultures” and the term “to con- ded to protect the non-material heritage tribute”, as the member states, not the – for example dialects, languages and tra- Community, are primarily in charge of ditions. The European Community can their own cultural policy. also support individual member states in “safeguarding its national contribu- (2) Community action shall be aimed at tion to the common cultural heritage“ encouraging co-operation between – as already defined by the Council of Member States and, if necessary, Europe in its Cultural Convention. Non- supporting and supplementing their commercial cultural exchange consists of action in the following areas : international cultural activities that do not generate any material profit. In case Improved knowledge and disseminati- a project follows commercial objectives, on of culture and history of the European the Community cannot support it. This peoples; conservation and safeguarding is a significant aspect, as it does not en- of the cultural heritage of European sig- courage a market-orientation of cultural activities. Artistic and literary creation are the last area of Community activity, involving the European Community to Europe needs to operate beyond support national and at the same time its borders in terms of cultural pan-European artistic creations, thus policy: Foreign cultural policy also including the sphere of high-quali- - provided for in the Europe- an Constitution - is a legitimate task of the Community.

75 Culture in EU Polic y

ty art. The traditional areas – books and sues within the EU: In all Community fine arts – are of particular relevance in areas of activity, a particular focus has this context. However, the audio-visu- to be on culture. In legal terms, the “Cul- al sector is also mentioned, which again ture Compatibility Clause“ legitimises emphasises a wider understanding of cul- and sanctions the inclusion of cultural ture, also including the development po- aspects in the context of Community ac- tential for the New Media. tivities so far. It is an explicit commitment to allow for cultural aspects in all (3) The Community and the Member activity areas, thus enhancing their im- States shall foster co-operation with portance. Prior to the Maastricht Treaty, third countries and the competent culture had not been protected as a pri- international organizations in the mary right. In spite of the fact that the sphere of culture, in particular the European Court of Justice nevertheless Council of Europe. has almost always decided in favour of culture, it was no overall protection. This This entitles the Community to an in- situation of insecurity only changed with dependent foreign cultural policy. In the the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty sphere of cultural policy, it can cooperate and the inherent explicit definition of the with third-party countries and internati- significance of culture in terms of Com- onal organisations such as the UNESCO munity legislation. and notably the Council of Europe. This The Culture Compatibility Clause as a paragraph points out that the Community proprium reemphasises the significance is not limited to internal cultural policy of the Treaty in the development process and can thus deal with issues of cultural of the European Union – moving from an policy as an international player. Coope- economic to a political community. Fur- ration with international organisations thermore, considerable scope of discreti- and third-party countries clearly empha- on is allocated to the Community in terms sises that Europe needs to operate beyond of the actual definition of culture. Cul- its borders in terms of cultural policy: ture is considered to be a specific value Foreign cultural policy - provided for in which cannot be reproduced or replaced the European Constitution - is a legiti- by monetary values and is thus not to be mate task of the Community. subjected to the laws of the free market. Hence, exceptional regulations are crea- (4) The Community shall take cultu- ted for culture, backed in line with the ral aspects into account in its action French “exception culturelle“ – as imple- under other provisions of this Treaty mented in the UNESCO “Convention on – particularly to maintain and pro- the Protection and Promotion of the Di- mote the diversity of cultures.. versity of Cultural Expressions” (2005). This might present obstacles for the This lateral formula – the so-called “Culture Compatibility Clause“ is very important because it shifts the focus from the general dominance of economic is-

76 Culture in EU Polic y

free movement of goods if the goods are laws and regulations of the Member cultural goods. No cultural good should States. exclusively become an object of trade and this limitation should not be seen as dis- This final paragraph stresses the “cul- criminating. However, Article 92 (Ams- tural autonomy“ of the member states. terdam Treaty – Article 87) declares the Agreements in the cultural sector have promotion of culture as compatible with to unanimous, which will only change the market. This enables support for cul- after the ratification of the European tural projects of European significance, Constitution. which is even more explicitly regulated by the “Convention on the Protection and European cultural policy Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural put to the test Expression” – with the EU as a major factor for its successful realisation. Roughly speaking, four essential aspects of EU cultural policy need to be eva- (5) In order to contribute to the achieve- luated: Firstly, the intensification of the ment of the objectives referred to in dialogue with all stakeholders in the cul- this Article, the Council - acting in tural sector; secondly, clear prioritising accordance with the procedure refe- for cultural support initiatives; thirdly, rred to in Article 189b and after con- reviewing cultural activities of the EU in sulting the Committee of the Regi- terms of objectives and finally, the coo- ons, shall adopt incentive measures, peration with third countries and the de- excluding any harmonization of the velopment of a common foreign cultural policy. Thus, European cultural policy cannot and does not aim at replacing national cultural policy, but adds an addi- Culture is considered to be a tional European dimension – also inclu- specific value which cannot be ding aspects of foreign policy. However, reproduced or replaced by mo- individual authorities have been stated in netary values and is thus not to such general terms in Article 128 (Amster- dam, Article 151) that there are practically be subjected to the laws of the no limits for the Community in terms of free market. Hence, exceptio- its potential cultural activities. Does the nal regulations are created for Community use this potential? culture, backed in line with the In terms of prospects, the Culture Compatibility Clause for an indepen- French “exception culturelle“ dent European cultural policy is the – as implemented in the UN- core of the Article on cultural policies - ESCO “Convention on the Pro- at the same time considerably expanded tection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressi- ons” (2005).

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and specified in the Amsterdam Trea- After all, the almost wanton disregard ty. If the Community is obliged to consi- of the EU’s obligation to adequately fund der the specific nature of culture in all culture as a Community task becomes other policy areas nowadays, it cannot very obvious when looking at the EU fun- be emphasised enough that this reduces ding of the programme “Culture 2007“ the predominance of economic aspects. which has started now. Every year, all One example is the accepted retention of 27 member states approximately receive the “national right“ to set a fixed price funds equivalent to the average public for books. At the same time, this Article funding of a state opera house – not really lays the foundation for a single European a very impressive amount. cultural policy of sustainability. Howe- ver, this policy has still not been achieved Europe’s cultural future in certain areas – in terms of the realisation of the two programmes “Culture However, there are indicators that the 2000“ and “Culture 2007“- on the con- EU Commission is aware of its deficien- trary: Since the EU Directorate General cies - in terms of content and materially (Culture and Education) has been fully speaking - in the cultural sector. In Brus- committed to the Lisbon Process, the fo- sels, the necessity of a paradigm shift in cus has been very much on the cultural cultural support policy is now discussed sector and its achievements, which – as – for example very explicitly at the con- revealed by the recently published survey ference “Culture: a sound investment “Die Kulturwirtschaft in Europa (Cultu- for the EU“ (December 2006), gathering ral Creative Industries in Europe)“ (2006) cultural players from all over Europe to – also has an enormous inherent growth engage in a dialogue with the Commis- potential. sion. At this conference, the President It would be decisive to take the fol- of the European Commission, José Ma- lowing four necessary steps now: Firstly, nuel Barroso, stated in sufficiently clear new priorities in terms of cultural policy words: Culture is not a luxury for the would have to be set in order to deepen Community, but an existential necessi- the key role that culture and art play in ty and Europe’s future depends on cul- Europe. Secondly, the possibilities for diture. Everybody seems to be convinced alogue would have to be widened – within that the political Europeanisation process Greater Europe (in cooperation with the will not succeed if cultural Europeani- Council of Europe) as well as in third- sation fails. party countries. Thirdly, non-commer- Following the evaluation of inter- cial cultural exchange would have to be views with European cultural organisa- strengthened and finally, models of com- tions with the general tenor: Which role mon foreign cultural policy would have do culture and art play in the process of to be developed. Europeanisation? What should and can the EU do in this context?, it had also become clear to the Commission: New tasks will have to be developed and new targets will have to be defined. If necessary, new

78 instruments and improved funding criteria will be introduced in order to fully exploit the cultural potential of Europe. In a “Communication on the Cultural Di- mension of the EU“ envisaged for spring 2007, the Commission wants to present its thoughts on a “New cultural policy“ – in time before the German Presiden- cy and before the 4th Federal Congress of the ‘Kulturpolitische Gesellschaft“, which will take place under the motto “kultur.macht.europa – Europa macht Kultur (culture powers europe)” in Ber- lin in June 2007. A paradigm shift is necessary and possible.*

* For more details on the significance of the Brussels Conference for cultural policy see: ‘Kulturpolitische Mitteilungen, Heft 115 (Dec. 2006)’; all quoted texts (in German): Olaf Schwencke, Das Eu- ropa der Kulturen – Kulturpolitik in Europa, Bonn/Essen 2006 .

Translation: Angelika Welt

Olaf Schwencke is Professor of Cultural Stu- dies at the University of Vienna, Professor of Political Science at FU Berlin and European Studies at the Centre for European Studies in Berlin. From 1972 to 1984, he was a member of the German Parliament (Bundestag) and the European Parliament. Between 1992 and 1996, he was the President of the Hochschule der Künste Berlin (Academy of Arts). His publications are mainly on cultural policy.

STRUCTURE NURTURES CULTURE Nu- merous surveys and reports highlight the importance of culture for regional development. Culture creates jobs, enhances the attractiveness of individual regions and boosts the economy. Which role will culture play for EU Structural Funds in the future? By Christine Beckmann

ceives €23.36 billion in 2007 (price index: 2004).

Funds for culture

The EU Enlargement in 2004 is one reason for the new orientation of cohesion policy. With the accession of poorer countries, the development gaps suddenly doubled, with the EU now facing particular challenges in terms of global competitiveness and internal cohesion. The objective of cohesion policy is to make a significant contribution to the environ- lot of money is invested in EU mental targets formulated in Gothenburg structural policy: Around one as well as to the so-called Lisbon Stra- third of the EU budget is alloca- tegy, turning the EU into the most dy- A 1 ted to EU cohesion policy and almost one namic and competitive knowledge-based half to agricultural policy. The structural economic area in the world by 2010. In development of the member states and this context, sustainable development and their regions is agreed within these po- environmental protection remain impor- litical areas. The financial resources are tant. Structural policy is aimed at sup- raised by the Structural Funds – among porting regional development in Europe others the Agricultural and the Cohesion and strengthening economic and social Funds. With the means for structural de- cohesion by minimising the gap between velopment, the ministers of the EU mem- the European regions and different so- ber states primarily aim to strengthen cial groups. the poorest regions of Europe. From this A legal legitimisation and at the same year, this will lead to reduced payments time a commitment towards common cul- from the Structural Funds to Germany: tural grants have only existed since the Between 2000 and 2006, Germany re- introduction of Article 151 in the Maas- ceived an average amount of €34 billion tricht Treaty. Since 1997, programmes per year, whereas the country only re- have been dedicated to culture based on

82 Culture in EU Polic y

these legal regulations. The budget of the also the foundation of new companies central EU programme to support cul- in the cultural and media sector. As the ture has a relatively small budget between ERDF is the largest Structural Fund, it 2007 and 2013: €400 million plus the is also the most significant for the cul- contributions from associated states for tural sector. cultural cooperation projects between 31 The Community Initiative INTER- countries. Due to financial barriers of REG III was aimed at a balanced econo- this EU cultural support programme and mic and social development within the its restriction to cooperation projects, the EU by supporting cooperation between structural grant programmes enabling the regions. The main objective of INTE- the allocation of funds are vital for the REGG – Strand A (“cross-border coopera- cultural sector. tion“) was to support an integrated regional development between border regions Structure finances culture in Europe. More than 50 INTEREGG Pro- grammes – Strand A existed in Europe. Cultural projects can be financed with One of the concerns was a more intensive means from the Structural Funds if they identification of the citizens with their contribute to the objectives of structural border region. Cross-border cooperation and regional policies. Over the past 20 between public and private cultural or- years, five to ten percent of the projects in ganisations can be useful in this context, Germany funded by the Structural Funds as it leads to the establishment of cultural have had cultural aspects. Which pro- exchange networks, the development and jects in Germany have been funded by the expansion of museums, tourism and cul- Structural Funds Programmes so far?2 tural centres, joint marketing concepts The European Regional Development and cross-border media. Fund (ERDF) mainly supports the de- Strand B (“transnational cooperation“) velopment and structural adjustment of supported the cooperation between nati- regions with development backlogs3 as onal, regional and local authorities in the well as the economic and social trans- EU area as well as in neighbouring regi- formation of areas with structural pro- ons. Several administration units merged blems4. The so-called OBJECTIVE 1 and into 13 regions and developed transnati- OBJECTIVE 2 Programmes mainly sup- onal cooperation programmes. Cultural port investments in cultural heritage de- projects were mostly limited to the cul- velopments as well as the maintenance, tural heritage sector, including restora- restoration and conversion of listed ob- tions, the establishment of networks, the jects. They have a positive influence on development of conservation standards or the establishment and the development the dissemination of best practices. Sur- of commercial enterprises and promote veys, seminars, cataloguing of heritage cultural tourism. The programmes sup- buildings and sites as well the integrati- port projects with a supraregional impact on of cultural heritage into geographical as well as elements of regional activity information systems and new concepts programmes or national initiatives – for for managing cultural heritage were also example so-called ’heritage routes’, but part of this grant programme.

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Strand C (“interregional cooperation“) term study courses in cultural subjects. was aimed at networking and thus the At the same time, business start-ups and exchange of information and experiences the qualification of unemployed people in the sphere of regional policy and its for cultural jobs received financial sup- instruments between EU regions and port. neighbouring countries without joint The Community Initiative EQUAL borders. Culture only played a marginal supported new methods to fight discri- role here. The exchange of experiences mination and inequality in the job market between regions as well as the establish- through partnerships with players in the ment of networks – for example with re- labour market – so-called development gard to strategy development and project partnerships. Whether a project received realisation methods in urban and regio- financial support was dependent on its nal development or cultural management benefits in terms of labour market policy. - were supported. This opportunity was hardly used – yet in Twelve German cities participated in theory, professional training measures on the Community Initiative URBAN II. intercultural learning and cultural ma- Even is this programme was specialised nagement, integration of migrants and and hence less extensive than INTER- the development of new areas of activity REG III, for example, the cultural em- for artists in the service sector would have phasis was nevertheless remarkable. Up been funded. to half of all the projects had a cultural aspect – for example the development of Agricultural Fund Grants cultural infrastructures by converting and reusing historical buildings or the Rural development programmes did development of cultural and leisure cen- not only aim at modernising and restruc- tres for young people and migrants. turing the agricultural sector. The focus was also on alternative ways of employ- Social Fund Grants ment, a sustainable environmental policy and improved living and working con- It was and still is the aim of the Euro- ditions. The funds from the European pean Social Fund (ESF) to support em- Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee ployment. Among others, ESF funds were Fund (EAGGF) were targeted towards used for projects establishing the cultu- the well-balanced development of rural ral sector as a labour market and a loca- areas within the European Community tion factor: This involved qualification – for example by using measures such as measures for artists and other creative village renewal and –development, pro- people, contributing to the development jects to protect the cultural heritage as of profitable business areas for private- well as the development of tourism in ly funded cultural organisations, new rural areas. ways of professional training for art and The Community Initiative LEADER+ heritage preservation, further professio- (with funds from the EAGGF) supported nal cultural management training and cooperations in rural areas to realise new, the development of short-term and long- integrated strategies for a sustainable de-

84 Culture in EU Polic y

velopment. Local people were included in symposia and studies (for example on cul- the projects and the focus was on part- ture and tourism, culture and rural de- nerships and networks to exchange ex- velopment), socio-cultural activities and periences. In the cultural sector, funding cultural events to communicate the iden- was particularly geared towards small- tity of a LEADER Region. scale infrastructure projects with an im- The most obvious change in the re- pact on tourism, such as the conservation form of the Structural Funds 2007 is the of buildings typical for a particular regi- reduction to three lines of funding: The on, the establishment of heritage routes new OBJECTIVE 1 becomes the objective and the artistic design of public spaces, Convergence. As in the past, the objective

Overview: EU Structural Funds Grants - 2000-2006 and 2007-2013

2000-2006 (Total amount: €213 billion) 2007-2013 (Total amount: €308 billion+ €69.75 billion)

Objectives Priorities Instruments Objectives Priorities Instruments Billion

Cohesion Funds Environment, Cohesion Funds Convergence Innovation, en- ESF 251,1 (Member states transport (Regions with per vironment/risk with GDP < 90 per- capita GDP < 75 per- prevention, acces- cent of EU average) cent of EU average sibility, infrastruc- and those affected tures, human capi- by statistical ef- tal, administration fects caused by EU ERDF Enlargement) Objective 1 (Regi- with development ERDF, ESF Traffic, environ- Cohesion Funds ons with per capita backlogs EAGGF, Guarantee ment, renewable GDP < 75 % of EU and Guidance, FIFG energies average) Regions

Objective 2 (Regi- Economic and so- ERDF; ESF Regional compe- Innovation, ERDF 49,1 ons with structural cial transformation titiveness and environment, ESF problems) employment risk prevention, - regional level accessibility, Euro- - national or regio- pean employment nal level strategy

Objective 3 Educational sys- support ESF tems, employment

Cooperation of ERDF European territorial Innovation, envi- 7,7 INTERREG III regions cooperation ronment/risk prevention,

URBAN Urban develop- ERDF accessibility, cul- ment ture, education

EQUAL Combating discri- ESF mination in labour market

Leader+ Sustainable deve- EAGGF, Guidance Development of Restructuring EAFRD 69,75 lopment in rural rural areas (incl. of agricultural areas LEADER) sector, protection (Element of Com- of environment & mon Agricultural landscape, quality Policy, CAP) of life

Quelle: European Commission – inforegio: Cohesion Policy at a Turning Point 2007, 2004, pp. 4 and 8 [modified by the author]

85 Culture in EU Polic y in so far as they encourage the creation of sustainable employment.“5 This leads to the development of an all-embracing concept of culture, which unfortunately has not been generally accepted in Euro- pean regional development. is to move the poorest regions closer to- Culture as an industry? wards the European economic average. The new OBJECTIVE 2 is Regional Com- The UK has a longer tradition in terms petitiveness and Employment, hence the of publicly appreciating and supporting support of economic and social change commercial culture than other European for global competitiveness. The new OB- countries and the concept of Cultural In- JECTIVE 3 is to Support European Ter- dustries also has its origins there. In Ger- ritorial Cooperation. This involves expe- many, the concept of Cultural Industries riences with the Community Initiative has been somewhat infamous since Max INTERREG: There are still three support Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno6 cri- lines for cross-border (A) and transnatio- tically equated it with a levelling, sens- nal (B) cooperations between the regions eless mass production of cultural goods as well as the interregional development towards the end of the sixties. In the UK, of networks between areas without joint however, he appeared in a very different borders (C). The experiences from other light - in the academic as well as in the Community Initiatives are incorporated cultural policy discourse. in the new programmes but will not con- On the basis of the current internati- tinue as separate support programmes. onal discourse, Andreas J. Wiesand and Structural development support Michael Söndermann suggest a definition From the point of view of economic, of the cultural sector (=creative sector) in structural, social and employment po- a study about the impetus of the creative licies, culture is only of secondary im- sector on diversity, economic growth and portance – at a European level as well as employment in Europe. at a national, federal and regional level. This definition captures all professi- The German ministries managing the onal activities in public and private or- EU Funds attach little value to cultural ganisations and institutions, including measures and projects, although de fac- neighbouring disciplines such as design to, significantly more funds are allocated and cultural tourism.8 The cultural in- to cultural projects than from the actual dustry is included in this diagram, as the cultural support programme. commercial aspect has a strong influence On the other hand, the European on the general development of culture and Commission explicitly endorses cultural the media. On the other hand, privately grants from the Structural Funds. In the funded art is important for the cultural Council Regulation laying down the ge- industry and for public activities. There- neral provisions on the Structural Funds fore, a participation of the public sector is for 2000-2006, culture was included as a frequent, but also very legitimate. factor for development: “Whereas cultural development, the quality of the natu- Social and economic driving force ral and the man-made environment, the qualitative and cultural dimension of life Recent data support the legitimisation and the development of tourism contri- of the cultural industry as an independent bute to making regions economically and economic sector: In 2003, the nine core socially more attractive sectors of the cultural industry9 genera-

86 Culture in EU Polic y

ted a turnover of 73.7 billion Euros in A diverse, lively cultural environment in a Germany – thus taking the top position city or a region enhances the inhabitants’ in Europe. In Germany, the commercial identification with that particular area. cultural sector contributed €35 billion to Already existent infrastructures can be the gross value added (1.6 percent of the used in innovative ways for cultural pur- gross domestic product). This amount lies poses in the course of structural changes between the amount generated by the en- in agriculture and industry. ergy sector (€30 billion) and the amount As early as 20 years ago, the world of generated by the chemical industry (€44 politics and business showed an increa- billion). Adding the public cultural sector sed interest in culture. In the course of leads to a gross value added of around €41 the eighties of the last century, this led billion. In comparison, the automobile to intensive support at all levels. At the industry achieves 64 billion Euros. same time, there was a growing fear of Besides with some fundamental differences between the commercial cultural and media industry and the public arts The “Creative Sector“ - Arts, Media and Heritage in and cultural sector, they have two aspects a European Perspective7 in common, which are very significant in terms of employment opportunities: Both Informal Arts cultural segments are labour-intensive. Activities Particularly in Germany, culture with (e.g. Amateurs, Applied Arts Communities) Support & public support generates a large number (e.g. Architecture, Design Services of jobs. Between 1996 and 2001, the num- including Computer (e.g. Foundations, Games Associations) ber of staff in the cultural sector increased by 20 percent. Whereas Culture & Media Public or Subsidized jobs have been cut in other sec- Industries “Core“ Arts Work- Arts, Media & Heritage tors, the employment numbers (e.g. Books, Art Market, force Bodies Film, Entertainment, Private (Independent and (e.g. Museums, Theatres, (including entrepreneurs and Radio/TV) Employed Public Broad-casting) free-lancers) stagnated in the cul- Artists, Media Freelances) tural sector over the last years.10 Direct effects of the cultural industry Related In- dustries/ Crafts Public Administra- are not the only trump card of public cul- (e.g. Printing, Music tion & Funding tural funding at a national and a Europe- Instruments, „Cultural (incl. Arts Agencies) Tourism“) Cultural an level. Indirect social and economic side Education & effects stimulated by a diverse cultural Training (e.g. Art Academies, life in the cities and regions also demons- Music Schools) trate the significance of culture: Cultural activities generate direct turnover and jobs in sectors such as accom- Mainly commercial activities modation, catering and transport. The cul- Mainly non-profit and informal activities tural programme on offer in a particular Mainly public funding Fig.: Developed from models proposed at the Unesco Conference “The Internati- region promotes investments, the estab- onal Creative Sector” (Austin, 2003), in NRW Cultural Industries Reports (1992- lishment of companies and qualified staff. 2005) and in the 1st Austrian Creative Industries Report (2004).

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being exploited for economic objectives licies of its member states. Programmes or interests of regional policy – particu- promoting culture particularly focus on larly among the arts and their institu- supporting international encounters, ex- tions. Hence, the social scientist Diet- change and cooperations of creative people er Kramer postulates: “[... It is not the in the cultural sector plus the circulation right approach] to just exploit art and of works of art and productions. culture for other purposes, [...] only an However, in the context of structural autonomous arts and culture process fol- policy, culture is reduced to products – in lowing its own regulations [can make a particular for artistic and architectural real contribution] to the quality of our creations. The programmes mainly focus life and the sustainability of individuals on the traditional cultural heritage. “All and society.“11 This is a major objective of sponsorship activities, all indirect profi- EU cohesion policy. Therefore, in terms tability and all the perceptions of location of cultural support, the cultural sector advantages generated by culture can only should be perceived in its entirety at a work (for example for large exhibitions), regional and a European level. because the cultural sector can draw from a vast cultural pool, which has developed Breeding ground for creativity and over the centuries or even over the millen- innovation nia. [...] Current cultural policy must not be limited to the utilisation of available One particular achievement of the cul- treasures, but also enable the creation of tural sector is to mobilise the personal a new pool.“13 abilities and the initiative of individuals, The players in the cultural sector and thus serving as a driving force for inno- their achievements are mutually depen- vation. Time and again, the “aesthetic ir- dent: Art that is not marketable yet re- ritations“ of artists and intellectuals have quires public funding. The commercial revealed their innovative character. In- cultural sector draws from this potential, novation needs creativity and “creativi- publicly sponsored cultural activities and ty not only thrives on cultural heritage, institutions need a financially strong au- but also on a diverse, inspiring cultural dience and benefit from an environment environment.“12 shaped by the cultural industry. Public support of culture at a local and Individuals at the receiving and the a regional level has to create conditions be- producing end need “inspiring environ- neficial for cultural life: On the one hand, ments”, which can either be funded pu- it needs to provide spaces for cultural pro- blicly or by the market. duction and reception and on the other hand, it has to support encounters, ex- National versus European policy? change and cooperations to enable cultural players to engage in the social discourse In the context of integrated strategies about sustainable forms of life. In the confor urban and regional development in- text of cultural support programmes to corporating cultural and economic-politi- create a common European cultural area, cal approaches, the promotion of culture the EU wants to support the cultural po- is supported at various levels: Together

88 with the measurable impacts on employ- Culture in EU Polic y ment and economic value creation, it is certainly legitimate and reasonable to consider the “side effects” of cultural activities. However, it must not be forgotten that the participation in cultural life – whether as a producer or a recipi- ent, in a management or other formative view as to how wide or narrow the term role – in essence has non-economic effects “culture” should be defined. which in themselves are important for the It is remarkable that all individual development of society: Personal evolve- Structural Funds measures in their to- ment and development of the individual tal have served the cultural sector as a are the basis for creativity, change and whole – yet this is not envisaged by the diversity in society. programmes. It is not possible to introdu- At a European level, Article 151,4 of ce a strategy for economic development the Treaty Establishing The European that applies to all the countries and re- Community defines that “the Commu- gions – particularly as far as culture is nity shall take the cultural aspects into concerned.14 Therefore, the EU follows account in its action under other provi- the subsidiarity principle for its cultural sions of this Treaty”. On the one hand, support programmes, increasingly decen- it has to be examined for every political tralising European structural develop- directive whether it does not run contra- ment policies. Nevertheless, the Structu- ry to the cultural objectives of Article 151. ral Funds Programmes with their specific On the other hand, this “compatibility opportunities can support the common clause for culture“ also asks for support objectives of promoting culture in the EU from programmes in other political areas - objectives need to be defined and coor- for cultural projects. However, this re- dinated in this context. quires coordination and the assessment of consequences by various committees Translation: Angelika Welt and institutions in several political areas –not necessarily the best preconditions for Christine Beckmann studied Cultural Sci- a successful outcome. ences and French; 1995-2000 Representative for Cultural Affairs at Worpswede; various Cultural affairs are the responsibility free-lance activities as cultural consultant, of the member states and in Germany, the e.g. for the European Forum for the Arts and federal states are in charge of culture. Heritage (EFAH). Since 2004, she has worked There is a wide range of differing views as a research associate of ‘Kulturpolitische about the necessity of a European cultural Gesellschaft e.V.’, Cultural Contact Point Germany. Her publications are on cultural policy. The discourse is made more diffi- support activities on the European, regional cult by the fact that there is no common and local level.

1 The Cohesion Fund finances transport and environment infrastructures in sing markets, research and development are not covered. member states with a GDP < 90 percent of the EU’s GDP. 9 Cf. Michael Söndermann, Arbeitskreis Kulturstatistik: Kulturwirtschaft. 2 Cf. Kulturpolitische Gesellschaft e.V. / Deutscher Kulturrat e.V. (Ed.): 2002, Statistische Eckdaten, published in November 2005, pp. 159. (www.kulturmanagement.net/downloads/soendermann- 3 Regions with a per capita GDP < 75 percent of the EU average. 4 kulturwirtschaft1.pdf): Including the publishing industry, film and radio, cre- Regions with a per capita GDP > this average. ative people and artists from all sectors, cultural goods retailers, architects 5 European Commission: Council Regulation (EC) No. 1260/1999 of 21 June and the design industry. 1999 laying down general provisions on the Structural Funds, Official Journal 10 Wiesand / Söndermann 2005, pp. 7 of the European Communities L 161 of 26.06.1999, p. 1. 11 Dieter Kramer: Handlungsfeld Kultur. Zwanzig Jahre Nachdenken über 6 Max Horkheimer / Theodor W. Adorno: Kulturindustrie, in: Dialektik der Kulturpolitik, hrsg. v. Kulturpolitische Gesellschaft e.V., Essen 1996, p. 30. Aufklärung, Frankfurt am Main 1969 (first published in 1947). 12 Kramer 1996, p. 38. 7 Andreas Wiesand / Michael Söndermann: The ‘Creative Sector’ – An Engine 13 bid., p. 37f. for Diversity, Growth and Jobs in Europe, September 2005, p. 15 (author’s 14 Cf. David Throsby: Economics and Culture, Cambridge 2001. note: The figure is a copy). 8 Ibid. (Translated from German text) Software and game industries, adverti-

89 NOT PROMOTION BUT PARTNERSHIP How are expectations of international cultural relations organisations in Europe changing, and how do these reflect changes in Europe itself? For the British Council they mean operating within the framework of the UK’s international priorities and public diplomacy strategy. This paper describes a new strategy: from traditional cultural institute to cultural relations partner – a new approach for the 21st century. By Michael Bird

before in our history, fuelled by budget airlines, mass tourism, the single market and increasingly confident Europe- an approaches to education, science and culture. Few problems now have a single country solution. At home, domestic and international agendas are increasingly inter-linked, and within the UK’s multinational state and multi-cultural society the British Council finds itself engaging with multiple agendas as it seeks to represent the nations and communities of the UK, as well as the UK as a whole. urope is changing – and interna- Changes in the macro-picture are dri- tional cultural relations with it. ving changes at the micro-level of expec- EAn expanding European Union tations of international cultural relations which now numbers 27 member states, organisations such as the British Council. mobility of populations and migration on These include pressures to demonstrate a scale not seen since the fall of the Ro- “value-for-money”, “outcomes” and “de- man Empire, inter-community tensions liverables”. These have generated debate post 9/11 and competition from China and about whether the job of cultural relations India all make the safe and stable Euro- organisations within Europe is done, or pe predicted after the fall of the Berlin whether, as I believe, they are needed Wall and the end of the Cold War look, more than ever. with the benefit of hindsight, like wishful thinking. Far from coming to a full stop, The UK’s international priorities history seems to be accelerating. The UK’s relationships in Europe have In a white paper entitled Active Diplo- never been closer. We are part of an ever macy for a Changing World1, published in closer economic and political union, and March 2006 and updated in June 2006, there is a greater familiarity in the UK the UK’s Foreign and Commonwealth Of- with other European cultures than ever fice identified the trends that it expects to

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shape the world over the next ten years, nerships …Our most important partner- and set out the UK’s role in the internati- ships with other countries will be within onal system. The international priorities the European Union and with the United that it defined apply to UK government States. The EU will remain the UK’s single as a whole, and the British Council has most important multilateral commitment agreed that they must guide its work too. … We will continue to be a committed and They include: leading member of the EU because only through a strong EU with effective insti- • making the world safe from global tutions can we meet many of our interna- terrorism and weapons of mass des- tional and domestic objectives”.2 truction The UK is part of Europe. Its European • reducing the harm to the UK from neighbours are indispensable partners in international crime, including drug facing and dealing with common social, trafficking, people smuggling and political and economic challenges both money laundering within Europe and in the wider world. • preventing and resolving conflict The new agenda is less about competitive through a strong international sys- diplomacy and much more about a new tem style of collaborative diplomacy. There is • building an effective and globally still a place for bi-lateral activities, but competitive EU in a secure neigh- increasingly the UK’s partners in Euro- bourhood pean countries are working in a multi- • supporting the UK economy and lateral way. business through an open and expanding global economy, science and Public diplomacy innovation and secure energy supplies There have been significant develop- • achieving climate security by pro- ments in the UK’s understanding and moting a faster transition to a su- definition of public diplomacy, notably stainable, low carbon global econo- a review of the UK’s public diplomacy my carried out by a team led by Lord Carter • promoting sustainable development (the “Carter Review”) which reported in and poverty reduction underpinned December 20053 and decisions taken by by human rights, democracy, good the UK’s Public Diplomacy Board which governance and protection of the en- brings together the major UK players in vironment public diplomacy, including the British • managing migration and combating Council. illegal immigration The Carter Review stated that as public diplomacy is funded by the UK tax payer The UK‘s international priorities stress (and UK government ministers account for partnerships and cooperation in Euro- it to the UK Parliament), it has to support pe: “For the UK the changing internati- UK government goals and objectives. Lord onal context underlines the importance Carter defined public diplomacy as “work of maintaining and extending our part- aiming to inform and engage individuals

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and organisations overseas, in order to im- more than delivering information. It is prove understanding of and influence for about creating opportunities for people the United Kingdom in a manner consis- both worldwide and in the UK to engage tent with governmental medium and long in dialogue and thereby to build trust. It term goals”. At the same time the Carter is also about engaging people in the UK Review acknowledged the operational in- with international agendas and thereby dependence of the British Council and the creating opportunities for people in the editorial independence of the BBC World UK to learn from, and to value, people Service. The Public Diplomacy Board has in other countries. It is about seeking subsequently agreed that the purpose of new and open ways of engaging with the UK public diplomacy should be to achieve worldwide community. the UK’s international priorities. Mutuality gives us clarity about what we do because it recognises that connec- British Council Strategy for 2010 tions we make between the UK and other countries are mutual transactions. It mat- Against the backdrop of these deve- ches what we offer to what is required. lopments, the British Council is imple- It recognises the interdependence of our menting an ambitious strategy for 2010. world, and is the basis of the respect and This is about being clear about what we do trust which characterises our work. and why we do it. We exist to build mutual- Mutuality helps us reach millions ly beneficial relationships between people more people because it is about the way in the UK and other countries and to incre- we address other people’s agendas as well ase appreciation of the UK’s creative ideas as our own. This applies to our customers and achievements. We contribute to the and to our partners. It is our commitment UK’s international priorities by improving to local partnerships and shared owner- perceptions of the UK in other countries, ship of our work that ensures our global which is a precondition for greater mu- relevance in over 100 countries worldwide tual understanding between the UK and and also within the nations and commu- other countries, which leads to stronger nities of the UK. ties between the UK and other countries. Mutuality enables us to release the po- Fundamental to Strategy 2010 and to tential and creativity of our own people the culture and values of the British Coun- because our commitment to celebrating cil is the concept of mutuality.4 In the 21st diversity, valuing difference and sharing century, building mutually beneficial re- ownership applies equally to our relati- lationships between people in the UK and onships with external partners and with other countries has to be founded on equa- each other. lity and trust. Trust is enhanced when, at the same time as increasing appreciation of the UK’s ideas and achievements, we are The new agenda is less about open to those of other countries. competitive diplomacy and Mutuality is about engaging in dialogue with other countries and recognising much more about a new style of that enhancing communication is about collaborative diplomacy.

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British Council Strategy for Europe our scientific and educational excellence …”9 Between March and June 2006 the Bri- • Climate security tish Council carried out a strategic review5 “Climate change is a serious threat of its purpose, priorities and delivery in to international security. So achie- Europe, in the process consulting over 250 ving climate security must be at the key contacts about what they saw as the core of foreign policy.”10 challenges and opportunities and what they wanted from the British Council in There was a strong plea from contacts Europe. This has led to the formulation in Europe for the UK’s voice to be heard of a new Europe strategy. more in Europe and for the UK to share The central argument is that the UK its thinking and experience with Europe- and its European partners face common an partners. Our new strategy addresses issues, of which the four main ones are: these common issues, and the UK’s international priorities, through four strategic • Migration, mobility and employment themes. Everything we do in Europe will In 2005 34% of the world’s 191 mil- fit with these themes. lion migrants were in Europe6 and • open Europe that percentage is set to grow. “Mig- We will champion open dialogue ration will present new economic op- about citizenship, inter-community portunities and contribute to social issues, tolerance, diversity and com- and cultural dynamism. But it will munity cohesion in Europe. also be a source of tension between • Competitive Europe states and communities.”7 We will foster the development of • Culture, identity and extremism Europe’s education and skills base, The challenges of migration, iden- in response to the challenges of glo- tities, Islam, and the rise of the far bal competition. right: “The ideological tensions most • Creative Europe likely to affect western democracies We will support the scientific and in the early twenty-first century will artistic creativity that is central to stem from religion and culture… the future success of Europe. Countering the extremists’ message • World Europe and encouraging dialogue will be a We will address shared global chal- key task at home and overseas. We lenges, such as climate security, to- will need to work more closely with gether with European partners communities in the UK and Euro- pe …”8 Under our new strategy, the British • global competitiveness Council’s mission in Europe is creating The need for new skills, education, partnerships and networks as part of a training and innovation so that Eu- vision of working together to build next rope / the UK can succeed in a glo- generation Europe. In order to respond to balising world: “As global competi- the UK government’s desire to strengthen tion grows, we must develop further co-operation with European partners, the

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British Council is expanding significantly working together to build next generation its work in building European networks Europe, Germany and the UK are natu- in which the UK is the key partner coun- ral partners in Europe. We see our mis- try. It is also involving larger networks of sion as being to create networks of next UK partners and participants in its work generation Germans who look to the UK in Europe, in order to strengthen the infor partnership, and also to capitalise on teraction between the UK and other Euro- Germany’s pivotal position in Europe as pean countries and create a better mutual a country that faces both east and west, exchange of ideas and thinking between and Berlin’s as a city that attracts creative the leaders of next generation Europe. This young people from all over the world. is leading to a radically different strategy The essence of our offer in Germany for the British Council’s work in Europe, is our ability to connect people from both particularly in EU member states. government and non-government sectors, The British Council will no longer ope- and from both authority and successor ge- rate as a traditional cultural relations insti- nerations, with their contemporaries and tute, providing a standard fare of arts, sci- counterparts in virtually every country ence and education and offering grants to in Europe. support bilateral events and activities and become a cultural relations partner, offe- We aim to reach different people in ring access to global expertise and large- different ways: scale, region-wide initiatives which reso- nate across national borders. We will focus • With our UK government grant fun- our work on bringing together Europe’s ding we will build partnerships and next generation of leaders, and putting networks of influence and engage- the UK centre-stage in international di- ment with next generation young alogue. leaders to address common issues in We will develop larger-scale, Europe- Europe and shared agendas outside wide and global projects, planned and de- Europe livered through strategic partnerships and • through our services which are fun- co-funding agreements. We will expand ded by clients and customers we will our English teaching and examinations reach younger audiences – creating services in Europe in order to support the opportunities to learn English, stu- acquisition of English as a core skill by dy at UK universities and gain UK every young European. qualifications – and also through the media, on-line services and the EU- British Council in Germany funded education and mobility programmes which we manage. Berlin is the biggest city in Germany, a magnet for next generation Europeans This is a new direction for the British and a key hub in the British Council Eu- Council in Germany, as elsewhere in Eu- rope network, enabling us to identify rope. We are no longer seeking directly to emerging themes of relevance to the UK influence perceptions of the UK in Ger- and the rest of Europe. In the context of many. Budget airlines are doing that, day

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in, day out, and the World Cup did more The shift from bi-lateral to multi-late- for perceptions of Germany in the UK in ral working described above also involves a single month than cultural relations or- closer partnership with European nati- ganisations have achieved in many years. onal analogues and European umbrel- We are moving from our building in Ber- la organisations. The British Council’s lin, conceived in the 1990s as a “show- partnership with the Goethe-Institut is case” for the contemporary UK, becau- a strong example of the former. se budget airlines and the internet have An example of the latter is the EU Na- made this model obsolete. tional Institutes for Culture (EUNIC), a We no longer need the shop window partnership of 19 European cultural ins- and street access that we have at present. titutes that was established in 2005 with What we do need is a central location with the aim of increasing co-operative wor- excellent access to transport links within king both within and outside Europe. The Germany and wide Europe and high-qua- British Council was instrumental in foun- lity meeting space for interactions with ding the partnership. EUNIC has a close next generation young leaders. We do not working relationship with the European make impact through bricks and mortar, Commission (DG Education and Culture) but through the quality of relationships and is currently working on three major we build, and the impact of the projects we pan-European projects – Inter-Cultural deliver. We are already seeing more pro- Dialogue, Migration, and the EU’s new jects with regional scope and involvement, Cultural Policy 2007-13. It operates at less use of our grant funding for reaching country level through national clusters of generic audiences such as young people in EUNIC member institutes. EUNIC is well general, and more investment in networ- placed to contribute to the EU’s emerging king opportunities for young leaders. thinking on the cultural dimensions of an EU foreign policy. The British Council is also working in partnership with other European organisations to manage EU-funded education and mobility programmes such as Come- nius, Erasmus and Youth Action. Although The British Council in Germa- “partnership” is in some ways a predictab- ny and Europe is redefining le concept, we believe that our commit- the idea of a “Kulturinstitut”. ment to partnerships reflects a real ming- While maintaining our experti- ling of objectives and aspirations, and that working in partnership is a touchstone of se and authority in the interna- mutuality because it commits us to being tional dimensions of education relevant to others’ agendas. and the arts, we are becoming a facilitator of debate, a networ- Conclusion king organisation, and a creator The British Council in Germany and of Europe-wide partnerships. Europe is redefining the idea of a “Kul-

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turinstitut”. While maintaining our ex- Michael Bird OBE is Director of the British pertise and authority in the internatio- Council in Germany. He studied at Camb- ridge, Harvard and Voronezh Universities. Af- nal dimensions of education and the arts, ter joining the British Council in 1985, he was we are becoming a facilitator of debate, a posted to Moscow at the time of glasnost and networking organisation, and a creator perestroika. In 1991 he moved to Brussels, of Europe-wide partnerships. We aim to where he advised UK universities and re- put the UK at the heart of European research organisations on EU research and mobility programmes. In 1993 he set up a new lationships and to help the UK mobilise British Council operation in St Petersburg. In European partners to address shared Eu- 1997 he moved to Kiev, where as Director of ropean and global agendas. Indirectly, we the British Council in Ukraine he co-located believe that our new approach will do far the British Council with the Goethe-Institut. more to enhance perceptions of the UK, From 2001 to 2005 he was Director of the Bri- tish Council in his native Scotland. as a serious partner in Europe, than our traditional approach. Our old job in Europe may be done, but there is a new one needing to be done, and to do it we see the British Council as a new kind of cultural relations organisation for the 21st century. In some ways this is a radical departure; at the same time this can be seen as the British Council, founded in 1934 to foster open dialogue in the face of threats to tolerance and stability in Europe, returning to its roots.

1 Active Diplomacy for a Changing World, FCO Crown Copyright, 2006. 2 Ibid. 3 Review of Public Diplomacy, FCO, 2005. 4 Mutuality, Trust and Cultural Relations, Counterpoint, 2004. 5 Options for Change, British Council, 2006. 6 International migration and development, Report of the Secretary-General, UN, 2006. 7 Active Diplomacy for a Changing World, FCO Crown Copyright, 2006. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid. 10 Speech by Margaret Beckett, UK Foreign Secretary, Berlin, 24 October 2006.

96 ESCAPE FROM HUNTINGTON’S SCENARIO A tough political and economic approach has been required in the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership since the beginning of the Barcelona Process 12 years ago. Only the shock about the caricature controversy steered the attention towards softer topics. Are the cultural relations between the EU and the South Mediterranean countries more than just a rhetoric conjuration of dialogue? By Traugott Schöfthaler

The European generation that is no longer very young still remembers the dynamics caused by the so-called Hel- sinki Basket 3 in 1975, until finally the walls and national borders came down 14 years later. I still vividly remember the de- monstrations in the GDR under the motto “Thank you, Erich”. No GDR citizen had to fear a prison sentence only because he or she displayed posters with quotes of the Helsinki Charter in public. The Helsinki Charter did not tear down the wall, but it legitimised the pressure for human rights and cultural exchange in a way that was he Barcelona Declaration is a copy difficult to fight. The greatest obstacle for of the Helsinki Charter of 1975. success was the short-windedness of many TThe Declaration - ratified in No- Western Europeans who sniggered at the vember 1995 by then fifteen EU member Helsinki-Citizens’ Committees, thought states and their twelve Mediterranean they were naive and simply did not believe partners (Malta and Cyprus have changed in the option of ending the Cold War. In sides in the meantime) - is a forward-loo- 1985, our neighbours in Poland, Czecho- king document, whilst deliberately mo- slovakia and Hungary saved the Helsin- delling itself on its predecessor: Chapter ki Process: Had it not been for their in- 1 defines the principles for a partnership sistence, the West would probably have in terms of political goals and security. abandoned Helsinki after ten years. Chapter 2 sets the goals for free trade and economic development and Chapter The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership 3 deals with the so-called “soft topics“ established with the Barcelona Declara- in the context of an enhanced concept of tion now joins 27 EU member states and culture. For education, cultural heritage ten neighbouring countries in the South and creativity, science, the media, youth, – from Morocco to Egypt, Israel, Jordan women and human rights, the focus is on and Syria to Turkey. Globally, it is the exchange and mutual understanding. only political constellation granting full

97 Foreign Cultural Polic y boycotts these cultural relations. If everybody is invited to get together at one table, they all follow this invitation – whether it is for a joint teacher training event, cultural festivals, university cooperations or regional networks. This is as far as the comparison with Helsinki works under member status to Palestine (as “Palesti- current conditions. However, boycotts nian Autonomous Territories“) instead and cancellations have almost become of just allowing them to watch the group the rule for smaller projects. Five Israeli as an outsider. Mauritania’s application partners participate in the first series of for admission was ratified in November 28 funded projects developed according 2006, Libya is still playing hard to get and to the formula 2+2 (at least two European South-Eastern Europe is missing. In prin- partners and two partners from the South) ciple, the Presidency of Bosnia and Her- that started in 2006, whereas the only zegovina has agreed an application for ad- Arab partners willing to engage in the- mission, but EU-Europe has a big problem se five projects are Palestine and Jordan. with its “European Neighbourhood Poli- On the whole, the “Euro-Mediterranean cy“, which was revised in 2007: The EU Partnership“ still mainly remains within wants to deal separately with the group of the realms of rhetoric. candidates for accession (including South- The political conflicts and the aggrava- Eastern Europe). Neighbourhood Policy is ted crisis in the cultural relations with the in charge of states which are unlikely to Arab world – with angry protests against get the opportunity to join. The bilateral the Mohammed caricatures at the begin- relationship with the EU is regulated in ning of 2006 only being a symptom - are Association Agreements. Hence, our Tur- not the only reason for this situation. The kish partners feel particularly bad if they question is rather whether EU-Europe is are included in the group of countries on really willing to engage in an equal part- the “other side” in the Euro-Mediterra- nership with its neighbours in the South nean Partnership. When the Euro-Me- as it was originally agreed in Barcelona diterranean Anna Lindh Foundation for in 1995. the Dialogue between the Cultures – the latest joint initiative of the Barcelona Pro- cess founded in 2005 – started an Internet dialogue for young people between 18 and The Helsinki Charter did not 25 in February 2006, the tendering do- tear down the wall, but it legi- cument promoting North-South Partner- timised the pressure for human ships and differentiating between the EU and Partners had to be changed. The pro- rights and cultural exchange in blem was resolved by alphabetic sorting a way that was difficult to fight. and an additional note to state requests for The greatest obstacle for success a dialogue across the Mediterranean. was the short-windedness of Other problems are not as easy to resolve. First and foremost, there is the conflict many Western Europeans who in the Middle East – with a peaceful end sniggered at the Helsinki-Citi- seemingly close in 1995. Yet nowadays, zens’ Committees, thought they the Anna Lindh Foundation remains the were naive and simply did not only institution organising some form of cultural exchange between Israel and all believe in the option of ending Arab nations, although the Arab League the Cold War.

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The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership ters of Higher Education in Egypt. After makes progress policy, security, trade and economic development dominated cooperation during The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership the first decade, the so called “soft topics“ (EMP) has effectively become an instru- from Basket 3 will now to be negotiated at ment of EU foreign policy – shaped by ministerial level as well. The caricature the European Commission and with a controversy caused a deep shock, which rotating EU Presidency. Nearly all bud- is mixed with efforts to incorporate the get decisions take place within EU struc- means of cultural cooperation in the de- tures, following the administrative and fence against terrorism. The Ministers of financial regulations of the Commission. Higher Education will discuss the enlar- Everything is considered a “project” and gement the higher education and research is largely left to its own devices. The ban area, including the Mediterranean part- on “double funding“ prevents synergies ners. The European Commission will in- between EU-funded projects and pro- troduce a new scholarship programme for grammes. This leaves little scope for co- students and young scientists, the Europe- herent strategies and hardly any scope for an Framework Programme for Research a joint decision-making process between and Technological Development will be North and South. The language of deve- opened to the countries in the South. The lopment aid divides the partners into do- Ministers of Culture will discuss joint nors and recipients. steps for the ratification and implemen- It is therefore not very helpful to tation of the UNESCO Convention on the measure current EMP results against the Protection and Promotion of the Diversi- objectives of the Barcelona Declaration. It ty of Cultural Expressions, establishing would be more appropriate to talk about the future prospects for the Anna Lindh an EU-Mediterranean policy and to use Foundation in terms of cultural dialogue certain political EU objectives as a bench- in this context. mark. One of the most important outco- It is also part of the success record that mes is the creation of a political body with the EU has signed bilateral Association regular meetings – approximately every Agreements with all Mediterranean part- six weeks – that consists of senior civil ser- ners, with particular impacts for trade vants and ambassadors as representatives and economy. Over the last ten years, the of the foreign ministries (EuroMed Com- trade volume of all Mediterranean coun- mittee). All partners including Israel, Pa- tries with the EU has exceeded the level of lestine and Syria are regular participants. 50 percent by far. The EU has become the Once a year, the foreign ministers meets main foreign investor in all Mediterrane- and recurring meetings of other ministers an neighbouring countries – particularly also take place. In 2006, five meetings using the European Investment Bank fun- were held on environmental issues, in- ding instrument for the Mediterranean. formation, equal rights for men and wo- Current prospects for the ambitious ob- men, industry and transport. In 2007, jective of creating a Euro-Mediterranean the Ministers of Culture will have their free-trade zone by 2010 are good. first meeting (in Greece) and the Minis-

99 Foreign Cultural Polic y EMP foreign ministers demanded a boost for cultural relations and renewed efforts to support the cultural dialogue. Europe begins to understand that the traditional forums of cultural exchange and cultural dialogue have largely failed in the relationship with the Arab world. Crisis prevention in the Arab world? The first EU forum on cultural dialogue with the Organization of the Islamic In the debate about the value of the Conference in the spring of 2002 ended EMP, critics regularly comment that the without substantial results. Two years Barcelona Process has not contributed to later, the cancellation of the subsequent the resolution of the conflict in the Middle meeting even led to a serious éclat. As the East. This might be correct, however, the Islamic states in Europe did not receive EMP is not equipped for this task. The any attention for their claim to issue a Israeli-Arab conflict is not the only one joint declaration against Islamophobia where the EU is only one player within a and discrimination, they presented their “quartet“. The EMP does not even have proposal at the UN Human Rights Com- enough political authority to resolve the mittee, followed by an identical proposal comparatively small Cyprus conflict. to the UNO General Assembly one year la- The true spirit of the Barcelona Decla- ter. Both times voting was necessary. The ration lies in the third Chapter on educa- proposal was agreed with two thirds of the tion, science, culture and the media – so majority. All EU member states were in far the poor relative of political and eco- the minority voting against the proposal. nomic cooperation. The most important In 2005, the West was not yet prepared keywords in the third Chapter are “cul- to acknowledge the feelings of discrimi- ture“ and “civil society”. First of all, eve- nation of the Muslims, but insisted that rybody had to understand that the cultu- Islamophobia also has to be seen in the ral relations between Europe and its Arab context of Christianophobia and Anti-Se- neighbours in particular had deteriorated mitism. In the meantime, this situation dramatically and that more deeply rooted has changed. The EU Monitoring Cent- distrust does not jeopardise trade, but po- re on Racism and Xenophobia in Vienna litical relations, before culture was shifted has published an impressive study on Isla- to the fore of EU-Mediterranean policy for mophobia in Europe. However, bitterness the first time. Until 2005, the EuroMed- prevails – particularly among Europe’s Cultural Heritage Programme was almost Arab neighbours. the only regional culture project, apart The EU Commissioner for External from a programme on further professional Relations and European Neighbourhood training for youth team leaders, limited Policy, Benita Ferrero-Waldner, demands project funds for university cooperation no less than the creation of early warning programmes (TEMPUS/MEDA) and some systems and mechanisms for crisis ma- fixed-term projects in the media sector. nagement to prevent the resurgence of In 2005, a programme for journalists and problems of cultural non-understanding the Anna Lindh Foundation came along, followed by policy declarations on the necessity of commitment for the education On the whole, the “Euro-Me- sector, including a number of bilateral diterranean Partnership“ still funding agreements for building schools. At their annual conference on 28th No- mainly remains within the re- vember 2006 in Tampere, almost all 35 alms of rhetoric.

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similar to the caricature controversy. It nities to put the dialogue to the test and is planned to have these mechanisms in particularly to teach young people the ne- place by 2008, the European Year of In- cessary skills for this cultural dialogue. tercultural Dialogue. In August 2005, the foundation started its Thousands of dialogue events over the work as a pool of 35 national networks, last two decades have brought “represen- linking around 1200 institutions and or- tatives“ from different religions or “cul- ganisations from education, culture, the tures“ together. They generally ended media, women and youth. with less than substantial declarations The first joint product was a study with about common values and were unable practical examples from the entire region to find a common language for cultural on the roles of education, culture and the and religious difference – the breaking media in changing perceptions and beha- points of cultural problems between Nor- vioural patterns between men and wo- th and South, but also of controversies men. Most recommendations were incor- between cultural or religious communi- porated in an action plan for the following ties in almost all EMP countries. Only years by the first EuroMed Ministerial now the insight is spreading that cultural Conference on Women in October 2006. dialogue has to escape from Huntington’s Together with the Council of Europe and Scenario in order to move things forward. the Arab League Education, Scientific and Culture cannot be reduced to cultural he- Cultural Organisation (ALECSO), the ritage. Following the definition of quality foundation started a Euro-Mediterrane- of life in the UNDP Report, it also has to an teacher training programme in May be understood in terms of human deve- 2006, jointly training teachers from the lopment – namely as a formative space for North and the South to teach cultural di- every citizen with his/her diverse cultural versity and interreligious tolerance. The affiliations and preferences. Hence, it is textbooks do not provide much materi- important that the focus of the first Eu- al on these topics. In October 2007, one roMed Conference of Ministers of Culture thousand young artists from the region in 2007 is on the Convention on the Pro- are expected for the BJCEM Art Biennial tection and Promotion of the Diversity of in Alexandria, which will take place out- Cultural Expressions. side of Europe for the first time. The motto is “Our Creative Diversity” – homage to The Anna Lindh Foundation as a cul- the report on “Culture and Development tural intermediary that was published by the World Commis- sion ten years ago and created the basis for So far, the Euro-Mediterranean the current international agreements on Anna Lindh Foundation for the Dialo- the protection, maintenance and respect gue between the Cultures in Alexandria of cultural diversity. (Egypt) is the only EMP institution co-fi- The Barcelona Declaration continu- nanced by all partners and established in es to be important – particularly with its the South of the region. It has been com- political commitment of all EMP part- missioned to develop ideas for a substan- ners to ensure that cultural diversity and tial cultural dialogue, to create opportu- religious pluralism are respected in the

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entire region – which has not been im- of Civilizations“. The most important ele- plemented in concrete programmes yet. ment is fighting the abuse of cultural or If understood in the right way, the later religious arguments for political purpo- declarations and agreements on cultural ses. In a serious dialogue with its Southern diversity by the Council of Europe, the neighbours, Europe has the opportunity Arab League, ALECSO and OIC including to achieve a more realistic perception of its cultural organisation (ISESCO) and, its own cultural diversity. It is essential for above all of course the declaration of the cultural relations in the Mediterranean to UNESCO have the potential to heal the enhance the knowledge about the cultural contaminated cultural relations between complexity of partners in Europe. If Eu- Europe and its Southern neighbours. rope barricades itself in crisis situations, The Euro-Mediterranean Anna Lindh evoking “European values“, which hap- Foundation for the Dialogue between the pened during the caricature controver- Cultures is a typical top-down creation sy, this creates unnecessary new fences. of governments. However, together with The values of the European Convention three other EuroMed networks – the of Human Rights (1953) have been fully Euro-Mediterranean Study Commission established since 1966 – thanks to the UN (EuroMeSCo), the Euro-Mediterranean Convention of Human Rights, the so-cal- Forum of Economic Institutes (FEMISE) led economic and social pact on civil rights and the Euro-Mediterranean NRO plat- and thanks to political, social, economic form - it has already developed mecha- and cultural rights. nisms to operate within the civil society. The continuous repetition of the two In cooperation with the respective youth concepts “Europe“ and “Islam“ is a di- organisations, a parallel network has been chotomy excluding historic and contem- developed. The foundation is involved in porary Islamic elements from European setting up a permanent inter-university cultural diversity. The step towards abuse platform for the EuroMed region to sup- for the political objective to keep Turkey port the expansion of the European area out of the EU is not far off. The Euro- of higher education and research towards Mediterranean Partnership is a suitable the South and to boost the direct coopera- platform to develop cultural relations on tion between universities across the Me- an equal footing. diterranean. The founding conference is planned to take place in Alexandria in Translation: Angelika Welt June 2007. In cooperation with the DAAD and the British Council, the foundation is Dr. Traugott Schöfthaler has been the foun- particularly involved in the democratisa- ding director of the Anna Lindh Foundation in Alexandria since November 2004. tion of access to information about Arab mobility at Arab universities. In 2007, a training programme for staff working in newly founded academic exchange services starts in Alexandria in 2007. The foundation has contributed to the UN Commission report on the “Alliance

102 EU-PHORIA IN CROATIA Culture and identity are most closely intertwined. So how shall we feel European in a diverse Europe? A first step would be to recognise that there should not only be political and economic questions but also cultural and ethical values on the agenda for Europe. Which route does Croatia follow to win over the public to the idea of joining the EU? By Marija Pejčinović Burić

identity. More so since both concepts, culture and identity, have been contemplated by scholars, philosophers and learned individuals from various fields of expertise, and from many standpoints, attempting to define these immensely important, yet elusive notions. It is probably safe to say that all-encompassing definitions are yet, if ever, to be offered. Nonetheless, even if eluding confinements of abstract thought, both culture and identity are firmly rooted in reality of everyday lives of all humanity. What is then the ‘European way’ in this respect? pening the first conference A Soul for Europe in the year which Searching for Europe‘s soul Obears particular significance in the history of the European Union, i.e. Culture has been recognized as a major in 2004, the president of the Commission factor in the development of knowledge, José Manuel Barroso made a statement: understanding and values, and together ‘The EU has reached a stage of its history with democracy and respect for human where its cultural dimension can no lon- rights, a necessary precondition for a ful- ger be ignored’. Indeed, with the recent filling life. It helps every citizen of every enlargement to Central and Eastern Euro- European state to shape a sense of belon- pe, we have witnessed the growth of this ging and to share it with others. Thus it dimension to an even larger scope, rich- is enshrined in the Treaty on European ness, variety of expressions and cultural Union whose Preamble states the desire traditions. However, considering that the of Member States ‘to deepen the solidari- notion of culture has more often than not ty between their peoples while respecting almost inextricably been interwoven with their history, their culture and their tradi- the notion of identity, one cannot but re- tions’. This is accompanied by the intro- visit, always inviting and thus frequently duction of the ‘citizenship of the Union’ addressed the phenomenon of European which would supplement, but not replace,

103 Foreign Cultural Polic y the Constitution as well as their national identities, inherent in their fundamental structures, political and constitutional’. Hence, the importance of symbols. Symbols, both visual and literary, although the immediacy of reception perhaps lends a certain advantage to the former, act national citizenships, and by the resoluti- as glue which holds together the whole, on to ‘reinforce European identity and its and ensures the transmission of memory. independence to promote peace, security One of them, the motto of the European and progress in Europe and in the world’. Union United in diversity aptly comprises The Preamble and the Common Provisions the cultural variety and richness of con- of the Treaty therefore strongly suggest the temporary European Union. The first of- interlocking, and interdependence, of the ficial mention of this motto in the Treaty three: culture, identity, and the Union’s establishing a Constitution for Europe in- role as a keeper and promoter of peace. vites us to look both to the future and the The idea of European citizenship re- past. In an interesting way, the ‘formali- flects the existence of shared fundamental zing’ of the motto in the Treaty reflects values which are at the same time the cor- an old tradition of many European legal nerstones of the whole integration process. systems – inclusion in a legal document No less important, although occasional- of an entity that had already been put to ly, and entirely undeservedly, sidelined, practice. In a similar manner, the United is the European Union’s role as the kee- in diversity had been in use for several per and promoter of piece. Although it is years before its inclusion into the Trea- to an extent understandable that for the ty. The look into the future, however, is great many living Europeans the horrors less characterized by past certainties, and of the Second World War are but a distant provoked more by the need to rethink our element of collective memory, it appears future after the unsuccessful referenda in that the peace-keeping mission of the EU France and Netherlands, and also by the can hardly be overemphasised. The im- debate on future enlargements. portance of this aspect is particularly visible from Croatia’s point of view, with its Culture as icing on the cake? recent experience of war and ensuing destruction. Probably it is even more visible Although there are strong indicators, from, unfortunately still numerous, places and indeed actual figures, showing that in the world, torn by conflict and tragedy, the great enlargement of 2004 was both for which Europe shines as a beacon of sta- political and economic success, we are bility, peace, and decent human life. faced with a kind of fatigue, even down- As far as the identity is concerned, it is right refusal of the notion of further inte- a well-established fact that the Union, both gration. One of the reasons might be that in practice and in its fundamental docu- the EU made a strong point on economic, ments, fosters respect for individual iden- institutional and administrative integrati- tities of its Member States parallel to its on whereas insufficient emphasis has been developing the European identity, this de- placed on the affirmation of its cultural velopment of the European identity by no and ethical values. Hence, the importance means endangering or thwarting the nati- of both promotion of culture and its usage onal ones. Thus the statement in the first as a vehicle for fostering common identity. Article of the Treaty establishing a Cons- It might be that the Union actually needs titution for Europe: ‘The Union shall re- to go back to the common European va- spect the equality of Member States before lues and our common European heritage

104 to reaffirm the trust of its citizens in the tian Government and early in 2006 the future of integrated Europe. Croatian Parliament, adopted the Com- Moreover, the economic aspects of cul- munication Strategy Aimed at Informing ture are positive contributing factors. As the Croatian Public about the EU and Pre- shown by a recent study commissioned by parations for EU Membership. The goal the Commission, the culture sector contri- of the strategy is both to provide easily buted to no less than 2.6% of EU GDP in accessible and understandable informati- 2003 and nearly 6 million people worked on to the citizens and to ensure the two- in this sector in 2004, all this apart from way communication with the public, by cultural activities’ indirect and non quan- means of media coverage, regular public tifiable contribution to the development in debates, publishing, info telephone and general. The concurrence is immediately various special projects such as the celeb- obvious of such economic indicators with ration of Europe Day. Particular attention the goals set in the Lisbon Agenda, in paris being paid to the young as well as to all ticular concerning growth and jobs. specific target groups in Croatian society All in all, it appears that employing the and the organizations of civil society. Also, power of culture to bridge the emotional decentralized approach to communication gap between Europeans and the European is being employed by means of activities development process, which is the idea be- carried out at regional and local levels. One hind A Soul for Europe initiative, cannot prominent project is the National Forum be but a win-win situation. on the Accession to the EU whose regular What is Croatia, as a candidate country sessions ensure the continuous public de- currently involved in the advanced stage bate about various aspects of the integra- of accession negotiations, doing in this re- tion process in Croatia. The Forum is an spect? The EU-Croatia partnership further opportunity for communication between intensified after the beginning of the ac- the policymakers, the media, stakeholders cession negotiations in October 2005. The and members of public in different regions candidate status in itself and even more of Croatia on subjects as various as con- so the advanced stage of our negotiations sumer protection, youth mobility, small clearly mandate the intensification of com- and medium enterprises or intellectual munication activities, which are in many property rights. ways not unlike those conducted by the Nonetheless, we are aware that it is not Commission in communicating with the only the economic and political aspects of citizens of the EU Member States. Croatia’s accession to the EU which need Since public support to the integration to be communicated to our citizens, but process is one of the central issues for a also the cultural and ethical values of the candidate negotiating its accession to the enlarged Union. Moreover, focusing on EU, it is of primary importance to develop cultural bonds has been shown to be one a strategic plan as a basis of all activities. of the most appropriate ways to approach Therefore, at the end of 2005 the Croa- susceptibility to stereotypes and such sensitive issues as the apprehension of a loss of a part of the national sovereignty. Ac- cordingly, cultural cooperation, in various Employing the power of forms, is of utmost importance. culture to bridge the emotional A good example of Croatia’s both tra- gap between Europeans and the ditional participation in the common Eu- European development process ropean heritage and involvement in contemporary cultural exchange is a project cannot be but a win-win called Roland’s European Paths, recently situation. conducted by a civil society organisation,

105 Foreign Cultural Polic y sity of both the visions of European future and the visual imagery. This multitude of ideas and expressions includes diverse cultural references as well as the elements of national traditions, blending both in its own kind of unity in diversity. Since 2002 exhibitions resulting from Europe 2020 the Europe House Dubrovnik. This project competitions have been shown in no less resulted in the publication of a splendid than 17 European cities, from Copenhagen monograph and a multimedia presentati- to Sofia, from Bucharest to Brussels. Eu- on documenting the tradition observed in rope 2020 exhibitions offer many thought many European cities, Dubrovnik among provoking views of what concerns us all them, of erecting in public places the co- - our common European future. It also re- lumn-held statues of the knightly Carolin- inforces our belief that we can successfully gian protector of law and justice Roland discuss Europe and its identity in a way (Orlando). The book, written by contri- that transcends languages and borders, by butors from several European countries using the medium of art. was published in five languages (Croatian, These two projects are among Croatia’s German, Italian, French and English). Re- contributions to communicating the soul turning briefly to the earlier observation of Europe not only to Croatian citizens about the importance of symbols, it may but also to the other Europeans. They are be said that Roland’s statues, which can a part of our belief that envisaging, and be found in the cities as diverse and as helping create, the future Europe is not far apart as Bremen, Dubrovnik and Riga, only about prosperity, important as it is, bear witness to both Europe’s common but also about preserving, promoting and past and its contemporary shared values. further developing common values gro- As an allegory, we may add that the Croa- wing from our diversity. Culture is und- tian Roland in Dubrovnik, although at the oubtedly one of those values, and so is the moment the only one among its contempo- achievement and maintenance of peace, raries which is still standing outside the the precondition for any flourishing cul- Union, determinedly follows his path to- ture. Thus it appears appropriate to con- wards joining in near future his company clude on a thought by Johan Huizinga, the of knights in the European Union. Dutch historian who so aptly described the later Middle Ages, the ‘homeland’ of Visions for the future our doubly symbolic – artistic and order- maintaining – Rolands: ‘We know it only Another cultural project well worth too well: if we are to preserve culture we mentioning is Europe 2020, the pan-Eu- must continue to create it’. ropean competition in poster design depic- ting artists’ visions of the future of Europe, Marija Pejčinović Buric is the State Sec- organized by the Ministry of Foreign Af- retary at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration in Zagreb, Croatia. She fairs and European Integration and Cro- studied Economics in Zagreb. From 1991 to atian Designers’ Society. The first Europe 1994, she was Secretary General at the Euro- 2020 competition was organized in 2002, pe House in Zagreb and its director between and its success encouraged us to organize 1995 and 1997. From 2000 to 2004, she was the second one in 2005 called Europe 2020 the Deputy Minister of European Integrati- on, in charge of information, education and – Today for Tomorrow. In both competi- training. tions more than 200 works by designers from more than twenty European countries were received, showing a large diver-

106 BREAD AND GAMES (PANEM ET CIRCEN- SES) The elites in Hungary and Eastern Europe have always embraced Christian Europe and its cultural traditions, but suffered under the Com- munist regime and the Cold War for a long time. Nowadays, they feel threatened by changed values and the loss of culture in the course of globalisation. A renewal of our European identity can only be initiated by focusing on our cultural heritage. By Gyula Kurucz

ture and under the protection of the ”mo- ther country”. A strong intellectual motivation faced the geopolitical dilemma. Since the 10th and 11th centuries, nomad Hungarians have very consciously (and not without bloodshed) adopted Christi- anity and European culture. They have handled Romanesque, Gothic and Baro- que periods with as much commitment as the Renaissance and the schools of thought following the Enlightenment. Since the 1920s, members of the Hun- garian intellectual elite have been looking for a potent remedy against the phantom s a former middle-sized power, pains by creating their own cultural Hungary lost two thirds of its his- golden age. This resulted in top achie- Atoric territories and more than vements in music and literature, in the one third of its population in the course visual arts and in science and also led to of the Peace Treaty of Trianon, which – an advanced Hungarian school and uni- among other events - led to the deposition versity system. The Hungarians wanted of the Habsburg Regime in 1921. All or- to liberate themselves from the political ganic developments over thousand years and military plight through world-class of history were suddenly idle – from the cultural achievements. They wanted to railway and road networks to the Hun- renew European tradition with a distinc- garian regional counties. Millions of dis- tive Hungarian accent - desperate plea for rupted families stayed behind and politi- acceptance and forgiveness – in the firm cians were helpless in the face of general belief that a Hungarian patriot is always rancour and distress. a dedicated European and a global citizen The country’s creative artists made at- and that all top achievements have their tempts of recreation in spite of adverse roots within the European cultural he- conditions. Many escaped to a shrunken ritage as well as the Hungarian tradition Hungary, as they were only able to image - and that differences and similarities can their creativity within the cultural struc- only exist together.

107 Foreign Cultural Polic y Nevertheless, the merciless Commu- nist dictatorship created something beautiful in the Eastern half of Europe. It was demonstrated that terror cannot elimi- nate the traditions of values – particularly not among the cultivated classes and creative artists. The opponent – the Com- Until the period of Enlightenment, munist dictatorship – seemed so strange, Christianity was the creative framework so un-European and of minor value that for intellectual creativity on the Euro- it ”forced” sophisticated people to resist. pean continent. As the standard and the Poets, musicians and visual artists did role model, it has always left scope for not want and could not create in line uniqueness. Those who have eliminated with ”socialist realism”. Naturally, they the concept of Christianity that has for- were discriminated and chased into the med traditions from the European Cons- underground. Yet the ”products” of the titution and the common European cul- followers were so weak and wrong that tural heritage, have contributed to the even laypersons were put off by them. castration of our culture. In many countries, oppression and the convincing quality of ”good art” led to Culture – in spite of Communism uprisings. The bloody Hungarian Revolu- tion in 1956 forced the rulers into a certa- Nazism also spilled over into Hungary, in liberalisation. The Prague Uprising in although the country resisted for a long 1968 led to a brutal reaction, yet also set time (Thomas Mann still published here in an example. The Polish resistance move- 1942). The most dazzling figures escaped ment was not primarily a product of intel- to the West or to America, where they were lectuals. It had its origins in the Catholic instrumental in the development of the Church, which strengthened the Czech atomic bomb, Hollywood and the Ameri- underground movement as much as the can orchestra culture. In the 20th century, Hungarian cultural opposition that was the first waves of destruction were Natio- becoming increasingly legal. nal Socialism with the Holocaust and the And that was the happy conclusion: Communist regime with its missionary Nobody can suffocate the traditional va- ambitions and its strife for power. Yet the lues of the people. Dictatorship and the ri- Cold War with its divided world order was diculous ”cultural programme” of the red also perilous for culture. ideology were in direct competition with Before World War II, the borders were first-rate works of the opposition and cen- permeable and all European cultural mo- sored top achievements in Western cul- vements in Paris, Rome, Berlin or Munich ture. In an ”unfree” world, only ”con- attracted the best artists in Europe. These achievements enriched the cultural life in Europe and in the entire world. Du- ring the Cold War, people were forced Those who have eliminated the to think in opposing positions and value judgements depended on pathologically concept of Christianity that overrated politics. All intellectual achie- has formed traditions from the vements were evaluated in terms of their European Constitution and the ideological affiliations and their useful- common European cultural he- ness. The mouthpieces of political power were stronger than cultural and artistic ritage, have contributed to the treasures. castration of our culture.

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sumption” of the noble works of writers, a deeply rooted culture. The globalised musicians and other artists was possible. world needs money-oriented masses with An uncanny amount of art was ”consu- a weak cultural taste to be at the mercy med”, enhanced by the heroic aura of ar- of every consumer campaign. It does not tists opposing the system. They became tolerate the resistance of refined individu- heroes of the people and - particularly in als – whether they are creative artists or Hungary and Poland – were instrumental sophisticated cultural connoisseurs. in the downfall of Communism. However, the capital of globalisation also supports culture in two ways - on Democracy and globalisation the one hand by sponsoring the ”ultra- modern” commercial art trends in the This was followed by the great turn- sense of a ”throw-away civilisation” and around, which has often been idealised. by serving accelerated consumption. On Yet what came from the West was not the other hand, it supports traditional, the intellectual impetus that had been valuable culture, as the international elite missed for decades, but the fight for ma- will hold it in long-lasting high esteem. terial goods. And initially, not Europe, Thus, globalisation generates a new but third-class America arrived. Soon, the model of a two-tier society – a new va- debate about values was no longer in the riation of the Roman Empire, where the hands of an enquiring free press, but tied masses are sedated with ”panem et cir- to several vested interests. Adding value censes” and ludicrous profits are genera- soon focused on very few places and Eas- ted at the same time. This is supplemented tern and Central Europe was quickly as by the ideology of (mass)individualism, much at a loss with its value judgements with ”self-realisation” by using certain and as disoriented as the West. perfume brands, etc. Everything beco- The second source of danger is globa- mes ephemeral and relative. This wheel lisation. The initially American, yet uni- of futility turns at an enormous speed, dentifiably ”international” power of the every new trend is immediately consu- multinationals has a fundamental inte- med and then forgotten again. And as a rest in the global loss of culture throug- by-product, our environment is killed by hout the world’s population. mindless absorption: As the car is ”the” People with taste and their own va- consumer object of the world and eve- lue judgements are difficult to manipu- ry fifth employee works in this industry late. They have clear ideas of what they (and affiliated service industries), even like and what they want to buy. They the most intelligent government in the see through the temptations of mass cul- world cannot do anything to oppose this ture and are not content with superfi- industry if it does not want to face en- cial fashions and promises of happiness. ormous unemployment rates. Over the The globalised market pressure and the last few decades, we have experienced pressures to consume contradict a tradi- a frightening retreat of culture into an tional cultural value judgement. In its elitist corner. At the same time, culture own interest, it inevitably weakens indi- loses its ”population” and its appeal to vidual convictions and does not produce the masses.

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A global value judgement is required time. It ought to show and strengthen the development of a common identity and a I took part in a EU cultural conference sense of belonging. In addition, we would and was indignant to hear that Western urgently need a European history book representatives thought that solidarity and a cultural guide as compulsory text- and social market economy were the ac- books in all European schools. Informal, tual common European goods. How could interesting and exciting. one possibly forget the Greek and Roman Without a stronger value judgement of Antique periods, the Romanesque and the European states with regard to their the Gothic periods, the Renaissance, the traditional artistic and cultural stan- Baroque period, the Enlightenment and dards, the future looks bleak. Moderni- the artistic values that shaped the world sation of culture is only conceivable with in the 19th and 20th century in a speci- an awareness of our own cultural past. fically European way? Amongst a disoriented pragmatism and A strong culture of international stan- the predominance of confusing trends, ding would not surrender so easily. Eu- minimum value and knowledge stan- rope is unthinkable without its common dards are required to be able to sepa- cultural tradition and a modest value rate lasting values from fleeting fashion judgement. While we are resting on the trends. We do not want to devalue or dis- wealth of our cultural heritage, it is in- criminate anything but open the gateway explicable how easily we surrender our for independent modernisation by pro- treasures. The citizens see the grim fight viding the opportunity for a continuous for economic power, financial means and return to European roots. The gateway goods in Europe. What Monnet said (or to a profound, cultivated freedom with did not say) is more valid than ever: The a zest for life. creation of Europe has to start with culture. Yet the Bologna Process dealing Translation: Angelika Welt with education is a capitulation to the global dictate. With the overall shift to a Gyula Kurucz studied German Studies and Bachelor degree education, we abandon Literature at the University of Debrecen. From 1968, he worked as a journalist, dramatic the profound knowledge in a special sub- adviser and teacher in Budapest. From 1980 ject as well as teaching the corresponding to 1989, he was editor-in-chief of Perodi- ”world view” and we release thousands of ka Books from Hungary/Hungarian Book (culturally) half-educated ”specialists”. Review/Le Livre Hongoris. In 1987, he co- Europe would need a common reassu- founded the first opposition party UDF. In 1988/89, he lived in Berlin as a DAAD artist- rance about the requirements to maintain in-residence. In 1990, he was one of the first and nurture our joint cultural identity: non-Communist diplomats in Berlin. Until Initially the development of a value-orien- 1995, he was the director of the Hungarian ted synthesis of the specifically European Cultural Centre in Berlin (Haus Ungarn), then cultural heritage, which should not be president of Hungary‘s largest civilian organisation until 2000. Until 2006, he was the loaded with details, but describe the en- director of the Hungarian Cultural Institute in tire cultural heritage in a way that is easy Stuttgart. to understand and attractive at the same

110 We always have to keep body and soul together. It does not make any sense to talk about culture on Sundays and about economy, politics and military affairs from Monday to Friday. Ideas are important. They need media. And as their medium, they need the Citizens’ Europe.

Georg Boomgarden, State Secretary, German Federal Foreign Office

111 Dachzei le

Culture in Europe –

Europe in culture

112 Dachzei le

Culture in Europe –

Europe in culture

113

The continent of no communication The media have not identified the means to cope with the diversity of languages in Europe yet. Instead, politicians and journalists are in combat. By Peter Preston

back row, alongside the Swedes, Danes and Dutch, where we muttered and fret- ted about empty rhetoric devoid of practical content. Europe, you see, had divided itself naturally: between the pontifica- tors and the pragmatists. Our journalism didn’t have a single style or a common history. We had scant means of talking to each other, let alone to readers beyond our national borders.

Europe with a soul?

begin – as, in fact, it all began for Have things changed over those three me– with a personal anecdote. Thir- decades? A little, perhaps. In freedom I ty years ago I was the new, young from Franco, the Spanish have produced editor of a British national paper getting some notable papers of wide reach and my first invitation to speak at an inter- repute. Air travel has developed hugely national press seminar. Its fine, chal- and puts Europe’s top papers on sale on lenging subject was freedom, democra- the morning of publication from Ljubl- cy and the printed word, and it drew jana to Liverpool. senior journalists from all over Europe Some television channels like Euro to Rome – where our Italian hosts made News make their influence felt. Ger- speeches full of abstractions and prin- man, Italian, Spanish and French news ciples, before introducing Italian poli- agencies have grown in influence (whilst ticians, who pavilioned their beautiful American agencies have withered) and language in even more beautiful prose. Reuters is still the proudest name in the After tea on the first day, I noticed that agency world. But let’s not get carried people chose different places to sit. The Italians, the Spanish and some of the French and Greeks sat now on the front two rows. Meanwhile, I’d moved to the

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away, either. The information hole in and even newspapermen themselves, let Europe’s heart is as dire and as threa- alone Brussels civil servants, are slow tening as ever. to such understanding. A newspaper is We have a tapestry of countries and a newspaper is a newspaper, isn’t it? By tongues woven into a great – indeed, ama- no means, when you look deeper. Con- zing – network of trade and politics inside text matters. a union that aims to carry on amazing Most of the big European countries the world. Yet, apart from grey meetings have a regional press – and not, in the in Brussels, that union seems to have no narrowest sense, a national one. Germa- easy means of involving its major protago- ny boasts great papers of national im- nists or informing the millions of citizens portance in Frankfurt, Hamburg, Berlin on whom its future depends. This isn’t a and Munich; but, intrinsically, they are burgeoning federation, a United States still distinguished papers serving their of Europe to rival the US of A. This is an regions first, and opting for a monopo- agglomeration amiably arranged – but la- ly of influence in those regions. Italy, cking any wish or ability for deeper con- in just the same way, finds its great pa- versation. Only very rarely, in vestigial pers in Rome, Turin and Milan. Once the ways, do you sense something that could TGV begins to lose speed a few hundred be called “European public opinion”. But kilometres outside Paris, then France’s without that, the real tools of union lie huge regional monopoly papers – Midi broken and bent. Without that, you can’t Libre, Sud-Ouest and the rest – take over. move ever closer; or, in fact, in any di- Le Monde stops turning at Lyon. rection at all. Without that, the project All of this has produced, over time, is becalmed. Who’ll argue a new case for a lack of direct competition and thus of the constitutional treaty? Nobody who direct argument. Though the influenti- can make his voice heard across a con- al papers of Germany or Italy have dif- tinent, for there is no voice that travels ferent views and allegiances, they also such distances. relate to their home regions first. They are, in that sense, akin to the big city Press relies on regional loyalty newspapers of Los Angeles, Atlanta and Chicago. They rely on local loyalty and To understand what is wrong, you reflect a consensus of local interests. must first understand what is different: That means many things, but one of them is a certain residual elitism, a belief that if you can reach the most important people in your area, the movers and sha- This isn’t a burgeoning federati- kers of power, then there is no need to on, a United States of Europe to chase thousands more readers of smal- rival the US of A. This is an ag- ler consequence, little people without glomeration amiably arranged – but lacking any wish or ability for deeper conversation.

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power. So, in turn, circulations are more have tried to export their formats and constricted - and the mass habit of rea- personnel to other countries within the ding a newspaper is feebly established. EU, they have often come a terrible crop- Newspapers have low readership by in- per. Remember how swiftly El Sol set in ternational standards, and low penetra- Madrid! Rupert Murdoch, from Austra- tion of political consciousness. lia by way of New York, may own four of Demography, geography and socie- the most influential papers in Britain, ty have defined their role and their ap- but he leaves the shaping and staffing peal. of those papers to his managers on the But take other countries with other ground in London’s docklands. He can factors at work. They may be so small make movies and television shows to ex- that ‘local’ papers have national clout port round the world. He can buy giant as well: go to Copenhagen or Amster- internet enterprises like MySpace. But dam to see self-definition by editorial where his newspapers are concerned, politics and debate, not consensus, as he safeguards their difference. the dominant trend. Come to Britain to More differences? We’ve done histo- find almost 30 million readers picking ry, geography, audience, language, staf- up a paper during an average week and fing and style - and failed to find much defining themselves – in belief, status, common ground. Now add a cold bath job, sex and ambition - by the paper they of resource incapacity. Some countries choose. The entire structure of the in- are big, with large, rich newspapers dustry is different. So are the various to match. They can afford to have cor- newspapers it produces – by design and respondents in Paris, Berlin, Madrid and in the interests of their own survival. London, as well as in Washington and And this is only one difference among- Moscow. They can open many windows st many. Beyond that lie the differences on the world. But what if you’re an editor of language and of a press that is not somewhere much smaller, say a Baltic merely unavailable to many Europeans, state or a sliver from the old Yugoslavia? but literally unreadable, too. Films and Then the population that sustains you television series can be dubbed. Maga- is smaller and more impecunious, too: zines can turn Hola! Into Hello ! and ex- then even affording a reporter in Brus- port formulas that operate successfully sels is a stretch. So the news of what’s in many lands, featuring an internati- happening in 24 other European Union onal cast of celebrity film stars, mata- countries – or to the cluster of aspirant dors, royals and playboys. But newspa- members paying their neighbourhood pers haven’t found a way to develop such status dues – is thin, confined to news formulas yet. They are language specific, agencies in languages you can afford. audience specific and community speci- Thus even basic information comes thin fic. When German papers (for instance) on the ground. The United States can

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be united, most of the time, by national short, a will to proceed. But I – leaving television, national wire services and that audience – still thought that some- national bloggers. Europe has none of thing might be done; so, with a great these resources. deal of effort, we began Guardian Eu- rope, a thick weekly insert of opinion Lack of communication channels articles from sister papers all over the continent that they, in turn, could pick What does Bratislava know of Hel- up and use for themselves. It was practi- sinki, or Athens of Riga? It’s not just the cal, interesting and well-received: but it politicians who don’t trouble to commu- was also fiendishly expensive. Adverti- nicate: the basic news of day-to-day exis- sing agencies geared to national markets tence goes missing, too. There are no didn’t know how to cross frontiers. (And reporters on the spot. There is no easy still don’t in large measure). Translation channels open. We’re all in the dark, costs were heavier than budget. Britain doomed to glimpse reality only through plunged into a recession and cherished the prism of Brussels. We don’t share a projects had to be scrapped. That was the common information base; and therefore end of Guardian Europe. It lived again we can’t join in the arguments that help under another name in the late nineties define democracy. as part of a daily survey of the world’s Almost two decades ago now, Hel- press, but that, too, failed to survive a mut Schmidt had an idea and summo- further round of economies. And me- ned European editors to sit by a lake in anwhile the essential dilemma became Hamburg and discuss it. He wanted to clearer and clearer. How does one part found a magazine that, variously trans- of Europe join debate with another – or lated, could debate the issues of Europe even register its concerns? How on earth in every EU country – to, if you like, give do we grow ever closer if we haven’t an Europe a means of talking to itself. But idea what’s going on? who would mastermind such a project? I exaggerate a little, of course. Euro And who would pay for it? The audience, News cable is still in business. The He- nodding sagely, thanked the former Ger- rald Tribune and Financial Times serve man Chancellor for his vision and let it selected readers at breakfast tables in potter away into research studies that all the major capitals. Several scholarly never reported back. There was not, in magazines of small distribution pick up and carry forward key arguments. The internet is already an immense potential force for cross-fertilisation. The United States can be uni- But none of this, to be frank, adds up to ted, most of the time, by nati- much as yet. None of it has begun to create onal television, national wire a Europe-wide public opinion – without services and national bloggers. Europe has none of these resources.

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which, in turn, there can be no Europe- Europe is a kind of dirty secret. Here wide democracy. And we delude ourselves it is the union’s frailties and stagnati- if we think such a public opinion can be on that consume column inches. Here a created at the snap of a finger. fiercely combative press does not look to Go to Brussels itself, sit in the press the small change of Brussels operation, room, and see one aspect of the problem. but constructs bigger, more over-arching Most of the reporters around you work threats to national sovereignty. for those regional papers, those mono- There is nothing benevolent here. The poly reflectors of consensual opinion, I impulsions are quite, quite different; outlined earlier. What are they interes- and they reflect, as well as condition, ted in? The level of CAP prices set for national debate. Ask a British editor why the crops grown in that region, the pos- that is so, moreover, and he’ll probably sibility of building new bridges or roads, begin talking about the forces of compe- levels of cost and local remuneration. tition and the need for his paper to say All of this is understandable enough. It something distinctive, not something is what the readers of their papers want the same as the rest. Structures, again: to be informed about. It makes the fee- and a bias against consensus. ding of news from the Commission a Is it possible to hope, in time, for bet- bilateral affair, a close, blinkered rela- ter things? A diagnosis of present ills, tionship between EU officialdom and however gloomy, at least suggests ways practical publicists for the good works forward. And some examples of present of the union. But it does not spread the news concerns, however gloomy, too, word. It assumes that Europe is a mesh show what may begin to develop. of special deals, special requirements and special interests. The future of communication None of that routine works in other in Europe countries with other sorts of media coverage. Take Britain as a good and bad Consider the flows of immigrants example. We have almost unwittingly into Western Europe from Eastern EU developed a hybrid of a federal state: Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own parliaments and their own opportunities for direct contact When you look at what hap- with Brussels. Nor are they shy about pened in the Dutch and French the use European money is put to. When referendums, and at what might Europe helps build a bridge in Scotland, a sign on the road tells you where that have happened elsewhere if beneficence came from. But that does voting had ever been relevant, not happen very often in England. Here you see something far beyond a temporary setback. You see continuing stasis and bewilder- ment.

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Europe and beyond. Consider, in parti- everything we see now confirms that. cular, the question of Turkish member- Indeed, getting in touch sometimes ap- ship. Immediately we’re talking – and pears a task beyond comprehension in- Europe is talking – about jobs, culture, side the cumbersome machine rooms of religion, fear, hope and reconciliation in Commission bureaucracy. a way that sweeps over borders. Public What’s to be done? The danger, as opinion counts. Consider Iraq, Iran, Le- ever, is hunting for simple answers to a banon and Afghanistan, with so many fiendishly complex problem. But there troops from Europe in action in so many are some steps that would help. foreign fields. Again, European opinion One, of course, is making the Com- counts. Maybe, with only slight malig- mission itself (and the Strasbourg Par- nance, you could say that George W Bush liament) more open for reporting busi- is the new father of European togetherness – especially, TV business. At the ness. And then, crucially, there is the moment it is viewer repellent, and thus constitution…. unable to generate second-phase print When you look at what happened in coverage, either. the Dutch and French referendums, and Another – a suitable case for proper at what might have happened elsewhere subsidy – are translation services that if voting had ever been relevant, you see don’t spend endless hours translating something far beyond a temporary set- Finnish into Slovakian, but provide a back. You see continuing stasis and be- swift daily translation of the most impor- wilderment. Of course Europe can jog tant articles of argument and opinion ap- along for a while, welcoming Sofia and pearing in major EU newspapers. If they Bucharest, parking Zagreb and Ankara went on the web each morning, with until further notice – but when it jogs blogging space attached, then the first in this way, its also loses salience and hurdles of debate might be crossed. significance. It becomes inert, a sour- Yet another is having the self-confi- ce of blame but seldom a repository of dence (and drive) to take the attack to the praise. It loses any sense of momentum great enemy, apathy. Most heavyweight or inevitability. British newspapers, for instance, seem This, for the union’s fathers, was al- to employ as many – or almost as many ways a twilight zone of despair. If things – correspondents in the US as they do weren’t coming ever closer at a rate of throughout Europe. Does that make sen- knots, then they were going nowhere. se? Would their readers think so if they But now, perhaps too late, we can all were drawn into the count? There is an see the problem of public opinion defi- extremely serious question here. Why re- cit. The easy charge against the EU after port in such depth on a society that is not referendum defeat was that it had lost our society, when the society to which touch with the people of Europe – and we belong goes so unreported? Why, in

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countries like Britain, have magazines of political opinion that neglect Europe- an dimensions almost wilfully? Why let the union slide down and off the agenda? Why confirm in practice what research already shows to be the case: a European reliance on American films, American television, American assumptions that sets us apart from any other continent in the world except Australasia? The biggest danger, though, lies in a game of pass-the-parcel of blame. Brus- sels can and does blame journalists for these frailties and omissions. Editors blame Brussels. Politicians blame any con- venient target. But very little changes. It could, I think, if there was a will to understand the problems that bar the way. It could if Europe’s politicians genuinely wanted to create a European public opinion. And it could if newspapermen and broadcasters felt a keener impulsion to cooperate because their audiences demanded it. See? A circle of responsibility, turning slowly, and perhaps going nowhere. But if we glimpse the wider dilemma, we may also glimpse ways of tackling it. There will be no true road forward unless we do.

Peter Preston edited the Guardian in London from 1975 to 1995 before becoming editor-in- chief of the Guardian and the Observer. He now writes regular columns for both papers, as well as directing the Guardian Foundati- on, which helps train journalists from Eas- tern Europe, Africa and the Middle East.

122 Europe on Screen The author can not see a European identity as such, and the development of a European media systems or even a European public sphere seems not be on the horizon. So far, national borders indicate the limits of media power. The real European public sphere does exist in the Brussels environment: among politicians, EU civil servants, lobbyists, correspondents. By Deirdre Kevin

policies. Real support for the project can only be attained through the use of the media by the European institutions or national governments, influencing the perceptions of citizens as to the purpose of integration. But what exactly should the people support and what messages do they receive from EU and national leaders via the media? Garvey (2005) makes a nice distinction with regard to support for the EU between the “hearts” (values) and the “minds” (economics) of the citizens. The question arises as to which aspect has been more the focus of the commu- ithin discussions on the futu- nication process. re of Europe there has been Wan ever increasing expectati- The role of the media in Europe on that the “media” could or should somehow positively contribute to the pro- The communication of the work (and cess of integration. A logical expectation purpose) of the European Union is often is that the media should carry out the role seen as a way in which to increase public of informing the public of European af- support and understanding. As the Euro- fairs, providing a forum for discussion on pean Union has grown, become “wider European affairs and doing this accor- and deeper”, discussion and initiatives ding to journalistic ethics of accuracy and have increased that focus on three issues: fairness. Another frequent expectation is the “democratic deficit” of the Europe- that the media should actively promote or an Union, the “communication deficit” support the process of European integra- of the European Union, and the “role of tion. One does not necessarily exclude the the media” (broadly speaking) in com- other: in informing citizens of European municating Europe. Concerning demo- affairs, the media automatically supports cracy and governance at the EU level, of the development of European citizenship, relevance is the communication between whether or not this results in support for the EU and citizens, European journa-

123 The Med ia media, particularly television as a source of information on the EU.1 Despite the leap in use of the Internet, for the general population, television followed by the press, is still the most important medium. Of course the citizens have, since 1979, had a stronger way in which to express lism and media coverage of EU affairs, their opinions on European integration, the communication within the European through voting for the European Parlia- policy community, and the EU’s interac- ment. The main “message”, however, ge- tions with European media. The media nerally taken from this process, is the can also provide political and cultural level of interest and participation: turn- information concerning other Europe- outs in elections are used as indicators an countries and cultures and cultural of support for the entire project, while exchange through films and program- election campaigns and results seem to ming. Also crucial is the shape of Europe- reveal little concerning public support an communication systems: the political for EU policies. Additionally, there have economy of the media, the ways in which been a total of 29 referenda in the mem- different publics use these media systems, ber states of the European Union con- and the political and democratic cultures cerning enlargement, membership, and in which they exist. Drawing out the vari- deeper integration (treaties and the cons- ous elements above should hopefully pro- titution). Low turn-outs in elections and vide the reader with a more concrete idea frequent rejection of integration through of the various roles that media can play in referenda tend to periodically increase the process of European integration. the panic that there is no consensus on Europe, that the citizens are being “left Top-down or two way behind”, and ultimately that more infor- communication? mation or different ways of communication are required. The so-called “democratic deficit” The EU institutions have attempted to concerning the actual practice of gover- deal with the “communication deficit” in nance at the European level has largely several ways: the policy of “openness and been addressed through constitutional transparency” concerning the access to change. Until the Single European Act of information and documents: information 1986 (introducing the cooperation proce- campaigns have been carried out over the dure) and the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 years on various aspects of integration (introducing the co-decision procedure (citizens’ rights, the single market, the placing the EP on equal footing with the euro, and enlargement): the Audiovisu- Council), the role, of the European Par- al Service of the European Commission liament was purely consultative, and be- provides video, sound, and photographic fore 1979 the parliament was not even coverage of EU news to journalists via the directly elected. Internet and via Europe by Satellite: and At the same time, there has been a the Europa server, was launched by the strong interest in the public’s (the citi- Commission in 1995. Further political zens’) awareness, understanding of, and developments led to changes in the ap- attitudes towards, Europe, the European proach to the mass media. In 1999, after Union and the project of integration, since the collective resignation of the Commis- the development of Eurobarometer sur- sion, a major review of press and com- veys in the 1970s. Eurobarometer surveys munication relations was carried out in continue to show the importance of mass order to improve and strengthen the press

124 and communication services. The work The Med ia of Meyer, for example, (1999) revealed the important role of investigative journalism and cooperation between foreign journalists in Brussels during this crisis. Since then the work of the Spokespersons of the European Commission has become more professional and news management Information on the EU and practices, similar to that of national go- Europe in the media vernments, have been employed (see AIM, 2007). Between 2004 and 2006 policies Extensive research3 has been carried were developed concerning information out concerning the role of news media and communication strategy, culmina- in informing European citizens on EU ting in the recent White Paper on a Eu- issues, particularly with the increasing of ropean Communication Policy which EU policy for national policy (see for exa- among other ideas proposes initiatives mple Blumler et al, 1983; Siune, 1993; De such as “going local” i.e. working more Vreese, 2003; Kevin, 2003; Trenz, 2003). with regional and local media, and ma- Much of this research focuses of the role king better use of ICT to communicate of the media in a democratic society: pro- with citizens. viding information to the citizens regar- Other projects provide funding for ding policies and economics and provi- programming concerning EU affairs: ding a forum for discussion of these issues currently the European Parliament has (contributing to the public sphere); and funding available for the co-financing providing a watchdog function on the of: “informative and awareness-raising operation of democracy and political and television programmes”.2 It is difficu- economic actors. Many studies have also lt to assess, and there is little research examined journalism at the EU level and available to enable an assessment of, the the production of news (Morgan, 1995; overall impact of information campaigns, Slaata, 1999; Meyer, 1999; Baisnée 2002; and communication strategies, on citi- AIM, 2007). Another central question for zen knowledge and attitudes, or support research is the issue of European identity for integration. The analysis of news co- formation, the extent to which Europe- verage in the mass media of the mem- an media could replicate the process of ber states has been the main investiga- supporting national identity formation tive tool to date, which at least allows an at the national level. It has been argued assessment of the information available that such a process would require a Eu- to citizens. ropean level media system common to all citizens, which thus far has not emerged, largely due to the obstacle of language. Aside from news, music and sports chan- It is difficult to assess, and the- nels, the news and information channels re is little research available to with European or international audiences such as Euronews, BBC World, CNN and enable an assessment of, the publications such as the Economist, the overall impact of information Financial Times, the International He- campaigns, and communication rald Tribune are essentially targeted to- strategies, on citizen knowledge wards business and political elites (Schle- singer and Kevin, 2000), while also being and attitudes, or support for in- essential sources for EU correspondents tegration. (AIM, 2007). Such elites make up the EU

125 The Med ia cally, financially or emotionally. Hence, in terms of political news, the national governance structure and developments that affect this are more easily related to important issues of personal finance, employment, health and education. This surely must limit our expecta- policy community, a place with plenty tions of what role news media can play of communication between Europeans. aside from the normal requirements of Alongside the political community over accuracy, and from those who present 1000 EU correspondents are present and themselves as such, quality (analysis, also more than 2000 lobby groups. Accor- comment and background) and perhaps ding to a report issued by the European most importantly of all in relation to any Parliament (2003) over 70% of lobbyists political and economic system, an inde- in Brussels work for corporate interests, pendent and impartial watchdog on po- and just 20% represent NGOs (including litical affairs. What is most difficult to trade unions, public health organisations, assess in the process is the way in which environmental groups, etc.). people process the information availa- Results of comparative studies on Eu- ble to them. Eurobarometer studies are ropean news, programming and infor- helpful but limited in terms of the data mation in national systems tell us seve- collected.4 ral things: the types of media that tend to provide more information on Europe Perceptions of Europe and (quality press, public service broadcas- the European Union ters); the countries that tend to have most comprehensive coverage (frequently Ger- If the media largely operates on the many, France, Nordic states); the particu- basis of producing news information and lar obstacles that exist in reporting Eu- programming for audience needs, then ropean news or dealing with the Europe one can assume that national and indi- Union as a theme in the media (complex vidual attitudes to Europe will influence topics, lack of interest of editors and audi- this, or create a framework within which ence, long legislative process); and where such information is processed. The con- the European Union generally fits best in cept of European integration has for dif- the media outlets (in the context of eco- ferent nationalities always had different nomic and political news). meanings. For the original six members, Despite wide-ranging national dif- the European Communities were a post- ferences and trends (journalism cultures, topics of relevance, media landscapes), the normal influencing factors on news remain: news outlets serve the citizen or All studies reveal that news that they serve the consumer and while the interests an individual must framework for carrying out the first ser- be information of relevance to vice may lie in public service or editorial values, the factors that shape the second their lives: the closer the more are based on assumptions of interest or relevant, whether geographi- perhaps results of surveys. Broadly spea- cally, financially or emotional- king, all studies reveal that news that in- ly. This surely must limit our terests an individual must be information of relevance to their lives: the closer expectations of what role news the more relevant, whether geographi- media can play.

126 war solution intended to prevent war The Med ia between these states and to bind them economically with joint control of the coal and steel industries (the engines of war). For later members, there were frequently economic rather than value-based reasons for joining this trade block. These historical logics for support of the Euro- group in the “No” campaign did address pean Union still influence the various an issue of value, that of Irish neutrali- national debates and voting patterns. In a ty with the message: Goodbye UN, hello 1998 study on elite discourse on the sing- NATO. le currency (Risse, Engelmann, Knopf Here we can clearly see some distinc- and Roscher, 1998) researchers fund that tions between winning the “hearts” and for the British elites, Europe represen- the “minds” of the citizens. Too often the ted the “other” and a threat to British focus is on the potential economic pro- sovereignty. For the German elites Eu- sperity of integration, sometimes leading rope was the positive alternative to the to disappointment. If “Europe” and rea- “other”, German nationalism. The long- sons for integration within the European standing British scepticism and strategic Union have different meanings for the distancing from Europe remains despite publics, and generate different expecta- the engagement with Europe of the cur- tions and fears it is difficult to expect too rent government, and this is perpetua- much commonality in opinions, debates ted by the UK tabloid and much of the and attitudes. While these perceptions mid-market press. Two British resear- may be perpetuated by the media, they chers (Anderson & Weymouth 1999) have are strongly influenced by political elites questioned whether these sections of the and their agendas. It is not just the me- press are simply “insulting the public?” dia that filter the information that guides In a range of interviews carried out with our understanding of Europe but also the EC Representation offices in the member political actors. states, it is only the British office that describes dealing with “Euromyths” in the European media guiding the way? media as being a large part of their work (AIM 2007). Due to the lack of a pan-European me- Although the 2004 enlargement was dia system that would address a mass au- preceded by referenda showing massive dience, a European public sphere operates support for joining the EU, subsequent through national spaces, national media surveys show a reduction in satisfaction systems. European media systems have and support in the new member states. undergone major changes in recent years, Could one assume that the message for particularly regarding choice available to voters in these countries stressed the audiences. In the 1970s, most countries economic benefits over any other motive had merely two television channels and for cooperation? During the Nice Trea- those tended to be public service (or state) ty campaign, where the Irish electorate television. This situation has changed due voted “No” to further integration for the to technological development, the de-re- first time, there were some interesting gulation of markets and the globalisati- campaign slogans from both sides of the on of markets. To take just one example, debate. The “Yes” campaign had posters in Ireland in 1975 there existed one pu- with the slogan: We’re better off in Eu- blic service channel until a second PSB rope. The “No” campaign suggested: You channel was introduced in the late 1970s will lose jobs, money, and power. One and a commercial channel in 1998. To-

127 The Med ia apparent from the studies looking at Eu- ropean news content. PSB systems remain strong in many EU countries, particularly in Nordic and Northern European states. In several states public service broadcasting is very weak as regards audience share: for day however, particularly given the lack example in Estonia, Hungary, Latvia and of a free to air digital terrestrial televi- Lithuania. For many of these the trans- sion (DTT) service, 25% of Irish house- formation from state broadcaster to public holds are now (2006 figures) subscribed service broadcaster has been problematic to Sky digital television receiving up to and as privatisation moved forward (of- 206 channels. In one generation a mas- ten with foreign capital invested in the sive change has taken place. In the light private channels), the PSB channels have of this explosion of choice for national failed to develop into a solid service. For publics in the EU, the question is raised others financing has been coming from as to how the traditional role of the media advertising or the state budget rather than in identity formation (whether national a license fee, compromising both political or European), or in the democratic lives and financial independence (Spain, Por- of citizens might be reduced or limited. tugal) (see Kevin et al 2004). One generally expects the media types Levels of newspaper readership also that most often and most comprehensively vary throughout the EU, with the stron- deal with political and economic affairs, gest tradition of readership, by and large the places where citizens turn to for in- in Nordic, and Northern European coun- formation would be the Public Service tries. In these countries both the reader- Broadcasters (PSB) (due to specific remits ship of the press and the audience figures and obligations) and the press (in parti- for PSB channels are high. Not surpri- cular the “quality press”). This is also singly, it is in these countries that more

Table 1: The position of Public Service Broadcasting in the EU markets Combined of Public Service of top 2 Commercial audience share Channels in EU Countries Channels in EU Countries*

Very High 60-75% Denmark 72% Czech Republic 65%, Hungary 61%

High 50-60% Poland 54%, Austria 52% Portugal 57%, Lithuania 55%, Finland 52% Medium -High

40-50% France 43%, Netherlands 47%, Estonia 44%, France 44%, Belgium Flanders 41%, Germany 41%, Germany 43%, Slovenia 42%, Italy 41%, Lat- Italy 49%, Finland 44%, Ireland 40%, Sweden 40% via 40% Medium Netherlands 38%, United Kingdom 38%, Greece 37%, Malta 37.5%**, Belgium Flanders 35-40% Slovenia 35% 36%,Poland 36%, Sweden 35%, United King- dom 34%*** Low- Medium Malta 33%, Czech Republic 31%, Spain 30%, Belgium Walloon 30% 25-35% Portugal 28%

Low Belgium Walloon 19%, Latvia 19%, Estonia Austria 10%, Denmark 15%, Ireland 13% 10-20% 18%, Hungary 18%, Cyprus 17%, Greece 15%, Lithuania 12% *In the case of Italy and Ireland, the share is just one channel. / ** In Austria, German channels have a 37% share; In Ireland, UK channels have over 40% share; In Malta, Italian channels a 19% share; in Belgium Walloon, French channels a 30% share; in Estonia, 40% of the Russian community watch Russian channels. / *** Including ITV network, which is considered to have certain PSB obligations Figures from 2004 (AT, BE, CY, DA, FIN; GR; IT); from 2003 (CZ, EE, FR, DE, IE, LT, SI, SE); from 2002 (LV, NL)

Source Kevin et al (2004)

128 information is provided in the media on The Med ia European affairs, although this does not automatically imply support for integration, or the development of a strong Eu- ropean identity. Additionally, the EU media systems of the member states are widely varied in terms of size (from serving a popu- the reception of French, Dutch and Ger- lation of over 80m in Germany, to that man television in Belgium; of German of 0.38m in Malta) and also concerning television in Austria; British television language culture and use. A further im- and press in Ireland; Russian media in portant issue is ownership and control of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia; Greek the media: whether political (Italy, Mal- media in Cyprus, and Italian media in ta); religious (Malta, Slovenia, and Gree- Malta. This is often seen as a problem, ce); business and industry (Italy, France, however, as these market shares impact and Greece); foreign companies (Hunga- on the advertising revenues, and also cau- ry, Slovakia, Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Slo- se worries concerning cultural domina- vakia, Denmark, Lithuania, and Czech tion. The exchange of programming in Republic); or multi-media moguls (Italy, Europe has remained limited and looking UK, Portugal, Greece, and Spain). These at schedules of private channels reveals factors influence the spaces where the ci- more commonality in the presence of US tizens receive political and cultural infor- television programmes. While competiti- mation about the EU and their European on generally provides greater choice for neighbours, but also the way in which the consumer there is an ongoing concern media contributes to national democracy that competing with commercial media (see Kevin et al, 2004). causes a reduction in quality (less infor- The EU’s media policy has focused mation, documentaries, quality drama) mainly on achieving a strong European and more cheap entertainment. media industry in opposition to the US. The same applies to cinema, with the

Table 2: Breakdown of cinema admissions in the European Union (EU 25) according to the origin of films Origin USA USA/Eur. France UK Germany Italy Spain Other EU % of total admissions 59,7 11 9,5 6,1 4,5 2,2 2,1 2,1 Source: European Audiovisual Observatory (2004). Provisional figures for 2004.

It has also provided funding for film, and dominant provider of cinema entertain- introduced regulations to support inde- ment being the US. Even where certain pendent and European television produc- countries have stronger film industries tion. However, it is only very recently that such as France, Germany, the UK or Italy, the EU has begun to show concern regar- the production is mainly enjoyed by the ding the state of political and cultural plu- home audience. ralism in the national media systems. Regarding cultural exchange, cultural Conclusion and linguistic links exist between several small EU states and their larger neigh- The prospects for a European public bours allowing a certain level of recep- sphere or an area of debate at the Europe- tion of trans-frontier television and the an level, addressing all citizens are slim purchase of programming. This includes for the near future although the Internet

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as an important medium of communica- Deirdre Kevin is a Media Consultant and has tion is growing (but still less important worked as a project manager at the Europe- an Institute for the Media in Düsseldorf. She than television). The real European pu- completed a post-graduate Masters in Euro- blic sphere exists in the policy commu- pean Economic and Public Affairs at Univer- nity of Brussels: the politicians, EU offi- sity College Dublin. The focus of her research cials, lobbyists and EU correspondents. has been the development of a European How this is communicated via national Public Sphere and media coverage of Europe- an affairs, and media policy and regulation, systems is the central way in which the most recently media ownership regulation. media can support European citizen- She has managed projects and has numerous ship. Attitudes to the European Union, publications in the field of European media, European integration, and also Europe- for example Europe in the Media: A Compa- an identification are more complicated, rison of Reporting, Representation and Rhe- toric in Nattional Media Systems in Europe and related to perceptions, to how elites, 2003 particularly national elites communicate. ). They are also strongly influenced by personal experience, and that includes cultural experience of others and other places. The context of the media in European countries is central to the type of information people receive, and this involves cultural, political and economic factors. Keeping national media strong as regards their public interest role is an important first step to ensuring that democracy and cultural diversity at both national and Eu- ropean levels are maintained. This would surely be the best foundation for a Euro- pean public space supporting citizenship and identification with Europe.

1 In 2004 television as a primary source for respondents was 73% (EU 15) and 79% for the New Member States (NMS). The daily press is a primary source for 54% (EU 15) and for 51% of NMS respondents. Radio was mentioned by 35% (EU15) but by 51% of respondents in the NMS. The use of the Internet as a source is 16% (EU15), and higher in the NMS 18%. Source: Eurobarometer 61. 2 See under: http://ec.europa.eu/communication_white_paper/doc/ white_paper_en.pdf 3 As this piece was requested as an essay, it is not possible to fully reference or provide an overview of the vast amount of research and thought in this area. A useful place to search for references is the following database: www. aim-project.net/doku/ 4 According to Eurobarometer methodology, each survey consists in approximately 1000 face-to-face interviews per Member State (except Germany: 2000, Luxembourg: 600, United Kingdom 1300 including 300 in Northern Ireland).

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References an Union’s communication deficit. Journal of AIM Research Consortium (Ed) (2007, forth- Common Market Studies, 37(4), 617-639. coming): Understanding the Logic of EU Re- Primetrica Limited (2004): The Media Map porting from Brussels. Analysis of Interviews Yearbook 2004. UK: Primetrica Ltd. with EU correspondents and spokespersons. Risse, T., Engelmann, D., Knopf, H., & K. Adequate Information Management in Europe Roscher (1998): To Euro or not to Euro? The (AIM) – Working Papers 2007/3. Bochum/ EMU and Identity Politics in the European Freiburg: Projekt. Union. European Journal of International Re- Anderson, P.J. & Weymouth, A. (1999): In- lations.1999; 5: 147-187. sulting the public? The British Press and the Morgan, D. (1995): British media and Europe- European Union. UK: Longman. an Union news: The Brussels news beat and Bainsnée, O. (2002): Can Political Journalism its problems. In European Journal of Commu- Exist at the EU level? In R. Kuhn and E. Neveu nication 10(3), 321-343. (eds.), Political Journalism. New Challenges, Schlesinger, P. and Kevin, D. (2000): Can the New Practices, pp. 108-127. London: Rout- European Union become a sphere of publics? ledge. In: Democracy in Europe: Integration through Blumler, J. (Ed) (1983): Communicating to vo- Deliberation. Eds. Erik Oddvar Eriksen and ters: Television in the first European parlia- John Erik Fossum. London: UCL Press. mentary elections. London: Sage. Siune, K. (1993): The Danes said no to the De Vreese, C. (2003): Framing Europe: Televi- Maastricht Treaty: the Danish referendum of sion News and European Integration. Amster- June 1992. In Scandinavian Political Studies, dam: Aksant. 16(1), 93-103. European Audiovisual Observatory (2004): Slaatta, T. (1999). Europeanisation and the Major markets buoyant in 2004 as European Norwegian news media: Political discourse Union cinema admissions top 1 billion miles- and news production in the transnational tone. Press release, 4 May 2004. Strasbourg: field. Oslo: University of Oslo. EAO. Available here: www.obs.coe.int/about/ Trenz, Hans Jörg (2004): Media coverage of oea/pr/mif2005.html European Governance: Exploring the Europe- European Parliament (2003): Lobbying in the an Public Sphere in National Quality Newspa- European Union: Current Rules and Practices. pers. European Journal of Communication, 19 Constitutional Affairs Series AFCO 104 EN. (3), 291-319. Available here: www.europarl.europa.eu/ internet/workingpapers/afco/pdf/104_en.pdf Garvey, T. (2005): Hearts and Minds. In Insti- tute for European Affairs (Ed): Where to Now: Ideas on the Future of Europe. Dublin: Institu- te for European Affairs. Available here: www.iiea.com/newsxtest.php?news_id=56 Kevin, D., Ader, T., Fueg, O.C., Pertzinidou, E. & M. Schoenthal (2004): Final report of the study on “Media ownership regulation and media landscapes in the EU 25. Prepared, on behalf of the European Parliament, by the Eu- ropean Institute for the Media. August 2004. Available online at the EPRA website under press information/downloads: www.epra.org Kevin, D. (2003): Europe in the Media: Repor- ting, representation and rhetoric. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: New Jersey/London. Meyer, C. (1999): Political legitimacy and the invisibility of politics: Exploring the Europe-

131 Reconciliation in lieu of division Europeans do not only talk about themselves, but also with each other – at least that’s true for players in the film industry. The European film industry has not only gained ground as the antithesis to Hol- lywood – it is also increasingly influential as an economic driver. By Michael Schmid-Ospach

States are even filmed again, for example the film “Bella Martha“, launched in the USA with the title “No Reservations“ – with Catherine Zeta Jones instead of Martina Gedeck as the leading part. Mi- chael Haneke’s “Caché“ is also retaken – in this case even transferring the plot from Paris to the USA.

Film on a world tour

However, the Berlinale showed that things are moving: The USA does not only put out feelers for film ideas from Euro- ohannes Rau – a strict advocate of Eu- pe. Many European actors and other cre- rope – said once: “In my view, Europe ative people populate the international Jcan only succeed if we do not use the stage now. Martina Gedeck features in divisive ’your culture, our culture’, but “The Good Shepherd“, Moritz Bleibtreu the conciliatory ’your and our culture’ in “The Walker“ and in „La Masseria as its basis and if we do not perceive di- dello allodole“, Daniel Brühl in “2 Days versity as a threat, but as the foundation in Paris“, Julia Jentsch in „Obsluhoval for its unity.“1 jsem anglikého krále“, André Hennicke The situation on the world map of in “In Memoria di me“, Jasmin Tabatabai film is definitely changing: Particularly and Sibel Kekilli appear in “Fay Grim“, in the recent past, the predominance of Christian Oliver in “The Good German“ Hollywood has been put into perspective and Benno Fürmann in “Kruistocht Spi- here in Europe. The United States – still jkerbroek“. Film teams are increasingly one of the biggest markets – continues international and in terms of selecting to be fastidious: The masses disapprove locations for filming, a high level of net- of synchronised film versions. Non-Eng- working has taken place for years – not lish productions from Europe are still not only within Europe but between all film really marketable in Hollywood. Those nations. European projects liked by the United Generally, the network for films is in-

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creasingly consolidated. For a European domestic productions as contenders in provider, this means presenting regional Europe, it becomes apparent that Ger- and national options in the first place – man fiction has turned into one of the and on the other hand – in terms of de- strongest products in the meantime. The mand – to exploit the opportunities pro- cinema production “Downfall“ was sold vided by the European film market. In to 145 countries, the two sequels of the close cooperation with “German Films“, TV event movie “Dresden“ to 68 coun- the distribution support programme for tries and “Stauffenberg“, also a TV event German films abroad, we are represented movie and like “Dresden” subsidised in at all international festivals and cooperate North Rhine-Westphalia, was sold to 82 with various different filmmakers, also countries. way beyond European borders. With two examples from our daily practice, I would like to outline the Success factor Europe unifying effect of film work in Europe and the success of European cooperation. Numerous cinema productions with The following cinematic highlights are a financial support from the Filmstiftung hundred percent “Made in Europe“ and are successful at European festivals and have created a furore in Europe and bey- in European cinemas, among them Tom ond Europe’s borders in many different Tykwer’s “Perfume“, Sven Taddicken’s ways. „Emma’s Bliss“, Andreas Dresen’s “Sum- One is a real blockbuster and the most mer in Berlin“, Philip Gröning’s “Into expensive German cinema production Great Silence“ or international co-pro- ever – the film named after the novel “The ductions such as the winner at Cannes, Perfume” by Patrick Süßkind, which Ken Loach’s “The Wind that shakes the years before had already been translated Barley“, the Israeli-German co-produc- into over fifty languages. Over one milli- tion “Sweet Mud“ by Dror Shaul, which on people saw the Constantin-Eichinger received several awards, Maria Speth’s production “Perfume“, directed by Tom drama „Madonnas“ or the tragicomedy Tykwer, on the first weekend of its release “Armin“ by the Croatian director Ogn- in German cinemas, which means around jen Svilicic. 1500 visitors per copy. In the meantime, During the “Indian Summer of Film” the film has received a Platinum Bogey for in Germany, five German titles were in five million visitors within 50 days. Ste- the Top Ten on German cinema screens. ven Spielberg’s film distribution company On international markets, German TV Dreamworks shows the film in US cine- event movies almost sold “like hotcakes“. mas and it is released in Japan in 2007. A To quote the German newspaper Frank- great success for the production company furter Rundschau: “As Hollywood’s glo- and the most recent example that a film bal success is almost exclusively linked can be both – a blockbuster entertaining to the production of television series, so- the masses and a cultural event. But it is called ‘disaster movies’ from Germany also an example that the film world is are almost without competition.”2 If we becoming increasingly international and take a look at the box office success of that international cooperations in this

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industry are increasingly the rule rather in Austria and in Switzerland, it shot to than the exception. number 1 of the Russian cinema charts For cost reasons and in spite of the on its first weekend. funds that initially enabled the making of The second cinematic event featuring the film, it was shot in several countries. in my excursus seems to be the exact op- In Barcelona, the mayor authorised very posite of the first example. Nevertheless, generous roadblocks. In France – the ac- European and international audiences tual location of the film, only the lavender have received it with equally great enthu- fields were filmed because according to siasm in the course of half a year. I am the producer, the country is “too expen- referring Philip Gröning’s documenta- sive in terms of production technology”. ry “Into Great Silence“ subsidised by the 1400 costumes were made in Romania, Filmstiftung, which received numerous the models were built in the Czech Repu- awards at European and international blic and the digital effects were also pro- festivals, including the Grand Jury’s duced there. In Germany, 15 days of shoo- World Cinema Documentary Award at ting took place in the Bavaria film studios the Sundance Film Festival and the Eu- in Munich and the substantial post-pro- ropean Film Award – Prix Arte 2006 – as duction “with 80 people working on it the best documentary. This documenta- for more than 12 months” equally took ry talks about life in a French Carthusi- place in Munich. And I should also men- an monastery. The topic is so “kindling” tion that the producer, Bernd Eichinger, and transnational because it talks with comes from Bavaria and the director, Tom so much love and dedication about a life Tykwer, from North Rhine-Westphalia. which is very different from the life of the The actors have also been cast interna- people in the audience. Both in terms of tionally and the British leading actor’s content and form, the film shows that it performance is consistent with the in- is not the only way forward what success- ternational cast, without any perceptible ful Hollywood occasionally wants us to boundaries. believe. Individual and good storytelling, Tom Tykwer also composed the music which turned Hollywood into the exclu- (together with two partners) set to music sive home of the stars, has found a new and recorded by the Berlin Philharmonic adopted home in Europe. Orchestra with their British conductor Si- mon Rattle. The CD with the soundtrack Funding pool Europe was available in the shops when the film was released in the cinemas. The film was However, a simple glance beyond na- also a highly sought-after candidate as the tional borders is not enough. For some opening film for Venice, but the producer years now, there have been increased ac- declined the offer. The film premiere was tivities to intensify the relatively young planned to take place in Germany – yet connections between the film nation another novelty. In the end, “Perfume“ France and the film nation Germany. had already been sold to many countries One half of “Amelie of Montmartre“ before its official release in the cinemas. was filmed in Germany and the produc- After its success in the German cinemas, tion “Good-bye Lenin!“ sponsored by the

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Filmstiftung (Film Foundation) deligh- other topics, German and French dele- ted millions of cinemagoers in France in gates discuss the dimensions of the “In- 2003 – and during the same year, the first fluence of the new media on cultural “Les Rendez-Vous Franco-Allemand du diversity“ and how the “Support mecha- Cinema“ was organised in Lyon. Since nisms for European film productions” then, the “Rendez-Vous“ has taken place can be improved. every year in either of the two countries Prior to these events that were all very – receiving increasing amounts of credit. relevant for the film industry, two ag- Chaired by the French president and film reements had been signed between Ger- producer Margaret Menegoz, it always at- many and France in 2001: One of these tracts several hundreds of people from the agreements is a film treaty which regu- film industry to the respective country. lates Franco-German cooperation in ge- The French-Austrian-German co-produc- neral in 15 articles plus annexes. It covers tion “Caché“ by this producer (director: co-productions, cooperation for training Michael Haneke) was the Best Europe- and further training and aspects of cul- an Film at the European Film Awards in tural heritage. The second agreement is 2005 and received the award for the Best a supplementary treaty – the so-called Director in Cannes. It was also widely “Mini-Traité“ – about film subsidies and discussed at the Franco-German Film the conditions for funding. A Franco-Ger- Meetings. man commission with equal representation from both countries decides about the Film as an art form allocation of funds for Franco-German co-productions. Meanwhile, a kind of premiere league Another example showing that Euro- at the Franco-German Film Academy in peans talk to each other more than they Ludwigsburg and at the Film Academy talk “about each other“ nowadays was La fémis in Paris was founded. The tu- provided at the International Film Fes- tors of these academies are also planning tival in Rome, which took place for the a Franco-German film meeting. first time this year. The Italian, French, The German Minister of State for Cul- Spanish and German twin towns of the ture, Bernd Neumann, officially opened CRC Network (Capital Regions for Ci- a workgroup on “Cultural diversity in nema) signed a joint contract to prepare Europe“ in the autumn of 2006. Among joint funding initiatives for European co- productions. France and Italy are currently planning a film production agreement fol- A film can be both – a block- lowing the Franco-German example for buster entertaining the masses a better evaluation of productions from and a cultural event. In the film the partner country. world, international coopera- It is a fact that Europe is no longer ill-reputed as “Europudding“. 3 Econo- tion is more than ever the rule mic and artistic synergy effects are in- rather than the exception. creasingly appreciated. To a large extent,

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this is due to the continuous, structuring reignty of the individual states, but it can work of European Film funding boards, certainly generate differentiated opinions whose dedicated work over the last few and support critical perception. Yet one years has become increasingly noticeable. aspect must not be overlooked: No matter The important work of the extensive ME- whether we’re talking about Hollywood DIA programmes also needs to be men- or Bollywood or Wooden Europe – cine- tioned in this context. Often, it is more matic quality is claim that must not be of an issue how something is “sold“ or abandoned. Film as a pure economic asset perceived. Cultural and national diversity is stripped of its function as an art form need time in order to merge into a resi- and as a cultural event. lient and genuine European unity – and To protect the genre of film as a cultu- until this fact will have been generally ral asset – whether at a European, natio- understood. nal or global level – is the main task and at the same time the responsibility of the Global (film)village global “village community”.

Through the Internet and digitalisa- Translation: Angelika Welt tion, films can be sent from one place to another in seconds. This is one of the Since 1992, Michael Schmid-Ospach has accelerating factors in order to create a been the ARTE delegate of the German broadcasting corporation WDR and the chairman of global- or in our case initially European the supervisory board of the Film Founda- “village“, which has already been mention NRW in Düsseldorf. Since 2001, he has tioned earlier, where film can be every- also been the Film Foundation’s managing thing – whether it is a documentary, fic- director. The author studied Theatre Studies, tion or in-between genres and cinematic German Studies and Psychology in Cologne. Between 1977 and 1990, he was the head of worlds – and at best is a critical, educa- Press and PR at the WDR. Afterwards, he be- tional work. came the deputy director for television and Above all, this means that German worked in “Central Assigments“ for the next and European films are not only gaining two years. Schmid-Ospach is also the head ground. Film is rapidly becoming an in- of the section ‘Culture and Science FS’ at the WDR and a member of a number of media and creasingly significant art form, a cultural cultural institutions. event and gradually also an important economic asset. This will require additional competencies of all parties involved – be it at the level of film production or of film reception. It also requires a sharper observation of media power and extensive monitoring to prevent the repetition of events in Ita- ly, with Berlusconi as the most powerful politician in the country controlling the 1 On 11 June 2001 in Aachen at the opening of the exhibition “Krönungen. media. A “global village“ cannot avert Könige in Aachen (Coronations: Kings in Aachen)“ 2 Frankfurter Rundschau, 8 November 2006 such developments because of the sove- 3 Westdeutsche Zeitung, 6 September 2006

136 Curtain for Niche Cinema Progress not least due to technological advance has changed our behaviour as consumers of culture. Even in the most distant places we are globally connected, and cultural goods such as books and films are available online – with the exception of Europe- an niche films. However, blockbusters from Hol- lywood now face serious competition from niche products. By Dina Iordanova

that “we are not moving to a more homo- genous world but one where the individual consumer wants to make individual choices” (Gubbins, p. 2). In this age of new technologies and triumph of niche markets liberated from the ‘tyranny of geography’ amazing new possibilities can turn into wonderful new routines. Because of the inflexible nature of distribution channels that fa- voured broadcasting and suffocated narrowcasting European cinema’s contact with its potential audiences were sup- pressed for many years. Today, however, t was not a long time ago that Manuel there are unprecedented opportunities Castells, the Internet visionary, in- to reach out. But do we see these pro- Isisted that the media world is “in the spects burgeon in Europe? Not really. midst of an extraordinary transforma- There isn’t much to suggest that Europe’s tion, going glocal (globalizing and nar- cultural policies are taking up the oppor- rowcasting at the same time), and finding tunities offered by the dramatic chan- economies of scale and synergy between ge in distribution channels to radically different modes of expression” (Castells, transform the public space within Eu- p. 191). It only took about five years for rope and beyond and reach out to those his view to become commonly accepted who want to know about Europe’s diver- truth. Those engaged in the creative in- sity and culture. dustries today already know that the age Today Europe has got the technology of blockbuster is over, that nowadays “it that permits for niche consumption and is possible to make a major commercial catering to varied interests and that al- success out of a niche interest” as long lows to overcome the blockbuster domi- as the range of media on offer is properly understood and utilized, that globalizing indeed comes hand-in-hand with narrowcasting and niche marketing, and

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nation and to tap into the rich and the On the way back, I enjoy watching the diverse. What is not in place, however, seabirds and observe the tide; sometimes are the policies and the strategies to let I even see seals. On my return, the mail us really take advantage of the ‘extraor- has come. With it there are two square dinary transformation’ that Castells spo- envelopes marked Lovefilm, containing ke about. European cinema’s outreach is the DVDs I was told in an e-mail message hampered by muddled distribution stra- from the company the previous day, had tegies and knotty public policies. been shipped my way. In the evening I What my daily life looks today see- will watch the films on my large plas- med a nice fantasy even ten years ago, ma screen television; the next day I will though it had first been outlined in me- make some notes about the films, then dia theory terms by Marshall McLuhan put them back in the reusable envelopes in the early 1960s. I live in a small vil- and drop in the mailbox at the corner. lage on Scotland’s East coast, 45 miles The next shipment of DVD’s from the from Edinburgh, in the centre of a beau- personal viewing queue I have created tiful golf country, overlooking the sea on Lovefilm’s web-site will arrive in ano- from my office window. My home has ther two days. broadband connection and I can do my Later in the day, I handle most of my research and most of my work as I sit administration by sending more e-mails here and enjoy the striking view. and prepare my lecture, read student In the morning I go for a walk on work and send feedback electronically, the breezy seaside. Within minutes after engage in discussions with the IT offi- my return home I access Screen Daily cer regarding clip digitisation for tea- (the daily arm of Screen International, ching, and then mount the lecture no- featuring the latest news from the film tes for tomorrow’s teaching session on world) and check if yesterday’s press re- to the virtual learning environment my lease about my recent project on Indian University uses, WebCT. After the day cinema has been picked up by newspa- is over, I can check the stock market’s pers in Mumbai. I then do an hour of latest movements, both on the computer writing or other work, respond to the or on the respective satellite television e-mails that have come meanwhile, or channels, and can do my shopping on- talk in real time on Skype with friends line (it will be delivered tomorrow from in Hong Kong and Paris. I then take a a large supermarket which is 30 minutes break from writing and walk to the cent- drive down the coast). re of the village to buy eggs, fresh sal- I can do all this from home, enjoying mon, and oatcakes. In the post office I the beautiful peaceful surrounding of chat to the local bookstore owner who the village, with its clean air and pro- is here shipping books to international ximity to nature, while at the same time clients that he got via his eBay and Ama- being fully engaged with my contacts, zon storefronts: he is conscious that his business would barely thrive if it was to rely solely on the occasional passers by in the village.

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nationally and internationally. I can sit every day, I no longer go to the cinema in my Scottish rural setting and be as very much. The nearest cinema in St. connected to the world and as active in Andrews is still blanket-booking Hol- my exchanges as I would be in the cent- lywood films, and I only occasionally re of London, without all its stress. My want to see these. The nearest art house fantasy from a decade ago is now my cinema is in Dundee, and to get to there daily reality. I would need to drive 45 minutes; quite There is no video shop in my villa- often I decide it is not worth it as I can ge; all over the place video rental busi- see the same film two months later at nesses of the corner shop-type are going home from a DVD. Then, not far from down. The two local grocery stores used here, Edinburgh has the most important to carry DVDs for rent (exclusively re- film festival in the UK. But it happens in cent Hollywood releases) but these ren- August, precisely when the long sunny tals are now discontinued: people now days on the seaside are much more en- either order video on demand via their joyable, so staying home often takes pre- satellite service or have become subscri- cedence over spending the day in stuffy bers to various on-line DVD rental clubs dark screening rooms. So I only go for that offer so much more variety, and are the opening and only a few screenings. cheaper at that. The video shop that was I still go to international festivals (Rot- carrying all the Hollywood stuff in the terdam, Berlin, and so on), but this is nearby University town of St. Andrews mostly to see films that will never be saw its business decline and had to close. available otherwise. The only surviving video shop is the one It may be true that my village is not specialised in art house films: a process the average one. About a third of its clearly contradicting what we are told is 1,500 inhabitants work at Scotland’s ol- the trend of big Hollywood chains taking dest University in St. Andrews; another over small independent businesses com- third are retired intellectuals – writers, mitted to alternative film. artists or musicians; only about a third Even though I am a Film Studies are engaged in agriculture, fishing and Professor and watch at least one film the local service businesses. But this is precisely what makes my village such a suitable example: the majority of those who live here are potential niche consu- The only surviving video shop mers of European cinema; they are more is the one specialised in art likely to prefer seeing serious European films rather than Hollywood blockbus- house films: a process clearly ters, and most of them have the techno- contradicting what we are told logy to do it. But European cinema is is the trend of big Hollywood simply not available to them. chains taking over small independent businesses committed to alternative film.

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We have achieved the dream of living spering alongside the mass consumption in the countryside and enjoying all pri- and progressively taking a bigger sha- vileges of life near nature, while at the re of the market. Million dollar ads for same time taking advantage of the won- new Hollywood blockbusters on televi- ders of globalisation, allowing us to have sion now face serious competition from exposure to art and culture that earlier free word-of-mouth recommendations one could only get to amidst the dust and in Yahoo groups or other chat rooms, the noise of big cities. Distance does not because in the Long Tail word-of-mouth seem to matter any more, as the remote is as powerful as advertising. Businesses village is as adequately supplied with like Lovefilm and Amazon no longer cultural goods as Europe’s most central need to maintain massive stocks and to locations. We are witnessing the end of carry simultaneously as much as pos- the blockbuster and mass distribution sible of what the drop-in client may be era, entering another age where our spe- interested in, they can simply list almost cialised niche interests can be catered for any item and resource it on demand. In equally successfully, no matter where addition, they can provide their web- we are. Because, as Castells put it, the sites as a forum for exchanges, like E- Internet provides, “a horizontal, non- Bay where scores of small vendors have controlled, relatively cheap, channel of grown their businesses by tapping into communication, from one-to-one as well a global market of clients. as from one-to-many” (Castells, p. 157) New technologies profoundly change the manner of cultural consumpti- Life in the Long Tail on, allowing for a much wider scope of narrowcasting alongside the broad- Welcome to life in the Long Tail! Wel- casting. In Anderson’s Long Tail uni- come to the world of abundance! The verse, the world of broadcasting is seen Long Tail, of which Wire editor Chris as ‘world of scarcity’ (yesterday’s limi- Anderson begun talking a few years ted choices) and juxtaposed to ‘the world ago describes the mode of cultural con- of abundance’ (today’s world of niche sumption in the electronic age. For our marketing). In the Long Tail ‘the vast viewing needs we are no longer confi- majority of products are NOT available ned to the local cinema to the three te- at a store near you’ but can always be levision channels, but have access to a requested and obtained from companies range 100-odd channels and to the In- like Lovefilm, Amazon, eBay which ope- ternet, where on YouTube one can find rates ‘on demand’ inventories and have almost anything that has not made it to ‘not only expanded existing markets’ television for some reason, and where but have also discovered entirely new one can download or order almost any niches that are intensely growing. For film (legally the films that are picked the first time in history blockbusters and up for distribution and clandestinely all those that have not been selected for mass marketing). Welcome to the time of niche marketing, thriving and pro-

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niches are on equal economic footing, to my doorstep, like the DVD rental ser- equally worthy developing from distri- vice does. bution point of view, because the very Having been engaged in growing an big number of niche products multipli- ambitious University DVD library collec- ed by even a relatively small number of tion for my programme over the last two sales still results in a viable and pow- years, I know all about the frustrations erful economic figure. “Suddenly, po- and the limitations one encounters when pularity no longer has a monopoly on trying to source European films. Even profitability,” Anderson remarks (p. 24). for an experienced specialist like me, fa- “Bringing niches within reach reveals miliar with all existing channels, it is a latent demand for non-commercial con- laborious and time consuming effort to tent. Then, as demand shifts toward the acquire many of the films of leading Eu- niches, the economics of providing them ropean cineastes as they are simply una- improve further, and so on, creating a vailable. Take Tony Gatlif, for example. positive feedback loop that will trans- Only a single film of his, Exils, is in UK form entire industries – and the culture distribution and thus readily available – for the decades to come.” (Anderson, for me to purchase. The French Amazon 2006, p. 26) site only carries a fraction of his films on DVD (mostly not subtitled, whereas Drawing borders the Hollywood DVD releases come with subtitles in more than a dozen European European film, however, is not as languages, from Finnish to Bulgarian). easy to stumble upon in the world of Only two of Volker Schlöndorff’s films abundance. Very little of European ci- are currently in UK distribution; to get nema is available in the Long Tail, still a copy of his Homo Faber (co-produced restricted by distribution deals that are by four European countries, including nowhere near stretching across Europe the UK), one can only rely on second- and are still limited to specific countries. hand traders. More than 30% of all Bri- For specialists like me, working in East tish made films never make it to any sort European cinema but based in the UK, of distribution and therefore one cannot it is a frustrating and time consuming to grow a proper collection of British cine- keep up to date with new film develop- ma. The only way to obtain copies from ments in the countries in which I have other key European cinematic texts is special interest, and I still rely more on via illegally downloading them from the personal networks and contacts with the Internet. It I indeed download some of filmmakers as no mechanisms exist that these films and use it in teaching, my would bring the output of these cinemas colleagues in IT and Media Services refuse to help by claiming I am committing a piracy crime. For the first time in history blockbusters and niches are on equal economic footing.

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I clearly remember witnessing a few that allow reaching out to niche audi- years ago how the DAAD-funded Ger- ences in pocket locations. The distribu- man language ‘Lektorin’ at a British tion is still by national territories (as op- University who was planning to teach posed to pan-European, one that could a German film course could not get any indeed be ‘sans frontiers’). It is essential of the early Wim Wenders films through to understand, however, that Europeans’ the usual channels she had access to and access to cinema is not via the cinemas had to resort to placing eBay bids in or- and the festival network. More and more der to acquire Alice in the Cities. In the of us live in the Long Tail, and it is about breaks between lessons she was running time for European cinema to arrive here to her office to check on-line how the and takes its place, alongside Bollywood bidding was going. Alas, her funds were and Japanese animation. limited and she was outbid. Today none of Wenders’s early films are part of this Dina Iordanova holds the Chair in Film Stu- dies at the University of St. Andrews in Scot- University’s collection; this is the picture land, where she also directs the Centre for at most other UK University collections Film Studies. She has written extensively on as well. Accidentally, Wenders has been the cinema of Eastern Europe and the Balkans the president of the European Film Aca- and runs projects in the area of internatio- demy for ten years now. One can only nal and transnational cinema. Her research approaches cinema on a meta-national level speculate what is the availability of the and focuses on the dynamics of transnatio- work of cineastes that are not as publicly nalism in cinema; she has special interest in visible as he is. issues related to cinema at the periphery.

Get out of the corner References Anderson, Chris. The Long Tail: How Endless Choice is Creating Unlimited Demand. Lon- European cultural funding bodies don: Random House, 2006. spend significant amounts on suppor- Castells, Manuel. The Internet Galaxy Reflec- ting networks of traditional cinemas tions on the Internet, Business, and Society, and on festivals, both types of exhibition Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. Gubbins, Michael “Bringing it Home,” Screen with a limited urban reach. The reality of International, 8 September 2006, p. 2. the need to distribute in the Long Tail, McLuhan, Marshall. The Gutenberg Galaxy. however, remains ignored. Funding bo- London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962. dies privilege the financing of projects that target metropolitan audiences and ignore the technological developments

1 Castells, S. 191. 2 Gubbins, S.2. 3 Castells, S. 157. 4 Der Begriff des “Long Tail” geht auf Chris Anderson zurück. Er beschreibt die meist auf Mausklick verfügbaren Nischenprodukte, die im Einzelhandel nicht unbedingt erhältlich sind, und die dennoch lukrativer sein können als Massenware. 5 Anderson, S.24. 58 Anderson 2006, S.26.

142 THE POWER OF IMAGES Time and again, Hollywood films such as “Pretty Woman“ or “The Pursuit of Happiness“ reiterate the Ame- rican Dream. By now, the whole world dreams that dream summing up the credo of US-Ameri- can society: Life can be improved through will- power and hard work. Who dreams the European Dream, where is the European cinema? Is Europe abandoning the battlefield of images to others? By Wim Wenders

and civilisation. Those who have lived in Europe for a long time seem to be weary of it. Those who are not here yet and live elsewhere want to come here or get in at any cost. What is it that some have, but don’t want any more and others are longing for so much? Or, to speak for myself: Why is Europe so “sacred“ to me the moment I see it from afar and why so profane, ordinary, almost boring as soon as I am back here? When I was a boy, I dreamt of a Euro- pe without borders. Now I am travelling “What is Europe?“and “What is Eu- across Europe – virtually and in reality – rope like?“ We could think that Europe without showing my passport. I even pay is destroyed, fucked, foutue. Just think with one currency, but where is my emo- about the disaster with the European tion? Here in Berlin, I am wholeheartedly Constitution, its actual political power, German by now. Yet as soon as you are in the lack of enthusiasm of European citi- the United States, you no longer say that zens for “the European cause“ in the re- you are from Germany, France or where- cent past. “The Europeans“ are sick and ver. You are from “Europe“ or returning tired of Europe... On the other hand, Eu- to Europe. For Americans, Europe is the rope turns into heaven on earth and the epitome of culture, history, style, “savoir Promised Land if observed from outside. vivre“. The only reason for them to suffer Over the last two months, I have seen Eu- from an inferiority complex. All the time. rope from Chicago and New York, from From Asia or other parts of the world, Eu- Tokyo, Rio, Australia, from the Congo in the heart of Africa or last week from Moscow. Europe always appears in a different light, but always as a paradise, a dream of humanity, a haven of peace, wealth

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rope also seems to be a bastion of the his- feel represented and who would such an tory of humankind, of dignity and – yes, environment appeal to?! that word again – of culture. We live in the age of the image. No Europe has a soul – oh yes, no need other cultural aspect is as influential as to invent a soul for our continent – it has the image. Books, newspaper, the theatre got one already, which has nothing to …nothing comes even remotely close to do with its politics or its economy, but the power of moving images, the cinema mainly with its culture. I am preaching and television. Why is going to the cine- to the converted. Two years ago, in this ma in the entire world - not just in Eu- same place, the President of the European rope – synonymous with ‘going to see an Commission made a very clear statement. American film”?! Because a long time ago, I only quote the end of his speech: the Americans have understood what mo- “Europe is not only about markets, it is ved people and inspired dreams and have also about values and culture. And allow implemented this radically. The whole me a personal remark: in the hierarchy “American Dream” is an invention of the of values, the cultural ones range above cinema – with the entire world dreaming the economic ones. If the economy is a it in the meantime. necessity for our lives, culture is really I don’t want to discredit this fact, yet what makes our life worth living.” would like to ask the following question: I could quote other parts from this re- Who is dreaming the European Dream? markable speech or even his entire words, A recent concrete example comes to my because he speaks my mind. Yet outward- mind in this context: Over the next two ly, in the interaction with its citizens, Eu- months or so, 20, 30 or even 50 million rope still acts like a power with prima- Europeans are going to watch exactly rily economic interests, using political the same film. Every programme, every and financial arguments - never mentio- news channel – and I zapped through the ning cultural aspects. Europe does not whole of Europe - reported about a film argue with emotions! Yet who loves his premiere in London. The film in questi- or her country because of its politics or on was, as you might guess, James Bond its economy? Nobody! Directly next door – that noble British gentleman, a fighter is the “showroom“ of the European Uni- for right and wrong, who has saved the on, which you can find in every capital world from its downfall for 40 years now. city. What is on display? Maps, brochures, Do you remember the wonderful Scots- economic information, material on the man who once played this European hero history of the European Union. All dead – Sir Sean Connery? Or the highly ele- boring, nothing going on! Who would gant and sophisticated Irishman Pierce

The whole “American Dream” is an invention of the cinema – with the entire world dreaming it in the meantime.

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Brosnan? Over Christmas, exactly at the awareness - no emotions related to this same time, millions of Europeans are now continent, no future European identity, going to see some kind of little Gangster no connection – without us being able to who – forgive my comparison – looks like look at our own myths, our own history, the Russian President Vladimir Putin. our own ideas and feelings! This new Bond is apparently rather bru- No other ambassador of Spain is more tal and ruthless. So what does this tell powerful than Pedro Almodóvar. The UK us? What does this American production has Ken Loach and Poland is represented communicate? I know that this is exagge- by Andrej Wajda or Polanski. Although rated, but the core message is still rather dead for 13 years now, Federico Fellini true: We no longer have ownership of still defines the Italian soul. Which is ex- our own myths. Nothing shapes today’s actly what the European cinema does: fantasies as strikingly, emphatically and It forms and shapes our self-awareness with such long-lasting effect as the cine- and our awareness of others! It creates ma. But it is beyond our reach, we do not a European idea, a European way – in own it any more. Our very own invention fact the European soul that I am talking is out of our control. about. But look at the position we grant In European cinema, which never- our treasure. Look at the role it plays in theless still exists! – and is produced in European cultural life, the low level of around 50 European states, our own Eu- attention political Europe continues to ropean stories do not have an important allocate to European cinema and culture position any longer! as a whole. Yet this is the cement, the glue, These European cinematic images the cohesion of European feelings! could reflect a whole new generation of All these countries longing for Euro- Europeans. Europe could define itself in pe – including new and future accession an emotional, strong and sustainable way. countries from the East – on the one hand European thoughts could be carried into can imagine to tell us about themselves the world, we could communicate our and to win us over, to be welcomed by most important good – our CULTURE the European cause and the European – in an infectious way, the “Open Soci- soul on the other hand, if only we would ety“, the culture of dialogue and peace invigorate our mutual ambassadors, if we and humanity – but we allowed that the in Europe would believe in the power of weapon was taken from our hands. I deli- images. However, a serious error is com- berately use the word weapon, as images mitted in this context. Politics and eco- are the most powerful weapons of our nomics rather than emotions are used as 21st century. There won’t be a European arguments. Next door, the showroom fea-

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tures the most boring maps in the world, enthral them as long it remains an abs- whereas the global superpower of images tract idea. It has to be filled with emo- – the USA – captivates people, including tions. These European emotions are right the Europeans, with the most important in front of us and the Europeans are lon- embassy spaces in the world – in the ci- ging for them, but instead we leave them nemas and through television. This ge- to one side and leave the sphere of images neration that is currently de-tached from to others. I hope that we in Europe won’t Europe, will turn this into a serious re- recognise too late which battlefield we are proach towards European policies one clearing without any real resistance... day: Why did you allow that we became bored by Europe?! Why did you babble Translation: Angelika Welt on about politics instead of recommen- ding and showing our wonderful home The author introduced this text at the Berlin continent to us?! Europe HAS a cultural Conference “Europa eine Seele geben (A Soul for Europe)“ in November 2006. history, HAS today’s lifestyle, HAS its own political culture. Wim Wenders is a film director, photographer George Soros calls it “The Open So- and professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in ciety“. Particularly because America has Hamburg. failed so often to describe its moral and political values in the recent past, Europe is even more significant in our present- day world and more than ever functions as a role model. But: This role model is powerless if it does not trust the force of its own images! The Open Society is not going to sweep anybody along, carry people away and

146 Because of the two world wars, the recent history of Europe is probably the great landmark that defines our planeta- ry reality. In spite of its exemplary reconstruction, conflicts are still smoulde- ring. All this considered - how can the European Community set its own example and contribute to a culture of peace in the world?

Danilo Santos de Mirando, Director of Serviço Social do Comercio São Paulo (SESC-SP)

147

The End of the National Education Fortress Public authorities and educational communities have become aware of the European dimensions of challenges facing schools and universities, students, teachers and families as well as countries and regions. National and regional policies and practices in education, training, research and innovation are increasingly implemented and evaluated in a European framework. By Guy Haug

mobility would be immensely easier if the various national educational structures and systems were less incompatible with each other. This taboo was broken for the first time in the landmark Declarations of the Sorbonne (1998) and Bologna (1999) which called for a high level of convergence (not uniformity) in the degree structure in higher education. The ensuing “Bologna Process”, with its currently 45 participating countries from all over Europe, has thus succeeded in opening a new door. A few years later, this ntil about 1985, education was door could be enlarged to all other levels nearly completely absent from and types of education/training, thanks Uthe EU’s agendas and educatio- to the “Education & Training 2010” work nal policies were set and implemented programme which foresees (for all EU exclusively in their national context, usu- and related countries) their convergence ally without any attention to issues and towards shared European objectives (rat- policies in neighbouring countries. The her than “structures”). first generation of mobility programmes This work programme was made pos- of the European Union (Erasmus, Co- sible thanks to the European Summit mett, Lingua, and somewhat later also (meeting of heads of states and govern- Tempus) marked a first wave of change in ments) of Lisbon, in March 2000, which this traditional landscape: by generating marked a major step in the construction intra-European mobility on a (compara- of the Europe of the future: it announced tively) large scale, they have contributed the European Union’s ambition to become to taking educational systems out of their the world’s most advanced knowledge- isolation behind their national borders based economy and society, capable of (first in higher education and then, with creating more and better jobs and foste- Socrates, also in school education), but ring social inclusion while at the same without ever daring to suggest that this time respecting sound environmental

150 principles. At the same time the Europe- Educat ion an Council acknowledged that the EU’s “Lisbon Strategy“ was hinging on major changes in the social systems (in particular in employment and education) and on a major effort to strengthen research and innovation. This set in motion a process that within less than two years led to the are sole responsible for their educational adoption of two policy-oriented action policies and structures) but adds to it a plans by the Barcelona European Council new and ever thicker layer of coopera- in spring 2002: on the one hand, the first tion in the interest of each country and EU work programme on the objectives of ed- of the European Union as a whole. The ucation and training systems, now known as action programme concerns all levels of “Education & Training 2010“ (E&T 2010); education and training and all types of on the other hand, an agreement about the learning (including outside the formal need to raise the level of investment in re- education/training systems) in a lifelong search and innovation from the then 1.9% learning perspective. The 13 concrete ob- of GDP to 3% by 2010. jectives to be achieved by 2010 were arranged around 3 strategic goals (quality, “Education and training 2010”: three access, openness) and each objective was strategic guidelines broken down into specific action lines and accompanied by an indicative list of The Education & Training 2010 work indicators for the assessment of progress programme as a long term policy docu- (See Table 1) ment for the EU and its Member States remains amazingly little known in the edu- Education & Training 2010 cation/training communities throughout Europe. Yet, it is of strategic importance, 1. Increase quality and efficiency of mainly because it introduces three major education/training systems; improve innovations: the training of teachers and trainers; First, the work programme defines a develop skills needed in the know- series of shared European objectives to- ledge society; guarantee access of all wards which the national policies and to information/communication tech- educational practice should converge. nologies; increase the enrollment This is a major new event, which does in science/technology disciplines; not change the basic principle of subsidia- make best use of resources rity (according to which Member States 2. Facilitate access of all to the education/training systems; create an open learning environment; make learning The European Summit in Lis- more attractive; promote active citi- bon in 2000 announced the zenship and social cohesion EU’s ambition to become the 3. Open the education and training systems to the world around; world’s most advanced know- strengthen links with the world of ledge-based economy and socie- work, research and society; deve- ty, capable of creating more jobs lop the spirit of enterprise; improve and fostering social inclusion the learning of languages; increase mobility and exchanges; strengthen while also respecting sound en- European cooperation (both within vironmental principles. Europe and with the whole world)

151 Educat ion acquired a qualification or competencies anywhere in the EU to use them effectively throughout the Union for the purpose of work or further learning • Access of all Europeans to lifelong learning opportunities throughout Europe Secondly, the Ministers wanted not • A Europe open to cooperation with only to respond to the European Council’s all other world regions which should “invitation“ to cooperate more closely: by 2010 be the preferred destination they were keen to add to it at their own in- of mobile students, scholars and re- itiative, by raising the level of their shared searchers of the world ambition “in the interest of citizens and of Europe as a whole“. This means not Thirdly, for the first time in the his- just improving quality, but becoming “a tory of the EU, member states accepted reference of quality and relevance“ in the to fix European targets in education and world. They also underlined that Euro- training and to report on their own per- pe, who had lost to the USA the privilege formance in these areas. Five quantitative of being internationally mobile students’ targets (called benchmarks) were defi- most-wanted destination, should again ned for the EU as a whole. They highlight become by 2010 the “preferred destina- improvements to be achieved until 2010 tion of students, scholars and researchers thanks to coordinated efforts aimed at re- of other world regions“. These statements ducing early dropouts, filling deficiencies signal a new political will and mood in in basic skills, counteracting the disaffec- education and training in Europe and tion for scientific/technological studies, have encouraged policy makers to take increasing the completion rate of upper better into account the European and secondary education or the participation international dimension of the cultural, rate in continuing education/training. It social and educational challenges under- has however been impossible to find an pinning the work programme. agreement on the minimal level of investment in education/training, for example For the benefit of citizens and in terms of a percentage of GDP. the EU as a whole European reference points The E&T 2010 work programme («benchmarks») should make it possible to achieve: • the highest level of quality in educa- • early school leaving: in 2010 the tion and training, allowing Europe percentage of young Europeans to be seen as a world reference for dropping out prematurely of the ed- the quality and relevance of its education/training systems and institutions • A sufficient level of compatibility For the first time in the histo- between education/training systems ry of the EU, member states ac- in Europe, to allow citizens to move cepted to fix European targets around and chose, taking advantage in education and training and of their diversity instead of being hindered by it to report on their own perfor- • real possibilities for those who have mance in these areas.

152 ucation/training system should be Educat ion reduced to no ,more than10% • Maths, science and technology: the total number of graduates in MST in the EU should increase by at least 15% until 2010, and the imbalance between men and women should be reduced cerns school education and training; it • Completion of secondary education: encompasses also the efforts to improve in 2010, at least 85% of 22-year old the quality and attractiveness of vocatio- EU citizens should reach the level of nal education and training (as part of the upper secondary education so-called “Copenhagen process”). Several • Basic skills: by 2010, the percentage working groups have brought together of 15-year old with insufficient rea- experts and decision makers to identify ding skills should diminish at least the main shortfalls in school education one fifth in the EU, in comparison and the main levers for action in key areas with the year 2000 (e.g. teacher training, the identification • lifelong learning: in 2010, the ave- of the core basic skills for the knowledge rage level of participation in conti- society, the best use of new information/ nuing education/training activities communication technologies, the promo- should be of at least 12.5% of the wor- tion of Maths/Science/Technology, the king age population (age class 25-64 upgrading of guidance and counselling, years) in the EU the setting up of a coherent framework of qualifications, the optimal level of au- These reference points (or “bench- tonomy of schools, etc). The main purpo- mark”) allow each EU country – as well as se of the whole exercise is that interes- the EU as a whole - to compare itself with ted countries can learn from each other the European average and with the high- in “peer learning” groups where key est performers in Europe and in the world issues and possible policies addressing (in a way similar to the OECD’s PISA pro- them (“best practices”) are evaluated and ject which compares reading and compu- compared. ting skills of learners in different coun- This could be illustrated by what ap- tries). The distance to the agreed targets pears to be the cornerstone of all educa- and the itinerary for their achievement tion/training systems: the definition of are different for each country. But the the role of teachers/trainers and their in- “benchmarks” are not just technical ins- itial and continuing education/training, truments underpinning change/reforms: which has been the main theme of one of they have also a clear political meaning, the working groups set in place for the since improving the performance of the implementation of E&T 2010. In the light EU as a whole depends on the efforts of of the new challenges facing teachers/ all countries and actors, i.e. on some kind trainers (whether in pre-primary, pri- of solidarity between all countries – so- mary or secondary education, including mething definitely new in areas such as general, technical, vocational or profes- education and training. sional education), the dialogue between EU countries and actors on the training School education and training of teachers/trainers has resulted in a new vision for the coming decades, based on The list of agreed European “bench- a new, European profile of the professi- marks” shows that the main thrust of on and a list of key competencies in tune the E&T 2010 work programme con- with a new age. The teaching/training

153 Educat ion surance agencies. In return, several EU activities provide specific or indirect support to Bologna priorities, either through new or renewed programmes like Eras- mus Mundus or Marie-Curie, or by means of the E&T 2010 work programme, e.g. through the network of “Bologna promo- profession should: require a qualification ters” in all countries, the cross-border acquired in higher education, define its comparison of curricula and key com- role in a lifelong learning perspective; petencies in various disciplines (Tuning include a period of mobility abroad and programme) or the new Recommenda- base itself mainly on the activation of tion on strengthening the cooperation partnerships. Among the key competen- between quality assurance agencies. cies which all teachers/trainers should ac- This demonstrates that beyond the quire, three are seen as particularly cru- structural reforms coinciding with the cial: the aptitude to manage knowledge, priorities of the Bologna process, the EU information and technologies; the capaci- is designing a broader and deeper process ty to manage human relations (with lear- for the modernisation of higher education ners, colleagues and external partners); and research. This also adds a new policy and the ability to work with and within dimension to the EU’s traditional role in society, at the local, regional, national, higher education (i.e. the cooperation and European et global level. These princip- mobility programmes) and in research/ les are only meant as tools for forward- innovation (i.e. the series of „Framework looking dialogues and reform proposals programmes“). The EU’s agenda for the in each country and each institution, by modernisation of universities could only providing stakeholders and decision ma- be developed within the framework of kers with a revisited, open, dynamic and E&T 2010. It was set out in two impor- European framework of reference. tant Communications of the European Commission: Universities: higher education and - In 2005, “Mobilising the brainpow- research/innovation er of Europe” acknowledged that European universities were lagging At the level of universities, in their re- behind (in terms of access, relevan- lated missions in higher education, re- ce and image), identified the main search and innovation, the most impor- reasons for this (e.g. fragmentation, tant observation is that henceforward under-funding and over-regulati- the EU’s agenda for the modernisation on) and outlined an agenda aimed at of universities defined as part of the Lis- “allowing universities to make their bon Strategy coincides substantially with full contribution to the Lisbon Stra- the agenda of structural change of the tegy”. It focuses on policies favou- Bologna Process and thus reinforces and complements it. The objectives underpinning the Bo- logna Process (employability, efficiency of Beyond the structural reforms learning process, mobility, attractiveness) coinciding with the priorities of are also core priorities of the European the Bologna process, the EU is Union. Bologna makes use of various in- designing a broader and deeper struments that were developed as part of EU programmes, such as the ECTS cre- process for the modernisation of dits or the ENQA network of quality as- higher education and research.

154 ring: the renovation of curricula and Educat ion research programmes at universities; a greater differentiation between institutions and hence the quest for excellence; better governance models for systems and institutions; and higher education and research funding mechanisms adapted to the universities; focusing funding sys- highly competitive and rapidly chan- tems for universities on outputs and ging context of the knowledge eco- giving universities more responsibi- nomy and society. This Communica- lity for their own long-term finan- tion was supported by the European cial sustainability; reviewing natio- Council who at its Hampton Court nal student fee and support schemes meeting in October of 2005 encou- to increase access and success rates raged further initiatives for the for all qualified students irrespective strengthening and modernisation of of their background; etc. higher education and research. - In 2006, in response to the Euro- These changes in school education, pean Council’s request, the Com- higher education and research mean that mission published another Com- Europe has entered a new phase. Most munication, “Delivering on the importantly, since the adoption of the modernisation agenda of Europe- E&T 2010 work programme, education an universities”. After repeating and training – together with research and that European universities’ enor- innovation – have gradually moved from mous potential goes largely untap- marginal areas to core priorities on the ped because of various rigidities European agenda. While policies in these and hindrances, the Communica- areas remain clearly in the hands of nati- tion reaffirms that freeing up this onal authorities (subsidiarity principle), substantial reservoir of knowledge, they are henceforward articulated with talent and energy requires immedi- each other within a new type of coopera- ate, in-depth and coordinated chan- tion geared towards the achievement of ge ranging from the way in which shared European goals. systems are regulated and managed to the ways in which universi- Guy Haug is an independent European/in- ties are governed. Each institution ternational expert in education policies with a special emphasis on university policies. should find the balance of education, He was centrally involved in designing and research and innovation which is launching the Bologna Process and worked best suited to its role in its region or for the European Commission for the shaping country. This will necessarily mean of the university agenda of the EU’s Lisbon a differentiated approach. The aim is Strategy. to create a framework within which References universities can become stronger All documents referred to in this article can players in the global knowledge so- be found at http://ec.europa.eu/education/ ciety and economy and excellence in policies/2010/et_2010_en.html, http://euro- teaching and research can emerge pa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/i23010.htm) and www.bologna-bergen2005.no and flourish. The Communication also identifies a short list of core measures that should be introduced everywhere. They include: greater autonomy and accountability for

155 Learning over Time A time-travelling teacher from the fifties of the last century would not lose orientation in 2007, whereas a surgeon would be completely lost facing new technologies. Does the school system lag behind the model of a future- oriented society? While Asia is catching up in the OECD comparison of education systems, Europe- an schools only gradually realise that beyond teaching knowledge social skills and ways to exploit potentials are needed. By Andreas Schleicher

competitive advantages were achieved by “economies of scale“. Nowadays, growth impulses are a result of digitalisation and miniaturisation and competitive advantages are achieved by innovation and real-time delivery. In the industrial society, the corporate model was the individual company, whereas it is a flexible alliance of competitors nowadays. In the industrial society, full employment was the political objective, whereas it is “employability“nowadays – which means enabling people to broaden their horizons in a continually changing society. ithin living memory, edu- In the industrial society, professional cation has always played an profiles provided a clear identity within Wimportant role. Yet why is a job-specific context and formal quali- education adopting a key role for the Eu- fications were the key to success. Nowa- ropean states right now – and not only for days, convergence, transformation and the benefit of the individual, but also in life-long learning have become the key terms of the wealth and competitiveness success factors. of entire nations? It is evident that work New technologies have had a deci- and living conditions have changed fun- sive influence on these developments, damentally. The markets in the industrial as Thomas Friedmann illustrates in his society – up until the second half of the book “The world is flat“. A lot of reflec- 20th century – were stable, competition tions from this book are also represen- took place at a national level and orga- ted in this article: Since the eighties and nisational structures were hierarchical. the nineties of the 20th century, people In the knowledge society, markets are have been able to produce their work in dynamic, competition is at a global level and organisational structures are networked. In the industrial society, growth impulses were based on mechanisation and

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digital format on a PC. The World Wide were opened up for them. However, this Web began to organise and arrange in- mainly led to a growing demand for peo- formation that had been distributed on ple with a high or average level of qualifi- individual computers so far and above all cation, as the jobs involving simple tasks made it globally accessible. And finally, remained in the buying countries. products such as Word, Excel or PayPal Needless to say, technological innova- set standards for networked working. At tions alone do not create any productivity the same time, the deregulation of the advances. However, their implementati- telecommunication industry led to the on creates new work structures and new “dot-com bubble“: Investors paid billions behaviours. As a result, a global platform to telecommunication firms which hoped was created around the turn of the mill- for high profits from investments in com- ennium, enabling users all over the world munication technology and glass-fibre to exchange knowledge, to communicate cables to network states and continents. with other people and to work or com- As a consequence, the costs for teleph- pete with each other. People, companies ony and the use of the Internet sank so or states around the globe were able to drastically that many of the technology cooperate within complex contexts and companies providing this global commu- to participate in global competition. As a nication network went bankrupt in the result of this development, the best and process. Yet the networked world, low most efficient provider anywhere in the communication costs and the distribution world can carry out every job and offer of new technologies enabled new forms every service that can somehow be divi- of global cooperation. ded and digitalised. One great challen- Contrary to general opinion, the sub- ge for the European societies is the fact sequent stock market crash in the tech- that three billion people in countries like nology industry did not dampen globa- China, India, Russia, Brazil or in Eas- lisation processes – it rather accelerated tern European countries - due to their them. Companies started to save and tried hierarchical and vertical political and to produce products more cheaply. A tech- economic structures excluded from the nologically networked world offered a lar- global community until a short while ago ge number of opportunities to outsource – can now actively engage with the net- simple production or service activities to worked world. The collapse of the Soviet countries like China or India. Sudden- Union, India’s turning away from a self- ly, the European states were competing contained, self-sufficient economy and with states offering basic qualifications at China’s economic opening have enlarged significantly lower costs. In Europe, un- the global society and economy to six tril- employment figures for people with a low lion people over night. qualification profile began to rise. Other Certainly, China currently only do- economic sectors disappeared completely minates the production sector, but the as they were made redundant by information technology. Naturally, the European states also benefited from globalisation, particularly because large new markets

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competition caused by low production tries in terms of its university degree quo- costs is only a transition phase for the ta. However, in the seventies, many states country. China’s longer-term strategy is caught up and in the eighties, the dyna- to win the contest against the Western mic expansion and changes in the tertiary industrialised nations - certainly not at education systems continued, with some the lower end of the performance scale. states again accelerating in the nineties. For that reason, China consistently in- Looking at Korea as a country which ge- vests in education. nerated the gross domestic product of Af- Hong Kong’s PISA results - not excee- ghanistan in the sixties, it has advanced ded by any nation in the Western world from occupying one of the last positions - already give us an impression of China’s in the OECD comparison to the group of future potential in the case of a further international top performers. Germany political opening of the country. Initial has fallen back to the 23rd position among pilot studies even in poorer regions in 30 OECD member states – not because the West China show a PISA performance participation of universities in Germany level that keeps up with Europe - at least has decreased, but because participation in mathematics. These changes towards a in the academic and non-academic terti- global knowledge society have a decisive ary education sectors has increased in so influence on the educational landscape. I many states at much greater speed during will provide a short outline of these con- that period of time. sequences in order to be show fields of In this context, it is also significant activity and the resulting challenges. that the European states are no longer competing with threshold countries that Europe - missing the boat in educa- offer lower qualifications at lower costs, tion policy? but with countries like China or India, which increasingly aim for top qualifica- There are many ways to evaluate the tions. In the past, the educational systems existing knowledge and skills portfolio of in Europe were able to focus on them- a population. However, in most cases the selves. However, in a globalised world, a respective highest educational qualifica- global perception needs to be added to the tion of the adult population is measured. national perception and it has to be clear This benchmark only considers formal that insufficient investments in education qualifications, which per se have a re- lead to a deteriorating quality of life – for stricted significance for the quality of the individual as well as for entire states education and moreover only serve for failing the transition to the knowledge international comparisons to a limited ex- society. The OECD indicators reveal that tent. With such quantitative benchmarks, the job market situation is significantly changes in the final degree quotas clearly better for graduates of the tertiary edu- reveal over time how education systems cation sector and the risk of unemploy- in the industrialised world expanded over the last decades: In the sixties, Germany maintained a strong position among the middle-ranking countries of OECD coun-

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ment is significantly lower than for those Assuming a zero-sum game, it would without a tertiary degree – particularly be completely wrong to deduce a decrea- in the later years of life. Likewise, in all sed demand for higher qualifications in OECD countries, at least one half of the Europe from the increasing numbers of per capita GNP increase in the nineties staff with top qualifications from China was due to an increase in work producti- or India: An employee creating a know- vity and thus mainly the result of a higher ledge-based product – for example a book level of education. or a consultancy service, sells more of There are also no indicators that the this product in a bigger market. Howe- dynamic global expansion of the tertiary ver, those who sell their manual labour educational system leads to an “inflati- or tangible products with no real value on” of qualifications. On the contrary - increase generated by a growing market among the states where the share of 25- to do not benefit from these developments, 64-year-old people with tertiary degrees as each product and manual labour can have increased by more than five percent only be sold once. Therefore, the oppor- since 1995 – Australia, Denmark, France, tunities for those with a good education Ireland, Japan, Canada, Korea, Spain or will grow further, whereas people with England – most nations show decreasing an inadequate education will suffer gre- rates of unemployment and increasing ater risks. income advantages among the tertiary graduates. Between 1998 and 2003, the Learning for life income advantage gained by a tertiary education increased from 30 to 53 per- It is also undisputed that strategic ob- cent in Germany - another important in- jectives for educational reforms should dicator that demand for top qualifications no longer be limited to the quantitative has accelerated at a noticeably higher rate expansion of educational systems – fol- than supply. lowing the motto “more of the same”. It would be equally myopic to align educational systems with the present need Looking at Korea as a country for manpower, thus looking at the past. Nowadays, many successful educational which generated the gross do- systems follow a traditional model with mestic product of Afghanistan the goal to meet the current qualification in the sixties, it has advanced demand in the job market and invest stra- from occupying one of the last tegically in further education for young people – the only way to teach them to positions in the OECD compa- broaden their horizons continuously and rison to the group of internati- to become actively involved in the econo- onal top performers. Germany mic and social changes of society. has fallen back to the 23rd position among 30 OECD member states.

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It is the main challenge for education to build sustainable relationships, to coo- to prepare people for an active and au- perate and to work in teams, to deal with tonomous role in society, shaping it by conflicts and to operate constructively recognising and applying different di- in multicultural and pluralistic societies. mensions – cognitive, moral and social - of The increasing heterogeneity is not a pro- their own actions. The OECD has iden- blem, but rather a positive potential of the tified three categories of future-oriented knowledge society. key competencies, which require a broad Obviously, the real-life implications spectrum of classroom contents, with so- of such normative regulations have to be cial or musical competencies at a similar measured. If – as initially described - we level as cognitive competencies: First of assume that every category of work that all, people engage with the world by using can be digitalised is available in a glo- cognitive, sociocultural and physical me- bally networked world – which at actual dia. This type of interaction determines wage levels often means outside of Europe how they interpret the world and acquire – we need to ask which fields of activity competencies. By itself, this is no guaran- will remain for Europe’s future: Which tee for the young people’s success. Nowa- types of works cannot simply be digita- days, globalisation is no longer primarily lised, automated or outsourced? Which an issue of interaction between states – as competencies are required for these jobs it was the case in past centuries – or an is- and how are they evaluated? sue of interaction between multinational Within the first of the three competen- companies – as it was the case over the cy categories mentioned above, schools last decades. The question of a construc- have traditionally placed a strong em- tive involvement of the individual in the phasis on analytical abilities to dissect knowledge society is becoming increa- specific problems and then solve them. singly important. For that purpose, peo- On the other hand, it is becoming incre- ple need competencies enabling them to asingly obvious that great breakthroughs reposition themselves continuously and and paradigm changes nowadays mainly to act independently and responsibly in occur if different aspects or spheres of a permanently changing world. Compe- knowledge with no obvious relation to tencies empowering them to get actively each other are synthesised. Examples are involved in different areas of life and to social workers in schools or the computer shape them, to recognise rights, interests, expert systematising the human genome, boundaries and needs and to deal with using his findings for the introduction of them with a strong sense of responsibi- new drugs in cooperation with pharma- lity. And they need competencies that enable them to place their individual plans and projects within a larger reference framework. Thirdly, people have to be able The ability to synthesise different areas will increase in importance, as this process is not easy to digitalise or automate.

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ceutical companies. The ability to syn- into the job market. Yet the success of the thesise different areas will increase in dual system at the beginning of a wor- importance, as this process is not easy to king life is countered by a growing risk digitalise or automate. of becoming unemployed in later years With an increasingly complex world of life. Apparently, said young people are of work and an increasingly complex co- less capable to adjust to the fast-changing dified knowledge base, people who un- requirements of the world of work – for derstand complexity and have the ability obvious reasons: Every salary at the same to translate it into the language of other time reflects transversal and job-specific fields of expertise - thus making it acces- competencies. If one job is lost because sible for people from other fields – often its specific profile is no longer required in a local context – will become more and – for example because technologies re- more important. Quintessentially, this place this profile – people with this job- also involves the ability to filter infor- specific profile face difficulties. Even if mation in a meaningful way, to distin- they find a new job with a different range guish between relevant and less relevant of duties, the new employer will only re- information, etc. munerate the transversal competencies, In terms of the second competency ca- whereas specialist competencies not re- tegory, it can be observed that neither the quired in the new position will no longer generalists nor the specialists will play be reflected in the salary. the decisive role in our society but the In the third competency category, in- people acting as intermediaries between creasingly complex economic relation- these two groups. ships and supply chains require the effi- Of course, generalists with a large cient orchestration of complex processes knowledge radius and a transversal scope within specific areas of work and other for manoeuvre will still play an important areas of work in cooperation with other role. Specialists will still be recognised people and other teams. Interpersonal within their own profession. However, competencies personalising global pro- a complex changing world increasingly cesses, products or services within the relies on the ability to acquire in-depth respective local context are also becoming specialist knowledge in new contexts and increasingly important. life-long learning, on the adoption of new No matter how efficient China or In- roles and continuous repositioning. With dia will be in the future – people who are that in mind, the success of German pro- well-trained in line with these require- fessional training also has to be re-eva- ments will also have good and growing luated: The dual professional training job prospects within Europe. system as an alternative to academic edu- The road to success cation is internationally recognised as an Successful educational systems sug- efficient form of integrating young people gest that a systemically anchored, far- reaching improvement of the quality of education is no longer based on guidelines, but on effective incentives enabling teachers and schools to learn from and

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with each other, offering development employees as the educational system. opportunities. However, nowadays this potential is often The response to diversity is not institu- only used to teach prefabricated curricu- tional fragmentation in this context, but a la rather than as a formative force in the constructive approach to different skills, educational system. Imagine a surgeon interests and social contexts. In the light and a teacher from the sixties, travelling of the growing complexity of modern edu- through time into the year 2006. The sur- cational systems, one individual Minister geon who was successful as an indivi- of Education cannot solve the problems dual at the time by using the knowledge of thousands of pupils and teachers. Yet acquired in his studies and his bag with thousands of pupils and teachers can sol- instruments, is embedded in a dynamic ve the problems of one educational system profession nowadays. His workplace is if they form a network and the educatio- equipped with highly sophisticated tech- nal system provides the necessary net- nology and can only be mastered by him working and support structures. as part of a complex team. The surgeon Therefore, jobs in schools have to be will quickly realise that a time leap across converted into knowledge-based profes- half a century is impossible, whereas the sions, with knowledge not only being teacher from the sixties will presumably imparted from top to bottom, but with still find his way as the work environment the parties involved actively contributing school with its incentive and support sys- to shaping the educational institutions tems has not changed that much. themselves – always aware of the conse- It is possible to implement short- quences of their activities. What do pa- term changes in the school work envi- rents really know about what and how ronment by setting education standards our children learn? In what way can a and changing mechanisms of respon- teacher benefit from the teacher’s expe- sibility. However, long-lasting changes riences in the adjacent classroom? Can a can only take place through a stronger school learn from the interaction with professionalisation of educational insti- the neighbouring school that faces simi- tutions. The standard of the initial pro- lar problems? Where could Germany be fessional teacher training in Germany is today if competencies were efficiently generally high, only to leave teachers to networked within the educational sys- their own devices in the classroom la- tem? Often, the school is a “black box“ ter on without providing the necessary for the parents and frequently teachers ongoing professional support. Countries are facing problems in the classroom as like France mainly focused on the centra- lone fighters. Curricula, feedback and lisation of educational processes, which support systems are often only insuffi- is ultimately limited to rule execution. ciently linked. This might be a useful step into the di- Modern educational systems have to rection of minimum standards and more ask how they go beyond imparting knowledge and act as a driving force for development and innovation. Hardly any organisation has as may highly qualified

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coherent education portfolios, yet it does than anchoring contextual knowledge not involve the individual stakeholders and teaching effective learning strate- enough to achieve real progress. England gies, which is precisely what is reflected was quite successful in creating a know- in the PISA results. However, with the ledge-based work environment with the increasing amount of people taking re- introduction of creative instruments. Ed- sponsibility for planning their career, ucation standards, support and feedback protecting themselves against economic systems were closely linked to the work of losses and social descent, schools cannot the teachers. However, the long-term goal limit themselves to teaching the necessa- and characteristic feature of the currently ry specialist knowledge. They also have most successful educational systems is to to strengthen the ability to change and link professionalisation and a knowledge- equip young people in a way that enab- based work environment, thus creating les them to actively use and expand their a good learning environment and an at- knowledge. tractive work environment for future te- For that purpose we need schools achers. This approach distinguishes Fin- which are less focused on specialist cur- land, Japan or Canada. Their educational ricula, with strategic educational objec- systems achieved good results in the PISA tives as guidelines. We also need teachers Study and provide a balanced distribution that implement these objectives with com- of education opportunities. These coun- mitment, creativity and individuality by tries could provide an orientation frame- customising the learning process and by work for future efforts in this sector. The supporting learners in their independent challenges are enormous: and cooperative way of thinking and lear- Traditionally, German learners study ning. Only those with clear expectations under the guidance of curricula with a de- convertible into strategic educational ob- tailed description of educational contents. jectives that can be communicated to de- The benchmark for success is the accu- cision makers and other parties involved mulation of specialist knowledge rather - schools, teachers, learners and parents – can motivate and achieve and good results. Germany’s schools mainly use tests and marks for control purposes, for exa- With the increasing amount of mple to certify achievements and to allot people taking responsibility for access to further education. Yet the future planning their career, protec- needs modern evaluation and motivating ting themselves against econo- performance feedback systems creating trust in learning results, enabling the demic losses and social descent, velopment, individualisation and moni- schools cannot limit themselves toring of learning paths. to teaching the necessary spe- The German education system relies on cialist knowledge. They also have to strengthen the ability to change.

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early selection within its three-tier school ment distinguishing itself with enhanced system and the related monotonous tea- differentiation, better career prospects, ching in groups with homogeneous per- stronger links to other professional areas, formance. Pupils with special needs – for more responsibility for learning outcomes example from a migrant background – are and better support systems. often pushed into school formats with In Germany, the argument that this lower requirements, where the state pre- approach is not viable with today’s tea- pares young people without prospects for chers is often used and first of all teacher unemployment. On the other hand, suc- training would have to changed before cessful educational systems are based on the schools could change. A comparison a constructive and individual approach to with the business sector reveals the ab- deal with differences in performance and surdity of this reasoning: In the seven- talent – with the goal to open up prospects ties of the 20th century, the mobile tele- for the learners showing them how to sha- phone company Nokia from PISA winner pe their own future with very individual Finland still produced car tyres. Where support. Different interests and skills have would Nokia be nowadays if the compa- to be perceived as a great potential of the ny had been told at the time that it would knowledge society. Ultimately, teachers be nice to work with highly sophisticated and learners in Germany are frequently technology, yet the engineers were unable just the final executing instance of a com- to do that? Therefore they would have to plex administration apparatus. In the fu- wait until the engineers’ retirement to ture, the relevance and efficiency of this train new engineers, which would enab- administration system – whether at a local, le the company to create new products. federal or national level - will have to be The current educational system follows measured in terms of the achievements of exactly that pattern, whereas other states individual schools with regard to agreed have recreated schools as learning orga- education objectives and in terms of the nisations – with a professional manage- quality of support to achieve these objec- ment characterised by internal coopera- tives. It is also interesting to evaluate the tion and communication, for example in added value with regard to the schools’ potential achievements as independent and pedagogically responsible units. The much With the increasing amount of discussed issue of dividing responsibilities people taking responsibility for between the state and the federal states is planning their career, protec- irrelevant in this context. We need an at- ting themselves against econo- tractive, high-profile work environment for teachers that is not based on its civil ser- mic losses and social descent, vant status, but on creativity, innovation schools cannot limit themselves and more responsibility - a work environ- to teaching the necessary specialist knowledge. They also have to strengthen the ability to change.

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strategic planning, quality management, for the European countries that have re- self-evaluation and further professional mained at the top of educational policy training, also introducing an external developments for centuries, the future re- dialogue with different stakeholders and mains uncertain. They will only continue in particular with the parents. to hold their ground if they successfully Modern schools certainly face a lot of define the future with all its uncertain- challenges and inconsistencies. They are ties. For that reason, it is necessary to expected to be innovative and flexible and create strategic prospects for educational receive a growing amount of freedom to reforms that go beyond mere optimisation shape their learning environments. On of the current educational system and to the other hand, they are also expected to reflect on the transformation of the school produce reliable results and to minimise and systemic factors Germany’s educa- risks. Some approaches try to individua- tional system is based upon. In spite of lise learning with new forms of teaching many reforms, the discourse in educatio- and more diverse education formats. On nal policy in Germany, but also in many the other hand, modern education ins- other European states, is still far from titutions have to develop as networked this stage in the process. learning organisations and ensure equal opportunities. The role of interpersonal Translation: Angelika Welt competencies is increasingly emphasised, yet what is mostly certified are individual Andreas Schleicher is a statistician and learner achievements. educational scientist. He is the head of the Department of Indicators and Analyses in The results of educational processes the OECD Directorate for Education. He is the are increasingly evaluated in terms of international coordinator of the programme cognitive performance, whereas today’s for International Student Assessment (PISA parents have growing expectations to- Studies). From 1993 to 1994, he worked for wards schools that go far beyond cogni- the International Association for Educational Achievement in the Netherlands. In 1994, he tive learning. However, the experiences started to work as a project manager at the of many states – but also of many suc- Centre for Educational Research and Innovati- cessful German schools – show that high- on (CERI) of the OECD in Paris. From 1995, he quality education coupled with a balan- developed the PISA Studies in this role. ced allocation of education opportunities can certainly be achieved in manageable time frames. China and India will continue to increase their efforts in education. They have the decisive advantage that they can use the experiences of the Western world as a benchmark. For these countries, the future is relatively clear. In some years, they will do the things and use many of the competencies characterising today’s life in Germany and Europe. However,

165 Higher Education without Frontiers? Transnational higher education has been nothing more than a great vision up to now. The Bologna Declaration and the Lisbon Process were the first milestones for a transparent and comparative Eu- ropean higher education landscape. Nevertheless, the state of student mobility is still far from perfect. By Franziska Muche

many diplomatic efforts are necessary to move things along. Mantras are extremely “practical” to provide an introduction and the rationale for tenders, project proposals, programmes, etc. Hence, they are useful – even if everybody knows that the authors may have been slightly overam- bitious (on purpose) in terms of the concrete objectives. For the other European agenda – the Lisbon Process – education is only one aspect. It is driven by labour market requirements and economic reasons plus Europe’s general position in the world. In order to improve its position, 010 is the magic number – almost education has to make its own contribu- 2the mantra in Brussels circles: The tion by achieving a higher level of quality plan is to complete the Bologna reforms and effectiveness, enhancing its general by 2010 and to turn Europe into the “most accessibility and global appeal. What is competitive and dynamic knowledge-ba- actually happening in Euroland? To what sed economy in the world”1, with Europe- extent has integration been achieved in an education as a “global quality bench- higher education and how does this ef- mark“ . Over time, the superlative has fect mobility structures? In general, two been abandoned in secret – to be replaced developments can be observed: by the objectives of transforming Europe Firstly, the European higher educa- into a dynamic and competitive know- tion landscape has undergone signifi- ledge-based society, at the same time sta- cant changes since the ratification of the ting that it is actually too late to achieve Bologna Declaration in 1999. A growing these objectives in time. mentality change is as remarkable as the Even if their literal implementation objective changes – moving away from a seems unlikely: Mantras are sometimes necessary and important – even more so in a sector where European institutions only have very limited authority and

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mere “exchange mentality” towards the of two declarations - 1998 at the Sorbon- “Bologna mentality” of joint structures. ne and 1999 in Bologna. Due to a clear- And secondly, the main focus of the ly structured time framework (until Bologna and Lisbon Processes has largely 2010) and regular follow-up conferences shifted towards structural reform, whe- (in Prague, Berlin, Bergen and 2007 in reas the emphasis had been on promo- London), “Bologna“ turned into a pro- ting mobility when the Europeanisation cess with clear objectives and constituent of higher education started. parts. Bologna pursues an internal and an external agenda: On the one hand, The way to Bologna it is about integration of the higher education sector and a better preparation of The Bologna Process is often descri- graduates for the European job market. bed as a European integration process On the other hand, globally enhancing of higher education and is thus linked the appeal of European higher education to the European institutions – in gene- is also on the agenda. ral collectively referred to as “Brussels“. A number of constituent parts have However, this often leads to several mi- been introduced to achieve these objec- sunderstandings: tives: Probably best-known are the har- For a long time now, Bologna has long monisation of higher education degrees gone beyond EU borders. 29 undersig- with the introduction of bachelor’s and ning states have increased to 45 – among master’s degrees as well as doctorates, others Russia, Georgia and the Vatican the introduction of the “European Credit – with the latter including - in the strict Transfer System (ECTS)”, the diploma sense – all Catholic universities in the supplement as well as the improvement world into the Bologna Process. of the mutual recognition of student qua- Strictly speaking, the European insti- lifications, the promotion of quality assu- tutions have nothing to do with the Bo- rance and accreditation at various levels. logna Process: In the educational sector, The purpose of the interaction between the member states have almost all the aut- all these components is to create more hority. Bologna is an intergovernmental transparent higher education systems process – from the Brussels point of view and achieve quality and mutual trust. a “bottom-up process“, even if the higher Particularly after the last Conference of education institutions often perceive it European Ministers in Bergen, the great as “top-down”, as it was initiated at go- objective has been the introduction of a vernment level. Framework for Qualifications of the Eu- Bologna is only a framework - without ropean Higher Education Area, defining regulations for the introduction of three- reference standards for every educational year bachelor’s degree programmes and level from all these constituent parts, ba- two-year master’s degree programmes. sed on learning outcomes. Individual member states can – but are not obliged to – introduce binding regulations. Everything started with the signing

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What is the position of the individual circles talk less and less about Bologna European countries and higher educa- and increasingly about the “Education tion institutions in the Bologna Process? and Training 2010“ Agenda, the part of The biannual Trends-Report monitors the Lisbon Process referring to education, the developments. The latest data are or of higher education reforms. from spring 2005. The Trends-Report Now what about mobility? In prin- and other studies on the Bologna Pro- ciple, promoting mobility is one of the cess show the following trends: objectives and “action lines“ of the Bo- logna Process. Some of the structural re- - Almost all countries have at least forms are intended to enhance mobility started with the introduction of a between different European countries bachelor’s and master’s degree sys- and higher education institutions as well tem. The progress of the introduc- as mobility to Europe. Some examples: tory process can vary significantly. comparable degrees, transferable study The process has already been com- qualifications through ECTS, improved pleted in the Netherlands or in Nor- recognition of qualifications and the di- way, whereas it has only just started ploma supplement. in Spain or in France; However, the objective of promoting - Most higher education institutions mobility contravenes the fear often voiced are using ECTS and issue a diploma in this context, with short-term mobility supplement; potentially suffering from more tightly - european quality standards, a regis- organised study courses. The following ter of quality agencies and a Europe- paragraphs will take a closer look at stu- an quality label are currently plan- dent mobility in the EU and the influence ned; of the Bologna process on mobility. - 36 of 45 undersigning states have ratified the Lisbon Declaration on the Study locations in Europe recognition of European higher education qualifications; In the EU, student mobility can alrea- - higher education institutions have dy look back at a long history: First initi- adopted the reform: Compared to atives go back to various agreements on earlier studies, Bologna is no longer the recognition of study qualifications perceived as “top-down”; and degrees in the fifties of the last cen- - Although in many cases, the reforms tury. The introduction of the Erasmus were used to solve existing problems, Programme in 1987 was a milestone and there is a lot of unused potential (for the promotion of student mobility re- example by renaming terms); gained momentum. The original goal of - In many cases, a lack in autonomy Erasmus was to encourage ten percent and financial resources of higher of all students in Europe to spend a li- education institutions prevent the realisation of the reforms. All in all, an increasing focus on the reform agenda can be observed: Brussels

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mited period of time studying abroad, in refers to fixed-term mobility without another European country. The Erasmus obtaining a formal degree abroad. Programme is often labelled as “system provocation“: Only the necessity to deal Which data are available on student with the integration of students from the mobility in Europe? What can be said various European countries as well as the about the individual “mobility catego- recognition and transferability of study ries“? In 2004/05, the Academic Coopera- achievements paved the way for the later tion Association (ACA) carried out a study structural reforms in the context of the on student mobility in 32 European coun- Bologna Process. Parallel to the European tries in cooperation with the Internatio- initiatives, several players also promoted nal Centre for Higher Education Research student mobility at a national and some- (INCHER) Kassel.2 The study, Eurodata, times even a regional level with scholar- is a first attempt to bundle European mo- ship and exchange programmes, higher bility data and to provide a comprehen- education marketing, etc. sive overview. This is only possible to a So how many “international“ students limited extent, as the available data are are in Europe? What is the current situa- sometimes not really comparable. tion of mobility within Europe and how Individual EU member states define many non-Europeans choose the Europe- and measure their share of internatio- an continent for their studies? These ques- nal, foreign or mobile students in diffe- tions are all highly relevant, yet the an- rent ways. Sometimes they differentiate swers have been insufficient up to now. whether the student is really mobile (the country where the previous qualification First of all, different types of mobility was obtained is the determining factor need to be considered: in this context). Sometimes nationality - Mobility within Europe and is the key factor; sometimes mobility is between third countries and Europe: quantified in the context of organised The former is interesting in the con- programmes and sometimes not. In parts, text of European integration in the differences can be considerable: The per- educational sector and the latter in centage of foreign students already living terms of the appeal of the study loca- in the country where they take up their tion Europe as a whole. studies (international students treated as - “Free movers” and organised mobi- native students for educational purposes) lity: The former refers to individu- can be up to 40 percent. Students with a al, mobile students and the latter to domestic passport that lived abroad be- mobility in the context of exchange fore taking up their studies also need to and scholarship programmes, bi- be considered as mobile – their numbers and multilateral agreements, double can also be large at times. In most cases, diploma agreements, etc. separate data for bachelor’s and master’s - Vertical and horizontal mobility: The former refers to mobility for entire study courses with the goal to obtain a degree, whereas the latter

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degree students are not available as they - the largest group of non-Europe- fall into the same category in terms of an foreigners is from Asia (with as their “level of study”. It is also very likely much as 6 percent from China) and that many short-term mobile students are the second largest group is from Af- never entered into the statistics. rica. The largest groups of internati- An ACA study3 provided an overview onal students in individual Europe- over existing data by Eurostat, OECD and an countries are Chinese and Greek UNESCO. It analyses a number of coun- students in the UK and Turkish and tries with a relatively complete data set, Chinese students in Germany. showing the above-mentioned problems - 13 European countries accept more in identifying European mobility statis- international students than they tics. So far, pan-European information “send abroad“: The large countries has only been available on the number (Germany, France, Spain and the of international students and thus those UK) as well as Austria, Belgium, with a foreign passport (only ten out of Switzerland, the Czech Republic, the 32 analysed countries collect data on Denmark, Hungary, the Nether- student mobility in the narrower sense). lands, Portugal and Sweden. The The following trends are emerging: UK has the lowest share in mobile - globally, there are over two million national and international students: international students; Out of ten students in the UK, one is - with around 1.1 million studying in a British student abroad. the 32 European countries under These figures are good news for the ob- analysis, of which 54 percent are jective of European integration. Europe non-Europeans. seems to be an attractive study location - France, Germany and the UK are the for Europeans. With regard to the global target countries for 60 percent of all appeal of Europe, it also sounds good to international students. be able to say: Europe as common higher - A total of 575 000 students from the education area is even slightly more at- 32 analysed European countries stu- tractive as a target area for students than dy abroad (three percent). 80 percent the USA. However, on closer observation, of these students study in another things are looking less rosy: The part of European country and a further 13 Europe with the actual appeal consists of percent in the USA. Target countries three countries. Hence, balanced mobility of most European students (around flows within Europe and into Europe are 40 percent) are Germany and the not actually taking place. UK. The main countries of origin Generally speaking, it can be assumed are Germany, France, Turkey and that programme mobility is only a frac- Greece. tion of the total: Most mobile students - the largest groups of Europeans stu- are “Free movers“. Over the past years, dying in another European country are from Greece and Germany (with over 4 percent in each group) and from France (4 percent).

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there have been a lot of speculations as to possible decrease in numbers – integrated how the introduction of the new higher study periods abroad and double diploma education degrees will influence student degrees are some examples. mobility – what kinds of mobility will be At the same time, the European players supported and what kinds might be made want to support vertical mobility more or more difficult? The following chapter will less openly: An increasing amount of stu- deal with these issues. dents ought to obtain their bachelor’s degrees at one university and their master’s Higher education creates mobility degrees at another – preferably at a university abroad. This should support mo- In the autumn of 2001, an anniversary bility within Europe and also make ac- was celebrated extensively in the corridors cess to a higher academic level easier for of the European Commission: The one- non-European students. millionth Erasmus students took up his Yet this development is not necessarily / her studies abroad. Decentralised data in line with the objectives of the higher processing made him or her impossible education institutions and the academic to trace – much to the disappointment of staff: According to a study by Alesi, Bür- those who were celebrating. During the ger, Kehm and Teichler , higher educa- anniversary celebrations, the next ambition institutions expect that two thirds tious objective was agreed – three million up to 90 percent of all students with a Erasmus students by 2010. In view of a bachelor’s degree obtain their master’s number of budget cuts, this target seems degree at the same institution. First of to be a very distant prospect – not only for all, this reveals that the bachelor’s degree budget reasons. There is a lot of speculati- as a professional qualification is still not on in European higher education institu- widely appreciated; secondly good master tions, at conferences and seminars: Time students (and potentially future doctoral and again, the question is raised whether candidates) are naturally in demand. Ac- the shortened and tightened study times cording to the higher education institu- do not make it more difficult to study ab- tions and the academic staff should not road for a certain period of time. Vari- necessarily go their own ways. ous models are considered to counteract a The importance allocated to the length of the study courses is another issue: For higher education institutions inside and However, on closer observati- outside of Europe (example for the latter: on, things are looking less rosy: USA), it is not always a matter of course that three-year bachelor’s degrees are re- The part of Europe with the cognised. In theory, the introduction of actual appeal consists of three the Bologna reforms has led to a greater countries. Hence, balanced mo- permeability between universities and bility flows within Europe and into Europe are not actually taking place.

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universities of applied sciences in many due to a lack of time series and the in- countries. Yet in practice, this is compli- sufficient availability of data explained cated by tightened standards in terms of earlier, again this study can only ana- content, which are very closely linked to lyse trends and assumptions rather than the bachelor’s degree profile of a specific concrete results. higher education institution. This might The results of this study suggest that reassure the guardians of quality stan- fears of a negative influence of the new dards – but it does not boost mobility. In higher education structures on mobility many cases – for example in the discus- numbers are unfounded. Only in Germa- sion of US-American higher education ny and Hungary, half of the interview- institutions about accepting three-year ees share these concerns. The most im- bachelor’s degrees – a stronger empha- portant measures to ensure and support sis on contents and results instead of the mobility mentioned in the survey were a length of study can be observed. However, greater emphasis on periods abroad and Europe still has a long way to go. an improved mutual recognition of stu- In principle, a slow mentality chan- dy qualifications. In contrast to specula- ge can be observed: Whereas ten years tions and wishful thinking in Brussels, ago, internationalisation meant Erasmus two thirds of all interviewees are not ex- (and still does in some countries / hig- pecting an increase in vertical mobility her education institutions), other topics (bachelor’s degree at home, master’s de- are increasingly taking over. Bologna is gree abroad). one and the enhancement of quality and Does this mean that everything will international appeal is another. Increa- be different from what is expected, spe- singly, internationalisation is perceived culated or feared? It is still too early to as a structural process and is integrated give a final answer to this question. Time into the overall profile of higher educa- will tell – provided that the data collection institutions. Mobility - the ultimate tion mechanisms are improved by the fol- objective of internationalisation in the lowing measures suggested in the Euro- past – is becoming a sub-discipline and data study: a tool of the overall internationalisation - Capturing of mobility data in the process. narrower sense, not only recording These are all speculations and discus- the students’ nationality (in other sions. Are there any concrete observations words, a differentiation between stu- in terms of the influence of Bologna on dents considered domestic (Bildungs- student mobility? The answer is “yes and no”: In 2005, the DAAD commissioned a study to analyse “transnational mobility“ in bachelor’s and master courses in A lack of motivation and op- eleven European countries. However, portunities, insufficient information and numerous administrative obstacles still block effective labour mobility.

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inländer) and students considered zens within the European labour market. foreign (Bildungsausländer) for edu- The opportunity to gain work experience cational purposes). is highly relevant for non-European stu- - Complete recording of limited study dents, though, as only practical expe- periods abroad (at least one semester) rience makes a European degree really - Differentiation of bachelor’s and valuable in their native countries.5 master’s degree students In short – there is still much to do on - Improved data collection for doctoral the building site that is the European ed- candidates and other postgraduate ucation area. Nonetheless, there is a lot students. happening and a lot has already changed. Old structures are broken up. Over the With these measures, it would be pos- last few years and months, another step sible to go beyond mere speculation about has evolved. European mobility trends and the influence of the Bologna reforms – yet there Theory and practice is still a long way to go. Since the Bologna Declaration in 1999, A vast area, a long way to go? the appeal of European higher education and its global position has been an impor- Particularly within the European ins- tant topic. However, in concrete terms, titutions, the Bologna Process is incre- nothing happened for a long time as the asingly seen as a tool to achieve other, European countries were too busy imple- less abstract, result-oriented objectives, menting the reforms internally. The EU for example the Lisbon Agenda, which programmes – with the exception of some is linked to education and was initiated mostly bilateral programmes with other to support the European labour market. countries and regions – mainly focused on 2006 was nominated the “European Year European themes. However, in most re- of Worker’s Mobility“, which is still percent times, Europe’s position in the world ceived as insufficient. Only 1.5 percent of has increasingly moved into the limelight. EU citizens lives and works in another Evidence of this new orientation is the es- EU member country – a figure which tablishment of a workgroup to develop a has hardly changed over the last thirty concrete strategy supporting the external years according to Eurostat.4 dimension of the Bologna Process. The A lack of motivation and opportuni- Erasmus Mundus Programme – a well- ties, insufficient information and nu- funded scholarship programme opening merous administrative obstacles still up the master’s degree programmes of block effective labour mobility. at least two European higher education The situation is growing even more institutions for non-European students. acute in terms of mobility of non-EU citi- The open objective of the programme is to improve the profile and the position of higher education in Europe at a global scale. Additional activities are European education fairs, jointly organised by seve-

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ral EU countries and sponsored by the EU expansion of the process as a “translation Commission, an EU invitation to tender tool” and a framework for mobility, re- for the development of a European higher cognition of study qualifications and the education marketing concept as well as a comparability of higher education sys- number of different activities at a national tems. So far, participation in the Bologna and an institutional level. Process has been limited to the Council Bologna itself reaches far beyond the of Europe member states. It is likely that EU and has sparked interest in a lot of the process will eventually reach its limits places all over the world. Here are a few – geographically and in terms of content. examples: However, Bologna has already crossed many boundaries and realised many as- - the projects Tuning Latin Ameri- pects that still seemed impossible not very ca and 6x4 use the Bologna examp- long ago. In fact, until recently it was al- le to promote the structural reforms most suicidal to talk about a “harmoni- at South American higher education sation of higher education in Europe” in institutions; the context of the Bologna Process, which - the Australian government has is- thankfully is no longer the case. sued a consultation paper stressing the importance for Australian higher Translation: Angelika Welt education institutions not to miss the boat with regard to developments in Franziska Muche is a Senior Officer at the the European education area; Academic Cooperation Association (ACA) in Brussels. ACA is a European umbrella organi- - twelve Mediterranean neighbouring sation for 24 national academic intermediary countries have signed the so-called organisations, for example the German Aca- Catania Declaration with the objec- demic Exchange Service (DAAD) in Germany. tive to create a Euro-Mediterranean The focus of ACA’s work is on European and Area of Higher Education; international university cooperations and on innovation support. - the introduction of three-year bachelor’s degree in many European countries led to extensive recognition debates in the USA - the introduction of the three-year bachelor’s degree in a large number of European states has led to intensive recognition debates. 1 www.bologna-berlin2003.de/pdf/ PRESIDENCY_CONCLUSIONS_Lissabon.pdf What is the future of Bologna? One 2 The 32 analysed countries are 27 EU member states, the four EFTA member states, one accession candidate (Turkey) and Switzerland. See Kelo, Teichler big question is whether this is the story and Wächter: EURODATA – Student mobility in European higher education, of the external dimension of Bologna or Bonn: Lemmens 2006. 3 ACA is a European umbrella organisation for 24 national academic interme- rather an eternal expansion, a continuous diary organisations, see www.aca-secretariat.be 4 See website http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/ workersmobility_2006/ 5 Perceptions of European higher education in third countries, EU-Commissi- on, 2006, http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/ programmes/mundus/index_en.html

174 There is physics and all those working in physics are physicists - no longer defined by their cultures and certainly not authorised. Culture influencing all of us in the same way is the same as having a metabolism and the functioning of our nervous system. Issues of truth, beauty and quality have not been developed by culture. Hence it is European not to enforce individual cultural authorisations, but to discover unity beyond cultural differences.

Bazon Brock, Professor of Aesthetics, Wuppertal

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Do you speak European? EU language policy has to find a balance for the complex and chaotic mix of national and regional official and working languages – also including the languages of migrants and minorities – to support rather than jeopardise cohesion within the European Com- munity. By Ulrich Ammon

for a community like the EU with its multitude of states and languages. Contrary to widespread criticism, EU politicians are likely to be aware of this. Before looking at this language policy in more detail, I would like to introduce the main features of the language situation within the EU. In 2006, the EU had around 457 million inhabitants and 25 member states, with two more joining in 2007. Of these 27 member states, only 23 have one national official language, whereas three (Belgium, Finland, Ireland) have two na- as multilingualism the ulti- tional official languages and one member mate downfall of the Otto- state (Luxembourg) even has three natio- Wman or the Habsburg Em- nal official languages. At the same time, pires? And did this lead to perceiving some national official languages are used cultural and religious differences as in several member states: German, Eng- ethnic and thus as irreconcilable during lish, French, Dutch and Swedish. Each the Age of Nationalism? Finding definite national official language in the EU is answers is difficult, yet there is no doubt very intertwined with its society. It is the that language differences can deepen the predominant means of recognition and rifts in a society. This does not necessarily communication for national administra- lead to a complete break. Contemporary tion, politics and schools. It is also the Belgium or Spain - or the much-lauded native language (sometimes as a dialect) harmonious cooperation and coexistence of the majority of the population plus a in Switzerland are good examples of the symbol of national identity, which is re- more conciliatory form of cultural and vealed in naturalisation tests including linguistic autonomy. language exams serving more than just Successful reconciliations require a a practical purpose. Occasionally – in cautious and level-headed language po- countries with several national official licy, which is of particular importance languages – national identity is very clo-

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sely linked with one of these languages, in at least one other EU member state. the real “national language”, as it is the Frisian is often divided into three diffe- case in Luxembourg with ‘Letzeburgisch’ rent languages: West Frisian, Saterland (Luxembourgian) or in Ireland with Gae- Frisian and North Frisian - with the latter lic. It is evident that EU language policy two currently only spoken in Germany. has to show the greatest consideration for Moreover, the example of Low German the national official languages. reveals that it is not always easy to distinguish between an (independent) language National and regional official and a language that is «only» a dialect. languages Many Germans see Low German as a dialect of the German language, whereas it Regional official languages that are is an independent language officially re- not the national official language for an cognised by the EU and Germany. Hence entire country, but official and school it does not really belong to the German languages in a culturally and linguisti- language any more. cally autonomous region, have a similar status to national official languages. In The languages of migrants many cases, regional official languages and immigrants are also transnational, with their status varying frequently. German is the regio- A large number of newcomers join the nal official language in South Tyrol, the traditional indigenous (autochthonous) national official language in Austria and languages. Varying numbers of migrants a minority language without official sta- and immigrants live in all parts of the EU, tus in France. The connection between with many of them speaking their impor- several countries through the same lan- ted language at home and among them- guage contributes to the already complex selves. Scientists roughly agree about the linguistic situation in the EU. number of autochthonous languages in However, many languages are also the EU. Various official counts converge limited to one single state, for example at a final result of around 70 languages. Finnish, Latvian or Czech. Migrants and However, for the allochthonous langu- their languages are not considered in this ages (of migrants and immigrants), the context. Some languages are even limi- numbers are like a lottery, varying wide- ted to one particular part of a state, for ly depending on the estimated minimum example regional official languages such of speakers or regularity and domains of as Galician in Spain. Most of the time, language use. Depending on the criteria they are minority languages without an for a language census, the numbers reach official status. Examples in Germany are several hundreds. However, the numbers Sorbian or Low German. Both languages are higher for individual languages and are only used in Germany. Further mino- they are more widely spoken. This parti- rity languages in Germany are Danish, cularly applies to Turkish. It goes without Frisian and Romani (nowadays the term saying that the EU must not ignore these “gypsy language“ is no longer politically allochthonous languages in its language correct). All these languages are spoken policy, particularly as speakers of those

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languages can frequently feel underpri- multilingualism in terms of majority lan- vileged. The EU grants fewer rights to guages and official languages. Ironically, these languages than to autochthonous speakers of some of the majority langu- languages, though – on the general basis ages fear elimination most. that migrants and immigrants voluntari- France and Germany are the two most ly moved to their places of residence and prominent examples in this context. Both had to expect at least partial linguistic countries fear that their respective own adjustment from the outset. national language is pushed back by po- EU language policy has to balance a litical and economic developments, but complex and chaotic mix of diverging in- also by EU language policies. This fear is terests without jeopardising Community not about the imminent «extinction» of cohesion - at the same time ensuring that French or German – at least not among the cooperation between EU institutions realistic people – yet there is growing con- and their member states remains efficient cern about a status loss of these languages and that language barriers are no signi- – with lasting negative consequences for ficant obstruction for the legally guaran- the individual countries. teed transnational mobility of the citizens and the development of a pan-European Fear of status loss political public. At first sight, these goals seem to be For as long as one century, France has so irreconcilable that the overused image perceived the English language as a thre- of “squaring the circle” suggests itself, at for the global position of the French which is wrong in this context, as the task language. Now the country fears for the at hand may be gigantic, but not unsolvab- position of the nation’s language within le. I shall outline some focal points of this Europe – particularly since the UK and policy – sometimes resembling dilemmas Ireland joined the EU (accessions in 1973). - in the following. Previously, the supremacy of the French language in EU institutions had remained Many countries, many languages unchallenged. Language fears might have motivated France to veto the accession of In most language policy bulletins, the the UK twice. In any case, it is an open EU emphasises the value of preserving multilingualism. The European Year of Languages – a joint EU and Council of This fear is not about the im- Europe initiative in 2001 – was also in- minent «extinction» of French troduced to raise awareness for this particular value. The focus was on autoch- or German – at least not among thonous languages again, although many realistic people – yet there is allochthonous languages are much more growing concern about a status endangered, with minority languages fa- loss of these languages – with cing the greatest threat. However, it may be even more important for cohesion wi- lasting negative consequences thin the EU that there is commitment to for the individual countries.

180 secret among EU civil servants that the La ng uage French President Pompidou at the time wrestled the promise from the British Pri- me Minister Edward Heath that British EU civil servants would always need a certain knowledge of French. Nonethe- less, English quickly became the established working language of the EU institu- lingly accepted the supremacy of French tions. The accession of the Scandinavian and later also of English. The German countries, but also of the Central Eas- unification (1990) and later the acces- tern European countries has strengthe- sion of Austria (1995) were perceived as ned the position of English to an extent the basis for a stronger position of the that makes France worry about its own German language. In 1993, German was language. declared the third internal working lan- The «Joint Franco-German Language guage of the commission, together with Directive» - a type of language alliance French and English. However, this status agreed between France and Germany did not lead to the corresponding role of in June 2000, stated the two countries’ the language: In practice, German as a mutual commitment to support their re- working language of the European Com- spective national language in the EU ins- mission has remained on the periphery. titutions. More specifically, it is «about The efforts of the German government interpreting difficulties» at «informal - sometimes joined by the Austrian go- meetings», where the ministers of both vernment - to enhance the importance countries should aim for a mutually «sa- of the German language within the EU tisfactory solution». The joint veto of the institutions were also not very success- French and German foreign ministers ful otherwise. Even individual demons- Védrine and Fischer brought down the trations of strength, with Germany and proposal by the vice president of the Eu- Austria boycotting informal ministerial ropean Commission, Neil Kinnock, to meetings when Finland provided no in- submit working papers for briefings ex- terpreters for German at the beginning of clusively in English in the future. its EU Presidency in the autumn of 1999, (Under the Swedish presidency of the did not lead to significant changes. Inter- Council of Europe in spring 2000), the preting was subsequently enforced, but Common Language Directive was prece- other improvements of the position of the ded by the proposal that informal expert German language failed to materialise. discussions should no longer be interpre- For EU institutions, the Council Re- ted into German. Germany agreed under gulation No. 1 from 1958 determines the the condition that such meetings should language issue. When new countries ac- be limited to a single working language, cede to the EU, new languages are added which was accepted by the majority. Eng- to the Regulation. Ultimately, every nati- lish – as was to be expected – was chosen on can decide whether its official langu- as this working language. ages should simultaneously function as Germany’s line of action was basi- EU «official and working languages». cally a manoeuvre in an ongoing debate The «Universally Valid Regulations about the position of the German langu- and Documents» and the Official Jour- age within the EU institutions. It started nal of the EU are published and interpre- with the efforts of the Christian-Liberal ted in the formal debates and meetings of coalition government under Kohl (from the European Parliament and the Coun- 1982) to enhance this position, after the cil of Europe in these languages. Other- previous German governments had wil- wise, Article 6 of the Regulation No. 1

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provides for the individual institutions pe, with their importance by far outgro- of the Community to «stipulate in their wing the governmental context. This is rules of procedure which of the langu- combined with practical communication ages are to be used in specific cases», thus advantages for native speakers. But it is forming the basis for the differentiation equally a question of prestige – probably between the (actual) working languages with far-reaching consequences. In the and the (mere) official languages not used future, decisions of other countries about in the briefings. This differentiation and foreign language school curricula or the the assignment to the group of working learners’ selection of foreign languages languages has long been a focus of the might depend on this. The languages of language debate in the EU. government in the EU or any other for- Italy and Spain and sometimes the Ne- mat of a united Europe have very good therlands have also claimed working lan- prospects to be globally studied as foreign guage status for their respective langu- languages. And it is a great advantage for ages. The former succeeded at the Office a country if its national language is wide- of Harmonization for the Internal Market ly studied as a foreign language. The Ger- (OHIM) in Alicante – which now uses five man-speaking countries network with working languages. In addition, Italy and their contacts abroad – also in business Spain repeatedly caused the breakdown terms – to a large extent through people of efforts from German-speaking coun- who have studied German as a foreign tries by simultaneously making claims language. The number of those people for their own languages. To fulfil the- could diminish if Germany ceased to play se claims would have brought effective a prominent role in Europe in the future working practice to a standstill. The in- – particularly as German – in the same terpreting and translating apparatus of way as Italian – only plays a minor role the EU is the largest and most expensive as a national official language outside of in the entire world anyway (with around Europe, which is in marked contrast to 1650 permanently employed translators, English, French or Spanish. Hence, the- a large number of freelance translators re is a lot at stake for the German-spea- and 500 permanently employed inter- king countries in terms of the position of preters plus 2700 freelance interpreters German as a working language within in 2006). the EU.

Working language or foreign English as the lingua franca? language? So far, a solution of the conflict is not What are the reasons for the great inte- in sight – even less so as the smaller mem- rest in acquiring working language status ber states without any prospects to achie- for a national language? Presumably, it ve working language status for their own originates in the not entirely unfounded languages are in favour of a single wor- assumption that the EU working langu- king language (English), which would be ages will become the future languages the easiest solution for them. At present, of a government in a coalescing Euro- a clear-cut decision is formally impos-

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sible, as Regulation No. 1 determining EU working languages. the use of languages can only be changed There are no similar conflicts in the unanimously by the Council of Europe. context of the (mere) official languages Presumably, it would also be the crucial within the EU. At most, occasional disap- test for the EU. Putting oil on troubled proval is expressed behind the scenes – for waters by constantly pledging the pre- example, when Malta claimed this status servation of multilingualism, at the same for Maltese and later on Ireland for Irish, time surrendering a comprehensive and although both states can communicate in clear regulation of the issue of working English without any effort. The status languages might be the only feasible lan- was granted – in spite of the interpreting guage policy option for the EU. Hence, and translation costs – hoping that Lux- not even criticism can dissuade the EU embourg would not propose ‘Letzebur- from this approach. In terms of language gisch’ (Luxembourgian) next. policy, the EU has hardly any direct influence on the development of an overall European Charter for Regional lingua franca for the entire EU. It is un- or Minority Languages certain whether other languages besides English will play a noteworthy role as a Conflicts about the status of a nati- EU working language in the long run or onal official language are an internal whether they will retain a transnational matter of the individual member states. role as a lingua franca. Nevertheless, they occasionally have an With their individual education po- effect on the EU – as in the case of Ca- licy approaches, all member states have talan which is more widely spread than paved the way for the supremacy of Eng- some other official EU languages due to lish in Europe, as English is either the the large numbers of its speakers and has first foreign language or can at least be received certain privileges at EU level. selected as the first foreign language – a The EU is also not directly responsible for very popular choice among learners. An conflicts between national official langu- even more widely spread future know- ages in multilingual member states, for ledge of the English language will not example in Belgium between the Dutch- only strengthen its role as a lingua fran- speaking Flemings and the French-spea- ca, but presumably also have an effect on king Walloons. Only at the lower end of the status hierarchy – when minority languages are It is uncertain whether other concerned - the EU gets involved again by calling on the member states for the languages besides English will protection of these languages. The im- play a noteworthy role as a EU portance of maintaining multilingua- working language in the long lism is often revealed most impressively run or whether they will retain when looking at these languages, which are often not very widely used. The most a transnational role as a lingua important regulating measure is the Eu- franca. ropean Charter for Regional or Minority

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Languages, jointly passed by the EU and Ulrich Ammon is a Professor of German Lin- the Council or Europe (agreed in 1992, guistics – main focus: Sociolinguistics – at the University of Duisburg-Essen. Among implemented in 1998). It includes a com- other assignments, he was a visiting profes- prehensive list of 39 language rights, such sor in the USA, Australia, Japan and Austria. as integration in schools and in the me- A selection of his most important publica- dia or at court, with the member states tions is listed with the German titles and an required to guarantee a certain minimum English translation in brackets: „Dialekt, so- ziale Ungleichheit und Schule“ 1972 (Dialect, of rights. However, in 2006 the Charter social inequality and school); «Die internati- had only been ratified by 8 member states, onale Stellung der deutschen Sprache» 1991 among them Germany. France reacted to (The international position of the German lan- the Charter with a change of the constitu- guage); «Die deutsche Sprache in Deutsch- tion, declaring French as the Language of land, Österreich und der Schweiz» 1995 (The German Language in Germany, Austria and the Republic, thus rendering the Charter Switzerland); «Ist Deutsch noch internatio- irreconcilable with the French Constitu- nale Wissenschaftssprache?» 1998 (German tion (which was also stated in the decla- - still an International Academic Language?) ration of the Conseil Constitutionnel on and – together with Hans Bickel, Jakob Ebner 15. 6. 1999). Nevertheless, under the im- and others. - «Variantenwörterbuch des Deut- schen. Die deutsche Sprache in Österreich, pression of the Charter, France has gran- der Schweiz und Deutschland sowie in Liech- ted more rights to its language minorities tenstein, Luxemburg, Ostbelgien und Südti- than before – particularly with the intro- rol» 2004 (Dictionary of German variations. duction of bilingual schools. After all, The German language in Austria, Switzer- the EU and the Council of Europe have land, Germany and Liechtenstein, Luxem- bourg, the East of Belgium and South Tyrol). also lobbied for the allochthonous minority languages, requesting respect and consideration from the member states. These measures raised awareness for the minority languages, strengthening the rights of those who speak them. Yet the prospects of maintaining or even expanding their use remain uncertain.

Translation: Angelika Welt

184 Fortunate Babel Europe likes to believe that Switzerland is a nation of flourishing multilingualism and that all its inhabitants can speak every Swiss national language. And maybe Europe perceives Switzerland as a role model to learn from. Is not the Swiss citizens’ ability to overcome internal language barriers the Confederation‘s secret of cohesion? And is not exactly that required of the citizens of Europe if they want to develop a real sense of togetherness? By Etienne Barilier

with three stammered words in Goethe’s language. Speaking to a Swiss German in standard German is similar to talking to him or her without making eye contact. In some ways, the voluntary ignorance and its resulting communication problems are important cornerstones of Switzerland. We must not forget that the Swiss Confederation has its origins in the unification of independent groups, which only merged to ensure their previous status. In other words, the Swiss Confederation is a pact guaranteeing et there are a few aspects about each contractual partner the right and Helvetian multilingualism that the privilege to differ from others; the Yrequire further clarification. It right and the privilege of not having to is correct that four languages are spoken adapt and of not having to understand in Switzerland, but the individual Swiss and not to be understood by the other often only uses one of them – at times not partners. The Swiss are united by their even particularly well. This is not due to common right to turn their back on each a lack in competence to learn and speak other. Nonetheless, the Swiss state exists foreign languages. The block is emoti- – and to a certain extent that is due to the onal and ignorance a free choice: The mutual deafness of he different popula- people from West Switzerland refuse to tion groups. This does not only apply to speak the language of the Swiss-German the state, but also to the nation. Ultimate- area – the idiom of the majority and the- ly, the Swiss do not completely lack a sen- refore potentially threatening, where- se of national belonging and patriotism, as the Swiss Germans are in principle which the Football World Cup revealed willing to speak French, yet only very reluctantly phrases an answer in standard German to the Romand, who believes to please his conversational partner

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a short while ago. Patriotism goes bey- Switzerland with those of the French Na- ond words and language. It also becomes tional Assembly, the advantage of being manifest in singings or jubilant cheers. Swiss immediately becomes clear. The Depending on the point of view, patrio- French members of parliaments can com- tism is prelinguistic or translinguistic. municate effortlessly – with terrible con- Naturally, Swiss patriotism is moderate sequences: They attack each other with and reserved – like all Swiss emotions. open visors, always fully aware that all But it does exist. their votes are understood in all their stylistic nuances and down to the finest Wrapped in haze details – with their combatants agreeing vociferously and their opponents strongly Apropos reserve: There is probably rejecting them. Their positions are clear, a subtle link between this Swiss virtue completely unambiguous and thus irre- und the Swiss shying away from other concilable. The French parliament is con- national languages. This conscious igno- demned to eternal dispute and the Swiss rance of others – and I mean this – has parliament to an eternal struggle for mu- a positive effect on the policy of prag- tual understanding. Even in their native matic compromise – an art the Swiss language, Swiss speakers are generally expertly command. The debates of the less skilful and specific than the French, parliamentarians in Bern are generally German or Italian speakers – seemingly wrapped in a slight haze. People become knowing that specifications make no sen- more cautious and polite when using a se as they do not reach the foreign-lan- foreign language and only have a very guage listeners anyway, that linguistic general understanding of what is being nuances do not contribute to amicable said. They protest less emphatically and agreements and pragmatic solutions and agree with less conviction. In the end, that it is better not to understand one ano- they adopt a halfway house position – ther too well at the linguistic level in or- halfway between the fear to lose an ad- der to get on well. «We understand each vantage and the fear to overlook it and other well because we don’t understand reach a tacit (in the true sense) agree- each other» the Swiss often state humo- ment with their respective counterparts. rously. However, there is more than a To some extent, Swiss parliamentarians fragment of truth in that statement. are like the protagonists of the famous «prisoner’s dilemma» frequently quoted in economic theory: As none of the pri- In the end, you adopt a half- soners knows the other prisoner’s next step, cooperation is the lesser evil for way house position – halfway both parties involved. between the fear to lose an ad- Comparing parliamentary debates in vantage and the fear to overlook it and reach a tacit (in the true sense) agreement with your respective counterparts.

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The reader of this text is free to in- short: If a citizen is content with «Basic terpret it as a humorous squib. I do be- English» as a means of communication, lieve, though, that the example of Swit- Europe has lost its raison d’être – and I zerland clearly demonstrates that a state do not only mean cultural Europe in this and also a nation can be multilingual context, but Europe as a whole. Why? without all citizens necessarily being Because that is precisely what Europe plurilingual. If the quality of linguis- is not - a nation or a state. A certain dis- tic communication between the citizens regard towards languages that do not is not a mandatory requirement for the pose a threat to other nations or states existence of states or even nations, we can have devastating effects at a Euro- could conclude that it is even less signifi- pean level. cant for an entity like Europe. After all, Europe cannot rest its cohesion on Europe – whatever that may be – has ne- the collective awareness that cements a ver seen itself as a «nation» and restricts nation. I would like to reemphasise that itself to «constitutional patriotism». To Europe is not a nation and will never what extent should active plurilingua- become a nation. Europe is more than lism be necessary for a sense of together- an amalgam of individual interests. Eu- ness and the wellbeing of a political Eu- rope is a concept - its strength and its rope? Maybe the European Parliament weakness at the same time. Neither the – with its members always wrapped in Articles of a European Constitution nor a slight linguistic haze like their coun- patriotic singings fill and will continue terparts in Bern - might gain the same to fill the European concept with energy. advantages as its Helvetian equivalent. Only sharing a common vision (I should A general disposedness to compromise and would rather like to say, a common that smoothes everything is also sprea- love) for the human being, for freedom, ding in Europe… dignity and the capacity for refinement can achieve that. Europe as a concept But to what extent does this joint vision or love require Europeans to be aware But wait a minute: It is certainly true of their plurilingualism and to possess that a multilingual state or a multilin- the necessary skills? For the benefit of gual nation can also exist if the citizens people and their freedom, for dignity hardly leave their own little shells. Yet it and the capacity for refinement, skills is equally true that Europe cannot really inseparable from linguistic culture and exist – at least in my view - if the diffe- the love for language need to be nur- rent European countries do not have a tured: Creativity and an understanding certain knowledge of their neighbouring of nuances, diversity and quality. What I countries’ languages (often simultane- mean by «language» is obviously not the ously neglecting their own language). In more or less technical, prosaic and standardised form of communication used in the context of business relationships. I am referring to language as an intimate treasure, a multifaceted reflection of hu-

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man experiences, as an active preserver wealth of experience, questioning it and of our culture; a secret place where old creating new contexts. It communicates mixes with new, heritage with creation, and creates; it is expression and appeal; what has been preserved with what is it states and gives hope – all at the same provided and knowledge with love. time. Every sentence expressed by a human being is a wish, a possibility and Money and language an order at the same time. It contains a description of what exists – but also the Many languages, one currency. It is dream or hope of what does not exist. remarkable and very significant that the Hence it should be clear what we process of the European standardisation should think about the ignorance of started off with money – and also im- other European languages, but also of mediately ended there. Money, per se the neglect of our own language and the instrument of material exchange, the terrible disposedness of Europe was easily standardised. We could even (and – even more terrible) of Switzer- call it the only real aspect in the life of land, to accept the use of «Basic Eng- the people and nations of Europe that lish», a sublanguage which is nothing has really benefited from this process. more than a linguistic single currency, Money – like language – is a means of facilitating transactions as if we were at exchange, but at the same time also the a cashier’s desk. Artificial «communica- complete opposite of language, at least of tion languages» (a wrong expression, as inspiring and emotional language. Mo- they do not really serve communication, ney represents the purely quantitative, but the exchange of verbal goods) are unambiguously defined exchange, whe- anti-languages as their poverty and their reas human values transported, shaped desperate strife for unambiguousness - and constantly recreated by language are of a purely qualitative nature: The richer the language, the less quantifiab- Money – like language – is a le. Language – every language – is the means of exchange, but at the refuge of meaning and thus ambiguity, same time also the complete of irony, hints, distancing, obfuscation and the twinkle in the eye. A sentence opposite of language, at least of is always more than a simple combina- inspiring and emotional langu- tion of words. Every sentence of every age. Money represents the pure- language contains an entire world, with ly quantitative, unambiguously all its bright and dark sides, its inspira- tions, confessions and secrets. Language defined exchange, whereas hu- is a melting pot of the senses: With every man values transported, shaped new sentence, it challenges the world’s and constantly recreated by language are of a purely qualitative nature: The richer the language, the less quantifiable.

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at the same time wanted and accepted sence of the human being to nurture this as a necessary evil – deprives them of opportunity – and Europe’s opportunity any possibility to create something new in particular, where human beings have that has never existed before – which is always strived for further development precisely the nature of natural and cul- and perfection. tivated languages. But how does «nurturing the diversity of languages» look like in practice? Building the Tower of Babel It would be utopian to ask Europeans to start learning every European langua- Has anybody noticed the enormous ge from an early age. Breeding langua- contradiction in the biblical story of buil- ge geniuses is not the point. The objec- ding the Tower of Babel? If people in the tive should be that all European nations entire world had really only spoken one clearly reject the use of «Basic English» single language, they would have never and instead focus more on lovingly nur- started to build such a tower! A mono- turing their own language without for- lingual humanity would have been blo- getting to throw a comparative glance at cked and paralysed and without desires the other languages of Europe. There is or plans – content with the world as it no contradiction in this approach, be- was, without aiming for the sky in or- cause I would like to reemphasise that der to be at the same level as God and people are more susceptible to the sec- without wanting to change and improve, rets and riches of another language, the scrutinise and reinvent the world. This more they love and know their own lan- monolingual humanity would not have guages. perceived itself as the humanity of possibilities; it would have never thought of A comparative view escaping from its situation – in short, it would have never dreamt of building the When I talk about «all European na- Tower of Babel. In order to have the drive tions», I naturally also include Switzer- for such a venture, the later curse would land. And if I am forced to acknowledge have had to reach them beforehand … that a country can also exist without Language diversity – a curse? Cer- nurturing its languages, it still makes tainly not – on the contrary. The diver- me sad that Switzerland does not nur- sity of languages is the mandatory re- ture and love its languages enough and quirement to prevent our future from thus is not particularly European in the turning into an exact copy of the pre- sense that I have attempted to outline. sent. Languages in their diversity open Our country would be a bad example up opportunities to speak about subjects for the future of Europe if it had not that are not yet reality and turn us into provided the Continent with some gre- creators and designers. And it is the es- at language facilitators and translators such as Jakob Burckhardt, Johann Jakob Bachofen, Guy de Pourtalès, Denis de Rougemont…

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If the previously mentioned «compa- The writer and essayist Etienne Barilier, rative glance» at other languages sounds born in 1947, has written around forty novels («Le chien Tristan», «La créature», «Le di- terribly abstract to you, let me reassure xième ciel», «L‘énigme» …) and essays. Two you: I am talking about school teachers of his essays are dedicated to musical the- that could start as early as possible with mes («Alban Berg» and «B-A-C-H»). Others reading the most beautiful stories from deal with literature, philosophy or politics different European languages – intro- and particularly with Europe – the latter also the topic of «Contre le nouvel obscurantis- ducing them with their translation and me» (European Essay Award 1995), which following-up with explanations, if re- was also published in the German transla- quired. Thus French, German and Swiss tion («Gegen den neuen Obskurantismus», children can listen to lines like the fol- Suhrkamp 1999). «Nous autres civilisations lowing at an early age: «O noche que …» (2004) and «La Chute dans le Bien» (2006) also deal with the fortune of cultural guiaste, O noche amable más que la al- Europe. borada, O noche que juntaste Amado con amada, Amada en el amado trans- formada.» Or: «I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? Fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same di- seases, healed by the same means, war- med and cooled by the same winter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die?» True English – worthy of the real Eu- rope! Those who have listened to these words do not automatically turn into confident Europeans. Yet I am sure that confident Europeans have listened to these and other words at one point in their lives and to them they are worth more than the single currency, their state and even their nation; these words are Europe – they are what Europe can become and what it can give – to itself and to the entire world.

Translation: Angelika Welt

190 Globalisation is happening! And the EU has to go on the offensive in order to help shaping it. The EU is not the Trojan horse of globalisation but our answer to it ... Europe is as much Erasmus’ deeply-rooted humanism as it is Voltaire’s sharp irony. It is the love of freedom in Schiller’s Don Carlos and Beethoven’s Fidelio as well as the tolerance in Lessing’s Nathan der Weise.

Benita Ferrero-Waldner, EU Commissioner for External Relations

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The Sound of Europe MP3, Internet, mobile phones and home movies have conquered the music business. In order to master future challenges in the world of music, initiatives like the EU Culture Programme 2007-2013 are a step towards a better distribution of titles and artists, more exchange and cooperations. In order to achieve a sustainable European music policy, non-multimedia industries have to be integrated more effectively. By Jean-François Michel

rope. Music has also proven to be a pre- ponderant element of social integration for minorities in Europe.

Music promoting Europe’s cultural diversity

The music industry employs over 600,000 people across the European Union and represents a global market of more than € 40 billion. All works of art need to be published and distributed to allow access to artists who will become their interpreters, and to reach ulture touches us all in many different types audiences. Cultural in- ways, but music above all touches dustries are essential to establish, distri- Cour heart. It unites and proves to bute and promote works of art. Publis- be a universal language, especially for the hers and record companies have to take young generations. Music is the first form their role of promoting creations as se- of art created by man: music is present riously as the different stakeholders in everywhere, as it reflects human culture the music sector. They are all involved and its legacy on all continents. Music in the process of helping the work reach has always been essential to culture in its audience. These different stakehol- Europe, and is nowadays the form of art ders operate within the framework of a privileged by young generations in order specific economy, the cultural economy, to express their creativity and share their with an industrial dimension specific national culture. More than ever, music to each sector of activity. Hence, indus- is the best form of art used to develop in- trial reproduction of a cultural product tercultural dialogue. Those millions, who helps circulate and sustain the cultural travel to foreign festivals, buy foreign records or simply play foreign music show that music goes beyond national borders and ultimately that music is building Eu-

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vitality and diversity of Europe. The EU co-financed by the EU supporting in- music sector is as important for econo- formation exchange, live music and the mic development as it is for true cultural international development of Europe- pluralism. The cultural industries fully an music professionals. EMO’s projects belong to European culture, with a very are in line with the objectives of the EU limited number of multinational firms and the Common Market. With regard (4 in the case of music), and a very large to the transnational mobility of people number of SMEs and even smaller enti- working in the cultural sector, projects ties, which produce, publish and distri- like the European Talent Exchange Pro- bute artists’ records, meanwhile others gramme and the European Tour Support produce concerts and organise tours, etc. aim at facilitating the mobility of profes- - with the objective of giving audiences sionals and artists in Europe. In terms of the opportunity to discover new artists the transnational circulation of works of and new cultures. art, artistic and cultural products, ETEP and ETS1 also aim at facilitating the cir- The European Music Office: the voice culation of art works by supporting tours of music professionals in Europe abroad. The project Exchange of Infor- mation aims at providing professionals The European Music Office is an in- and artists with the most useful informa- ternational non-profit networking as- tion to enhance their mobility in Europe. sociation for international and national Projects such as the development of an professional organisations, associations office in New York and China are also and federations from the music sector good examples of international mobility within Europe. Together with its mem- and intercultural dialogue. bers, other trade organisations and na- EMO is also lobbying on behalf of Eu- tional institutions, the association pro- ropean institutions and national govern- motes the diversity of European music ments. In the context of new EU Culture and represents its interests at a European programme 2007-2013, EMO’s focus is and a global level. The activities carried on projects supporting initiatives pro- out by EMO in Europe favour the rea- moting the cultural industries and their lisation of the European Union’s objec- programmes. tives in the field of culture: EMO aims at facilitating the circulation of works, ar- A European programme for music: tists, creators and productions. It fosters a necessity for the development of Eu- exchanges, cooperation and the mobili- ropean music ty of music professionals, easing public access to new artists and cultures from EMO’s core objective is the develop- all over Europe and encouraging the ment and implementation of a coordina- development of professional networks ted music policy for the European Union and organisations in the European music sector. With the European Music Platform, EMO also manages European projects

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and its member states – a very specific Musical Europe: Who listens to what and necessary support for the European and to what extent? music sector in order to realise EU objectives in this field. France In the coming months, the Europe- According to the International Fe- an Commission, the European Parlia- deration of the Phonographic Industry ment and the Council of Europe will (IFPI), France was the 4th largest mar- establish a new generation of cultural ket world-wide in 2003 (after the USA, and audio-visual programmes. The in- Japan and the UK) with retail sales of troduction of these programmes between almost two billion USD - representing 2007 and 2013 will be essential for the 6.4% of global sales. further development of the European With a 21.4% drop, France recorded cultural scene, enhanced mobility of cul- its strongest slump in sales in the ma- tural goods and services, creators, artists jor record markets between January and and culture professionals. European cul- March 2004. The market decline in 2004 tural industries not active in the multi- eliminated the previous positive trend media sector so far and - often confined with an average annual growth of 3 % by regional boundaries – will also benefit that had lasted for six years. from this new generation of cultural and In terms of music genre, domestic audio-visual programmes, both in the pop had the highest market share with European and the global market. 37.6%. Since 1999, France has been the In addition, a true European strategy European country with the highest em- promoting musical creation in particu- phasis on local repertoires – thus over- lar and the music industry in general taking the UK. also has to rely on initiatives that enforce In 2003, the SNEP (National Union of intellectual property rights on the one Phonographic Publications) noted a con- hand and master the problem of piracy tinuous growth in this market segment on the other hand. – with an absolute value of 60% compared However, it is obvious that the 2007- to a total of 35.5% allocated to international 2013 Programme in its current format repertoires and 4.5% to classical music. will not produce successful results, since the pilot projects have proven that non-multimedia industries need more European cultural industries support and flexible funding. For that not active in the multimedia reason, EMO is in favour of creating a sector so far and - often con- specific programme for the culture industries, following the example of the fined by regional boundari- Media+ Programme. es – will also benefit from this new generation of cultural and audio-visual programmes, both in the European and the global market.

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Germany Mobile phones (GSM and 3G), MP3, For the past six years, the percentage Internet, DVDs and home cinemas are of music purchasers in the German po- rapidly gaining in popularity, although pulation has been in continuous decline. Spain still lags behind in comparison 52.6 % in 1997 sank to 40.1% in 2003. with other European countries (for In- While Germany had the largest market ternet connections, Spain is number 20 share in Europe until a few years ago, in Europe – lagging behind several of the the dramatic slump in sales has caused Union’s latest members such as Slovenia, Germany to fall back to the 3rd position the Czech Republic and Estonia).3 (globally: number 5). Since 1996, the IFPI has awarded the UK Platinum Europe Award for many Ger- 9.3% of global music sales take place man albums selling more than a mil- in the UK and the market share in the lion copies within Europe. However, global music market is around 15%.4 In the majority of these sales took place in 2000, the UK music industry’s worth was German-speaking countries. Other dis- estimated at £3.624 billion with around tribution formats for popular music are 5,000 singles and 20,000 albums relea- still in their infancy in Germany; this sed each year and around 130,000 jobs. is in stark contrast to the promotion of As a great source of repertoire, the UK classical music, where Germany has an is only outplayed by the USA nowadays. outstanding position for economic rea- The UK industry is dominated by a num- sons as well as for reasons of cultural ber of large multinationals - Warner’s, and educational policy. EMI, Universal, BMG and Sony - but 90% of the music business can be classified Spain as micro, small and medium-sized enter- Spain represents 1.7% of the world prises. The industry‘s success is founded music market, ranking on the 9th posi- on the quality and diversity of talent in tion after the USA, Japan, the UK, Ger- the UK. many, France, Australia, Canada and According to the IFPI, the UK is one Italy. of the only music markets in the world Spain’s per capita purchasing pow- where sales increased in 2003 (+0.1%) er is well below that of other European and amounted to US$3.216 billion, Union countries: $22,403 (compared to equalling approximately £1.632. Retail $26,345 per capita in France and $26,751 expenditure on recorded music amounts per capita in Italy). Per capita expen- to £2.1 billion and per capita expenditure diture on music is still one of the lowest for music is only exceeded by Norway. in Western Europe with an all time low The record industry in the UK de- of €10.50 in 2004.2 monstrated a strong overall performance in 2003, although the total industry profits were down slightly with £1.177 billion. In spite of increasing competition in the entertainment industry, the entire music business recorded a growth of 4%

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in 2003, with a profit increase from al- Jean-Francois Michel is the Secretary General bum sales of 3.7% and - for the first time of the European Music Office in Brussels. He is also the head of the French Music Export in five years – the volume CD single sales Office, a member of the team of specialists, 5 up by 15.4% at a value of 8.1%. The issue Haut Conseil Culturel Franco-Allemand and of declining single sales was addressed the manager of JFM Consultant (previous- by the record industry – in particular ly Mediactiv). Between 1984 and 1992, hew by lowering CD prices, to give just one was the director of the Fonds pour la Création Musicale (FCM) in Paris. Between 1975 and example. Simultaneously, the market for 1984, he initiated cultural activities such as music DVDs has doubled its share in the the cultural centre ‘Forum des Halles’ as well UK: As early as 2003, their market sha- as a Jazz club and the choreography studio in re was at 4% of the UK music market. In La Défense in Paris. the following year, sales of downloads reached 2 million units. Although the international repertoire has constantly increased in the UK market over the last years, British music still remains very present in its own country and around the world. In 2003, British artists accounted for 47% of single sales (excluding classical music and compi- lations). UK artists account for 47.2% of singles, and 42.3% of albums, followed by American artists with 34.6% and 45.4% respectively.6 This is the first year that US artists have overtaken UK artists in album sales in the UK. On the other hand, a “new British invasion” of overseas markets has been observed, particularly in the US with the success of artists such as Franz Ferdinand, Joss Stone and The Darkness in 2003.

Edited by Angelika Welt

1 Under the management of the European Music Office (EMO), the European Music Platform has initiated the European Tour Support Programme – with the help of the European Commission - as an incentive for European artists to tour through Europe. 2 Anuario SGAE de las Artes Escénicas, Musicales y Audiovisuales 2005. 3 Internet World Statistics, 2004 & 2005. 4 Figures from the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), Creative Industries. 2004. 5 BPI Quarterly Market Review – 23 August 2004. 6 IFPI 2004.

198 Feeling the Blues? What are the conditions and processes influencing today’s music business in Europe? With the globalisation of music, researchers in Europe increasingly focus on social changes triggered by music and its role identity development. What are the effects of technological developments on traditional record companies and music consumers? And will the predominance of English pop music prevail in the global music landscape? By Jonas Bjälesjö

Ukraine, Greece and Finland – all those countries that normally play a less significant role in European pop music. In each country, the music contest enjoys a different status and receives varying levels of attention. At least almost all Euro- pean countries participate, thus putting the Anglo-Saxon predominance in its place. The songs are mostly in English, but many countries use this platform to present national characteristics and special features of their respective cultures. The Grand Prix Eurovision de la Chan- son has paved the way to the European ho will be the winner of the stages for the new Eastern European EU next Eurovision Song Con- member states. Wtest? Will other countries Even if transnational European pro- voice reproaches again stating that the ductions are rare, a large number of fun- Baltic States were voting in favour of each ding programmes promote the exploita- other? Whereas it has been difficult to tion and amalgamation diverse musical identify a European core in pop and rock potentials. “Muzone“ for example is a music since the fifties of the last century, music training programme in coopera- the Eurovision Song Contest is a classic tion with the EU action programme of example of the claim to represent Eu- professional and academic education, ropean diversity in its various national Leonardo. Its objective is to promote col- forms. laboration in the fields of professional Since 1956, the Eurovision Song Con- training and higher education policy at test has been organised every year in a European level. The festival organiser cooperation with TV channels within ”Yourope“ promotes music exchange. the European Broadcasting Union. The range of countries that have won the contest since 2000 is truly remarkable: Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, Turkey,

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The European music business also gets and audiences are mainly within natio- together on a regular basis at industry nal boundaries, as the lyrics are often in fairs such as the “Midem“ in Cannes and a country’s native language and mainly the “Popkomm“ in Berlin. refer to domestic problems. European pop musicians are certain- A common popular music for Europe? ly globally competitive. However, their contents are often specific to the indivi- All European networks nurture their dual nation. domestic music traditions. Popular music Music with roots outside of Europe was - and still is in certain countries – an can also be globally successful – with important means of expression to develop hip hop music being only one example. locally, regionally or nationally anchored Even if its roots are Afro-American, it is identities. Certain types of popular folk widely spread among young people and music – with Irish music as one examp- often among immigrants in Europe. Hip le – also experienced a certain degree of hop speaks many languages – not just at a success in the rest of Europe. Yet popu- pan-European level, but also in different lar folk music has always been and still places within European countries. is mainly significant at a national level. The relationship between music, The enlargement of the European Union ethics, nationalism, social background, has hardly had any influence on the use age, gender and place play an important and meaning of national folk music. It has role for the development of Europe. These only gained some influence in specific re- factors are points of orientation for indi- gions, countries or cities. The Professor of viduals, social groups and regions. A sen- Ethnology, Jonas Frykman, believes that se of belonging that has grown through popular folk music can contribute to a Eu- music challenges the norms and values ropean identity: “We have opted for the of a society, creating alternative, cultu- ’European regions’, where local and Eu- ral forms of expression and styles. Social ropean traditions are currently merging. communities are often important forums Since the beginning of the millennium, of expression for minority groups and can place, home and roots are playing an in- create resistance against uniform trends creasingly bigger role“. within the cultural industry – an impor- Some popular music in European is tant prerequisite for local colour. Parti- leading the market due to its particular cularly among adolescents, there are a sound, genre, style and image within national borders. In spite of its potential to achieve global popularity and the lack of a clear geographical connection, this type Markets and audiences and pop music is rarely played beyond natio- mainly within national boun- nal borders. Not without reason: Markets daries, as the lyrics are often in a country’s native language and mainly refer to domestic problems.

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numerous other examples of communities creasingly interested in the connection creating networks and exchanging infor- between changes in society and pop mu- mation, characterised by a specific taste sic. They also analyse the importance of in music and by their own lifestyle. These self-projection and identity development translocal networks are kept up through for individuals. Discussions about pop personal contacts and visits, concerts, fes- music are often about the ways global tivals, fanzines, mailing lists, websites, processes can be noticed at a local level. clubs, etc. What are the prerequisites and How do people react if local conditions processes influencing the world of music and their own experiences are intertwi- in Europe - now and in the future? ned with a certain type of music? To what extent do these processes influence iden- Pop and youth culture in Europe tity development processes? A location can be perceived as one aspect of global Youth cultures are globally characte- trends and views – not as their antithesis, rised by openness in terms of location, a which results in a local and a global – and mix of local, global and cultural patterns thus a glocal – process. Developments in as well as social influencing factors. The pop music are “translocal“ , as they are myth, the story and the history of pop mu- simultaneously influenced by global and sic thrive on relating to festivals, events, cultural influences, trends to homogenise moments, people and places creating mu- plus local variations and diversity. sic and life styles. At the same time, youth Cultural behavioural patterns of young culture in general and pop music in parti- people in Europe create an open environ- cular are examples of a post-modern con- ment of interaction and social relation- dition, where time, space and location ships. They try to keep this particular are continuously interwoven into com- space separate from their environment. plex patterns, to be disentangled again For many young people, organising an after a while. environment for their own existence is The sociologists Mike Featherstone closely linked to establishing their own and Scott Lash summarise as follows: identity. It is an important factor for de- “Nowadays, cultures create their own veloping their own social identity – which internal boundaries. Externally, they goes hand in hand with their identifica- are incorporated into networks of other tion with a particular location. People cultures, which makes it more difficult to are not just “festival visitors”, “punks” define the boundaries.“ Media scientist or “hip hoppers“. They adopt these roles James Lull defines the local transforma- at all times and wherever they are. Par- tion of global views and products as “cul- ticularly in popular music, young people tural re-territorialisation“. and their ways of expressing themselves With the triumph of globalisation – find a strong potential for a global life also in pop music - scientists are also in- without boundaries on the one hand and

201 Music

for the adjustment to local characteristics companies – several IT, telecommunica- on the other hand. tions and media companies have taken the reins. This has led to a shift in power “Anglophone” domination structures and a more democratic relationship between music companies, produ- The domination of English-speaking, cers and consumers. It has become much Anglo-American countries in pop music easier and simpler to produce and mar- can hardly be overlooked – as much in ket music, which leads to new distribu- terms of their presence in the media as in tion prospects for new, unknown artists. terms of sales figures and audience num- The difference between music produc- bers at concerts. A large number of TV tion and music consumption continues music channels focus on American and to shrink, as current technology enables British music – with regional variations own productions as well as new forms of depending on where they broadcast - as music consumption through new digital pop and rock music have their historic formats with music files and digital dis- roots in the USA and the UK. Looking at tribution technologies – mobile phones, programmes of European music festivals MP3 players, iPods, etc. are becoming in- with their diversified line-up, which is creasingly influential. According to John not limited to one particular genre, pre- Kennedy, International Federation of the senting a wide range of pop music, we can Phonographic Industry IFPI, “the music often observe that the majority of main industry increasingly changes into a digi- acts and well-known artists are from the tally literate industry nowadays. [...] The USA and the UK.1 digital music business continues to grow. In 2006, the income from sales doubled to Changing listener preferences around two billion dollars – around ten percent of our overall sales. By 2010, we ”New digital communication chan- expect at least one quarter of all global nels catapult music consumption to a music sales to be in digital format.” high quality level. More than ever, con- New forms of distribution and consumers want a number of different forms sumption patterns also change the social of access to music.“2 Technical and digital function of music. Socially networked developments are also changing music websites are booming. They allow peo- production and distribution in Europe, ple to portray themselves, their musical forcing the industry to develop new busi- creations or their interests in music. The ness models and to restructure its way of explosion of websites such as YouTube, working. Parallel to changes in the mu- LastFM and above all MySpace with over sic business, listener and consumer pre- 60 million registered users in September ferences are also changing. Nowadays, 20063 have created a vast contact network developments are not just led by record for artists as well as listeners and record

202 Music

companies. These websites operate like Downloads of individual songs are communities for fans and music enthusi- gaining ground. According to IFPI, their asts. MySpace made the Arctic Monkeys percentage has increased by 89 percent and Lilly Allen popular. “Some bands between 2005 and 2006. Together with have even started to offer exclusively “vir- downloads of individual songs and mas- tual“ gigs. In October 2006, Ben Folds tertones, downloads of ringtones, digital organised a virtual mega release party albums and music videos are becoming in the virtual 3D world “Second Life“ for increasingly popular. The number of MP3 his album ‘supersunnyspeedgraphic, the players – above all the Apple iPod – incre- LP!’. Damon Albarn’s latest project, “The ased by 43 percent in 2003. Mobile phones Good, The Bad and The Queen“ featured are also increasingly turning into central with an exclusive live performance on music media players. In October 2006, MySpace in December 2006”.4 Nokia introduced its music brand Xpress Digitalisation provides fans with fas- Music, enabling people to download up ter updates and enhanced forums for ex- to 1,500 songs on mobile phones. In ad- changes – for example about career news dition to its phone market, Nokia is also or ordinary stories from their idol’s daily going to launch a music store. According life. On MySpace, news and stories about to Ed Averdieck, Managing Director at the favourite artist can be published. Re- Nokia Music Service, multifunctionality cord companies in Europe use social net- is the future. Mobility is the keyword for working websites to establish contacts producers and consumers. Jean-Francois between fans and their admired artists, Cecillon, chairman and CEO at EMI Mu- thus at the same time generating an in- sic Continental Europe, states: ”An interest for other musical styles. The Web- creasing number of consumers are using site Last FM launched a so-called ’Taste- their phones to listen to music or they use o-meter’ operating like a dating service music to add a personal touch to their mo- focusing on musical preferences. bile phones. Music has become a key topic for mobile telephony [...].“5 However, the biggest discussions continue to be about Record companies in Europe overall access and illegal downloading of music through P2P file sharing. Illegal use social networking websites piracy is perceived as the main threat for to establish contacts between the music industry and artists as it under- fans and their admired artists, mines copyright. Yet it can be assumed thus at the same time genera- that even the major record companies will soon allow the purchase of digital files ting an interest for other musi- without restrictions. Most independent cal styles. The website Last FM labels already sell their music in MP3 for- launched a so-called ’Taste-o- mats that can be downloaded and copied meter’ operating like a dating service focusing on musical preferences.

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sic is a cultural and a mass product with Sony BMG aesthetic and economic relevance. It has Warner Music Group 15% 25,61% cultural significance and is suitable as a media product for the masses. ”Music is a complex system of social practice and EMI Group 9,55% different meanings: It has rituals and rules, hierarchies and systems to create credibility. Music can be an active form of art and a passive consumer experience Independent Labels 18,13% [...].Furthermore, the “popular“ part is not just about the market success of cul- 31,71% tural products like CDs, music videos and concerts. It is about trends, social Universal Music Group contexts of the fans, their attachment to Market share global music market - a certain music style and about human Nielsen Sound Scan 2005 relationships. A formal definition of popular music does not exist.“7 without copy protection. This would be a small revolution, with Translation: Angelika Welt an impact on the entire European and Jonas Bjälesjö studied History, Politics and global music market. The monopoly sta- Sociology at the University of Linköping. He tus of the major record companies – cur- is the chairman of the Swedish Rock Archive, rently dominating around 80 percent of the Swedish partner of the European Leonar- the global music market – would belong do Project Muzone and a member of the IAS- to the past. PM North (International Association for the Study of Popular Music). He has worked on a number of research projects and publications The future of music on young people and music in the European Union. In his empirical doctoral thesis about In Europe, pop music is part of a glo- the Hultsfred rock festival, he analysed the bal industry, with the four large major impact of music on cultural processes at a local, national and international level. companies EMI, Sony BMG, Universal and Warner dominating the world market. However, many small and not always commercial labels influence the music industry.6 The majority of the companies belong to a conglomerate in the cultural industry, characterised by a complex 1 This comparison refers to festivals not featuring on the website of the pattern of alliances, cooperations, part- European Festival Association, Yourope (www.yourope.org). nerships, participations, joint ventures, 2 IFPI: 07 Digital music report p. 4. 3 Fiveeight Music, September 2006, no. 58. etc. Yet music is more – it strengthens 4 IFPI: 07 Digital music report p. 12. 5 EMI Press release 23 November 2006, www.emigroup.com/Press/2006/ identity, provides a sense of life and leads press73.htm to appropriate social behaviour. Pop mu- 6 In Sweden for example, 99.4% of all companies in the music industry have up to 19 employees. (Nielsén 2006:17). 7 Connell & Gibson 2003: pp. 3.

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References Mitchell, Tony 1996. Popular Music and Local Bennett, Andy & Peterson, Richard A. 2004. Identity: Rock, Pop and Rap in Europe and Music Scenes: Local, Translocal and Virtual. Oceania. London: Leicester University Press. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. Nielsén, Tobias 2006. Tiden efter: En översikt Bennett, Andy 2000. Popular music and av den svenska musikbranschen. QNB Analys youth culture: music, identity and place. Lon- & Kommunikation AB. don: MacMillan Press Ltd. Strage, Fredrik 2001. Mikrofonkåt. Atlas Connell, John & Gibson, Chris 2003. Sound Szatmary, David P 1996. Rockin‘ in time: A tracks: Popular music, identity and place. Social History of Rock-and-Roll. Upper Saddle London: Routledge. River New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. Escott, Colin & Hawkins, Martin 1991: Good Vestel, Viggo 1999. Breakdance, red eyed Rockin‘ Tonight: Sun Records and the Birth of penguins, Vikings, grunge and straight Rock‘n‘Roll. New York: St. Martin‘s Press. rock‘n‘roll: The construction of place in mu- Featherstone, Mike & Lash, Scott 1999. Intro- sical discourse in Rudenga, east side Oslo. duction I: Featherstone, Mike & Lash, Scott I: Young: Nordic Journal of Youth Research. (red) 1999. Spaces of Culture: City, Nation, 1999 vol. 7(2). World. London: Sage Publishers. Forman, Murray 2002. The Hood Comes First: Internet Race, Space, and Place in Rap and Hip-Hop. www.muzone-europe.com Hanover, N.H.: Wesleyan University Press. www.yourope.org Frith, Simon 1996. Music and Identity. I: Hall, www.midem.com Stuart & Du Gay Paul (red) 1996. Questions of www1.messe-berlin.de cultural identity. London: Sage Publishers. www.myspace.com Frykman, Jonas 2000. Mötet med något an- www.youtube.com nat: Om regionalitet och lokal identitet. I: www.lastfm.com Andersson Karl-Olof 2000. Mötet med något www.uands.com annat – Om regionalitet och lokal identitet. www.emigroup.com/Press/2006/ Stiftelsen Framtidens kultur. Lokal kultur – en press73.htm seminarieserie. Rapport no. 4. Frykman, Jonas 2001. Motovun och tingens Other references poesi. I: Hansen, Kjell & Salomonsson, Karin Fiveeight Music, September 2006, no. 58. (ed) 2001. Fönster mot Europa – Platser och IFPI 2007. IFPI:07 Digital music report 2007. identiteter. Lund: Studentlitteratur. International Federation of the Phonographic Harvey, David 1996. Justice, Nature and the Industry, IFPI. Geography of Difference. London: Blackwell. Shannon, Victoria, New York Times, 23 Janu- Hesmondhalgh, David 2002. The Cultural In- ary 2007 dustries London: Sage Publishers. Johansson, Thomas & Sernhede Ove 2001. Identitetens omvandlingar: Black Metal, Magdans och Hemlöshet. Göteborg: Daida- los. Kruse, Holly 1993. Subcultural Identity in Alternative Music Culture. Popular Music 121:31-43. Massey, Doreen 1998. The Spatial Construc- tion of Youth Cultures. I: Skelton, Tracey & Valentine Gill (ed) 1998. Cool Places: Geogra- phies of Youth Cultures. London: Routledge.

205 Europe Reads European literature is well- known and loved all over the world. Yet it cannot be said that the literary world in Europe is characterised by interpenetration. Lacking financial support and high translation costs prevent a holistic literary exchange with our neighbours. It is doubtful whether the book series of a number of newspaper publishers can change this situation or create a European canon of literature. By Albrecht Lempp

core subject ‘book’ itself nor on markets for new and second-hand books, translations, culture and market or innovation.“ And further: “Ironically the book – traditionally the most important historic medium – has no (institutional) memory in Europe.“1 This still leaves room for polemic argument. However, since the UNESCO has stopped counting new and newly released titles and since the IPA (International Publishers Associ- ation) took over in 2001, the German Publishers and Booksellers Association has reported that the published data are n the overheated networking culture up-to-date – yet they are nowhere near of our times that allows us to witness as exhaustive as before.2 Looking at the Ieverything in real time or at least re- IPA statistics brings tears to one’s eyes. latively close to the actual event wherever However, it is not the lack of statisti- it may occur, we are no doubt losing the cally backed-up material which suggests a general overview, but also our sense for limitation of selected topics to me, but the the linearity of events. Traditional no- large number of topics that would deserve vel reading is diagonally opposite to this detailed discussions, yet can only be men- development – not to mention the act of tioned in a negative list in this context. writing a novel. And yet the book remains The popularity of a writer such as Dan an immensely important part of our lives, Brown or the Harry Potter books would our culture, our economy and sometimes provide material for a horizontal illus- even our politics. tration in this report. The effect of such Hence, it is even more surprising that extraordinary successes in book markets books only leave fragmented traces in the - with the statistically recorded average statistics, which forces us to live with the customer might buy 0.8 books a year - can following conclusion: “Not even remo- be as devastating for the distribution of tely reliable, independent and generally national literature as a potato beetle pla- accepted statistics exist - neither on the gue would be for the next harvest.

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Bookshelves stacked with mangas equal measure – or will the book market young readers unquestioningly read remain a domain of motley diversity?“ from back to front are one of the new However, one thing is immediately phenomena which are slowly changing clear: Those who believe that we are the book markets. Already, they are ex- able to read translations of all impor- tremely noticeable and determining fac- tant publications by our European fel- tors in the larger markets - increasingly low citizens if we have no knowledge of also influencing the smaller markets. their languages are on the wrong track. The not so young reader is rubbing his Translations made available to us are or her eyes, hardly able to make the con- fragments of fractions. A quick glance nection from Japanese comics to China at the unreliable tables of titles produ- and South Korea, the countries buying ced in some EU countries and the per- the largest number of book licenses from centage of translated titles reveals that German publishing houses every year. we are not talking about mass but niche production (admittedly including mass Literature and state support phenomena such as the ones mentioned above that can potentially snowball with Let’s leave Asia and Dan Brown to great impact): British publishing houses one side and focus on two home-made release some 160,000 titles (2004) every phenomena instead. Both contribute to year. Germany - second-largest producer the availability of European literature to of new books – publishes approxima- households of reading citizens. For both tely half of that amount: a total of ne- phenomena, the question arises whether arly 80,000 new publications or nearly intention and effect are interrelated in 90,000 book titles (2005). In the bottom an intelligible way. midfield is Poland with a good 20,000 The first question could be: “What titles (of which 12,000 are new publi- does the state do for the dissemination cations), Denmark with around 15,000 of its own literature in terms of getting it and Portugal with around 12,000. As translated?“, or else: “What effects does already mentioned: Roughly speaking, it have on the market and the circulation statistics about title production distin- of national literature if governments use guish between first-time publications, books as popular ‘ambassadors’ in their new editions, reprints, etc. In all cases, external advertising?“ the proportion of fiction and youth li- And the second question could be: terature among these titles is high – on “Which part and how much of the re- average between 10 and 20 percent. spective national canon of literature is It is not only enlightening to compare available to other readers in the Euro- these impressive numbers with the num- pean Union that have no knowledge of ber of translations – it is also sobering: foreign languages – or at least do not Around 50 percent of all translations into actively use them“, or else: “Is there a another foreign language are from Eng- trend towards a uniform (European) ca- lish or from American English. Insiders non of literature, with authors from Eas- using rather convincing background ma- tern and Western Europe represented in terial even mention up to 70 percent. One

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look at Polish figures seems to confirm really surprisingly – is relative high in this: According to statistics of the Natio- comparatively small markets such as the nal Library, the number of translations Dutch or the Hungarian market (20 to from English (or American English) was 60 percent), whereas it is rather small the respectable amount of 3,180 or 60 in larger markets (UK: less than 2 per- percent of all translations in 2004. Al- cent). Mainly Germany, but also Spain most half of these titles were fiction books with their large output in book publica- (1,602). Translations from German for- tions and a surprisingly high proportion med the second largest group with 577 tit- of translations (in Germany, over 12 per- les (11 percent). One quarter of this group cent in 2003, currently around 7 percent) were fiction books (116 titles). adopt an exceptional position, making The rest is allocated to other langu- it attractive for authors and translators ages and 15 or 20 of them (and not even from functionally secondary languages. the official 21 languages, including Irish It is only too apparent: We are far Gaelic forming the group of official EU from a real interpenetration of literary languages from 2007), but at least the- worlds and from a situation where all oretically almost 100. Of course we can EU readers have similar access to crea- leave out Manx, the Gagausian or the As- tive people’s thinking in the European turian languages in our literature com- cultural sector. parison and even the number of trans- Maybe that is not really a problem and lations into Rhaeto-Romanic, Catalan all alarmists are right in saying: “The or East Sorbian does not have to be the book is no longer a medium for a lin- measure of all things in European trans- guistic and transnational exchange of lation practice. Yet even disregarding thoughts.“3 those language leaves 30 to 40 percent In any case, it seems to be worth men- of translations allocated to more than 30 tioning. languages. If we accept that the “strong“ representatives of the second league are Promoting literature in Europe among those remaining languages - with German having the strongest represen- And yet, books are still important pro- tation of native speakers, followed by ducts in the commodity basket of foreign Spanish, French and Italian - we quic- cultural policy. Sometimes more, some- kly lose faith in wanting to work with percentages. And it is no consolation to point out that Albania, for example, is It is only too apparent: We are represented well enough with the large number of translated books by Ismail far away from a real interpe- Kadares, and secondly that Albania netration of literary worlds and does not belong to the EU and that the from a situation where all EU country’s language and literature do not readers have similar access to have to be counted in... The proportion of translations in book creative people’s thinking in production varies enormously and – not the European cultural sector.

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times less, books are used as friendly market and is a potential barrier for the ambassadors abroad by various govern- circulation of literature in Europe. Only ments. Even the European Union con- a short while ago, the Munich author and tributes to this with corresponding EU publisher Michael Krüger exploded in support programmes – albeit still reluc- the light of the claims of literary transla- tantly and rather symbolically. tors for better remuneration. With great In the context of the EU programme irritation, he demonstrated his calcula- “Culture 2000“, the commission spent tion methods in public. This led to spe- a total of 8,576,671 Euros for 338 trans- culations of the German Publishers and lation projects over a period of 6 years. Booksellers Association that the decrease According to an analysis of the Budapest in the licensed business in 2005 could Observatory, 187 publishers from 19 EU potentially be seen in the context of this countries have benefited from these pro- debate and similar discussions.6 jects. Only Luxembourg, Malta, Cyprus, Belgium and Portugal did not receive Is book promotion worthwhile? any funds.4 No detailed information is required to see that overall expenditure If the contribution from Brussels is for translation is so low that it hardly hardly enough to alleviate the reproach carries any weight. A little over 4,000 that translation costs are driving pub- Euros per year and project were availa- lishers into the poorhouse, national ble. Statistically speaking, according to support programmes can certainly rean analysis of the heaven-sent Budapest lieve the financial burden. Individual Observatory, every citizen would have expenditure varies a lot from country received just enough money to translate to country. There are no adjusted stati- one single word with six letters between stics as a basis for reasonable compari- 2000 and 2005. Thankfully, it wasn’t a son. If the focus is mainly on the new four-letter word. member states and particularly on the Without any hidden agenda, the peo- MOE Countries, the data accumulated ple from Budapest also noted the costs of by Alexandra Büchler in the context of really complying with the necessities of the programme ‘Literature Across Fron- Europe’s multilingual diversity beyond tiers’ at the Mercator Centre of the Uni- the belles lettres: While Culture 2000 is- versity of Wales can be a useful source sued the amount of €2 million to publis- of information. hers for translations in 2003, providing According to these data, Poland interpreting and translation capacities provides the highest amount by far – in the EU institutions Council of Euro- €273,890 in 2005 – while the Baltic States pe, EU Commission and EU Parliament are operating with sums around €20,000 that were not actually used cost a total of to €30,000. In Hungary, the foundation €10 million.5 The costs of Eurocracy are in charge at the Ministry of Education a constant topic of discussion – but that and Culture still had €120,000 at its dis- is not why I use these examples. I would posal in 2003, whereas it had to work like to highlight that time and again, the with just over €80,000 in 2005.7 cost factor ‘translation’ disrupts the book Statistically speaking, in terms of

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book production (without translations tual alignment, at the same time com- from a foreign language), this finan- peting with each other. They also had cial support means €5 to €18 per title. a joint presence at international book With an assumed funding of €1,000 fairs. In June 2006, in the context of its to €10,000 for translation fees and/or invitation as a Guest Country for 2008, licence charges per book, this is not a Turkey announced that the Turkish Mi- very fortunate situation. However, if we nistry of Culture planned to stock up consider that the translation of two book its translation fund – which proves the titles between two smaller markets can direct link to the programme. mean an increase of 50 percent of the an- Together with mere translation sup- nual translations from a particular lan- port, the national book or literature cen- guage, sensible financial support in such tres generally also work on other aspects dimensions certainly seems realistic. of promoting books, literature and rea- Additionally, considering the cultu- ding as well as documentation, which ral product book as an integral part of makes them an important, if not the foreign cultural policy, it can also be at- prime source of information for foreign tractive for the individual cultural ins- journalists, publishers and organisers of titutes representing their countries ab- literature programmes. road to appear as a player and thus a However, it is not uncommon that re- financial sponsor. The entrance costs are quirements do not match reality and that low: €500 to €1,000 are often enough. the amount of time required for the in- This frequently generates external funds put and maintenance of data is undere- from various sources, which actually stimated. Not all websites and databases take over the entire translation charges are universally available in one foreign and the licensing fee – and occasionally language (mostly English). According even printing costs. Twelve sponsoring to Alexandra Büchler8, only the Polish institutions from ten countries is not the and the Estonian databases allow for a rule, but it does happen. full-text search of available translati- At the end of the nineties, a distinct ons of domestic works. Naturally, these professionalisation of institutions and services are not a speciality of the MOE programmes promoting books and their states, but over the last ten years, it was translations became apparent – in par- particularly impressive to observe in the- ticular in the new EU member states se countries how authors and their works in the East. The incentive provided by went under the auspices of foreign cul- the German Publishers and Booksel- tural policy and to what extent the in- lers Association with its Guest Country dividual states attempted to balance the Programme at the Frankfurt Book Fair “location dis-advantage” of their own should not be underestimated in the con- literature in foreign language markets. text of developing and expanding these The old and older EU member states have programmes: The Translators’ Funds of already done the preparatory work. In an Latvia, Poland or Hungary were all foun- analysis of national support programmes ded in the context of this Guest Country and institutions, it becomes evident that Programme and have developed in mu- something similar to a norm has been

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accepted, which historically has probab- versity in Europe. ly been very strongly influenced by the While some of these schemes ended Scandinavian programmes and the Nor- up in the cellar of the ordering party wegian NORLA in particular.9 and quite a lot of money went towards Yet in spite of all the enthusiasm about well-meaning prestige projects far remo- a successful implementation of the Scan- ved from the realities of the market, one dinavian model of translation and book glimpse into the bookshops or the virtu- promotion in book and literature centres, al catalogues of the publishing houses is a nation’s own limitations remain obvi- enough to see how the market itself in- ous. Let’s use an analogy from sports: terprets the task from basket 3 and has The entrance of the participants in the implemented it with profit. Olympic Games into the stadium is spon- It seemed as if the key to mass dis- sored. Whether there will be medals and tribution of translated books had been the achievements will be remembered, found, when the Italian newspaper La is a completely different story. Or – to Repubblica started to “piggyback” books put it differently: The participation in with newspapers in 2002. No state subsi- the so-called European discourse cal- dy programmes, but the sheer mass made led for by intellectual or lettered elites the books cheap – with direct access to is not simply guaranteed by providing the newspaper readers. Twenty million a translation. books were sold under the overall title of the series “20th century library”, gene- Books from newspapers rating a revenue of 112 million Euros. Naturally, this initiative has nothing The statements on cultural diversi- to do with the European discourse about ty in basket 3 at the OSCE Conference worlds of ideas. Illustrated books prevail: in 1975 were often used to support the Encyclopaedias, guidebooks through claim to translate important books into virtual or real galleries, fauna, infor- all major and minor European langu- mative, colourful or artistic contents, ages. Time and again, the idea of a na- criminal fiction and adventure novels tional canon of literature to provide all – but quality literature and books for European citizens with access to the in- young people are also part of the pro- tellectual wealth of their many neigh- gramme. bours – in high-quality translations and The concept has caught on. It seems bound in luxurious covers – keeps co- as if the secondary school teachers of ming up in the debates on cultural di- this world have begun to define the minimum of our set reading and to feed it to us with our morning papers. Throug- hout Europe - yet (still) with varying This initiative has nothing to success: Whereas the number of series do with the European discourse created in this format remains small, the market of book supplements is booming about worlds of ideas. Illustra- in Poland, in Portugal and in Belgium. ted books prevail. Whereas British people receive DVDs

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when buying their newspapers, a num- The SZ series represented Günter Grass ber of different series are competing in with “Cat and Mouse“, whereas the Po- Spain and in Germany. lish readers were able to enjoy “The Tin Together with many encyclopaedic Drum”. Hermann Hesse’s “Beneath the and historic publications, a series with Wheel“ was chosen for the German rea- the title ’19th century classics’ or ‘20th ders, whereas “Steppenwolf“ belonged to century classics’ is published in many the Polish edition, Franz Kafka’s “Ame- cases, introducing the most important rica“ is part of the German series, whe- works of fiction from all over the world. reas “The Trial“ was chosen for the Po- The unofficial version of a canon of li- lish series. Graham Greene’s “The Third terature - without making such a claim Man“ is the German of choice, whereas and without the authority from the world it is “The Heart of the Matter“ in Po- of literature supporting the selection. lish, Milan Kundera is published with Although or particularly because the- “The Unbearable Lightness of Being“, se series are in a way anonymous and whereas “The Joke“ is part of the Polish yet have been selected with great care edition, “Heart of Darkness” by Joseph - also with the local market in mind - it Conrad is the book of choice for the Ger- is very interesting to analyse where they man edition and “The Secret Agent” in are similar and where they differ from Poland and finally Julio Cortázar with country to country. Is Graham Greene “The Pursuer” in Germany and with as much part of the Estonian selection “Hopscotch” in Poland. as of the series in Portugal or Ireland? Is It goes without saying that there are Catch22 a title read by (almost) everyone? more Polish writers on the Polish list Are the books mainly by authors who than in Germany (Gombrowicz, Iwasz- won the Nobel Prize? Do very important, kiewicz, Kapuściński, Konwicki, Lem, yet difficult books stand a chance with Miłosz). Yet the only Polish writer on the newspaper readers? the German list is Andrzej Szczypiorski, My curiosity was initially very private and limited to comparing the first series of the Süddeutsche Zeitung SZ in Munich In many cases, a series with the and the Gazeta Wyborcza in Warsaw, because I had noticed that only three titles title ’19th century classics’ or among the 40 titles of the Polish edition ‘20th century classics’ is pub- and the 50 titles of the German edition lished, introducing the most were identical in both series: “The Name important works of fiction from of the Rose“ by Umberto Eco, “Tortilla Flat“ by John Steinbeck and “Swann’s all over the world. The unoffi- Way“ by Marcel Proust. It may sound cial variety of a canon of litera- naïve – but I had expected a much larger ture - without making such a proportion of “matching“ titles. claim and without an authori- A further comparison of the titles revealed that eight authors were represen- ty from the world of literature ted in both series – with different titles: supporting the selection.

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who is missing in the Polish edition. Sienkiewicz, Tolstoy and Chekhov, Wes- Naturally, such a list can be scruti- tern literature still plays the dominant nised under various aspects, always fully role. Even translations of Tolstoy and aware that other elements beyond a con- Dostoevsky as part of a selection of 50 scious selection also play a role (for exa- novels into Catalan only demonstrate mple the availability of printing rights, what everybody knows already – that because the publishers are certainly an- some Russian authors’ works are world gry about such “cheap offers”, with pri- literature of the 19th century. But that’s ces between four and five Euros). And it: No 20th century author from the yet: It is an interesting aspect if Vladi- “East” is part of the original series in Ita- mir Nabokov (with “Lolita“ of course) ly, “Master and Margarita’ is published and George Orwell with “1984“ made in the standard classics series in Spain it into the Polish list, but not into the together with Nabokov and Solzhenitsyn German series. features from time to time. Looking a bit further, Orwell is also So far, there is no indication that the represented in Slovakia, Italy and Spain “Western canon of literature” will open – however, the titles vary – “Homage to up to 20th century authors from the new Catalonia“ in Spain, released by the member states and become a “West-Eas- newspaper ’El País’ and “Animal Farm” tern canon of literature”. A letter by the released by the Italian newspaper ‘Re- reader Mr Mahr from Switzerland to the pubblica’. The social alternative repre- German magazine ‘Der Spiegel’ sounds sented by the novel “Brave New World“ almost reassuring: “At the Berlin School by Aldous Huxley only appears in the for Booksellers (1953 – 1956), we com- Spanish series of El País. Joseph Con- pared a History of World Literature from rad features in every series – yet with 1928 with the titles from 1955. The stri- varying titles; often Heinrich Böll is part king title of the History of Literature of the edition (with equally varying tit- by Eduard Engel was: “Was bleibt? Die les). Michail Bulgakov’s “The Master and Weltliteratur. (What will survive? World Margarita“ is popular (Poland, Spain, Literature.)“. “In 27 years, not even five Italy, Slovakia) – as well as the books that percent survived.“10 Where so much is have risen to fame through the cinema: variable over the years, ignorance re- “The Great Gatsby“ by Scott Fitzgerald mains tolerable. and “The English Patient“ by the Cana- And whether the call for book series dian writer Michael Ondaatje. with a better mix, contributing to the With the success of these series, new formations of new “canons of literature“ titles in new combinations are added all and providing a broader horizon for the the time, which has not led to many dis- literary awareness of the European rea- coveries of new foreign-language titles ders is of any value leaves room for cau- yet. The series generally stick to “safe“ tious doubt. The responsible market classics. The Hungarian daily newspa- strategists state quite frankly that these per Népszabadság launched a series of projects are not primarily about reading. ‘Classics of the 19th Century’. “The incentive to collect 10 to 35 books But except for Dostoevsky, Turgenev, on a particular subject is not related to

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the buyer’s wish to read these books.“ The success of a series much rather depends on good advertising, efficient sales activities, the concept and a convincing price-quality ratio.11 Nevertheless, it might not do any harm to try. But maybe we impose too much on books and on literature if we turn them into the packhorse of cultural diversity and intercultural discourse on our way to Europe. Whether with state promotion or commercially arranged in series - maybe it would be beneficial to examine reading habits instead of book production. In the next Europa- Report (quarterly publication on policies, economy, research and culture).

Translation: Angelika Welt

Since 2003, Albrecht Lempp has been the chairman and managing director of the Foundation for German-Polish Cooperation. He has a doctorate in Humanities and is a Slavicist. He is also a cultural manager and translates Polish literature into German. He is a member of the ‘Rat der Kulturstiftung’ - “Haus Europa” and the association Villa Decius. Posts: At the Polish Institute in Darm- stadt and as the deputy director at the Adam- Mickiewicz-Institut. He is the founder of the workgroup Literature ”polska2000”. 1 Wischenbart, Rüdiger: “Das Spielfeld ist zerrissen: Der globalisierte Buchmarkt.” Article from 9 May 2006 in perlentaucher.de (English translation from the German original quotation). 2 Buch und Buchhandel in Zahlen 2005. Published by the German Publishers and Booksellers Association. Frankfurt/Main 2005, p. 72. 3 Wischenbart, cf. Note 1. 4 MemoSep 2006, “Culture 2000 under Eastern Eyes”, p. 24ff. www.budobs.org 5 Ibid., p. 25 and accompanying letter for MemoSep “Eurotranslation”. 6 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 11 January 2006, p. 31 and ’Buch und Buchhandel in Zahlen 2006’, p. 69. 7 Presented at a conference of the Next Page Foundation and Kulturkontakt Austria on the subject of “Promoting translations – ideas, practices, innovations” on 23/24 June 2006 in Vienna. 8 “Promoting translations...”, cf. note 7. 9 Norwegian literature abroad, fiction & specialist literature 10 Letter to the editor in ’Der Spiegel’ 43/2006, reacting to an article on the book market in ’Der Spiegel’ 41/2006. 11 Profile of the Paperview Group from Belgium on its website www.paperviewgroup.com

214 A House (of Literature) for the Continent Houses of Literature are the future model of literature facilitation. In Germany, it has become obvious that all municipal sectors rather than just the group of people interested in culture benefit from these venues and that it is important to tap the full potential of a transnational network. By Florian Höllerer

there are large municipal institutions such as the »Nadbałtyckie Centrum Kultury« (»Baltic Cultural Centre«) in Gdansk and non-governmental venues such as the »Po- granicze« (»Border Country«) in Sejny, which are organised as foundations. As it is the tradition in all Eastern European countries, the houses of the Writers Asso- ciations are also major event venues. It is the same throughout Europe, with very diverse venues such as the »Villa Gillet« in Lyon, the »Maison de la Poésie« in Pa- ris, the »Casa delle letterature« in Rome, the ‚International House of Literature‘ in ver the last twenty years, the- Brussels (founded in 2004 under the name re has been a real boom in ope- of »Passa Porta«), the SLAA in Amsterdam Oning new Houses of Literature that joined forces with the cultural cent- in Germany, Austria and in the German- re »De Balie«, the first Danish »House of speaking part of Switzerland. With Ber- Literature» that opened in Copenhagen lin as the starting point, the growing en- in 2005 following the example of the Ger- thusiasm for Houses of Literature has not man language Houses of Literature and been limited to the large cities. Over the finally the House of Literature in Oslo years, an increasing number of mid-size that will open soon. cities such as Kiel, Darmstadt, Magde- All these Houses of Literature follow burg, Wiesbaden, Rostock or Nuremberg very unique cultural, economic and social have followed the trend. One could say traditions: The French book and reading that Houses of Literature have become landscape is strongly influenced by inde- a natural element of the urban cultural pendent booksellers that have always been landscape – at the same level as theatres, very influential. This situation is very dif- museums, concert halls or cinemas. ferent in Italy, where newsagents – among Irrespective of this development, new others – are increasingly participating in Houses of Literature are founded every- the book market. It is mainly the success- where in Europe. If we look at Poland, ful literature festival in Mantova setting

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standards in this country. The traditio- vulnerable: Over time, many houses had to nal formats of literature events also vary fight quite a lot to find restaurateurs com- significantly: An author’s reading of an bining strength of character and a sensible hour’s length or longer is a very normal approach to the idea of the House of Lite- format in German-speaking countries and rature with profitability. If this delicate takes place in municipal libraries, book- arrangement works, Houses of Literature shops or trendy cafés, whereas it is more can also play an important role in urban the exception than the rule for a Spanish, planning and contribute to the resuscita- French or Portuguese audience. tion old and derelict parts of town or new Already, an inkling of numerous idi- areas with a tendency to become sterile. osyncrasies prevents us from offhanded- Anchoring Houses of Literature in ur- ly deducing the unknown from what is ban life to a large extent also depends on known to us – for example by wanting to the history of their foundation and their transfer the format of German Houses of organisational forms. Houses of Litera- Literature to an English or a Hungarian ture are often associations and less fre- environment. Particularly the differences quently foundations and thus operate and the non-transferable aspects create autonomously. They normally have hund- the spark that introduces a twist to a new- reds, if not thousands of members and are ly developed venue. I would like to report also supported by friends. They are nor- about idiosyncrasies and perspectives fo- mally founded and supported by the pu- cusing on three different aspects, with blic authorities (the cities and sometimes the House of Literature revolution as the the federal state) – particularly by provi- starting point: ding the property. However, the initial stimulus mostly came from the private Citizens on the move sector: From people actively involved in the cultural sector, from publishers and Located in representative buildings in citizens interested in literature. They star- the city centre, Houses of Literature are ted the process of founding the House of normally an ensemble of event and exhi- Literature, supported by politically influ- bition spaces, a restaurant, a café and a bookshop. With this mix, they have become urban meeting points – communication spaces where different groups of If the idea of the House of Lite- society exchange information and where rature is realised in a profitable citizens’ initiatives and ideas for coopera- way, Houses of Literature can tion have their origin. The prerequisite is an intact balance also play an important role in between the programme and the gastrono- urban planning and contribute my – evoking the feeling that the House of to the resuscitation of old and Literature starts when entering the café/ derelict parts of town or new restaurant (and the bookshop) – and not only when entering the function room. areas with a tendency to be- Yet this is what makes this entire concept come sterile.

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ential citizens providing legal or business Programme with a long-term effect advice. Charity programmes supported by well-known writers and other cultu- Over the last ten years, there has been ral institutions sympathetic to the project a trend in cultural policy to reduce ba- often developed into inventive fundrai- sic funding of cultural institutions and sing campaigns. A growing media interest to replace it by project-based funding and and start-up funding by foundations and funding of big one-off events to gain more companies inspired socially influential flexibility and room for manoeuvre. Cus- citizens’ initiatives with a high level of fi- tomary rights are abolished and budgets nancial and non-material commitment to previously blocked by continuous funding the cause of the House of Literature. This have become more dynamic. Particular- commitment lasted beyond the successful ly in the field of literature, this tendency foundation of these Houses. also has major disadvantages. Sustainabi- Ownership of the premises, rent reduc- lity and the continuity of the work are in tion or the rent-free use of the building danger. Values based on long-term trust can be crucial in order to fund the day-to- and faithful audiences demand to develop day running of the institution. Revenues topics further and not just to kick them from leasing the restaurant and from the off. It also involves looking at themes and bookshop are normally directly allocated debates over a longer period of time, main- to the House of Literature budget. The taining the dialogue with authors and fol- function rooms are also rented out to ex- lowing their development over the years. ternal event organisers – cultural (associ- Literature on boats, in airports, zoological ations, foundations, reading groups, etc.) or botanical gardens or shopping arcades and non-cultural (symposia, weddings, can be a breath of fresh air, yet it is tiring etc.). Foundation grants, donations and and counterproductive if overdosed. sponsoring contribute as well as annual In terms of sustainable long-term ef- subscription fees of the club members and fects, the Houses of Literature are in a the friends. Fourthly, revenue is generated very good position: In the same way as from entrance fees. If we take the House of theatres, opera houses and concert halls Literature in Stuttgart as an example, its or museums, they believe in a highly spe- total revenue covers at least two thirds of cialised management principle, aiming the overall budget. The remainder comes for a personal profile inclined towards from public sources, with a major con- experiments – very much the opposite of tribution from the fixed annual munici- the sluggishness and half-heartedness of pal grant and project funds granted by board decisions. Generally, the aim is to the federal state. Even if the relationship develop programmes independently and between public and private financing va- to take risks rather than reacting passive- ries significantly from one city to another, ly to the reading tours organised by the this kind of mixed calculation is part of publishing houses: Themed months, com- the fundamental principles of the House missioned original contributions, and un- of Literature concept. The material re- usual constellations for panel discussions sponsibility is widely distributed throug- or extensive event series about one parti- hout society. cular author, a genre or a theme over a few

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months. In all houses, the hub of the pro- ing tomorrow’s visitors into the House of gramme repertoire is still the traditional Literature at an early stage. This also ap- reading, followed by a talk, moderated by plies to the creative writing workshops, well-known critics or other writers. What mostly aimed at young people, but also at is offered might be the presentation of a adults. In this context, a lot of big projects young local writer of crime fiction, a Uk- have developed over the last years – of- rainian poetry night or events with crowd ten funded by foundations – cooperating pullers such as Imre Kertész, Jonathan with schools, producing publications, loo- Franzen, Michel Houellebecq or Orhan king for supranational contacts and thus Pamuk, where the Houses of Literature including authors from a particular city (with roughly 200 seats) have to move into over longer periods of time as lecturers theatres or concert halls that offer five of the venue . times their capacity. The times are over when people went to literature events out In search of cooperation of noble mindedness or a sense of duty, of course without paying an entrance fee. The most important term for the work In lengthy processes – mainly through of any House of Literature is cooperation. word-of-mouth – audiences have gained Only a small minority of evenings take the confidence to experience scintillating place without a cooperation partner. This and unique evenings - by no means infe- could be a foreign cultural institute, a pub- rior to a visit to the cinema or the theat- lisher, a university institute or a foundati- re. And engaging with the audience does on. It could also be radio stations broad- not lead to complacency and to smoothing casting series of talks from the House of literature’s anarchic hook. ‘Sophisticated’ Literature, newspapers commissioning is not the opposite of ‘popular’. – In the essays together with the venues, a big mu- long run, a sustainable positive attitude seum commissioning writers to describe of audiences cannot be achieved without their favourite work of art, a theatre co- challenging exactly those audiences. organising a reading by Michael Frayn During the day, Houses of Literature when his play »Copenhagen« is part of its also have a presence and mainly follow repertoire, an opera house participating two paths, offering exhibitions and cre- in a Hölderlin evening in the context of the ative writing workshops. The exhibition premiere of Bruno Madernas’ »Hyperion programme ranges from comic strip pre- Project«, law firms sponsoring a panel sentations in the function room to lar- discussion on the ban of Maxim Billers’ ge-scale, especially curated touring ex- novel »Esra«, a film producer as the part- hibitions, with themes such as ’Hannah ner for a poetry film festival, etc. Arendt‘ or ‚Die Kinder der Manns’ (The However, this does not turn Houses Children of the Mann Family), presen- of Literature into cultural supermar- ted in separate gallery spaces, accom- kets, constantly going beyond their own panied by supporting programmes and expertise by organising everything and being acknowledged/meeting responses nothing. beyond a particular region. They are also Particularly a high-profile partner en- attractive for school groups, thus bring- ables the houses to focus on their own core

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profile, even if the individual evening ex- was opened to coordinate the activities of ceeds the boundaries of literature towards the houses and to service the Internet pre- music, architecture, religion, education or sence »www.literaturhaeuser.net«. The politics. The fact that the audiences of two first joint activity of all houses - »Poesie institutions and two interest groups meet in die Stadt! (Poetry in the City!)«, which and join forces in the mutual promotion of will now be repeated every summer with a joint evening is particularly beneficial a changed theme and changing sponsors for the perception of the House of Litera- consisted of distributing more than 3000 ture as the intellectual hub of the city. gigantic posters with modern poetry in A search for synergies also takes place the whole of Germany. Over the years, beyond the microcosm of the individu- diverse forms of cooperation have taken al city. Or to speak in chemical terms, place: Reading tours with important aut- Houses of Literature are molecules with hors not yet discovered by the wider pu- free, unsaturated compounds. Due to the blic (some years ago Richard Powers or continuous absorption of impulses from Kiran Nagarkar) or the project »Transna- other cities and other countries, the ini- tionale«, where all houses deliberately or- tiators and providers of ideas play a sti- ganised different events at the same time mulating role in common talk. Houses of and on the same subject (transnational Literature such as the »Literarische Col- literature). Every year at the Leipzig Book loquium« in Berlin, which also offers a Fair, the network awards the »Preis der scholarship programme or the »Literatur- Literaturhäuser« to authors for particu- werkstatt« have nurtured relationships to larly successful literature events. foreign and particularly European insti- It is an advantage that other opportu- tutions over many years, which contribute nities to source funds come up as a result to their wealth of experience. of the cooperation. This particularly ap- Those eight big Houses of Literature plies to the large public and private foun- in the German-speaking cities of Ber- dations. They are happy to work with one lin, Hamburg, Frankfurt, Salzburg, Mu- central contact and enjoy being able to fi- nich, Cologne, Stuttgart and Leipzig that nance local projects in different parts of have created the »literaturhaeuser.net« the country with one single grant. Hence, network also have a wide range of expe- an increasing amount of funds goes into riences with cooperations. In Munich, an cities which would have been out of reach office financed with equal representation without the House of Literature – quite an important argument for municipal politics. Joint projects also simplify the PR work for the different houses – particular- However, this does not turn ly when dealing with national newspapers Houses of Literature into cul- and radio stations. A number of years ago, tural supermarkets, constantly »literaturhaeuser.net« also signed the con- going beyond their own exper- tract for the media partnership with the TV channel »Arte«. tise by organising everything In terms of European and general in- and nothing. ternational networking, this potential has

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not really been fully exploited yet. The society, ensuring its sustainable and long- community of Houses of Literature faces term cohesion. The main beneficiaries of great challenges in this context. One step the foundations of Houses of Literature into the right direction is the ambitious are the cities themselves. They receive a writer-in-residence project that »literatur- multiple return on their investment. haeuser.net« has organised together with the »Goethe-Institut«, »Arte«, the »Frank- Translation: Angelika Welt furt Book Fair« and institutions of the individual partner countries: Last year, in Since 2000, Florian Höllerer has been the di- cooperation with Houses of Literature, rector of the House of Literature in Stuttgart. He did German and Romance Studies, worked seven German cities sent one author to an as an Assistant Instructor at Princeton Uni- Indian city for one month to keep a dia- versity for two years and received the hono- ry. Every day, these diaries were publis- rary award of the Académie des Sciences, hed on the Internet in two languages. In Belles Lettres et Arts in Lyon. In his latest exchange, seven Indian authors came to post, he was involved in the Culture and City Programme (Brussels 2000) at the Goethe- the German cities as writers-in-residence. Institut Brussels. This project generated texts characterised by the unguarded immediacy of daily writing on the one hand and by the shifts in perception caused by the duration of the stay on the other hand. Two years before, the same project took place in cooperation with seven Arab cities and the candidate for the exchange in 2008 is Turkey. All in all, these are three important reasons why the House of Literature model is the future. One aspect becomes very evident in this context: Literature is not the week little plantlet that has to be protected by the cities as a dying species. On the contrary. Firm roots anchor literature in

220 With the prospect of becoming a member of the EU, many nations have moved towards an open society. […] Wherever Europe follows a common political course - for example in the case of Iran – it was able to persuade others - even the USA - to abandon their inflexible positions. However, it is far too seldom that Europe taps its full potential.

George Soros, Investor and Philanthropist

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A Stage for European Theatre Europe is the home of theatre. Festivals as open events provide an ideal platform for cultural exchange: Artists present their various disciplines, creating interest for their works. The audience can choose from an extraordinary cultural programme and last, but not least, festivals are also a driving force for the regional economy. By Bernard Faivre d´Arcier

countries at the same time. Only one year after Avignon, the Poetry Festival in Aix- en-Provence came into being, with the festivals of Edinburgh and Recklinghau- sen also starting at that time. Therefore, it is a social and historic phenomenon at the same time, which was completely in line with the Zeitgeist and has been closely linked to our leisure and media society to the present day. Since that time, a myriad of theatre festivals has evolved. Most recent statistics mention more than 3000 festivals in Western Europe, classifying them accor- lthough the word festival is so- ding to a variety of categories: The size of metimes associated with the re- the festival, its dates, the type of festival, Amote past (taking the examples etc. Of course they are always labelled as of Bayreuth or Orange), the concept is incredibly beneficial for tourism and the relatively young. It goes hand in hand local economy. Hungary for example has with civilisation and leisure activities, consciously identified 1000 cultural acti- summer outings and the expansion of the vities which the local authorities happily media. In the case of Avignon, the oldest call “festival“. Is the festival idea diluted and most famous of European festivals, its by objectives of the tourist industry? And founder, the actor and director Jean Vilar, are there not too many festivals anyway? would never have been able to imagine And is it not true to say that audiences are its success and above all the expansion already tired of the concept? Meanwhile, of the festival phenomenon in 1947. In we seem to feel increasingly sated with his opinion, the festival was only one of something that has become a formula rat- various means to gather a young audience her than an attitude, as Europe is flaun- and to communicate particular aesthetic ting an incredible amount of different and moral values to these people. Yet it statements! turned out that immediately after World In actual fact, the festival concept War II, several festivals started in various should be reserved for cultural events

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promoting creativity and international However, in other European countries, innovation, as it is the true role of a fes- a saturation of the market cannot be la- tival to allow artists to initiate projects mented yet. The whole of Eastern Europe and activities that would not be perfor- has turned towards the festival formula for med in the context of ordinary institu- quite some time now, yet the opportunities tions. However, the magic label cannot to circulate works from another country be allocated exclusively to the dimini- are particularly limited in the East. shing number of truly creative festivals. Nevertheless, we can also witness a du- It is also important to acknowledge that plication of festivals in that part of Europe festivals continue to play a major role for – from the Baltic States to Bulgaria and the distribution of artistic works. from Romania to Poland. Does the festi- It is common knowledge that a growing val format still serve a purpose? A festival amount of events everywhere in Europe distinguishes itself by being exceptional. increasingly face marketing problems – “Festival rime avec carnaval et estival.“ particularly in public theatres and very (Festival rhymes with carnival and esti- specifically in countries with predomi- val.) The secret of the success and longe- nantly small groups working from one vity (60 years!) of a festival like Avignon project to the next. This is different from is: A meeting that lasts for three to four Europe or Central European countries weeks in the summer in an ancient town, with their repertoire theatres, where ac- where all theatre aficionados constantly tors on the payroll have the security to play bump into each other. for the entire season. Yet in France, there is This is the public view of a festival and a strong economic imbalance between pro- also the reason why the large European duction and distribution. Strong increases metropolises find it difficult to define the in supply and thus overproduction have identity of their festivals, as there are so generated a clogging up of communication many activities on offer throughout the and distribution channels and a certain year. There is not one European metropo- exhaustion among the audiences. lis that does not have its own festival. Some Festivals are a breath of fresh air for – from Brussels to Zagreb – deliberately oc- such events and some of them were simply cupy the entire calendar and distribute the created for that purpose. They increase festival over every month of the year. the number of visitors or, to use Brecht’s The festivals as places of carefree ce- words, enlarge the “circle of initiates“. lebration have often been compared to the “permanent institutions“ – the main suppliers of cultural education, faithful adaptations and rigour of cultural activi- Strong increases in supply and ties. Luckily, this distinction is no longer thus overproduction have gene- unequivocal as the festivals on the one rated a clogging up of commu- hand have adopted the role of initiating nication and distribution chan- and educating their audiences, ultimately ensuring a lot of visibility to the perma- nels and a certain exhaustion nent spaces, and on the other hand arti- among the audiences. stic production and distribution centres

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increasingly include festival elements in ral institution by dividing it by the their annual programmes in order to re- number of users inspired by the cul- kindle the spark of the audience yet the tural muse. This is the reason for the opportunities to circulate works from success of street theatre and circus. another country are particularly limited Without them, there would be no in the East. festival nowadays. For local politi- Nevertheless, in the eyes of one part of cians, easy access to the event seems the cultural public, festivals seem to be to be a condition, if not a guarantee more lightweight, frivolous events - too for the democratisation of culture. concerned with their media image and 2) A festival creates the impression or ultimately too numerous to do serious the illusion that it strengthens lo- sustainable work. cal identity. A festival is like a balm Who benefits from the festivals nowa- soothing social tensions, providing days and what are their actual benefits? the opportunity for new neighbour- According to local politicians, there are ly bonds and allowing for new social many good reasons to organise a festival mixes – even if they only last for a in their respective cities. short while. It could also be an expression of the identity of a particu- 1) Firstly, to provide a new opportuni- lar district or a professional environ- ty for the democratisation of culture. ment. Furthermore, it is well-known The festival seems to offer an easier that some members of parliament access to citizens and audiences than like to see artists showing a stronger cultural institutions that people pass social commitment, which is inevi- every day without ever going in (for tably linked to less inequality in cul- various reasons: lack of information, ture and education. high entrance fees, cultural barri- 3) The latest and without a doubt most ers and the fear of “not belonging to effective argument is that a festival that world”). Audiences take greater provides good opportunities for the risks for a festival – and particularly business sector. For fifteen years for open-air festivals enabling people now, more or less vague studies have to make good use of their weekends convinced the members of parlia- and the holiday season, to find new ment, but also the retailers and local friends and to get together in groups. businesses that a festival first and The events seem to be more acces- foremost means good business. This sible and it is easier to get in touch applies less to the sectors threatened with singers or actors. Every local by decline, but to the service sector: member of parliament who wants as from hotels to parking spaces, from many citizens and the electorate to cafés to cleaning services, from sou- enjoy cultural activities is pleased venir shops to travel agents. Adding with successful festival series. Im- everything up, the rule of thumb mediately, the costs of an event that says that every Euro invested in the lasts over several days are compared festival generates at least three, if with the annual budget of a cultu- not up to ten Euros: Expenses for ac-

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commodation, the events themselves, (but is not always presented in the travel costs, the derived salaries as right place): A festival has a first-rate well as leases for flats and materials. significance in artistic and cultu- The local authorities are fully awa- ral terms. Artistic in the sense that re of the fact that a festival is often the festival – if it is commissioned a labour exchange – if only for one and possess the means of a creative season. Although the job opportuni- activity – ought to allow the artists ties are precarious and generally do to produce works and experiments not require a high level of qualifica- beyond their usual habits and location (workers, technicians, waiters, tions, which in turn enables them drivers, doormen), they provide an to innovate and to escape from their opportunity that needs to be cea- routine. During a festival, a perfor- sed for the benefit of young people mance can last for half an hour or – whether they are students or peo- for the entire night. It can be in Ko- ple at the beginning of their professi- rean or in Turkish and it can invigo- onal career. rate an extraordinary place it would 4) Together with the economic be- see for an ordinary performance. nefits, the festival also enables the A festival has to be a place to take community hosting it to create a risks. It is of mutual cultural interest particular image it could not achie- if the festivals provide opportunities ve otherwise. Often, the festival is to discover, to learn and to discuss such a central element of tourism among equals – also from the point policy that its impact goes beyond its of view of the audiences. During actual dates. Thus, a city can build festivals, formal and informal dis- up a certain prestige which it would cussions take place, words, rumours only achieve with large expenses for and reputations circulate. As most advertising and PR – if at all. A high- festivals are internationally open profile festival attracts greater and meeting events showing different ae- broader interest in the media than sthetics and mixing various discip- any advertising campaign. For that lines, they are privileged moments reason, festival venues are fighting – for the artists to rediscover their a tough battle to be able to offer fes- audiences and for the critics to be tival dates not only suitable for their criticised themselves. The audiences audience, but also for the media. have to find their luck on roads often 5) The final raison d’ être of the festi- less travelled and the events have to vals is of course the most important continue finding their audience every night.

A high-profile festival attracts Hence, there are a number of reasons greater and broader interest in for continuing to create new festivals. The currently existent festivals could be cate- the media than any advertising gorised as follows: campaign. - Minority festivals for women, homo-

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sexuals, senior citizens, etc. not only exist for the pros. In the true - Identity festivals for a local group or sense, its only raison d’ être is a faith- a regional (ethnic) culture ful relationship to its audience. Or rather - Festivals for tourists audiences in the plural to be precise, be- - original festivals which first and cause we have known for a long time that foremost aim to be different, want to the audience is actually a conglomerate of occupy a niche or represent a single individuals, with their varying histories, artistic aspect – for example debut references and educations. films, fairy tales or photo journa- And that is the actual difficulty of a lism. In order to become a talking “creative festival“ – to address audiences point, a festival could also take place with a diverse attitude to art. Therefore, on a boat, in a hot-air balloon or in a contradictory mission is required of the the woods. festival: to consider local cultural life and at the same time open up to the inter- But at the same time, festivals would national dimension; to surprise the old have to maintain their ambition to pre- hands among the critics without closing sent a coherent programme, which should the door on the young critics; to form a turn them into generalists rather than bond with the audience and at the same specialists. We have to be aware that there time renew it; to develop a coherent and is apparently no longer one predominant strict programme and at the same time school of thought at the theatre (as it was promote festivity and conviviality - and the case with previous masters such as thus pleasure. Grotowski, Barba, Vilar, Mnouchkine, Some regret this major expansion of Brook or Heiner Müller) and still is the mass culture so much that the attachment case in music, dance or in the visual arts. to artistic values is seemingly only rele- There is no longer an ideological guide- vant for a minority these days. A mino- line providing a festival with a standar- rity or rather an elite? This question is dised doctrine. The festivals of encoun- relevant at a political level, as being in ters present many artistic directions – and a minority is often confused with being they either mix or – in the worst case - fall part of an elite. Yet the festival audiences apart. Therefore, internally a festival al- are not an elite as defined at the time of ways must have the ambition to accom- the class struggles. The festival audiences pany its audiences, if it doesn’t want to do not necessarily have their origins in force them into incessant “zapping”. This the richest and very well-to-do groups. is not about a gathering of brothers with Naturally, money will always remain a the same faith, but about helping everybody to explore the various tendencies in contemporary art. The greatest barrier to access From the elite to the masses culture, however, is less of a fi- The festival is certainly a joint adven- nancial, but rather of a cultural ture shared with the artists, but it does nature.

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problem. It can objectively avoid practi- cultural life than we might believe: cal uses and consumption of culture. The - It has a strong mobilising function, greatest barrier to access culture, howe- as it is an event format that can be ver, is less of a financial, but rather of a exploited by the media. For the me- cultural nature. dia, it is a godsend: It spells every- The relationship to art and its values thing out to the press and the televi- (sensitivity, emotions, fantasies as well as sion, accumulates slogans and logos knowledge or pure intellect) decide about and presents a critical mass which the interest in cultural aspects. De facto, is easier to identify than an isola- appreciating art requires education, cons- ted event or an annual programme tant interest and acceptance of its rituals, carefully distributed over an entire regardless of the actual artistic catego- season. ries and typologies. Modern pop music - A festival supports local cultural life and the so-called alternative theatre are and local artists. Rivalry at some equally constituent for certain individu- festivals between external “impor- al groups and specific audiences as the ted” artists and local artists has been opera or classical dance. All the better mentioned frequently. On the one - as art sometimes clashes with unani- hand, some festivals do actually in- mity and consensus. Looking at the va- tegrate certain local artists. If that is rious aspects, this explosion of formats not the case, spontaneously develo- and audiences no longer seems to be a ping parallel events can often be ob- factor of social cohesion, but a sign of cul- served, “seizing“ or complementing tural diversity, which is often promoted the so-called official festival. Other nowadays. artists also join the festival to make themselves known and to benefit Festivals and regional identity from the gathering of audiences, journalists and pros. Avignon is a Cities and regions (French départe- good example in that context: The ments, Italian provinces or German Län- troupe of actors in the cities inven- der alike) are spellbound by the festival ted the “off”-activities and primari- formula. Those locally selected are at the ly presented them during the time forefront: They are the first promoters of the festival. In Edinburgh, the and without a doubt the first beneficia- “Fringe” with its abundance of ries of these festivals. The formula seems events even surpasses the original so seductive that they sometimes forget festival. all the other cultural work throughout - A festival is also an incentive for the the year. Sometimes they confuse festival local scene to compare and measure with fete and develop a tendency towards itself with artists from outside, but the event character, which puts them in at the same time also to work with the limelight of the media and ensures them. Artists are encouraged to de- the recognition by their audiences and the velop further and the festivals coope- electorate – starting with local businesses. rate with local structures at different A festival has a stronger impact on local levels of intensity (from renting out

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the location to coproducing the festi- bring them together. The artistic director val). has to counterbalance his/her competen- - ultimately, a festival allows local or cy with independence. He/She should be external audiences to rediscover a assured about the length of his/her con- city and its hinterland and to adopt tract, cannot behave like a local employee common spaces in a different way and should not be perceived as one. than in daily life. A film festival In Europe - home of the theatre – and can help promoting a local venue, a inhabited by a cultural consumer society theatre festival to modernise histo- with the media having gained such a high ric buildings. And an audience can level of importance, the future of festivals rediscover unusual places, unknown certainly looks bright. buildings and forgotten paths. Translation: Angelika Welt It is therefore not necessary to convince politicians of the usefulness of festivals. After studying Microeconomics, Bernard Faiv- However, they should receive support in re d’Arcier was initially in charge of theatre, film and audiovisual media at the French specifying their project and in maintai- Ministry of Culture. For 16 years - with two ning their course in terms of artistic as- interruptions - he was the director of the Fes- pirations and education of audiences. A tival d’Avignon, cultural adviser of the French city cannot just launch something and a Prime Minister and head of department in the festival cannot just establish itself any- Ministry of Culture. He initiated the French branch of today’s Franco-German culture where. Hence, it is necessary that the re- channel ARTE and currently works as an advi- gion communicates with creative artists ser for a number of cities and regions. and facilitators. We have learned from experience that an artistic director often becomes obsolete as soon as a festival un- derstands how to address artistic claims and cultural activities in equal measure. It is the responsibility of the artistic director to cultivate the relationship with the artists on the one hand and on the other hand to inform the audiences and

230 Visionary Opera Opera not just provides more social prestige as an end in itself – it has discovered its transnational potential. International co- productions and festivals have turned the opera into a promising platform for a debate on social, economic, political and environmental topics at a European and a global level. By Xavier Zuber

life – from the hierarchical top with the artistic director, followed by the musical director, the singers, musicians and the technical staff. Not only does this hierarchy enable poetry, music and the visual arts to work under one roof, but also to join forces in order to realise the concept for one particular work of art. In the course of the artistic process, this concept turns into a vision expressed in artistic terms, with the objective to provide a counterpoint to our current bourgeois concept of humankind. In practice, the “entente“ between he title of this cultural report the individual art forms seems like try- investigating the role of culture ing to square the circle. Artists gathe- Tin Europe is “Progress Europe“. ring under the roof of opera often re- I would like to link this significant and present differing artistic opinions and at the same time abstract topic with ope- views. But opera would not be opera if ra - first and foremost a place of inter- this “cohabitation” of the arts would not nal and external communication. Its lead to a productive argument, with the interaction with people represents an focus always on the singing individual. advanced Occidental civilisation. Yet Interpretations of operas such as “La opera also belong to the performing arts Traviata“ or “Carmen“ are processes – with its roots going back 400 years of our times. Modern music theatre as and with obvious European influences: we understand it in Stuttgart, for exa- Opera represents a precious cultural mple, attempts to find works from the memory of our “old”, yet very diverse traditional repertoire or to lift a new Europe. As an institution, it still reve- piece from the darkness of its origins als aristocratic and courtly structures as well as democratic and bourgeois aspects – starting with the structure of the apparatus defining artistic everyday

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and prepare it for the present. make it to the stage? And which aspects In the 20th century, the opera plun- connect and separate people in Europe ged into a legitimisation crisis. In the nowadays? These questions also deter- past, it mainly had to represent the re- mine the work of a modern music theat- spective ruling form of society and was re in terms of contents and dramaturgy, only able to question it to a limited ex- at times of European partnerships and tent, whereas the theatre could afford co-productions of opera houses and in- a critical and independent position due ternational festivals. Nowadays, music to the social events of democratisation and theatre productions not only ser- and a smaller, more flexible apparatus. ve the national prestige as an end in This found an artistic expression in the itself. They are rather pillars of modern reform movements of the forums presenting contemporary events 20th century German National Soci- with subsequent discussions. alism marked a distinctive break in the Thus global problems also influence aesthetic reform of opera (and the theat- these works. In this context, I would re in general). The abuse of the German like to give one example of a well- repertoire was radically investigated by known opera from the repertoire. taking a close look at the works. The In June 2006, the opera Wozzeck by examination of his grandfather’s crea- Alban Berg had its premiere in Hano- tions by stage and festival director Wie- ver and was shown in Barcelona after- land Wagner (Stuttgart) are one examp- wards. With this opera, the stage di- le in this context. And we also need to rection team (including myself as the consider the rapid development of mo- dramatic advisor) around the Catalan dern technologies in the past 40 years, director Calixto Bieito wanted to point influencing today’s aesthetic work and towards the catastrophic situation of the interpretation efforts. environment and nature. The exploita- Hence today’s music theatre provides tion of the individual – in this case Fall an opportunity to discuss the develop- Wozzeck’s – is symbolically declared ment of our (intellectual) history and its inherent role for the people. Opera as an institution provides the necessary space and freedom for that purpose. It is the And which aspects connect and temple of intellectual debate between separate people in Europe no- the composer, the author and the stage wadays? These questions also director. The Stuttgarter Musiktheater determine the work of a mo- and its artistic work is a good example for this approach. dern music theatre in terms of Yet which are the themes in question? contents and dramaturgy, at Which of them will be worked on and times of European partnerships and co-productions of opera houses and international festivals.

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as a sign of our times. The opera asks accident is suddenly so real that the the following question (freely adapted course of events leading up to this ac- from Büchner and Berg): What is the cident becomes an endlessly repetitive relationship of humankind to nature? story set to music. The extreme situati- The opera was produced as an apoca- on of the driver - and thus the audience lyptic vision of nature wasting away. – in this “zeitoper“ makes this night An ecological dimension developed for drive impressive music theatre on the the opera houses in Barcelona, Hano- subject of man and mobility. ver and Madrid was added to the story. The question of the report at hand Such works in opera literature provide also can and has to be passed back: us with highly relevant contemporary Which role do opera and music theatre topics. play for the political institutions of the For some time now, the Staatsoper EU? Or more poignantly: To what ex- Stuttgart has covered trends in new tent does the EU administration support forms of music theatre. The Forum für opera as an artistic genre with its role as Neues – so the official name of the venue an intermediary for new ideas and vision the Römerkastell in Stuttgart since ons? Would it not be an opportunity for the beginning of this season - brings Europe to distinguish itself if the iden- international teams together to deve- tities of our states not only consisted lop and perform new works in music of economic and national factors, but theatre. It was formerly known as the also of cultural interests? Would it not Forum Neues Musiktheater and was in- be possible to identify opera houses as itiated by Klaus Zehelein (opera direc- European venues for forums of debate tor at the time) three years ago. Here, and exchange – to be supported accor- in the forum – also called “opera labo- dingly? And aren’t the already existing ratory” – the focus is on the composer museums, theatres and opera houses in who develops his work in cooperation Europe predestined for this role? with authors, stage directors and stage Some European opera houses – for designers. The works deal with stories example Hanover and Barcelona - are “from the street”, which means they are already working towards this objective. relevant for our contemporary times. They summarise their programmes with One work was the “zeitoper” Carcrash a theme that works as a leitmotif for by the composers Willi Daum and Ralf their concept, also thematically incor- R. Ollertz, with the car providing the porating social topics and discussions central content for the production. The of the respective cities and countries. composition stages an imaginary drive The opera house in Stuttgart currently at night, representing the unconscious cooperates with the Institut Français of the driver, with microsleep trigge- and other institutional partners, deve- ring internal activity. The threat of an loping a thematic focus on “French culture in Germany. Isn’t it exciting to discuss the French view of history and its reception in Germany within the large repertoire of French opera, for example

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in the context of Héctor Berlioz’ “Les Troyens“ or Claude Debussy’s “Pélleas et Mélisande“? Which concepts of mankind are these operas based upon? What is their cultural background? Which musical forms are used? French? Or German? The opera can present this argument and debate about European idiosyncrasies in a very exciting way. The singing individual moves in a world of ideas and utopian thoughts, with all of them questioning our relationship to the present. The primacy of music provides opera and modern music theatre, which has developed from opera, with an emotional dimension asserting an alternative concept with great relish, helping to shape our future in a visionary way.

Translation: Angelika Welt

Since September 2006, Xavier Zuber has been the chief dramatic adviser at the Staatsoper Stuttgart. From 2001 to 2006, he was involved in “Schwerpunkt Oper“ and “zeitoper“ in his role as artistic adviser at the Staatsoper in Hanover. From 1998 to 2000, he worked as the artistic adviser for opera and dance theatre at the Theater Basel and from 1996 to 2005, he worked as a lecturer in the Department of Sceno- graphy at the State Academy for Design in Karlsruhe.

234 The objective and the criterion of culture must be promotion and respect of human dignity. I believe that maintaining an open, peaceful and constructive dialogue among all the political, social, and cultural partners is absolutely essential. In effect, this permanent dialogue is the very proof of Europe’s living and sharing soul. Dialogue is not weakness; it is a sign of maturity.

Ján Figel, EU Commissioner for Education, Training, Culture and Multilingualism

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Europe – Work of Art “European art“ does not exist. Culture is a distinguishing feature of different peoples – not least visible in national pavilions at international events such as the Venice Biennial. What is the role of governmental and non-governmental players for the well-organised arts exchanges of “old“ EU member states? Is the potential of art as an image factor fully exploited? How do the “new“ EU member states attempt to get access to the EU market? By Ursula Zeller

smallest common denominator would be allowing for contradictions and diverse views, respect for regional cultures and the development of a canon of values - with democracy and freedom firmly anchored as core values. As difficult as it may be to establish common cultural values for Europe, we also note that Europe has merged very closely together in cultural terms. Appro- ximately one million European tourists in- and outside of Europe spend a fortune on exhibitions, visits to the opera, the concert hall, the theatre or the cinema. “Europe does not only consist of mar- They travel widely – from one event or kets, but also of values and culture“, so one festival to the next - in order to ex- the President of the European Commis- perience the cultural events that mean so- sion, José Manuel Barroso at the Berlin mething to them. Private collectors make Conference “A Soul for Europe” in No- large-scale purchases for their art collec- vember 2004. The question of the role tions. But it is not only premium art that of culture within the EU and for the EU finds its clientele. In popular culture, big has been asked openly again in the re- events from all over Europe merge in a cent past. At different internal and ex- cultural festival which is globally compe- ternal levels of the EU administration, titive. This remarkable appreciation of art an intense discussion of European cul- and culture creates a renaissance for Eu- tural values is taking place – in particu- ropean cities and attracts large numbers lar as they are considered to be the basis of tourists. This development is almost for a European foreign policy shaped by independent of influences from Brussels, the EU. The questions are also topical in as the EU’s cultural budget is modest and terms of the interaction with the Islamic can only support culture on a small scale. world and the internal European debate This renaissance of art and culture reve- about Islam. Yet Europe struggles to deals a certain common understanding of fine specifically European values. The art and culture in Europe. Yet it is still a

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long way to a real common perception of example from history: American artists European culture. detaching themselves from Europe dis- missed the centralised perspective which European art versus art in Europe was perceived as decidedly European and developed Abstract Expressionism in the By definition, culture is a distingui- forties and fifties. At the same time, “Art shing concept. Hence, the culture of one Informel“ developed in France and Ger- nation differs from the culture of another many. At first sight, the two schools see- nation. The same ought to apply for art as med to be similar. However, on closer one aspect of culture. So does European observation their prerequisites, contents art exist? For the period from the Middle and objectives are quite different, which Ages to the 19th century, we talk about is also the case for the French and the European art: Architecture across several German styles. The differences in the na- countries is the most visible expression of tional characteristics of art can be exp- the common European cultural area. Art lained with a different place of origin, dif- history – the retrospective classification ferent traditions, mentalities, languages and allocation of the development of art and ways of thinking. These dissimilari- – knows cross-national styles, but also re- ties may not always be very significant, gional schools and local idiosyncrasies in which is why we are increasingly discus- Europe up until the 20th century. After sing the antagonism between Western that, the approach of retrospective analy- and non-Western art and less so between sis no longer works as there are too many European and American art, for examp- parallel new developments in global art. le. Nevertheless, differences in terms of Hence, the closer we get to the present, so-called national idioms in the global the more the perception of European art language of art exist, with the national has become diluted in the international idioms of Europe more closely affiliated discourse on art. with each other due to a common Euro- This can be clarified further by an pean cultural area than with American or even Asian idioms. This development is almost in- Yet we do not particularly focus on the differences in the national arts scenes wi- dependent of influences from thin Europe. One reason could be that Brussels, as the EU’s cultural attempts of a definition readily fall back budget is modest and can only on national stereotypes. An external ob- support culture on a small sca- server would probably be in the best position to describe the common grounds le. This renaissance of art and and the differences in contemporary Eu- culture reveals a certain com- ropean art. mon understanding of art and The best example for the differences culture in Europe. Yet it is still in the national arts scenes can be found at the Venice Biennial, where the contest a long way to a real common of nations in fine arts and architecture perception of European culture. takes place every two years. Founded in

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1895, initially only the core countries of sector at the end of the eighties with the Europe - England, France, Germany and Commission granting financial support Italy – took part. At the beginning of the for selected activities. Thus, its involve- 20th century, they built their own pavili- ment in culture started comparatively late ons in the Giardini to show their contri- because of the subsidiarity principle that butions. Soon, other European countries, applies to all EU activities: The EU is not but also the USA, some Latin American allowed to engage in areas of responsi- countries and others joined in. Nowadays, bility of individual nations or rather its almost every nation wants to be repre- own constituents. As culture falls into sented with its own pavilion in Venice. the sphere of responsibility of individu- As there is not enough space in the Gi- al nations, EU cultural programmes are ardini, the national pavilions find loca- exclusively dedicated to areas beyond nations in palaces and churches all over the tional spheres of influence, for example city. Over the past years, mainly countries to international multilateral exchange or from the former Soviet Union and Asi- the protection of historical monuments. an countries pressed forward and wan- In 1995, the regulations in the Article on ted to participate in the Biennial to show cultural policy of the Maastricht Trea- their growing confidence in the arts and ty increased the areas of EU activity in because Europe still plays an important the cultural sector with the programmes role in contemporary fine arts. For the supporting sectoral cooperation: Aria- young states in Central and Eastern Eu- ne supported the book sector, Raphaël rope, the participation in the Biennial is the cultural heritage and Kaléidoscope an important step into the European art the performing arts. In the beginning, market. Even if the contest is no longer the focus of EU funding was on a large taken as seriously as in the beginnings number of small-scale, short-term activi- of the Biennial, each country still aims ties relating to a broad range of cultural to send the best artists to compete for the areas and objectives. The framework pro- Golden Lion awarded to the best national gramme CULTURE 2000 (2000 to 2006) presentation. The differences in artistic was introduced to end this scattering of idioms manifest themselves in these pre- funds by establishing one standard ins- sentations. trument. However, the initiative has only achieved its objective to a limited extent. EU cultural policy and art One reason is the necessary unanimous decision-making process, which leads to If national differences in art exist, they compromises and prevents prioritising. should be nurtured and supported, which On the other hand, there is no real Eu- is the task of the individual states. It is the ropean cultural community which could role of the EU to promote the exchange between the national cultural scenes, as its motto is to support unity in diversity. Differences in terms of so-cal- So what does the EU do to support cultural exchange? led national idioms in the global The EU started its work in the cultural language of art exist.

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provide the framework for focused acti- tion projects over several years to at least vities. At least, the programme fills the six. Managing such complex projects is cultural activities with meaningful con- simply stretching many organisations tents. In December 2006, the Council of too much. Requested funding has to be Ministers of Culture agreed the follow- at least €50,000 per year, but only account up framework programme CULTURE for a maximum of 50 or 60 percent of (2007 – 2013). the overall budget. For one-year projects, The programmes CULTURE 2000 and the individual institutions have to fund CULTURE (2007 – 2013) can also fund at least €16,000 on their own. This is a art projects. For the period between 1996 particular high barrier for institutions and 2000, approximately 2000 cultural from the new EU countries. Funding of projects were funded by the EU in the art projects from this programme is ad- context of the Community programmes. ditionally complicated because most art Over the same period, more than 8000 projects are planned with shorter pre- project partners were involved, with an paration periods and more flexibility in average of five participants from various terms of planning and realisation phases. countries. At that time, the total funding Thus, these programmes rather support amount was approximately €130 million. the realisation of projects planned by lar- In 2005, the EU budget for culture was at ger institutions in Europe. 0.12 percent of the entire EU budget - not The conclusions of the Ruffolo Re- much considering that France spent one port from 2001 about cultural coopera- percent of its gross domestic product on tion are still valid today: The develop- culture in the same year. Consequently, ment of cultural activities can only be the promotion of culture is only of litt- achieved by including the member states. le significance in all sectors of the EU. At the same time, the author comments Even if the funding amounts have incre- that the tendency towards cooperation at ased slightly over the last few years, up a European level was very weak and was to now this has not changed the situati- not really linked to the individual mem- on fundamentally. Therefore, many ap- ber states’ transnational activities. This plications are not even sent to the pro- means that the EU cultural programmes gramme CULTURE 2000, but to the EU do not have the desired effect. The incre- education programme. This leads to very ase in the budget over the next few years low expectations of the artists and cul- will also remain comparatively low and tural institutions towards the EU. Ad- cultural policy will still only have little ditionally, the barriers for the projects influence on the development of art and subsidised by the EU are relatively high: art exchange activities in Europe in the for one-year projects, institutions from future. at least three countries have to cooperate and for projects over several years, Circulation of contemporary art institutions from at least five countries need to team up. The new programme Although Europeans have no specific CULTURE (2007 – 2013) even increased and readily available concept of contem- the number of participants for coopera- porary European art, transnational or

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multilateral exchange and cooperation ministries do not organise exhibitions or work particularly well at a European le- art events themselves, but use specialist vel in the fine arts segment. organisations. However, the role of art This does not only apply to “state”-or- exchange activities organised by the sta- ganised and -subsidised artist exchange te through intermediary organisations programmes, but also to the private art and national cultural institutions in the exhibition scene and the art market. individual states is rather marginal in the A number of governmental and non- former EU member states. These play- governmental players work in the sphere ers mainly fill the gaps in cultural ex- of art exchange. At the municipal level, change, with targeted support for stalled museums and exhibition sites are fun- exchange activities. Furthermore, they ded by the public sector, private spon- work in cultural policy, setting up the sors or private public partnerships (for appropriate framework conditions, in- example with banks). In almost all EU fluencing politicians and their decisions countries, additional off-spaces – initi- in national cultural policy. This is aimed atives with little money, a high level of at reducing obstacles – for example an commitment and self-exploitation – orga- inconsistent taxation of artist fees, exhi- nise privately sponsored exhibition pro- bition fees, etc. in order to keep cultural jects within a non-institutional context. exchange going. On the other hand, the – Although funds from governments and intermediary organisations – including sponsors only trickle in, they have a fan- in the “old“ EU countries – are mostly tastic network and are very active and interested in the dissemination of their productive. own national culture. More transnatio- Publicly funded institutions with su- nal cooperations exist outside of the EU, praregional tasks exist at the federal level with the exception of CICEB (Consolatio with its provinces, cantons or counties. Institutorium Culturalium Europaeano- They are generally in charge of cor- rum inter Belgas), a not-for-profit associ- respondingly large-scale exhibition pro- ation of European cultural institutes in jects. However, their programmes are less Brussels, which was founded in 1999 to focused on contemporary art, but rather support bilateral activities and has deve- on traditional modern art or the art of the loped its cooperative dynamics in Brus- Old Masters. They work on the basis of bi- sels and beyond. lateral agreements, facilitating temporary In the new EU countries, the inter- loans of works of art and manpower. They mediary organisations – national cultu- increasingly participate in transnational ral institutes, but also specialist institu- cooperations in order to source the neces- tions promoting contemporary art – are sary funds for exhibitions. The same ap- responsible for a large part of transna- plies to national museums and galleries tional art exchange. Organising their directly funded by the governments. country’s presence at the Venice Bienni- At the national level, the ministries of al is part of their most important task - to culture and the foreign ministries, pri- tap the European market and the Euro- vate and public foundations as well as pean arts scene for their own artists. For several networks also play a role. Said that reason, they organise exhibitions in

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other EU countries to give an overview cultural institutions – artists, critics, free- of their art. However, a bilateral national lance curators and even intermediaries exchange is not enough for a successful join forces. introduction of a country’s own artists in In the past, national cultural institu- the European arts scene. In addition, they tions and organisations largely promo- have to invite curators to their country ting the fine arts focused on supporting who realise major exhibition projects in their artists in- and outside of Europe. Europe, organise studio visits and sug- Therefore, cooperations were not really gest artists. Other support instruments an issue in this context. Only over the are workshops, funding of exhibitions last few years, networks also developed and scholarships for artists-in-residence. in this sector. The largest network is EU- The large national, state-funded muse- NIC (EUropean National Institutes of ums and galleries in the new EU countries Culture), established in November 2006 have not made a significant contribution from CICEB, which was founded in 1999 to arts exchange yet. Most of them have and had 12 European cultural institutes just started to modernise their structures in Brussels as its members in the end. Not in terms of staffing, financing and space. only does EUNIC realise common mul- However, smaller, alternative institutions ticultural culture projects in Brussels, it receive hardly any state funding, which also aims at supporting local networks of generally prevents them from participa- cultural institutions within Europe, but ting in transnational activities. also outside of the EU. In 2006, leading arts exchange orga- Networks nisations from all over Europe merged in the new network VOLTAGE (Voice of lea- Nowadays, networks are the most effi- ding transnational art exchange groups cient form of cooperation. For that reason, in Europe). The objectives of this network a large number of different networks of are enhanced communication and cross- varying sizes and budgets have developed border cooperation in arts exchange plus over the last 15 years, actively driving and a stronger voice for the arts in the burea- supporting cultural exchange. Networks ucratic jungle in Brussels. In addition, are not only established by museums or more transparent national support structures within Europe will be created with the publication of all programmes offered Although Europeans have no by the individual organisations. specific and readily available Particularly the non-governmental sector has established a large number of concept of contemporary Euro- networks. It is noteworthy in this context pean art, transnational or mul- that they are all operating across several tilateral exchange and coopera- nations within Europe and in the entire tion work particularly well at a world, generally without a particular Eu- ropean awareness. One of these organisa- European level in the fine arts tions is AICA (International Association segment. of Art Critics). This non-governmental or-

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ganisation was founded in 1948/49 under tus at the UNESCO in Paris. It aims at im- the patronage of the UNESCO, globally proving the professional, legal and social promoting art criticism. Its offices are conditions for visual artists. In order to in Paris. AICA has 4200 members in 64 allow for the globally varying conditions, national sections. the work of the IAA was regionalised as The most important network of all go- early as the beginning of the eighties of vernmental and non-governmental mu- the 20th century. The IAA continuously seums and museum experts across all expanded this regional approach with the fields of expertise is ICOM (International foundation of IAA Europe. Currently, it Council of Museums), with over 21,000 works on customs and visa regulations members in 140 countries. 113 national as well as models of support for art in committees and 30 international expert public spaces. committees as well as numerous regional In addition to the IAA, the ECA (Eu- and affiliated organisations are part of ropean Council of Artists) was established ICOM. Its offices are in Paris. Traditio- in 1995, mainly to influence political ins- nally, the European sections of the orga- titutions in Europe – for example the EU, nisation work with great commitment. the Council of Europe, the UNESCO and However, they (still) operate without a other relevant organisations. It represents specifically European agenda. the interests of professional artists in Eu- On the other hand, ICT (International rope in terms of social, legal and economic Association of Curators of Contempora- issues across all the different sectors. The ry Art), which was founded in the sixties organisation’s representatives from cur- of the 20th century, is a mainly Eastern rently 24 countries in Eastern and Western and Western European network of cura- Europe are artists who actively represent tors with more than 500 members - some the umbrella organisations of their coun- of them resident in Japan, Australia and tries. ECA’s offices are in Copenhagen. America. Through this network, museum The EFAH (European Forum for the directors, cultural managers and free- Arts and Heritage) - founded in Belgium lance curators can exchange programme in 1994 - is the largest cross-sectoral asso- concepts and share experiences - with the ultimate objective to foster the debate in terms of the planning process and the re- The greatest gaps are alisation of art exhibitions. Every three between the art markets in years, the organisation’s offices move to the old and the new EU mem- a different European country. ber states. In the new member Not only curators, museums and cultural institutions have established networks states, the art market is current- – artists have also developed supranatio- ly developing and buyer groups nal organisations. The IAA (International for contemporary artworks Association of Art) is the largest non-go- are slowly emerging. vernmental organisation of visual artists with over 70 national committees world- In most cases, the state sector wide. The organisation has advisory sta- is still the sole buyer.

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ciation of cultural networks, organisations resents and supports the affiliated centres and experts in the sectors arts and cultu- with the exchange of information and ral heritage in Europe, currently with 75 experiences. The organisation promotes member organisations from twenty Wes- a higher level of understanding for the tern and Eastern European states. The important role these residential art cen- forum’s offices are in Brussels. It operates tres play globally in terms of developing as an intermediary in the field of European all types of contemporary art. policy and administration, representing artists and other creative people in the Arts in education cultural sector. In addition, EFAH also defines itself as a lobbyist of the Europe- Art exchange programmes are not an cultural sector, dealing with decision as successful in the education of artists, makers at all political levels. where most nations only use their own In 2001, visual artists merged under professors for this purpose. This tenden- a joint European umbrella organisa- cy is very strong in academies in Italy tion - EVAN (European Visual Artists‘ and France and much less so in Holland, Network). Current members are artist Germany or the UK. And there are more organisations from eleven countries barriers. A memorandum on European (Denmark, Finland, UK, Ireland, Swe- cultural cooperation issued by the French den, Ireland, Austria, the Netherlands, government in January 2004 demands Spain, Norway, Iceland and Germany). – among other aspects - “to support the EVAN’s objective is to influence political mobility of cultural representatives and decision-making processes at a national works of art in Europe“ , for example by and a European level, representing the converging the social and tax status of specific interests of visual artists by rai- artists and by mutually recognising the sing awareness of the living and working academic degrees awarded by the indi- conditions of this professional group in vidual member states. These are rather Europe, by supporting the information issues of universities and education, yet exchange about social and legal issues as they have a massive impact on the arts well as promoting cooperation between scene and the mobility of artists in the artists and their organisations. The aim individual countries. is to integrate the organisations of visual artists - preferably from all EU member Art market states - in this network. Another network strongly anchored in The art market generally works as Europe is Res Artis, the largest associa- well as art exchange programmes. We tion of artist-residencies and residential can only talk about a market if artists art centres world-wide. It represents over are available in one country, if galleries 200 centres and organisations in 40 coun- exist to nurture their works of art and act tries, providing artists with the opportu- as intermediaries for them plus a group nity to live and work there for a certain of private and public collectors are in a period of time. Res Artis was founded in position to buy these contemporary pro- 1993 as a voluntary association and rep- ductions. The greatest gaps are between

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the art markets in the old and the new EU ment in January 2004 for example aims member states. In the new member states, to enhance the attractiveness of the Eu- the art market is currently developing and ropean art market. The memorandum buyer groups for contemporary artworks states (pp.15/16): “...Vitality and compe- are slowly emerging. In most cases, the titiveness of the European art market are state sector is still the sole buyer as hardly impaired by a tax system which – parti- any galleries or private collectors of con- cularly in comparison with Switzerland temporary art exist who could support or the United States – is not particularly the young artists. beneficial. Several measures ratified in The situation in the old EU member the course of the nineties have led to even states is different, which stimulates the worse mismatches – in particular the di- new EU member states to gain access to rectives on import VAT and the harmoni- those markets for their artists – already sation of the droit de suite system. Seve- with a certain amount of success. The ral national reports have shown that the increasing number of galleries from the removal of VAT on imports would have a new EU member states at art fairs in Eu- very favourable impact on the dynamics rope also shows an upward trend - with of the European art market, ...The im- Poland as the model student. plementation of the Directive 2001/84/ Several art markets have developed EG of the European Parliament and the in the old EU member states, with Basel Council of Europe ...in terms of the droit as the most important, followed by Lon- de suite would have to be subjected to an don, Paris, Madrid, Berlin, Cologne and evaluation and joint considerations of all Bologna. Since the breakdown of the art the member states. The expert representa- market in the eighties of the 20th century, tives of the art market are of the opinion these markets have reported increasing that the wording impairs competitiveness amounts of visitors and higher sales fi- in the European market.“ gures. Transnational regulations define In addition to VAT regulations and the who can be represented at the art mar- droit de suite, another development also kets: Only galleries with a regular ex- threatens the art market: The increasing hibition programme, a regular group of amount of private dealers who cannot and artists represented by them and general do not want to be represented at art fairs opening hours for the public receive per- with their own stands. They have lower mission. A certain distortion of competiti- costs than the gallery owners, as they do on is caused by some European countries not have to offer an annual exhibition sponsoring their commercial galleries’ programme or to support their artists. participation in art fairs. A pan-European They jostle into the relationship between regulation does not exist in this context, galleries and collectors by selling works as the funding takes place in the disguise of art directly from the artist, thus mono- of cultural, not economic support. polising the secondary market. There are certainly barriers in the art market that have to be removed. A Copyright memorandum on European cultural cooperation issued by the French govern- The EU does not have a harmonised

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copyright law and national legislations this context, it should be asked whether regulate intellectual property rights. music might need completely different However, these national legislations are regulations than visual arts or literature. increasingly permeated by European re- Currently, many EU regulations are ge- gulations. Copyright harmonisation pro- nerally applicable rather than specified cesses reflecting the lobby work from the by individual sector. collecting societies of individual countries are particularly intense. One regu- Biennials and other large arts events lation states that copyright owners must receive adequate remuneration and that “What our village needs now is a bi- adhesion contracts forcing them to sell ennial“ – so the title of a comic strip by their works beneath their actual value are Olav Westphalen that he wrote in 2000. It not binding. The period of copyright pro- shows the television interview with a run- tection was also harmonised to 70 years down city councillor with his city going after the artist’s death. So far, different up in flames as the backdrop. The bienni- guidelines have existed where a harmo- al as a lifesaver – almost believable consi- nisation of copyright legislation would be dering the boom of this exhibition format. desirable. The fundamentally different Originally, the biennial was a Western approach of the legal systems in continen- European project that developed into an tal Europe and in Anglo-Saxon countries export hit. Biennials have spread across is the greatest obstacle in this context. the entire world – particularly since the In Anglo-Saxon legislation, copyright nineties of the last century. Some bienni- is part of property law, whereas conti- als – for example manifesta or Ars Baltica nental European legislation protects the - are location-independent and take place creator’s commercial and personal rights in varying EU member states. In addi- (“droit moral”), Then again, it has been tion, almost every EU member country discussed for some time now whether co- has its own international biennial – and pyright protection in its current form is sometimes even several biennials. Appa- not too strict - preventing social develop- rently, the label “biennial“ turns out to ments with monopolisation, sometimes be particularly useful in order to attract also by-passing technical realities. The the attention of local authorities as well best example in this context is the debate as local and supraregional sponsors – the about copy protection, where completely ideal basis for funding large international new mechanisms have to be invented for exhibition projects. The label “biennial“ Digital Rights Management Systems. In generates money for the presentation of contemporary art and creates a work- Private dealers jostle into the shop-like meeting space for artists from relationship between galleries all over the world. and collectors by selling works On the other hand, large exhibition of art directly from the artist, events with great public appeal also take place in almost every country, organised thus monopolising the se- by festivals and large exhibition venues. condary market. These blockbuster exhibitions are also

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interesting for sponsors, thus achieving a high level of funding. Smaller exhibition venues also realising important exhibition projects in the past are now facing great problems due to shrinking public budgets. Due to their lower public appeal, it is not easy for these venues to win sponsors for their projects. One way out might actually be funding through European and non-European cooperations. However, this is only viable if financially strong sponsoring agents get involved or EU can be obtained. Finan- cially speaking, it is not “lucrative” to cooperate with countries outside of Europe that do not have such financiers behind them. If that is the case, the individual cooperation partners have to use their own means to create maximum synergy effects, which works equally well with partners inside the EU and outside of the Community.

Translation: Angelika Welt

Ursula Zeller is an art historian and the head of the arts department at the “Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen e.V. (ifa)“. Between 1990 and 1995, she was the deputy director of the “Galerie der Stadt Stuttgart”. She has written a large number of publications on contemporary art and organises symposia on art and the role of intermediaries in art in Central and Eastern Europe as well as art exchange projects and biennials.

248 Fashion Shapes Europe Fashion thrives on multicultural grounds. It visualises that it is not necessary for European cultural dynamics to give up or adjust national identities to form a unit. Two experts – Ingrid Loschek and Sibylle Klose – talk online about the role of fashion in Eu- rope and its impact as a cultural image factor.

Theyskens at the fashion house Nina Ricci. The Ame- rican Marc Jacobs designs for the luxury label Louis Vuitton, the Italian Stefano Pilati designs prêt-à-porter for Yves Saint Laurent, etc. The Englishman Alexander McQueen is also an integral part of the fashion shows in Paris, financed by the Italian Gucci Group. As early as the eighties, Japanese avant-garde designers such as Issey Miyake, Rei Kawakubo and Yohji Yamamoto quite naturally showed their creations in Paris. Valentino - icon of the former Roman ‘Alta Moda’ - has shown his haute couture as well as his prêt-à-po rter at the fashion shows in Paris for a number of years. Prada presents its second label Miu Miu and Hussein Chalayan and Vivi- enne Westwood – both English – are also represented Klose: Do you think a European desi- on the catwalk. Giorgio Armani shows his ‘Alta Moda’ gner fashion exists and if so, is it influ- as a guest of the haute couture in Paris. The intellectu- enced by national aspects? al fashion designers from Antwerp officially take part Loschek: More than ever, fashion de- in the fashion shows in Paris although they are resident sign is shaped by an international cre- in Belgium. This is equally the case for young German ative scene nowadays. In the establis- designers such as Bernhard Wilhelm, John Ribbe or hed Paris fashion houses, the creative newcomers such as C. Neeon. Jil Sander has already team always has been and still is inter- shown fashion created by its eponymous designer and national. Famous examples are the in- Strenesse Gabriele Strehle was represented at the fa- itiators of Parisian haute couture: The shion shows in Milan. Englishman Charles Frederick Worth, On the one hand, the selection takes place the Italian Elsa Schiaparelli or Cris- through the fashion houses in Paris and luxury brand tobal Balenciaga – originally Spanish groups and on the other hand through the Fédération – all of them responsible for the fame Française de la Couture, du Prêt-à-porter des Couturi- of Paris fashion. And this remains un- ers et des Créateurs de Mode’. Neither London nor Mi- changed: The Englishman John Galli- ano is Dior’s creative director, the Ita- lian Riccardo Tisci has the same role at Hubert de Givenchy and the Belgian

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lan and not even the New York Fashion versity in Unity” – not as an empty phrase, but as a very Week have a similarly diverse presence tangible reality. of fashion designers from so many different national backgrounds. Particu- Klose: Are there still noticeable tendencies of fashion con- larly the strong international presence fined by cultural, socio-ethnological boundaries – certain of designers in Paris is not so much regional characteristics, as it were? the result of multicultural ambition. Loschek: Yes, I think so. Vivienne Westwood keeps It much rather originates in the claim referring to England and Scotland – whether she draws towards designers to produce highly her inspiration from British painters or Scottish tar- creative, innovative fashion – regard- tans or works with the Scottish fabric producer Harris less of their background. Tweed. The Japanese are masters of drapery. The Ger- man designer Bernhard Wilhelm, who graduated in Klose: Do these multinational designers Antwerp and shows his fashion in Paris, likes to pick cause the similar look of designer fashion up on landscape motifs and sagas from his South Ger- in all European countries? man home in his embroideries. Eva Gronbach – also Loschek: This international coope- from Germany – made a name for herself by using the ration in the design process does not German national colours and the German eagle for or- mean at all that fashion styles are the namental purposes for her logo. same in big European cities and in all countries of Europe – quite the opposi- Klose: How strong is the influence of designers and de- te. Designers and designer companies sign companies in a very commercial fashion industry? present their fashion where they feel Loschek: Clothes and accessories are products reali- that their design philosophy and their sed in a design process. Which products are accepted style are most successful or where they and become “fashionable” is exclusively determined by fit in best. Milan, Florence, Rome are “society” or a group of society, a social circle. Hence still considered as places of wearable, the semiotic specification of “fashion” is subject to a progressive elegance (“only“ the Ita- social process that is negotiated in communication. lians can master this contradiction), This process varies from region to region. As fashion Paris is the place of everlasting avant- reaches far beyond the objective character of clothes as garde, Antwerp has a reputation for a product, it is so diverse - particularly with all the in- highly intellectual fashion design and dividual ways of mixing fashion items. Or to put it dif- London is still a wacky, unconventio- ferently: Clothes are a product, fashion is a construct. nal source of ideas. Fashion renders a ‘social purpose’ to clothes that goes Due to its numerous medium- beyond function and aesthetics. Appearance and illusi- sized cities, Germany offers a differen- on are added to the clothes defined as ’added value’ or tiated fashion spectrum. Whereas the ‘additional benefits’ – or in short: as fashion. South is characterised by conservative Klose: Critics talk about a mass phenomenon. To what chic, the Berlin scene is known for maverick and newcomer designs and Düsseldorf is very commercial, which European fashion in particular represents the is due to the cpd – the world’s largest fashion fair. European fashion in par- much cited “Diversity in Unity” – not as an ticular represents the much cited “Di- empty phrase, but as a very tangible reality.

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extent do we see fashion for the masses in ing on elitist individualism is growing. Luxury brands European cities nowadays? participate in this development: Giorgio Armani’s Fatto Loschek: Thinking of functional a Manu Su Misura – the male equivalent of the Italian clothes such as jeans and t-shirts that haute couture line Armani Privé – for instance current- go across all social boundaries, the ge- ly celebrates its market launch. Dormeuil, a traditio- neral picture is relatively uniform. On nal fabric supplier of high-quality fabrics for men’s fa- the other hand, global space produces shion, meets the demand for elitist individualism with hybrid identities, flexible hierarchies as many as three personalised collections: Platinium, and a large number of interchangeable Identity and 3D. This is an innovative, supraregional situations. Fashion as a mass pheno- and thus international concept, which is currently very menon certainly exists, but thanks to successful in men’s wear, but also for accessories, for pluralistic and liberal democracies, it example for shoes. is also multidimensional. Klose: Fashion moves and becomes more dynamic due to Klose: The aforementioned flexible its own amplitudes of adjustment and dissociation. Hence flattening of hierarchies is an important the question: Is there a joint European history of fashion – aspect of the emerging developments in or conversely – to what extent did national differentiations the fashion sector. Areas that were rat- have an impact on the history of fashion? her elitist and segmented in the past are Loschek: Fashion has always been “global“. To be now opening up for a wider market. The dressed in the fashion of the internationally leading desire for individuality, for something social class was the highest social acknowledgement. that is completely one’s own and special, Fashion was less limited by national restrictions than turns the customer – and not just buyers by social boundaries. Politically dominant European of luxury goods - into a designer of his countries mostly were the leaders in fashion. or her personal preferences and personal In the second half of the 16th century, high nobility taste. Supported by new technologies such dressed in the Spanish fashion. Around 1800, during as body scanning, computerised, indus- Napoleon’s times, during the French Empire and in the trial made-to-measure clothes have had 19th century, German Biedermeier captured the rising a breakthrough over the last few years European bourgeoisie. The French Cul de Paris during (customising). From a styling menu (fit, the Gründerzeit reached all the way to Japan and in the details, material, lining, finish, etc.), cus- fifties, Christian Dior’s New Look conquered the world tomers select what they like - regardless metropolises. In the past, fewer people than nowadays of season or opening hours (online shop). were able to dress after the latest fashion. Nevertheless, Prosumer (producer – consumer) is the the look of large cities was far from monotonous as it newly created term, defining the custo- was characterised by fashionable clothes as well as very mer of the future not simply as a consu- diverse liveries and colourful uniforms. With the intro- mer, but also as a “product designer”. For duction of ready-made modern clothes as a result of mo- accessories, this concept is also successful dern cutting systems and sowing machines in the se- – with the “shoe-individualiser” Selve in cond half of the 19th century, an increasing number of Munich being one example. However, this does not mean a flattening of luxury brands – on the contrary. The luxury market focus-

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people were able to afford fashion – at least in the lar- cies and shifts: The fusion or diffusion of ger cities, which led to an assimilation of appearances. style, product, quality or even the concept of luxury itself has led to blurred traditio- Klose: Every metropolis of the world has luxury stores nal boundaries. from Dior to Armani. Is luxury fashion shaped by Europe Loschek: How does this manifest and globally present and what caused this situation? itself? Loschek: As it is often the case, there are several Klose: Well-known designers create causes besides purely economic reasons. On the one limited mini collections for mass fashion hand, the first organisations to initiate fashion shows groups (Karl Lagerfeld, Stella McCartney, and fashion fairs as well as for the protection of the Viktor & Rolf for the Swedish manuf- fashion designers’ creations were founded in Paris: In acturer of clothes, Hennes & Mauritz, 1868, the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne Roland Mourent for Gap and Christo- and in 1914 the Syndicat de Defense de la Grande Cou- pher Kane for TopShop) or for mail order ture Française. Similar institutions were established in companies – for example Courrèges or other European countries and have expanded continuo- Christian Lacroix for La Redoute), me- usly, according to demand. On the other hand, luxury anwhile ready-made clothes for the mass groups such as LVMH, the Pinault Group and AEFFE market climb up into the designer league: are focused on France and Italy, as there is a certain TopShop appeared at the London Fashion natural relaxed attitude towards luxury in those coun- Week with well-known British designers tries. Hence it was possible to establish and sustain fa- and presented its creations in its own mily-owned companies such as Hermès, Gucci, Prada, corner of the avant-garde lifestyle shop Fendi, Missoni, Ferragamo and Etro in France or Italy. Colette in Paris. Even sports brands that Creative individuals such as Gabrielle Chanel and Gi- would have not been considered as desi- orgio Armani were able to found and sustain their own gner- and luxury fashion some years ago fashion empires. have conquered the catwalks and thus got Another reason was the growing special focus on into the designer limelight. And in inter- logos in Europe – and particular in France. Where- national trendsetting fashion magazine, as brand awareness reached its peak in the USA in the young, affordable mass-produced fashion eighties, admiration was mainly targeted towards Eu- is advertised next to exclusive limited edi- ropean luxury brands. tions of designer fashion.

Klose: Yes, the structure of luxury fashion that has Klose: In spite of these increasingly ho- evolved over time is very strongly influenced by Italy and rizontal shifts, branded fashion in Europe France. Nevertheless, particularly over the last few years is still very significant, particularly ab- there have been strong shifts, not only in the luxury fashion road, outside of Europe. How would you segment but within all segments of the fashion industry. Fa- explain that? shion - originally very vertically structured (from avant- Loschek: On the one hand, Europe- garde luxury fashion to trendy ready-to-wear fashion for the masses) - increasingly demonstrates horizontal tenden- Politically dominant European countries mostly were the leaders in fashion.

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an branded fashion such as the already on the outside of clothes, which led to the label domi- mentioned French or Italian fashion, nating the product. The label as a mark of authenticity but also English luxury brands like became the brand label - serving marketing instead of Burberry or the Swiss designer cou- design. Exaggerations that went as far as a caricaturing ture brand Akris are a symbol of pre- logomonia seemed to be unavoidable. In the meantime, stige. On the other hand, brands such most fashion companies have discovered that the design as Boss, Escada, Bogner or Pringle of has to come first, before the logo – or at least needs to Scotland represent high quality. Hugo be at the same level. On the other hand, the extreme Boss is a particular example of a ty- focus on the brand label provided individual designers pical European brand, as the group’s with an opportunity to address those customers who main office and management is based did not want to function as an “advertising puppet”. in Germany, whereas the company is For that reason, individual designer fashion and small owned by the Italian Marzotti Group. design companies mainly producing in their own country or at least within Europe can lead a successful niche Klose: Yves Saint Laurent, Hubert de existence. Givenchy, Thierry Mugler, Kenzo Takada - icons of European fashion – have with- Klose: In addition, particularly the logo as a mark of au- drawn from their fashion houses in order thenticity has a strong influence on the global perception of to clear the way for a younger generation fashion - thus unhinged from its local market context. The of designers. This handover process does logo is turned into a metaphor for a European and an inter- not always run smoothly and has already national brand or design awareness with a transnational led to enormous fluctuations in the design style language and unambiguous decoding: wherever I am studios. For that reason, some European in the world, three white stripes (Adidas) or the combina- fashion houses seem to focus more strongly tion of the letters LV (Louis Vuitton) cannot only be decoded on their individual brand profile rather internationally, but also communicate individual fashion than on their design profile. Has brand contents, their “lifestyle visions”. fashion replaced designer fashion or is Loschek: Over the last decades, an increasing amount the process reversing right now? What is of luxury and designer brands have developed from branded fashion in actual fact? local labels to global players – globally staged through Loschek: The designer name tag, the their impressive flagship stores. However, this omnip- logo or the label are primarily semiotic resence on the international fashion market has also and not fashion attributes, achieving led to the phenomenon that brand or designer fashion a high level of recognition – with the is seldom linked to its country of origin. The longing product promoting itself and thus stir- for origin and originals then led to a label correction or ring the desire to buy and also to imi- label extension – with the aim to reemphasise the local tate. With minimal effort, logos and origins of the brand: Hermès Paris, Prada Milano, Bur- emblems send a maximum of messages berry London, Donna Karan New York. – sometimes globally – well-known to us from military uniforms. Until the Klose: Do you currently see any other common ground for seventies, designer name tags or labels were generally hidden inside the product and the product came first. In the eighties, tags or labels were attached

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fashion in Europe besides individual brands and design? what is newly introduced also needs a Loschek: The changing target groups – for example new interpretation by fashion journa- the hedonism of the 50+ generation or the neo-conser- lists. It is not only desirable to mention vatism of the young middle class are phenomena in all the form and the material of individu- European countries. Hence the fashion industry has al items, but also to provide a com- to react to these phenomena. It is also a problem of the prehensive stylistic description of the entire European fashion industry (with only a few nati- collection, an aesthetic interpretati- onal or local exceptions) that the production takes place on, comparisons with other fashion in Asia. Problems and their solutions do not seem to be designs, with architecture and art, restricted to one country, but to the whole of Europe. with definitions of fashion as product design. Ultimately, what we need are Klose: In 2005, you held guest lectures at the Helwan fashion reviews following the example University in Cairo. Where does European fashion rank in a of theatre or opera reviews. country that is increasingly influenced by Islamic culture? Loschek: I can only speak for Cairo, where young Klose: What is the status of European middle-class females walk around in jeans and jumpers fashion magazines? as they would in Europe – at the same time wearing Loschek: Among established fashion headscarves draped in many fashionable ways. Female magazines, English and French ma- students of fashion design are almost exclusively inte- gazines are the most influential, with rested in European fashion and buy Western fashion magazines from other European states magazine and fashion collection books. They want to frequently using them as role models design for the European and the Egyptian market – the – particular in terms of actual fashion latter by all means with a European orientation in the topics. Outside of Europe, the influ- private realm. But it is also true in this context that ence of English and French magazines design is mainly a phenomenon of the metropolis, whe- is also very strong. Hence, we fashion reas the periphery only imports design. journalism is European. “Wallpaper“ and “I-D“ from England are still per- Klose: Which role do the media play and which role can ceived as intellectual avant-garde ma- they play in terms of cultural communication within and gazines. New German fashion journals outside of Europe? have an international focus and are Loschek: In theory, due to its evaluation of new pro- mostly bilingual – German and Eng- ducts, fashion journalism has a great deal of responsi- lish. Yet they are not printed in large bility. Yet as fashion is perceived as “popular“ culture, number and are often only published there is not enough specialist knowledge available. The quarterly. Already established newco- British psychologist Edward de Bono recognised that mers “Achtung” and “Deutsch” are people tend to divide unfamiliar situations into fami- supplemented by magazines such as liar elements. The attempt to explain a new fashion “WeAr“, “Hekmag“, “Zoo Magazine“, mostly wears itself out using familiar patterns, which “ModeDepeche“, “berliner“ (exclusive- often leads to the perception of retro looks. Hence, ly in English) and “Liebling“ (a newspaper); almost all of them are published in Berlin.

Loschek: What opportunities does

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the Internet provide for the fashion industry? platforms of designer and luxury fashion Klose: This question raises quite a large number of issues. brands on the Internet. In the meantime, I would like to talk about the Internet as a virtual fashion design houses also present themselves with platform briefly. The Internet provides an intercultural their own virtual counters and their own insight into fashion production in the different metropo- websites – for example the Italian label lises within seconds – suggesting an assumed understanding Marni or the Parisian avant-garde life- of what is in, hip or top at a particular time. Whatever is style shop Colette. This means intercul- presented on the catwalks of this world is globally available tural shopping without having to find a shortly afterwards. Yet what is presented is the media stage space to park the car. The interactive Polo of fashion, not fashion itself. It is the flat reality of images Ralph Lauren shop window on Madison with the inherent apparent truth of images – mostly with Avenue in New York guarantees a diffe- the absence of words. The screen cannot provide sensuous rent kind of 24-hour shopping: Whatever access to the subtle quality of design, the haptic and tactile you see walking past can be bought in- material character of the garments or the movements of the stantaneously by touching the interactive clothes on the body. It does not reveal whether the clothes glass surface – even if the shop is closed are comfortable to wear, either – everything is just a faint – next-day free delivery included. notion of reality. The Internet is a global image-information carrier of fashion – yet this form of reproduction cannot re- Loschek: And what is your view on place the original or the experience of an original. the influence of television and particu- Locally designed – globally available – “read“ and inter- larly of music channels like MTV? preted locally – place has become a volatile concept, replaced Klose: Television reaches even further by individual cultural perceptions. However, the Internet – it presents us with lifestyles and cul- as an economic multiplier has opened up new dimensions tures and thus acts as a fashion cata- for fashion design – in particular for new designers using it lyst – like Hollywood during its Golden as a presentation and sales platform. Thus e-commerce has Era with the TV series “Dallas” in the long left its original areas of access and its image as cheap eighties or “Sex in the City“ over the last common commerce behind, distinguishing and establishing few years. It is a very unique form of itself as the virtual shop window for luxury and design experiencing or coming across certain products. Yoox, which was founded in 2000, was predicted cultures: At times US-American culture to fail – and is now one of the most successful virtual sales (American Hardcore – 2006, American Beauty – 1999) and sometimes Chinese lifestyle (In the Mood for Love - 2000, Fleurs de Shanghai - 1998, Goodbye my On the one hand, European branded fashion Concubine - 1993, etc.) are guests in Euro- such as the already mentioned French or Ita- pean living rooms. MTV or VH1 invite us to a visual feast lian fashion, but also English luxury brands of exploring subcultures through rap, hip like Burberry or the Swiss designer couture hop or electro. The video clips broad- brand Akris are a symbol of prestige. On the cast by the stations have developed into other hands, brands such as Boss, Escada, Bogner or Pringle of Scotland represent high quality.

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fashion spots with background music. It can singer Missy Elliot – the first female superstar in the US is therefore not surprising that MTV has hip-hop scene has influenced different collections – from ur- had its own fashion platform with annu- ban sportswear to streetwear to modern hip-hop fashion. ally staged fashion shows - “Designerama on stage” - for three years now. Young Loschek: The retail trade is the showcase of European national and international designers can fashion. Yet what is presented in the international lime- present and sell their extravagant designs light does not necessarily appear in the shop windows. online. At the same time, this avant-garde Why is that? showroom serves as an outfit archive for Klose: The retail trade “presents“ a particular pre-se- the performances of their in-house presen- lected range of fashion to the end consumer, thus unavoi- ters. The unique designer clothes from the dably turning into a fashion curator with a “business angle” MTV Designerama Collection have become – a role we should not underestimate – similarly to the role sought-after collector’s items by now. of fashion journalists. Fashion produced for the internatio- As early as the sixties, the Beatles al- nal market is also very much subject to the local and cultu- ready demonstrated that the combination ral selection of the buying agents. The retailers “filter” and of music, a certain look and fashion can the customers adjust: Inevitably, the items that make it into have an enormous cultural impact. the shops are fashion and those not in the shops can therefore not be fashion or do not exist. Loschek: Pop music and fashion as Common strategies of fashion marketing support this well as sports and fashion are very glo- local polarisation of fashion and thus limit the possibili- bally orientated. Pop music and sports ties of a broader cultural diffusion. The flagship stores and have a high status in American fashion franchise branches of the international designer and fashion culture and thus in American design. brands have to be exactly where the glamorous, cosmopoli- What is the situation in Europe? Don’t tan clientele is. Therefore, they all want to be on the respec- you think that Adidas is a good examp- tive shopping promenades of the international metropolises. le in this context? The Englishwoman Rita Britton has successfully demonstra- Klose: The German sportswear pro- ted a different approach with her avant-garde “Pollyanna“ ducer Adidas is a very good example for in Barnsley, a little known and rather inconspicuous small the success concept of internationally suc- industrial town in South Yorkshire in the English Mid- cessful fashion using intercultural design lands. With an international reputation for her selection synergies. The international sportswear of fashion and fashion design, not only does she present her brand based in Germany in Central Fran- hand-picked range of world-class, established designers, but conia (Herzogenaurach) cooperates with also young avant-garde such as Paul Harnden or the Italian different designers at a global level. In label Carpe Diem on her 500 square metres. For almost four October 2002, the company started its co- decades now, her shop has not only been among the leading operation with the Japanese fashion desi- independent fashion stores, it is also one of the oldest world- gner Yohji Yamamoto for the range Adidas wide, known for its international clientele that does not Y-3 and presents it at the prêt-à-porter travel to London, Paris or Milan to buy international fa- fashion shows in Paris. Together with the shion, but pilgrimages to Barnsley instead. British fashion designer Stella McCartney, Adidas develops designer sportswear for running, fitness and swimming. Mean- while, the cooperation with the Ameri-

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Another new sales concept is the fle- decisions about the most popular collections are made and xible, mobile sales floor, either following fashion journalists also pass their verdicts on the flops of the international cultural events such as art season in Paris. happenings or avant-garde music festivals To get on the guest list of a fashion show is very popular or appearing for a short while in urban and the demand has become almost unmanageable. Accor- trendy areas. ding to Didier Grumbach, President of the Fédération de The concept of the “guerrilla store“ la Couture du Prêt-à-Porter, “Paris is the victim of its suc- introduced for the first time in Berlin by cess!“. 84 fashion shows in only eight days – a fashion course the Japanese designer label Comme des which is almost impossible to master. It is very difficult Garçons focuses on unpredictability – fa- for young, up-and-coming designers not yet on the official shion as a revolutionary, urban under- fashion agenda to win international attention during that ground movement with tactical flexibili- time. For quite some time now, it has been considered to ty and the use of surprise effects – newly provide young European and non-European designers with defining exclusivity. Totally dependent on a separate presentation platform during the biannual hau- word-of-mouth, avant-garde fashion has te couture shows in January and July. In January 2007, to be “discovered” fast, before it “disap- young European “creators” that had made an internatio- pears” again. nal name for themselves with creative unique collections or The Italian fashion house Prada (Im- small ranges of fashion limited edition received an invitati- probable Classics) for instance positions on for the first time. Among them were Boudiccy (England), itself with a temporary 10-day boutique Cathy Pill (Belgium) or Felipe Oliveira Baptista (Portugal). installation showing a specially compiled And to answer the second part of your question: Particular- range as a limited edition with the label ly the Japanese market is a very important economic factor «Basel 2006» at the prestigious Art Basel impacting on the sales figures of young European designers – currently the largest contemporary arts outside of Europe. Japanese people are very keen and coura- fair. geous when it comes to “Fun Fashion“, which reveals a gre- With this innovative concept of the mo- at openness for avant-garde fashion from Europe. However, bile designer boutique as an art installa- the commercially oriented design enthusiasm for Europe- tion, fashion marketing searching for the an fashion in Japan does not necessarily reflect back to the best location takes a whole new turn. country of origin: Media success in Japan does not automatically mean that the designer will conquer the fashion scene Loschek: In 1981, it was a must for in Europe next – at least it does not mean that yet. Japanese designers to go to Paris to make their mark – nowadays, it is Loschek: International fashion does not seem to lack the other way round. Yet Paris is still opportunities for presentation, though. Globally, almost and more than ever the centre for the 40 noteworthy fashion weeks take place – with new creative avant-garde. How difficult is additions every year. Should young designers not focus it for young designers to gain a firm on other fashion cities or fashion weeks? Wouldn’t it be foothold in the European market? possible that the fashion weeks could potentially even Klose: At the end of an international “relieve” the Parisian catwalks/fashion shows or may- fashion show marathon that lasts for almost one month, Paris certainly has a special status! The final orders of the buyers from all over the world are placed here,

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be show them their limitations? Asian market. Ms Klose, you have taught fashion design Klose: Fashion knows no national bor- in London, Paris and Shanghai. Which status does Eu- ders and many fashion designers do not ropean fashion have in the Asian world? present their collections in the country Klose: European fashion has a very high status – parti- of origin. There are no objections against cularly in the luxury fashion segment. Economic forecasts moving elsewhere – as long as the young predict that China will become the second-largest luxury designers can maintain the timeframe nation after Japan over the next ten years, with the USA from presentation to order, production falling back to third position. and delivery. The later the fashion weeks, Using a Eurocentric understanding of luxury, we are the more difficult it is to organise and talking about a process of economic growth and aligning time everything properly. standards of living. Yet the alignment of cultural connota- The almost inflationary boom of fa- tions and thus intercultural harmonisation also has to be shion weeks shows to what extent fashion considered: Luxury, originally with historic and imperi- seeks a public-cultural platform and with alistic connotations, experienced a marked caesura during it the limelight of the media. It is one of the Cultural Revolution: It was traditionally perceived as the objectives of these fashion weeks – negative, unnerving and disturbing. Luxury was seen as whether they take place in India, Buenos the antagonist of frugality and simplicity – only appertai- Aires or Australia - to promote the young ning to older people as a sign of respect. designers from a particular country, thus This image has been reversed to turn into the exact oppo- promoting national fashion and textile site: Luxury is product-oriented and synonymous with con- production and move it into the global fo- sumption – no longer reserved for older people, but for the cus. With a few exceptions, most of these young, spoilt generation of only children. fashion weeks are state-sponsored and the- What we are observing is fast technical growth – the refore represent the commercial and cul- frenzied pace of the Asian fashion industry – without a de- tural interests of the respective country. eper cultural understanding for China’s economic develop- International fashion fairs such as the ment. Berlin avant-garde fashion fair Bread & Loschek: What are the prospects of young Chinese Butter, definitely shifting its main ex- avant-garde designers in their own market? hibition focus from Berlin to Barcelona Klose: The Chinese market is very pro-Western – the level this year, operate with supraregional fa- of trust in European products generally seems to be higher shion exhibition concepts. Hence they are than in Chinese products. Unfortunately, this leads to a very represented in Berlin and in Barcelona, low level of perception for the domestic creative and design maintaining a high level of international scene, unless it presents itself with a high level of media im- flexibility. Another example is the Ispo pact, as designer Kun Lu aptly demonstrates. Yiyang Wang Munich (international sportswear fair), with the two collections Zuczug and Changang keeps a low the Ispo China (Nanjing) or the Paris profile, but is considered an insider tip. textile fair “Première Vision“ with “Pre- mière Vision International Shanghai“. Loschek: And looking in the other direction – what IGEDO Düsseldorf organises and realises are the prospects of fashion design from the Western the fairs “Dessous China“ and “Fashion China“ (Shanghai).

Loschek: This takes me back to the

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world in the Asian market? Prada and Louis Vuitton have won a joint lawsuit against Klose: The prospects are very good product counterfeits at the Civil Court in Beijing, which led – particularly for French and Italian lu- to the first successful proceedings against product piracy. In xury brands and there is a high level of the meantime, this has become the most urgent issue – not demand among Asian consumers. Howe- only at a European level (Euratex - Brussels), but also at an ver, adjustments of fit are required due international level. The fashion associations in Italy, France to different body proportions. The fashion and the USA work together on a new draft legislation on house Givenchy has a second “Asian” cou- copyright protection for fashion design and fashion design ture studio (Givenchy Boutique) in Paris models to be presented to the US Congress. Among other as- and other fashion houses cooperate with pects, concessions are certainly expected from the Chinese licensees in Asia (Givenchy Japan, Dior government, as the Chinese legal system is patchy. Didier Japan). Grumbach, President of the French Fédération de la Couture Over the last few years, the Chinese du Prêt-à-Porter, has a very clear point of view: “As long market has moved into the centre of eco- as there are no straightforward legal guidelines, I cannot nomic interest. The demand for standar- advise any European designer to venture into the Chinese dised body fits and sizes remains unans- market!“ wered, though, as they still do not exist. A few months ago, the China National Loschek: Can you see opportunities for Chinese desi- Institute of Standardization (CNIS) in co- gners in the European market? operation with Lectra started to measure Klose: Asian fashion is already well-represented in Paris the Chinese consumers digitally in more with Japanese or South-Korean designer collections. At the than ten different provinces. The average beginning of October 2006, a Chinese designer (Frankie standard values of Chinese body propor- Xie from Beijing) introduced his range Jefen in the con- tions (according to different age groups) text of the official prêt-à-porter-fashion shows in Paris – a measured with 3D body scan are inten- premiere in the history of Paris fashion shows. The fashion ded to lead to a countrywide adjustment designer who trained in Hangzhou and later at the Bun- of sizes in the clothing industry. Even the ka College Tokyo, started his designer collection in Beijing car and furniture manufacturing indus- six years ago and has presented it at the local fashion week tries have already asked for the statistics. since that time. His collection is successfully represented in the Chinese market with twenty of his own boutiques. For Loschek: Trademark law, product March 2007, additional Chinese designers have announced piracy and copyright protection of their presence on the Parisian catwalk. Ekseption from the fashion design are currently all very province Canton already presents his collection at the fa- sensitive topics. What is your view? shion week in Shanghai. Klose: One of the greatest obstacles on Loschek: What are your conclusions? the way towards cultural and economic Klose: We have discussed or briefly mentioned a large exchange between Europe and China as a number of different aspects and factors reflecting the diver- trade nation is the lack of legal trade- sity and complexity of fashion as a cultural asset as well as mark, design and patent protection plus an international industry and trade sector. the explicit breach of copyright law. At the beginning of the year, the newspapers published triumphantly that the European fashion houses Burberry, Chanel, Gucci,

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Ms Loschek, what would you deem ne- novative ideas for an enhanced inter- and cessary to shift cultural exchange and dia- transcultural exchange are required. First logue to the centre of attention? attempts are transnational e-learning Loschek: In order to raise awareness programmes. State providers of fashion for fashion as a cultural asset as well training courses are often tied to their as a design product, it is mandatory to national regulations and are less flexible integrate extraordinary fashion design than private providers, for example in into museums of art history as well as terms of changing curricula. It would be into design museums. Thus creative fa- desirable to ease these restrictions. shion can move away from mere commercial aspects and the mass-produced Translation: Angelika Welt fashion from the Far and Middle East and present itself with a design that is Dr Ingrid Loschek is a Professor of Fashion very European in terms of aesthetics History and Fashion Theory at ‘Hochschule für Gestaltung’ in Pforzheim. She has also and concept. Furthermore, fashion ex- published a large number of reference books hibitions have to be curated showing on fashion in Munich. the same diversity as art exhibitions in Europe and have to be presented Sibylle Klose M.A. Fashion (CSM) is a gradu- world-wide. Only a few museums such ate designer and Professor of Fashion Design at the ‘Hochschule für Gestaltung’ in Pforz- as the Musée des Arts Décoratifs in Pa- heim. She lives in Paris and works there as a ris, the Victoria and Albert Museum in free-lance fashion designer. London, the ModeMuseum in Antwerp or the Groningen Museum (NL), collect design fashion and exhibit it on a regular basis. Fashion exhibitions also make the high conceptual, artistic and technical value of fashion more ap- proachable for a wider audience than elitist fashion shows. Klose: I could not agree more. Some academic initiatives already reflect the necessity of this claim. These initiatives need to be expanded: For over a year now, the University of the Arts in London has included curating fashion in its master’s degree programme (M.A. Fashion Cura- ting). Other European universities or academies expand their study programme for Curating with Modern Design and Mo- dern Art and are working on new forms of teaching – for example using virtual forums. Particularly at an academic level, in-

262 Fashion World – World Fashion Haute couture has European names – but how European is this fashion nowadays? In the age of transnational fashion groups, large parts of the value chain are transferred to low-wage countries with questionable social standards. Together with fashion, Europe not only sells clothes, but also a particular lifestyle with a strong image factor. But at what price? By Daniel Devoucoux

fashion shows in Paris with his “Bieder- meier-Punk” collection “Wunderkind“ – German fashion as a new trend.

Identity and consumption

Nowadays, a fashion item is an everyday object – and in front of the mirror – if not earlier – the time has come to adopt a definite position. It is a question of our own self-perception and how we want to present ourselves to the world. Fashion is an image of us, a dynamic image of our body. Fashion exists to be seen – its main ho claims that fashion is un- role, as it were – and therefore needs an worldly? With muted colours audience. Wand clear lines, it reflects glo- At present, a fashion item is a consu- bal events on the catwalk, “evoking the mer good like every other object. Yet on desire for security and order “. Accor- closer observation, it is much more, as it ding to Karl Lagerfeld, “you can’t think is directly and permanently linked to the pink if you read the papers“.1 However, body. Both are perceived symbiotically. It in Germany the phenomenon of Anastasia is not fashion itself that is fashionable – it created positive vibes.2 The Los Angeles is the person. Yet fashion can equally cre- pop star was lined up to present the new ate distance: Distance from the environ- collection “Anastasia by S.Oliver“. The ment, from others or from oneself. The concept of working with famous stars to relationship with fashion is a long-term present unknown fashion brands such as process that starts in childhood. The in- S.Oliver from Rottendorf near Würzburg terest in a certain piece of clothing starts has its origins in the United States. Every before wearing it. During the shopping season, image waves are flooding our daily lives from the catwalks or the streets. And in the autumn of 2006, Germany was flying the flag. Wolfgang Joop opened the

263 Art, Architecture, Fashion graphic background. As a phenomenon of clothing, it is a European invention that has developed from a progressive change of perception. This change is due to the increasingly complex structures of large cities and the economic and technical developments as experience, the initial relationship to a well as the socio-cultural order of a globa- particular fashion is established. Feelings lised society. It has left its most significant of lust are evoked in luxury shops and traces in the media – hence the history of department stores, on flea markets or fashion is also a history of the media. second-hand boutiques. Buying antique Nowadays, fashion represents a phy- fashion items often even becomes a me- sical technology for the cultural anthro- morable experience. pologists, a creative-artistic process, Our fashion behaviour reminds us of Weltanschauung and a business for the the current strong influence of consump- designer, a social process for the sociolo- tion on culture. Fashion is considered gists, a production process for the indus- as one of the most important parameters trial sector and a network of financially of consumer behaviour. It remains open lucrative exchange for the retail sector, whether fashion consumption is prima- a cinematic device for film directors, an rily fashion and secondly consumption, event for the media and a parallel econo- vice versa or both at the same time. In any my and efficient money-laundering facili- case, the term consumption that spread ty of significant importance for criminal after World War II goes back to the La- organisations. Thus, fashion has many tin term “consumere“, which means “to lives and the perception of these diffe- consume“ in the sense of “to use“. On the rent lives changes depending on the per- other hand, it also includes the meaning spective. Not only the stylists, catwalks, of “consumare“ – “to refine something“ models, hairstyles, beauticians, photogra- or “to accomplish“. Quite a lot of ambi- phers, agencies or “Petites Mains” ‘make’ valence here. The German term for fa- fashion, but also trend agencies, media shion (Mode) is older and originates from worlds or large retail chains. We change the Latin term “modus“. As late as 1690, with fashion – yes, it can even transform this German word “Mode“ did not mean us. We all know the scene from “Pretty fashion, but a custom, a way of life or a Woman“, where Vivian Ward (Julia Ro- particular way of manufacturing goods.3 berts) is fitted out in an elegant boutique Over the following years, a change took on Hollywood Boulevard, accompanied place and the term “Mode“ established by her prince, Edward Lewis (Richard itself as a term for fashion, yet was still Gere) and a solid credit card after her dis- not exclusively used. However, this does appointing shopping experience the day not mean that fashion or “Mode“ had not existed beforehand. For most historians, it surfaced in Europe with the art of tai- Fashion has a historic dimen- loring and the cutting technique as the technological fundamental principle du- sion and a geographic back- ring the height of the Middle Ages. Fa- ground. As a phenomenon of shion has a historic dimension and a geo- clothing, it is a European invention that has developed from a progressive change of perception.

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before. This represents the first step of his / her look, (self-)perception and way her transformation from a trashy prosti- of life. tute into the perfect example of fashion conservatism. This is why some see fa- Stamp of modernity shion as a masquerade. For others, it is a medium, and like all other media, it is Today’s fashion – at least in Europe a constitutive and dynamic element of and North America – has entered into a culture. new alliance with technology that has The social person is a person wearing become the most important advantage clothes. The desire and the claim to sty- for Europe as a fashion location. At the le the body is a key to the invention and same time, this alliance produces a visual production of the social concept, with culture, generating new perceptions rea- fashion as a subtle negotiation space for ching right into the fashion industry. questions of economic policy, moral and For a long time, fashion was exclusive- religious, sexual, ethical, socio-cultural, ly linked to fashion designers. Designer age- or gender-specific issues. Everybody fashion is still in the focus of fashion dis- sees fashion as a means of communica- courses, but it has lost its monopoly status tion and up to 80 percent of all commu- - not least because of its high represen- nication is nonverbal. In addition, depen- tational value. The different fashion ten- ding on context and situation, fashion dencies and trends have merged together has a narrative expressiveness which is into hybrid forms, originating from diffe- closely linked to the person wearing the rent socio-cultural spaces. The great dif- clothes and his or her cultural environ- ference is that designer and stylist fashion ment. Fashion is everything related to even now creates hand-made unique spe- a person’s outer appearance: Clothes, cimens, whereas other fashion styles have shoes, headdresses, cosmetics, beards, to rely on batch production, which does hair and hairstyles plus posture and body not necessarily mean anything in terms language. This is referred to as lifestyle of their originality. – an awareness of life and the spaces we Designer fashion has become the hall- live in. The practical value of fashion is mark of modernity. And Western fashion also less important than the image it cre- itself has been infused by foreign ele- ates – although comfort, workmanship ments – from the Middle Ages with the and price all play a role. The position of import of exquisite fabrics (like damask the observers is not neutral, either. Wi- and silk) or colouring elements (such as thin this communicative model, closeness henna, indigo or saffron). Hence from and distance, movements or physique and the outset, the European dimension of body language also play a role. Contra- fashion as a phenomenon is relative. ry to earlier epochs, the Western indivi- Today’s local and global networks are dual is nowadays in charge of managing not a new phenomenon, but a continu- ation of historic processes. The textile trade goes back all the way to the ancient world, with communication channels of great cultural importance such as the fa-

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mous Silk Road. What has changed under with the flowery designs of sofa covers the exclusive dominance of the market is of the Biedermeier period. Particularly the type of relationship between what is the cultural reinterpretation of a piece considered local and global. Yet it would of clothing is a creative act. be a complete misjudgement to believe that Asian or African cultures and their Techno textiles – a new advantage of own textile traditions adopted the values location for industrialised nations of the Western world together with the Westernised style of their clothes. It is The image change is mainly due to new much rather the case that dress styles are materials – from microfibres to high-tech embedded in the local socio-cultural ma- textiles. Within this niche, the German trix, to be transformed and reinterpreted. and the West European textile industries It does not only happen in India that “the have been particularly successful for a way people dress is becoming an arena number of decades now. They even expect where individual and cultural conflicts of a new boom and long-term security for modernisation are fought and negotiated. Europe as a textile industry location. Due New meanings are allocated to Western to a number of qualities, these textiles are fashion in the process. Traditional ways particularly attractive: Variety, functio- of dressing and Western fashion are dif- nality, flexibility, interactivity and resi- ferent options – not alternatives“.4 lience. Fascination with the nanoworld South African cultural scientists are con- equally applies to techno textiles. Mar- vinced “that the cultural traditions in the keting strategies focus on the fascination individual countries (on the African conti- and the aura of technical and scientific nent) are so deeply rooted and so solid that images as a new coat for “old fashion”. their characteristics will survive and conti- Whether the consumer actually needs nue to inspire cultural diversity in fashion high-tech fashion such as antibacterial to produce imaginative creations“.5 clothes for children or sportswear with Nowadays, designer fashion not only perfumed lotions against sweat is another has a platform in Paris, Milan, London, question. However, the textile industry New York or Tokyo, but also in Moscow, continues with its high level of energy Hong Kong, Mumbai, La Paz, Thessalo- consumption, causing environmental niki, Warsaw or Dakar. Historically spea- problems. It seems to be important to sa- king, fashion in Europe and the United feguard the European location without States forms the dynamic core of percep- considering the global impacts. tions of modernity. Hence, the globalisation of fashion can be understood as a spati- Fashion and the luxury industry al-territorial technique, as an instrument of stratification. Fashion also includes In the meantime, fashion designers playing with materials as well as with and their creations have frequently be- their cultural meanings – something the fashion designer Wolfgang Joop showed at the presentation of his spring collection 2007, where parkas were combined

266 come brand names for large companies. Art, Architecture, Fashion On 18th March 2006, the press reported that the Italian luxury group Prada sold its subsidiary Helmut Lang to the Japane- se group Link Theory Holdings. In Febru- ary, the British investor Change took over Jil Sander’s fashion house as a subsidiary. This type of transaction is very common to the textile group Noventa, etc. There nowadays and indicates that fashion has are many reasons for this development: already been negotiated between trans- Most fashion companies do not have en- national groups – particularly Western ough capital and from the point of view European and American luxury compa- of global economic logic, they remain too nies - for a long time. Within the luxury fixated on their founders – often without industry, market leaders are constantly regulating succession. pursuing new markets. Particularly small Nevertheless, these luxury fashion and medium-sized companies or fashion companies are characterised by an ex- houses are a very suitable “prey“. The- clusive image and a consistent quality cul- se activities are labelled as mergers, but ture. If they are stylised to downright we might wonder at times whether they myths and dream images in brand com- are really effective economic or political munication, modern fashion marketing is strategies or whether a traditional male interactively playing with the consumers. understanding of power is behind all this. The basis for success is in the presentation Thus LVMH (Louis Vuitton Moet Hennes- of excellent collections, combined with ef- sy) of Bernard Arnaud, the largest glo- ficient brand and financial management. bal luxury producer, owns Louis Vuitton, Or, as Jil Sander puts it: “It is correct that Kenzo, Donna Karan, Emilio Pucci, Cé- I follow an aesthetic concept. (...) I want to line, Loewe, Givenchy, Berlutti and Fen- create frills-free fashion - elegant and mo- di (together with Prada), plus the perfu- dern, feminine, graceful and not without mes Dior, Guerlain, Givenchy, Kenzo, etc. dignity.6 Behind a fashion brand are con- In 2001, this group entered into a joint cepts that require global marketing. In venture with the South African jewelle- spite of all the mergers, the idea is still to ry producer DeBeers. PPR (Pinaut-Prin- maintain the exclusivity and homogenei- temps-Redoute) of Bernard Pinaut, the ty of the luxury labels. For that reason, second luxury giant, owns Gucci, Yves the “luxury groups“ are aiming for total Saint-Laurent, Alexander Mc Queen, Bot- control through multibranding, diversi- tega Veneta (leather goods), Sergio Rossi fication and accumulation. The market (shoes), Stella McCarthy and Balenciaga. leaders increasingly take marketing and Prada with its autocrat Patrizio Bertelli distribution into their own hands and owns Church and Fendi, but increasingly licences are bought back. In the luxury tries to focus on own brands such as Miu sector, controlled growth takes first pri- Miu. Gianfranco Ferré belongs to the It- ority. A luxury brand thrives on exclusi- Holding and Finpart Spa owns Cerutti vity, even if the notion of luxury has be- plus further brands. The Diesel-Group come more democratic and addresses new Movena, which also manufactures for Vi- target groups. For that purpose, higher vienne Westwood and Ungaro, belongs margins are introduced in the accessory business, which often generates higher Hence from the outset, the Eu- ropean dimension of fashion as a phenomenon is relative.

267 Art, Architecture, Fashion Berlin is considered as the location for affordable elegance. Similar trends can be observed in other large cities, for example in Marseille or Thessaloniki and above all in Antwerp, the true capital of young fashion. Fashion seismographically processes profit margins than the traditional fa- and visualises the consequences and shion business. The multibrand strategy cultural transformations of contempo- requires high investments – an incentive rary times. It illustrates the speed and for an increasing number of companies the scope of change and the transforma- to go public. The luxury industry proves tion within the institutions, but also the to be very immune to economic cycles, resistance and the rejections. Its adjust- although the 11th September 2001 mar- ments to the logic of the market do not ked a break. One could speculate that the remain without side effects. luxury industry did not need to produce in low-wage countries or to work with “Collateral damages“ methods that harm the environment. However, greed and unscrupulousness On 11th April 2005, the textile factory are represented in this sector as much Spectrum Sweaters in Shahriyar in Bang- as elsewhere. After the flood in New Or- ladesh collapsed, leaving 64 people dead leans, the luxury industry was alrea- and 74 seriously injured. The factory was dy worrying about the potential lack of known as a place of exploitation of the crocodiles before people had even been worst kind. Serious injuries and burns rescued, as 300,000 crocodile skins are occurred frequently and sexual harass- imported from Louisiana every year to ment was very common.7 Companies like manufacture bags, shoes, belts or watch Karstadt, Quelle, Steilmann, New Yorker bands. or Carrefour that had used Spectrum as There are also independent designers a manufacturer of their clothes promised such as Giorgio Armani, who entered into to pay compensation. One year after the a joint venture with the gentlemen’s tai- catastrophe, only three companies had lor Ermenegildo Zegna in 1999. Italian kept their promise. Child labour under fashion sets the tone anyway. Meanwhi- extremely bad working conditions is also le, 53 fashion and luxury entrepreneurs not uncommon, with some children en- are operating in Italy, with 25 of them tering into some kind of debt peonage.8 still independent. Fashion houses in Mi- In many textile factories, girls work in lan and Florence are among the fastest- twelve-hour shifts from the age of four- growing in Europe. And in Paris, a large teen. According to the ONG Clean Clo- number of independent couturiers and thes Campaign, nine out of ten manuf- fashion designers are still successful. A acturers in China violate international new phenomenon has also become noti- labour standards and their own Chinese ceable in Berlin. The federal capital and labour laws. in particular the area around Kastanien- However, there is some resistance. In allee – often referred to as “Casting Ave- China, there have been massive protests nue“ – established itself as the new centre from female textile workers for years. Af- for young, creative designers and stylists. ter a textile worker had been killed by the police during a protest in the factory FS Gazipur near Dhaka – among others producing for the French supermarket chain Auchan and the Swedish fashion

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group H&M – massive protest followed by a growing decrease in cotton and wool. in May and June 2006, with a particu- Jute, silk, bast fibres and hard fibres have larly violent end in the free-trade zone of a share of around 9 percent in the over- Savar, where the police arrested several all global production. Thus overall tex- hundred people.9 In the industrial town tile production has sextupled within 40 of Ashulia, thousands set fire to factories. years. In the EU, the proportion of new The general public hardly notices these techno textiles was at least 20 percent in events. However, the large textile com- 2006.12 Yet while the European clothing panies in Europe and the USA started to and textile industry had employed 4.2 worry about the situation. They asked the million people in 1980, that figure was government of Bangladesh to solve the at around 1.8 million in 2004.13 conflict as soon as possible - “peacefully From a local and a global perspective, and constructively“. Among the compa- the fashion and clothing industry pre- nies signing the plea were Adidas, C&A sents an interesting economic and image Europe, Hennes & Mauritz, Karstadt/ factor for at least four reasons: Quelle, Levi Strauss & Co., Nike, Carre- Firstly, because this industry is lea- four, Li&Fung and Lindex.10 ding the way in the globalisation process. As early as the seventies, when nobody Fashion and clothing was talking about globalisation yet, it already started to shift its production els- What is the difference between Euro- ewhere. pean and American fashion? Some men- Secondly, because the fashion and clo- tion originality, uniqueness and exclu- thing industry has an exceptional positi- sivity (Gaultier), others integration and on in international trade agreements to the desire for a class-independent lifestyle the present day. (Tommy Hilfiger, Ralph Lauren, Donna Thirdly, because the generally gro- Karan). However, these differences are of wing awareness of environmental pro- secondary importance in the production blems is particularly affected. The fashion chain. Designer fashion, clothing and the and clothing industry is deemed to be the textile market are inseparable. greatest polluter of the world. To give one The fashion and clothing market has example, its water consumption is enor- been growing since the middle of the 19th mous. century. In 2004, approximately 67 mil- And fourthly, because it reveals a lot of lion tons of textile raw materials were (side) effects of globalisation. Depending produced world-wide.11 The proportion of on human, social, cultural and environ- chemical fibres – above all polyester, poly- mental factors, it is considered to be a par- amide and PET fibres – has continuously ticular success or a complete failure. grown, already covering more than half Nowadays, the fashion and clothing of the global textile production – followed industry includes a broad spectrum of companies – from the small backyard tailor to the transnational chain. In the international comparison, German and the West European fashion and clothing

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industries are characterised by relatively line with associated economic percep- differentiated demand. Recession in Eu- tions. It mainly differentiates between rope, EU Enlargement towards the East, the globalisation of markets and corpo- tightened competition, new technologi- rate structures.15 cal developments and political changes The World Trade Agreement GATT put the fashion and clothing industry in that has ensured free trade since 1947 the EU under massive pressures in the also allowed for special terms - primarily nineties of the last century. The expiry used by the fashion and clothing industry of the WTO Agreement on Textiles and (these terms continue with the exemption Clothing at the end of 2004 - formative clauses until the end of 2008). Until 1995, for the industry for over 40 years – led to Europe and the USA strictly limited tex- fundamental changes. In theory, all bila- tile and clothing imports from emerging teral restrictions of textile mass produc- and developing nations through the Mul- tions were abolished, affecting practically ti-Fibre Arrangement. The World Textile all traditional centres of the fashion and Agreement (1995) was supposed to relax clothing industry in Europe. the “quotas“ in several steps, to then abolish them altogether. In practice, this Travelling clothes looks slightly different. However, the industrial countries do not adhere to their Sportswear, jeans, t-shirts, suits, liberalisation policies if they do not per- shirts and skirts - the majority of clo- ceive any advantages. In order to avoid thes seems to be characterised by a sheer endangering their own textile industry, lust for travelling. Since the nineties, they liberalise relatively low-value pro- the concept of globalisation has become duct ranges. With this double standard, multifunctional. It goes back to Marshall liberalisation reluctantly increases, yet McLuhan’s metaphor of the “global vil- is unable to prevent the renewed abrupt lage“ of communication. The concept decline in the quotas at a rate of 70 to gives our epoch a name, highlighting 89 percent. the global expansion, acceleration and concentration of relationships. Everybo- Outsourcing and relocations dy agrees that globalisation challenges the meaning and the sovereignty of the The clothing industry has remained a nation state as well as its state monopoly large mosaic of closely connected activi- and ability to steer events for the benefit ties linked to a trade, where sowing and of the market.14 In order to stress that joining clothing items generate almost this phenomenon does not one-sidedly one fifth of the overall labour costs. This lead to a hegemony of the Western cul- leads to a relocation of production into tural industry on this planet, but forms countries with low production costs. Tex- a large number of counter-tendencies, tile production is a hi-tech sector, though, the English sociologist Roland Robert- son introduced the concept of “Glocali- sation“. The fashion-industry definition of the phenomenon is more modest – in

270 requiring especially trained staff and a Art, Architecture, Fashion complex technical infrastructure. The relocation of the fashion and clothing industry took place in several stages, with the first taking place in the fifties with the shift from Western Eu- rope to Japan, followed by the seventies and eighties from Japan to Hong Kong, The end of the World Textile Taiwan and South Korea and finally in Agreement the late eighties and in the nineties from there to China, South-East Asia and Sri In 2004, around 160 manufacturing Lanka – and as a parallel development countries competed in the sectors clo- in the nineties to Mexico, the Caribbe- thing, textiles and shoes for the favour of an and Central America. A number of three major markets – in around 30 coun- parameters define where and how the tries.16 China joining the WTO (2002) ag- products are manufactured: Investment gravated the situation for those countries incentives, tax systems, the possibility less prepared for the competitive mar- of share ownership, costs of labour and ket.17 It was mainly China that benefited living, purchase costs (raw materials and from the end of the World Textile Agree- supplies), transport costs, political sta- ment, meanwhile the production in other bility, conditions for homeworkers and countries went into a dramatic decline.18 human rights in off-shore productions The conflict goes back to a compromise (working conditions, women and child agreed on 10th June 2005, postponing a labour conditions), etc. At the beginning solution to the year 2008.19 of the 21st century, regionalisation with Among the great advantages of the three centres began to develop within Chinese and Indian fashion and clothing the process of globalisation: in the USA industries is that they cover all compo- and Canada with the Caribbean region nents of the production cycle – from the and Mexico, Japan and Australia with cultivation of cotton to the final proces- East and South-East Asia and Western sing of clothes, which also involves so- and Eastern Europe with Turkey and wing in the name and price tags. Their North Africa, mainly Tunisia and Mo- spectrum of quality patterns has also in- rocco. The main companies as well as creased rapidly.20 Hence, China is the lar- training and technology intense produc- gest importer of knitting machines and tion elements remain in the industriali- looms from Italy, Belgium and Germa- sed countries. While the large commer- ny. However, this modernisation push cial enterprises demand the abolishment has hardly any effect on the clothing in- of quotas, yet at the same time exploit dustry. It mainly consists of innumerous the system by furthering the internati- small and medium-sized companies dot- onalisation of their supply chains, the ting the entire country, with a concent- companies with their own production ration of firms in the special economic in the industrialised countries are as- zones on the South-Eastern coast.21 Chi- king for state protection. Without their nese workers are among the cheapest in own production sites – as “companies the world and migrant workers are the without factories“, the large commercial large majority. For some years now, Chi- enterprises represent a concentration of nese companies have shown an interest buying power, securing an enormous influence on the textile factories. They are the great winners of liberalisation and its most radical advocates.

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in everything related to fashion and tex- “today’s extremely capitalist fashion tiles and in English, Swiss, French and world“.26 So what does this “game“ look particularly German textile retailers and like? Summing up, the strategies of the wholesalers, mainly those with a famous wholesale chains in particular favour out- name. They are also showing an interest sourcing production where it is cheapest, in textile engineering companies. India demand the shortening of production cyc- and to a lesser degree Romania are among les, the shift of the risks to the suppliers the winners of the restructuring process, and the minimisation of production costs. whereas other countries are pay-ing quite This leads to aggressive buying practi- a high price.22 ces, the systematic search for the chea- The actual wages in the clothing sector pest suppliers forcing factories into in- are decreasing at an alarming speed. Glo- creasingly shorter production periods and bally, the working conditions in the sector just-in-time logics. Modern technologies are also a cause for concern. Those pro- like the Internet support the large con- testing against these conditions are mostly glomerates. Only what is required when, punished, bullied, harassed, sacked and in where, in which quality, colour and size some cases even murdered.23 The working is still clearly defined. Strict “non-nego- conditions are increasingly characterised tiable“ price regulations exist.27 by large-scale exploitation. The behavi- All these practices lead to an exploita- oural codes some of these textile industry tive management and a leadership style groups would like to respect are only slow- that either prevents all trade union activi- ly coming into effect and are frequently ty or eliminates it by introducing “black undermined. If NGOs like the ‘Clean Clo- lists“ or introduces working conditions thes Campaign’ accuse large companies of where workers can by hired and fired at social dumping, the response generally all times – for example because of preg- follows an almost uniform pattern: If the nancy or illness. In a non-transparent deplorable social situation is unequivo- system of suppliers and subcontractors, cally proven and “attracts public interest, social and ecological responsibility only the companies normally refer to their own play a role for very few companies. codes, demanding adherence to specified At the end of the chain, the price is social standards. If criticism persists, they particularly high for the staff, especially refer to internal corporate control proce- in the free-trade zones. On top of mostly dures or cancel the contractual commit- desolate working conditions, they suffer ments with the disreputable supplier to from health problems, above all in com- maintain a clean slate themselves“.24 At panies without proper standards for light, the same time, companies are achieving air conditioning and sanitary installatio- record profits.25 ns. Psychological and physical threats, sexual abuse, discrimination, severe ac- Production strategies cidents at work and even murder cases

Even for Karl Lagerfeld, an avid supporter of competition and competitiveness, the “game“ is manipulated in

272 and abductions are all part of the picture. Art, Architecture, Fashion Even murder and abductions occur. This is the hidden side of globalisation nobody normally mentions. The share of women working as seamstresses, knitters, pressers or packers is so high – between 75 and 90 percent – that it is appropriate to talk about a feminisation of employ- Another undesirable side effect of glo- ment.28 They work according to a piece- balisation has become a threat for various work system and are paid per piece of industries: Counterfeits, plagiarism, pi- finished product. One main reason why rate copies and “stealing ideas”. The fo- women accept all these hardships is the cus is on China in this context, but other desire of many young women to flee from countries are also involved. In April 2006, their traditional gender role. These ag- the German Textile Association signed an gressive strategies lead to a “Walmarti- agreement with China to contain the ste- sation“ of employment. Bangladesh for aling of ideas. Even the Chinese Head of example has legalised the 72-hour-week State, Hu Jintao, called for an intensified and the Philippines have abolished the battle against product piracy during his minimum wage in the clothing industry. trip to the USA in 2006. And the giants in the chemical industry For 2004, the Organisation for Eco- are also earning their share with cotton nomic Cooperation and Development fields and the finishing process. (OECD) and other experts estimated the damage caused by plagiarism to be Black economy in the fashion between 450 and 700 billion dollars – and clothing industry up to nine percent of global trade. 23.6 percent can be allocated to China and The black economy is steadily expan- 7.7 percent to Hong Kong.30 Counterfeits ding, basically becoming institutionali- are from Thailand (23.5 percent), Tur- sed – even more so as transnational corpo- key (10.2 percent) and the Czech Repu- rations have the tendency to transfer the blic, but also from Korea, Poland, Rus- processing of their goods from free-trade sia, Malaysia, Vietnam and the USA (still zones to even more informal sectors (a quite significant with 8.4 percent).31 The non-transparent chain of subcontractors Turkish textile industry had the largest and female homeworkers). number of brand counterfeiters world- Often, there is not much of a gap wide. In 2002, German customs seized between the informal and the criminal sweatshirts, t-shirts, jeans and shoes at sector. According to Manuell Castells, a total value of over 12.4 million euros.32 complex financial plans and internatio- In 2005, the amount climbed to 13.5 mil- nal trade networks almost tie the crimi- lion and to over 100 million euros for the nal economy to the formal economy.29 entire EU. One example of illegal funding sources is China has introduced very strict anti- Thailand, where billions of dollars were counterfeiting laws. Yet the real problem shifted and thus channelled from the drug is the lacking “sense of right and wrong trade in the Golden Triangle into the tex- and the enormous amount of cases“, so tile industry as early as the middle of the Wolf-Rüdiger Baumann, Managing Di- nineties. In contrast, massive cheap textile rector of the Association of the Textile imports used for money laundering purposes of the Colombian drug trade largely destroyed the local textile industry around the turn of the millennium.

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and Fashion Industry. The problem of with the luxury industry. In addition, counterfeiting is also a cultural question. children in the Western world are beco- It is a Western invention - with its roots ming increasingly richer. In 2005, every going back to the late Middle Ages. Depre- child between the age of 6 and 13 had ciating the act of copying as an inferior more than 1000 euros of pocket money activity is alien to most Asian cultures. per year.34 When buying sports shoes Yet the aspect that pirate copy producers and clothes, kids have a high level of in countries like China have clearly un- brand awareness. derstood very quickly is the economic lo- Fashion does not make criticism easy: gic of the phenomenon – the connection Enjoying consumption and disappoint- between Western brand production and ment are coupled and fashion very skil- large profits. In spite of media-effective fully uses this alliance.35 Textiles and clo- closures of counterfeiting companies in thing are also cultural goods and thus Beijing, whole industries survive on pro- important elements of the cultural in- ducing pirate products in some provinces. dustry, linked to cultural landscapes and However, according to industry experts, the fabrication of identities. This cultural there is a growing awareness that mere side of the fashion and clothing produc- cost leadership only guarantees an in- tion with a stronger regional-local loca- sufficient competitive advantage in the lisation was sacrificed by neoliberal glo- long run. balisation. Establishing a connection to global developments which could lead to Consumers and global cultural new diversity could be easily achieved, transfer? yet it is not realised for reasons of profitability. The consumers are playing the game. The EU remains a factor in the global They are spending less on fashion and fashion and textile trade that should not clothing – in Germany 4.9 percent in be underestimated – not only in the sphere 2003 compared to 5.5 percent in 2000 of consumption. Production opportuni- – yet they buy more clothing items.33 ties can mainly be exploited in terms of Without a decline in prices, this consu- quality or and proximity of location. The mer behaviour would be unimaginable. shorter the fashion cycles, the riskier it At the same time, there is a trend towards could become to import goods from China cheaper products, even if they have to be or India, as transporting them to Euro- thrown away after washing them twice. pe in a container ship takes two to three In addition, buying behaviour has chan- weeks. Transport would be quicker by ged. In 2004, the Federal Association of plane, yet it would increase the price in German Mail Order Traders announced spite of growing fleets of cargo planes. an increase of 34 percent in Internet sales With wages as low as in the fashion compared to the previous year – which is and clothing industry, the longer iti- a triplication compared to the year 2000. nerary has hardly mattered up to now, Thus eBay has turned into one of the lar- which could change rapidly, though, as gest online fashion retailers. In 2006, co- distribution is still expensive (on ave- unterfeits get the e-business into trouble rage around one third of the value of

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transported goods) and the costs for energy and security are accelerating at great speed. According to an estimate of the EU Commission, the EU is still the largest textile exporter in the world. If the manufacturing industry is included, China is at the top. However, it is not in- 1 Süddeutsche Zeitung 23-24 September 2006. tended to play India or China off against 2 Alfons Kaiser: Ton in Ton. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung 19 August 2006. Europe, but to introduce rules that no 3 Furetière, Antoine: Dictionnaire. Paris. 1690, Bd. 2, Article “Mode”. 4 Mentges, Gabriele. In: Kulturaustausch. Die Welt als Laufsteg 4/2002, longer produce very few winners and an p. 54. extremely high amount of losers and also 5 Elaine Salo: Die Bedeutung junger Modedesigner für die afrikanische Kultur und Wirtschaft. In: Generation Mode. Exhibition catalogue. Stadtmuseum consider the environment, the quality of Düsseldorf 2006, p. 38. 6 Contemporary Lady. An interview with Jil Sander, by Stephanie Tosch. In: life and social justice. The implementati- Texte zur Kunst, issue 56/ December 2004, pp. 67 and 69. on of sustainability is an acute problem 7 Both workers in the company report that one of the company directors has a well-furnished room he used for that purpose. If a young woman showed as the clothing issue will be topical as resistance, she was immediately sacked. Quick Fix. Inkota 3, 2006, pp. 74-75. 8 Indien: Schule statt Kinderarbeit. Siegburg 2006, p. 46. long as people exist. 9 Clean Clothes Campaign June 2006; Terre des Femmes June 2006. 10 According to the daily newspaper “New Age (Dhaka),. these companies organise approximately half of the textile imports of Bangladesh. Cf. Translation: Angelika Welt Twnetwork.de 23.6.2006. 11 Source: Textilwirtschaft Schweiz 2005. Sauer Management AG 2005 (The Fiber Year). Daniel Devoucoux, born in Paris in 1950, 12 Gesamttextil 1999; Textilforschung Deutschland, ibid., p. 2. studied History/German Studies, Sociology 13 Statistik Gesamttextil 2005; Schneider 2006, p. 85. 14 Osterhammel, Jürgen und Petersson, Niels P.: Geschichte der Globalisie- and Mathematics in Paris and obtained a rung. Dimensionen, Prozesse, Epochen. München 2003, p. 11. doctorate in History/German Studies at the 15 Härtel/Jungknickel 1996, p. 39; Schneider 2004, p. 18-19. 16 Neil Kearney. 2. Gewerkschaftstag der Gewerkschaft Metall-Textil. Vienna, Sorbonne in Paris. Since 1996: Free journalist 22 June 2004. and lecturer in Cultural Sciences at several 17 Ibid. 18 In Pakistan (-37 percent), in Sri Lanka (-25 percent), in Bangladesh (-9 universities. Main publications and research: percent), but also in European countries. EU press release. 17 May 2005. Cultural anthropology with a focus on the 19 Until June 2006, the EU had not issued a statement on the practical imple- international history of clothing, clothing in mentation, which was ruinous for some small and medium-sized retailers. 20 In comparison, the EU exported 19 billion and the USA 5.5 billion. Source: film/the media, film and media history, fa- WTO. shion theories. 21 The Bei Jiang Delta (Pearl River) is in the centre of the Chinese clothing industry. Most businesses were relocated from Hong Kong long before the seaport was returned to the People’s Republic of China. 22 For example the 23 participating countries of the Caribbean Basin Initiative and Mexico or the 37 participating countries of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA). 23 When the workers of a large Levi Strauss supplier in Haiti wanted to increase their daily wages of USD 2 with legal trade union activities, they got into trouble, Keaney, ibid. 24 Ferenschild, Sabine: Die OECD-Leitsätze für multinationale Konzerne – ein unzureichender Schritt zur Durchsetzung sozialer Standards. Berlin (undated). 25 So 2004 Nike with 1.45 billion dollars, Adidas with 520 million, Puma with 465.4 million or Reebok with 265.7 million. 26 Alles in allem. Interview Lagerfeld, ibid, p. 37. 27 GMAC-Secretary General Loo from Cambodia. Die Zeit 4 May 2005. 28 Press release Südwind-Institut.14 June 2005. 29 Süddeutsche Zeitung 20 April 2006. 30 Handelsblatt 22 May 2006. 31 Customs Criminological Office Cologne.2006. 32 Süddeutsche Zeitung 20 April 2006. 33 Gesamtverband Textil und Mode (Umbrella Association of the German textile industry). 2005. 34 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, FAZ.Net 2 August 2006. Kinder können Geld ausgeben wie nie (Children can spend more money than ever). 35 A broad and strongly anti-consumerist movement, particularly active in the USA and in France. Cf. Le Monde, 26 September 2005.

275 Europe – a Shell? Architecture all over the world has its roots in Europe. It is as diverse as the different cultures it originates from, not least playing an important role as an economic factor. The process of European unification is an opportunity for architects to get commissioned abroad - but there is also a danger of standardising architectural styles. By Hans Ibelings

two hands in the Netherlands (with three projects from the fifties, the Austro-Hun- garian architect Marcel Breuer was the unchallenged number one). Over the last two decades, this number has exploded. Initially, the trend started with projects of international star architects such as Renzo Piano, Norman Foster and Steven Holl. However, architects not enjoying an international reputation yet are also increasingly getting involved. A further indicator is the number of foreign architects in a particular country. I would like to use the Netherlands or many reasons, Europe (still) as an example again: Until recently, an does not form a unit in geogra- overwhelming majority of employees in Fphical, cultural, social, political architectural firms were of Dutch ori- and economic terms - in spite of the pro- gin and in most cases, the manager was gressing enlargement of the European Dutch. Meanwhile, these firms are ad- Union and in spite of the committed work ding international staff to their teams on of several other pan-European organi- a daily basis. New companies led by fo- sations. reign architects are opening – from the Spanish duo Helena Casanova & Jesus Europe finds its way Hernandez to the Germans André Kempe into architecture & Oliver Thill. Considering the country’s reputation as an architectural paradise Amidst all the differences and con- which the Netherlands acquired in the trasts, some cultural spheres are parti- nineties, it might be an atypical examp- cularly internationalised. One apparent le. It is not unseal here for architects to indicator is the number of buildings in take over major building projects in spite one country designed by foreign archi- of their lack of experience. tects. Until the eighties of the 20th cen- This internationalisation in most Eu- tury, these architects could be counted on ropean countries can be explained in a

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number of ways. One general and equal- Norway to the Ukraine and with readers ly trivial rationale is that the process is a from every European country. result of globalisation which does affect architecture like all other areas of life. Monocultural architecture? For most Europeans, globalisation mostly takes place within their own continent, European unity reflected in architec- which also applies to European archi- ture also holds certain risks. I would like tects, in spite of the allure of Shanghai, to differentiate between a social and a cul- Dubai or other up-and-coming megaci- tural aspect in this context. The historian ties with their magnetic appeal for ar- Tony Judt provides an accurate descripti- chitects. on of the social aspect in his much-lauded European-wide tenders for building book “Post-war“ about European history projects, student exchanges in the context after 1945. He illustrates a new division in of the European Erasmus programme, Europe, with a small group of cosmopo- international university and research ins- litan Europeans on one side and a larger titute cooperation programmes as well as group of people who live in Europe, but unrestricted passenger traffic, which has hardly feel like Europeans. Due to their made it immensely easier to obtain a work education, their work, their lifestyle and permit and a job in another European their interests, many architects and cer- country, have all led to an unmistakable tainly the majority of people between 20 Europeanisation of architecture. and 40 are “real“ Europeans. At the same Awards like the Mies van der Rohe time, this cosmopolitan trend also creates Award for the best European building, the risk that they do not really fulfil the an initiative of the European Union and aims and ideas of people these houses are Europan, a pan-European competition planned and built for. The cultural aspect for young architects, where the winner of this other side of the coin is that this in- receives support for the realisation of his ternationalisation of architecture, the lar- project, also support this trend. In addi- ger operating radius of architects and the tion, there is a large number of internati- similar or shared views of architecture of onal initiatives with a consistently Euro- cosmopolitan Europeans might create a pean orientation - from Wonderland and certain standardisation through pan-Eu- Young European Architects (YEA) to the ropean fashions and trends, neutralising Centre of Central European Architecture local and national differences. (CCEA) in Prague plus a large number of This standardisation highlights the architecture biennials, triennials and fes- correlation that exists and has always tivals that take place in Istanbul, Rotter- existed in architecture. It has its origins dam, in the Canary Islands and in Oslo, in the fact that architecture has been an to name just four. All of these projects exclusively European matter for mill- facilitate a lively cultural exchange. Since ennia. This is neither Eurochauvinism 2004, the magazine “A10 new European nor cultural arrogance. For an eternity Architecture“ as the only European ar- now, Europe has been defined by archi- chitectural journal has also contributed tecture. to this process, with correspondents from All general architectural histories are

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– whether explicitly or implicitly – his- riphery of the Continent - with the Po- tories of architecture in Europe. Even if lish and Czech avant-garde from the time the different styles have not developed between the two world wars, the Greek within Europe itself, Europe is still their Modernist movement of the sixties, the main reference or most important bench- Slovak and Croatian architecture of the mark. Architectural history featuring in sixties and the seventies of the last cen- most standard textbooks has focused on tury left without a dedicated space in the Europe for the last two millennia, after history books, which they would have a short heyday in the Middle East. Only most definitely deserved. from the 19th century, North America joins in and is followed by Japan and La- Architecture as an economic factor tin America as late as the middle of the 20th century. The remaining continents Within the state-subsidised cultural – Asia, Africa and Australia – only play landscape, architecture is on one level a minor role. with theatres and museums and only plays a minor role, whereas it is to be ta- Eurocentric architecture ken seriously as a future economic and social factor on the continent with the Architectural history frequently points highest density of architects. out a tendency towards Eurocentrism and Hence it is a matter of course to include it would certainly be more appropriate architects in planning public areas and to show a more globally balanced course spaces – from council housing to urban of history. Luckily, some attempts have planning. In rich countries, private com- been made in this context over the last panies following in the wake of public few years. and semi-public clients increasingly re- It is also be worth mentioning that cognise the social responsibility inherent Western Europe is primarily dominated in building projects. by European architecture – nations such The current status of architecture as Italy, France and Germany, which have not only becomes extremely apparent pushed developments in architecture over in countries with a stable architecture many centuries. The traditionally dominant role of Western European architecture is arti- Even if they live and work out- ficially strengthened by the fact that the side of the traditional centres, most widely read historians have always architects can still create an been and still are in Western Europe and in the United States – with the result that important subculture within architectural history does not exist east of the cosmopolitan cultural Eu- Vienna. What has always been unknown ropean upper class – which is also remains unknown – the downside the cohesive factor of our proof success. What applies to Eastern and Central fessional group across national Europe is also true for the alleged pe- borders.

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such as Spain or France, but also in other has to live in the capital cities in order to places. Over the last few years, Irish ar- be able to lead a cosmopolitan and metro- chitecture caused a furore, Estonian ar- politan lifestyle. This does not only affect chitects attracted some interest and a new urban culture in Europe, but ultimately generation of architects has emerged in also the entire developed environment. Portugal. Austria experiences a new hey- If a village can adopt the characteristics day and young countries like Slovenia and of a metropolis and the city has village Croatia are finding their own way. characteristics – in short if the contrast The fact that no particular country, between city and country, between me- region or city forms the hub of this new tropolis and village becomes increasingly architecture or is in the focus of media insignificant - this could lead to a new interest reveals the extent of globalisati- European geography. on of our contemporary world – traditional spatial differences between the centre Translation: Angelika Welt and its environs are dissolving. With new communication channels, Hans Ibelings, born in Rotterdam in 1963, is this difference is largely disappearing – an architectural historian and the author of several books on contemporary architecture. the centre and its environs have become From 1989 to 1999, he was the curator of the interchangeable: Everything can be the Netherlands Architecture Institute, worked centre and everything can be the periphe- as a free-lance author (2000-2004) and since ry. The fact that a number of influential 2004 as the editor and publisher of the archi- architects work in the traditional cultural tectural journal ´A10 new European architecture’. Since 2006, he has also been a visiting centres of Western European capitals is professor at the EPFL in Lausanne. very significant in this context. Current- ly, the most famous architectural firms are located in Rotterdam (Rem Koolhaas´ OMA) and Basel (Herzog & De Meuron). Several important Academies of Archi- tecture - the breeding ground for future generations – are in peripheral cities such as Gothenburg, Graz or Gleiwitz. Once again, this proves that architects no longer necessarily (have to) focus on the capital cities in order to adopt a leading role. Even if they live and work outside of the traditional centres, architects can still create an important subculture within the cosmopolitan cultural European upper class – which is the cohesive factor of our professional group across national borders. Thanks to today’s technologies and enhanced mobility opportunities, nobody

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