The Use of Hebrew Script Among the Krimchaks and the Karaim

Home , Geresh, Karaim language, Polish orthography

Emergence of a New Written Culture: The use of Hebrew script among the Krimchaks and the Karaim

Zsuzsanna Olach Hungarian Academy of Sciences University of Szeged

Abstract. Conversion to a religion usually has a positive impact on the written culture of a given community. The conversion may or may not result in the adoption of a new writing system. In the Turkic world, we find examples for both cases. The Karaims, by their conversion into Karaitism, adopted the Hebrew script. They used the Hebrew alphabet up till the beginning of the 20th century in their everyday life for writing; for example, private letters and secular and religious texts in Karaim. Another Turkic speaking group, the heterogeneous Rabbanite community of Krimchaks (whose majority is of Sephardic origin) also used the Hebrew script to write their vernacular. Some characteristics of the writing systems of the Karaim and of the Krimchaks have been described, but no comparative research has thus far been carried out. In this study, the peculiarities of the Hebrew alphabet used by both Turkic speaking peoples will be discussed and illustrated. For instance, the new characters, which were introduced in order to indicate specific Turkic phonetic values, and the ways the same Hebrew vowel sign or letter is used in the different Krimchak and Karaim manuscripts.

Cultures can be classified based on actions taken to reproduce culture through the generations. There are cultures in which the knowledge of one’s ancestors is passed down through rites; i.e., the repetition of the rites is the main component in the reproduction of the culture. In other cultures, knowledge is preserved in sacred texts; i.e., interpretations of the canonical texts are the foundations of cultural cohesion (Assmann 1999, 87–91). Judaism falls under the latter type. In 70 CE, the Second Temple was destroyed in Jerusalem; i.e., the place where the rites could have been repeated disappeared. Since then, the holy text, the Hebrew Bible, has been the transmitter of the ancient traditions in Judaism. The language and the script of the Hebrew Bible, therefore, are both considered sacred.

The content of this article was presented at the Baltic Alliance for Asian Studies (BAAS) Conference 2014 held in Vilnius (Lithuania) between April 3 and 4, 2014. I am indebted to Professor Tapani Harvi- ainen and Professor András Róna-Tas for their beneficial comments and suggestions.

ISSN 2424-6026. ACTA ORIENTALIA VILNENSIA 13 (2016): 61–78 62 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

This paper discusses the way in which Judaism reached the Turkic peoples and the effects it had on their culture. Examples will also be provided to illustrate how the Hebrew script was used by the Turkic peoples. Since Karaim is the most documented extant Turkic language to have used the Hebrew script and the Karaim are the only Turkic group still practising their ancient faith, the paper will mainly focus on the characteristics and the history of the Hebrew script used by the Karaim. A discussion of the history of the Hebrew script in general and its use among the Karaim in particular will shed light on the possible reasons for the use of certain vowel signs and letters in Karaim texts and of the disappearance of the Hebrew script from the Karaim communities.

Judaism among the Turkic peoples

Although Judaism has not been a prevalent religion among the Turkic-speaking peoples, both mainstream Judaism and Karaitism have been represented by some Kipchak Turkic groups. In the late eighth and early ninth centuries, the ruling house of the Khazar Kaghanate converted to Judaism, most probably to Rabbinic Judaism (Golden 1998, 223). Khazars were a Turkic people with their empire in the territory of the North Caucasus and the lower Volga delta between the seventh and ninth centuries (Golden 1980, 58–67). Since the sources written by the Khazars are very limited (see Golden 1980, 121–2), the Hebrew script used by them will not be covered in the paper. The Krimchaks were also followers of Rabbinic Judaism. Jews migrated from the Byzantine Empire to the Crimea in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Crimean Kaghanate in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries and Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe together compose the Krimchak nation. Their language and culture has almost disappeared since World War II; now the traditional Krimchak lifestyle is only exemplified by Krimchak cuisine and feasts. The Krimchak community has dispersed throughout the world: a few hundred Krimchaks live still in the Crimea; the rest have settled in Russia, Ukraine, Israel and the USA (Kizilov 2009, 68). Karaitism is represented by the Karaim of Eastern Europe. The Karaim have three main communities: the Crimean, Halich and Trakai Karaim communities. Linguistically, Karaim is considered a highly endangered language, since only its Trakai variety is spoken and the other two varieties, the Halich and Crimean varieties, can be regarded as extinct.1 The religion of the Karaim is based on Karaitism,

1 Speakers of Crimean Karaim shifted to Crimean Tatar in the nineteenth century (Jankowski 2003, 123). The Halich Karaim variety is spoken by a few elderly ladies (Csató 2002, 135). The Trakai variety has, however, approximately 50 speakers (Csató 2006, 395). EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 63

which was influenced by Islam early on and later by Christianity (Zajączkowski 1961, 28–29).2 The main difference between Rabbinic Judaism and Karaitism lies in the recognition of the post-biblical traditions. Karaite Judaism, which arose in the ninth century in present-day Iraq, only accepts the Tanakh and excludes the Mishna, the Talmud and the rabbinic traditions (Nemoy 1978, 603–4). The circumstances and the date of the Krimchaks’ conversion to Rabbinic Judaism and that of the Karaim to Karaitism are unknown (Golden 1998, 222–3; Polinsky 1991, 123).

The history of the Hebrew script3

In Judaism, the Hebrew language is considered the medium of the sacred text, and therefore the language itself is also regarded as holy (Weitzman 2001, 71). For writing in Hebrew, the Phoenician-based palaeo-Hebrew script was first used up to the third century BCE, when it was altered by the Aramaic script. The Aramaic script had been used for secular purposes before the third century, but after that the new script was also employed for Torah scrolls, i.e., for religious purposes (Birnbaum 1954–7, 70–5; Yardeni 2002, 44–50). By that time, the general Aramaic script had become modified. This script, which is called Square Hebrew, spread in all Jewish communities and became the standard for Jewish book hand. The structural development of Square Hebrew ended around the tenth century (Birnbaum 1954–7, 174). Vocalisation was introduced in the late seventh and early eighth century CE. Of the three main vocalisation types—Palestinian, Babylonian and Tiberian—only the Tiberian type is still in use (Gaur 2001, 222–3; Yardeni 2002, 93–5).4 Religions, as well as the alphabets used for sacred texts are, in general, considered conservative. So what might account for the substitution of the palaeo-Hebrew script with the Aramaic script used for the Scriptures? Birnbaum claims that the change was introduced by religious leaders. The shift was motivated by a desire to separate from the Samaritans, or as Epiphanius (ca. 315–403) puts it, “in order that the seed of Abraham should thereby be distinguished from the rest of the nation”. The sources usually name Ezra as the person who carried out the substitution of the script, meaning that the change took place between 458/7 and 428/7 BCE (Birnbaum 1954–7, 74–5).

2 The Karaim reject any definition which binds them or their religion to Judaism. See more on this question and on their religion in Harviainen 2003b. 3 The term “Hebrew script” in Hebrew (ktb ʻbry) means the palaeo-Hebrew script (Birnbaum 1954–7, 126). The term used in this paper refers to the script mentioned as ʼswrit in the Talmudic sources, i.e. a modified version of the Aramaic script (see the discussion). 4 For more about the different types of vowel marks, see Diringer (1953, 264–6). 64 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

In the Middle Ages, cursive hands also developed from Square Hebrew. In the beginning, the cursive hand was not really different from Square Hebrew but seemed much more like a simplified Square. The first cursive written documents occurred in the eleventh century, but Birnbaum assumes that this form of writing had evolved long before (Birnbaum 1954–7, 176). Furthermore, in the course of time, with the spread of Judaism, not only cursive hands emerged, but also different types of Hebrew scripts, e.g., the Negeb script, the Ashkenazic and Karaitic types. No uniform Karaitic type of writing exists, but different types that developed regionally out of Jewish types can be observed. The first Karaite manuscripts—from Egypt—show similarities with the writings of the local (Rabbinic) Jewish type. Even later, when the differences are more significant, the Rabbinic influence can still be detected. The Karaitic types of Hebrew script can be classified as Southern Karaitic, Yevano-Karaitic, Northern Karaitic and Parso-Karaitic (Birnbaum 1954–7, 312–6). The Karaim manuscripts represent the Northern Karaitic type, which derived from the Yevano-Karaitic type in the Crimean region. However, the influence of the Ashkenazic type is noticeable, especially in sources written with cursive script (Birnbaum 1954–7, 316).

Main characteristics of the Hebrew script used by the Turkic peoples

The communities of the Karaim and Krimchaks used Hebrew script to write down their own Turkic vernacular. Although the basis for the orthography of both Turkic- speaking groups is the same, i.e., the Hebrew alphabet, differences in the use of the Hebrew characters can be observed. In the following, I will demonstrate how the Hebrew script was used in the different Turkic communities: differences, regularities and exceptional cases will be illustrated.5

Sources used for the investigation

The following Karaim sources were used for the present examination: Halich Karaim poems published by Grzegorzewski (1903 and 1917); a Halich Karaim translation of biblical texts published by Olach (2013); partial texts published by Kowalski in 1929; a Trakai Karaim translation of the Book of Proverbs published by Firkovičius (2000);

5 In this article, the description of the Hebrew sciprt is based on the Tiberian tradition. Besides certain links to the Tiberian tradition, the pronunciation of Hebrew among Karaim shows traces of the Sephardic tradition as well, see more in Harviainen 2013b, 453–7. In the future, the connection between the pronunciation of Hebrew and the use of Hebrew script for writing Turkic must be stud- ied in details. EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 65

a translation of Psalm 91 into Trakai Karaim published by Csató (2011); Crimean Karaim religious texts published by Sulimowicz (1972) and Jankowski (1997), and private letters in Lutsk Karaim published by Németh (2011). The Halich Karaim religious poems published by Jan Grzegorzewski in 1903 were written in the nineteenth century. The authors of the poems are Abraham Leonowicz, Josef Mordkowicz and Jakob Josef Leonowicz (Grzegorzweski 1903, 72–3). The two poems published in Język łach-karaitów were written by Josef Ben Jeshua and Josef ben Shemuel in the seventeenth century (Grzegorzewski 1917, 25, 30). The Halich Karaim translation of the biblical texts published by Olach forms parts of a family bible which is in the possession of the Abrahamovich family, who originally lived in Halich. It is handwritten and contains the Five Books of Moses and the Haphtarot, the reading portions from the writings of the prophets on Sabbaths and feasts (Olach 2013, 10–2). Some fragments of Karaim Bible translations written in the Hebrew script were published by Kowalski: the beginning of Genesis from a manuscript written in 1723 in Deraźnia; fragments of the Book of Job: a fragment in Trakai Karaim translated by Zacharja Mickiewicz in 1904, another fragment in Trakai Karaim translation published by Radloff, a further portion in Trakai Karaim translated by Pinachas Malecki, a fragment in Halich Karaim translated by Josef Mordkowicz between 1824 and 1830, and a portion translated into Crimean Karaim, quoted from the Gözleve Bible (1841); fragments of translations of the Song of Songs in Halich Karaim and in a Crimean Karaim translation of the Gözleve edition (1929, 282–9). Short parts of four different Trakai Karaim translations of the Lamentations were presented by Zajączkowski (1932). One of the translations was made by Izajasz Rojecki in 1848, the other was created in 1860 by Levisz Ławrecki, and another one was composed by Jozef Łobanos in 1929. No author and date of the fourth translation is known (Zajączkowski 1932, 183, 186–7). The translation of the Book of Proverbs from Hebrew into Trakai Karaim was compiled in 1798 by Shelumiel, the son of the aged priest Shemuel, in Salocius, Lithuania. According to Firkovičius, it is unclear whether the text was originally translated by him or whether it was only a rewritten version of an earlier translation (2000, 169–70). Csató published the Trakai Karaim translation of Psalm 91 (2011). The manuscript is kept at the Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. Prayers translated into Crimean Karaim were published by Sulimowicz in 1972. Besides the Karaim texts in transcription, the article contains the copy of the manuscript as well (Sulimowicz 1972, 65–76). Jankowski published the Crimean Karaim translation of the following biblical texts: Genesis 1:1–18; 6:9–18; 17:8–19; Deuteronomy 32:1–51; Lamentations 4:11– 66 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

15, 21. The manuscript of these texts is kept in the Rylands Library collection in Manchester. Jankowski published the texts with a transliteration and transcription, using a transliteration system that makes it possible to reconstruct the Hebrew orthography (1997). Two fragments of prayers for the Day of Atonement translated into Lutsk Karaim were published by Jankowski (2011). The prayers were composed of biblical quotations in 1940; and the manuscripts were kept in the National Museum in Halich (Jankowski 2011, 158). Copies of the manuscripts are attached to the article (Jankowski 2011, 166–7). Letters and circulars written in Lutsk Karaim were published by Németh (2011).6 Most of the 16 letters were written in the nineteenth century; only three of them were penned in the early twentieth century. Out of the 16 letters, six are vocalised and four are partly vocalised (Németh 2011). As for Krimchak, there were only a limited amount of texts written in the Hebrew script at my disposal. All the features demonstrated in the following are based on the short texts published by Ianbay (2000) and the description given by Chernin (1988). Furthermore, I used Erdal and Ianbay’s publications, in which they provide an account of the use of the Hebrew script in the Book of Ruth (1998) and the Book of Miracles and Wonders (2000). Ianbay (2000) discusses the orthographic features of Krimchak translations of the books of later prophets, namely the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah and Micah, and presents the beginnings and the ends of each book in Hebrew script. Examples will be quoted from Ianbay’s article (2000) and from the Book of Ruth (Ianbay, Erdal 1998).

Vocalisation

Biblical Hebrew distinguishes between reduced, short, changeable long and unchangeable long vowels, which are clearly indicated through the use of different vowel signs and their combinations (see the table below (Lambdin 1971, xiii–xxv)). The Krimchak and the Karaim sound system, however, only contain short vowels (Polinsky 1991, 133; Pritsak 1959, 327). Therefore, naturally, the quality of the Hebrew vowel signs does not overlap the quality of the Krimchak and Karaim vowel signs. In vocalised Krimchak texts, the front and back labial vowels, i.e., o ~ ö and u ~ ü are not distinguished (Erdal, Ianbay 2000, 41). The Hebrew combination ḥṓlem +

6 It must be noted that the Lutsk Karaim letters are different from the rest of the documents used in the present study by being secular texts (private letters). EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 67

Table 1. Hebrew orthography Hebrew orthography Value of the vowel in Hebrew7 paṯaḥ ַ short a qā́meṣ ָ changeable long a (səḡōl ֶ short e (open (ṣērê ֵ changeable long e (closed hîreq ִ short i ḥṓlemֺ changeable long o qibbûṣ ֻ short u

י Combinations with yōḏ (unchangeable long e (open ֶי səḡōl combined with a yōḏ (unchangeable long e (closed ֵי ṣērê + yōḏ unchangeable long i י ִ hîreq combined with yōḏ

ו Combinations with wāw unchangeable long o ֹו ḥṓlem+ wāw unchangeable long u ּו šûreq

Reduced vowels ḥāṭēp̄ paṯaḥ ֲ reduced a ḥāṭēp̄ səḡōlֱ reduced e šəwā reduced vowel

כּוֹג׳לוּנֶאאֶנּול׳גֹוּכ ,.wāw is used to represent o and ö, whereas šûreq denotes u and ü,7e.g ,bulay ʻthus, this wayʼ (Ianbay בּוּלײאָלּוָאײב oγlan ʻboyʼ and אוֹג׳לָןןָל׳גֹוא ,köŋlüne8 ʻto her heartʼ Erdal 1998, 7, 13).9 As for Karaim, we must consider the phonetic differences between the Karaim varieties. In modern Halich and Lutsk Karaim, due to the change ö > e, ü > i, there are icinci ‘third’ < üčünčü ʻthirdʼ in Halich אִיצִינְצִיצְניִציִא ,.no front labial vowels represented, e.g ’(sezłerńi ‘words (ACC סֵיזְלֵירְנִייִנְריֵלְזיֵס ,(Karaim (Pritsak 1959, 327; Olach 2013, 24 < sözlerni ‘words (ACC)’ (Németh 2011, 372).10 In the Crimean Karaim translation

7 The value of Hebrew vowels can change according to stress patterns; see, for instance, the rules of vowel reduction (Lambdin 1971, xix–xx). For more, see the chapter “Sound and spelling” in Lambdin 1971, xv–xxviii. 8 Since the use of the Hebrew script is discussed in the present study, in the quoted examples, the original transcription systems used by the different authors were maintained, except in the case of Halich Karaim and those texts which have no transcription at all. söz סוז .In the fragments published by Ianbay, the quality of labials are not plainly marked, e.g 9 .(bu ‘this’ (2000, 8–9 בו ,’!körgün ‘look כורגוןןוגרוכ ,’dostlarïm ‘my friends דוסְטְלַרִיםםיִרַלְטְסוד ,’word‘ 10 The present study focuses on the orthographic features of manuscripts written in modern Karaim varieties. Thus, the characteristics of manuscripts written earlier and / or in the period of transition, i.e. before and during of ö > e and ü > i started to operate, will not be discussed here. 68 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

of biblical texts published by Jankowski, the distinction is not indicated in the non- vocalised parts; i.e., wāw is used to represent the vowels o, ö, u and ü. In vocalised vowel sign ḥōtexts,́ lem or however, by ḥṓ lem the + vowels wāw, whereas o and ö arešûreq signified indicates by thethe vowelHebrews u voweland ü sign(Jankowskiḥṓlem or by ,.bošatłyqłar 4, 6), e.g,1997 בוֹשַטְ לִיקְלַרwāw üčün, whereas ʻbecause, šûreq forʼindicates (Kowalski the vowels 1929, u and287) ü, (Jankowski +אוּצוּן ,.ḥṓleme.g ,(6 ,4 ,1997 ,’bošatłyqłar ‘remissions בוֹשַטְלִיקְלַררַלְקיִלְטַשֹוב ,(üčün ʻbecause, forʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 אוּצוּןןּוצּוא ’úrúmá júrúmá ‘to ‘ towalkי jוּ רוּ מַ ה יוּרוּמ,’ַההַמּורּוי qułu quł u‘slave ‘slave of’, of קוּלוּ ּולּוקקוּלוּ ,’(kóóŋlimizniŋlimizni ‘our‘our heart heart (ACC)’, (ACC כ וֹ גְ לִ י מִ י ְ ז נִ י ,’remissions‘ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). walk’ (SulimowiczTrakai 1972, Karaim 65). has a well-developed set of signs for indicating the distinction. In vocalised texts, the Hebrew vowel sign combination ḥṓlem + wāw is the usual Trakai Karaim has a well-developed set of signs for indicating the distinction. In vocalised notation for the vowel o and šûreq represents the vowel u. Trakai Karaim uses texts, the Hebrewvowel vowel sign signcombinations combination with ḥ ōyōḏ́ lem to + indicatewāw is the front usual labial notation vowels. for Thus, the vowel the vowel o ö is written with yōḏ + ḥṓlem + wāw, and yōḏ + šûreq signifies the vowel ü, e.g., .(sign küčlü combinations ʻstrongʼ (Csató with 2011, yōḏ to15 כיוְּצ ליּוילְצּויכוּ the kölägäsindävowel u. Trakai ʻin its Karaim shadow useʼ ands vowelכיוֹל ַיגַיסִינְדַיההיַדְניִסיַגיַלֹויכand šûreq represents indicate front labial vowels.Table Thus, 2. The the representation vowel ö is written of labial with vowels yōḏ in + Krimchak ḥṓ lem + and wāw Karaim, and yōḏ + Value küčlüLutsk כיוּ צְ ליוּ kölägäsindäCrimean ʻin its shadowTrakaiʼ andHalich כיוֹלַ יגַ יסִ י נְ דַ י ה ,.šûreq signifies theHebrew vowel ü, e.g of the vowel Krimchak orthography Karaim Karaim Karaim Karaim in Hebrew ʻstrongʼ (Csató 2011, 15). ḥṓlemֺ changeable long o – o, ö o o o qibbûṣ ֻ short u u – u u u ו Combinations with wāw unchangeable of labial vowels in Krimchako, ö and o,Karaim ö o o o ֹו Table 2. The representḥṓlem+ ationwāw long o unchangeable of the Krimchak u,Crimean ü u, Trakaiü u Halich u Lutsk u ּו Hebrew šûreqValue long u Karaim Karaimי orthography vowel in KaraimCombinations Karaim with yōḏ ḥṓlem+ wāw + – – – ö – – yōḏ Hebrew šûreq + yōḏ – – – ü – – ḥṓ lem ֺ changeable – o, ö o o o The case of the vowels a, e and ä is rather complicated. In Krimchak, the vowel a is indicatedlong by o either the vowel sign paṯaḥ or the vowel sign qāmeṣ́ in vocalised texts, קַרְדַשְלַרִיםםיִרַלְשַדְרַק qačan ʻwhenʼ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 6, 10) and קָאצָןןָצאָק ,var ʻthere is/areʼ ַו ר ,.e.g qibbûṣ ֻ qardašlarïmshort ‘my u brothers’ (Ianbayu 2000, 8).– The vowelu sign combinationu qā́meṣu + ‘ā́lep̄ ,var ʻthere is/areʼ (Ianbay ו ָארראָו barabar ʻtogetherʼ and בָּארָאבּראָּבאָראָּבָאר ,.occurs as well, e.g

Erdal 1998, 6). In the translation of the Book of Ruth, the open ä is written with the גֵגֶ׳אא׳ֶגֵג ,.e is signified by the vowel sign ṣērê, e.g ו vowel signCombinations səḡōl, whereas with the wāw closed geǧä ʻnightʼ (Erdal, Ianbay 2000, 41; Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 6).11 In Krimchak prayers, ḥṓ lem + wāw unchangeable o, ö o, ö o o o 11 In the Book of Ruth, Erdal and Ianbay only use e in the transcription; however, the idea that וֹ the two differentlong o vowel signs, ṣērê and səḡōl, represent probable phonetic differences is introduced (1998, 6). šûreq וּ unchangeable u, ü u, ü u u u

long u

EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 69

דֶ לִ לִ גִ מִ ז ,’(seni ‘you (ACC סֶ נִ י ,.also used in the first syllable in the Crimean Karaim prayers, e.g ’geldi ‘(they) came גֶלְדִייִדְלֶג Ianbay does not distinguish ä and e in her transcription, see elinde ‘indeliligimiz his hand’ written‘our madness with ṣērê’ .(Sulimowicz Consider also 1972,the 66). Just like the vowel a, the vowel ä is אֵלִנְדַאאַדְנִלֵא written with səḡōl and :elinde ‘in his hand’. Further examples אַדְנִלֵא use of paṯaḥ for writing e-sound in דֶ לִ לִ גִ מִ ז ,’(seni ‘you (ACC סֶ נִ י ,.Crimean Karaim prayers, e.gא ֵלִנְדthe ַאalso used in the first syllable in mendän ʻfrom meʼ in the Book of Job (Kowalski מֵ נְ דַ ן ,.size ‘toindicated you (PL)’ by (Ianbay the vowel 2000, sign 8). pTheá ṯaḥ combination, e.g סִיזַאאַזיִס ,’eyleyim ‘I shall do אֵײְלםיַלְײֵאַים דֶ לִ לִ גִ מִ ז ,’(seni ‘you (ACC סֶ נִ י ,.also used in the first syllable in the Crimean Karaim prayers, e.g šeraatči 1972, ʻjudgeʼ 66). (Ianbay,Just like Erdal the 1998, vowel 6), a , the vowel ä is ֵ שירַעַטSulimowicz)ְצִי יִצְטַעַריֵש’ ,.ṣērê +deliligimiz yōḏ is used ‘ ouras well,madness e.g eśitmádik ‘we didn’t hear’ in the prayers (Sulimowicz אֵ שִ טְ מַ דִ כ ,’bilán ‘with בִ ָ ל ן ,(eger ‘if’ (Ianbay 2000, 8). 1929, 287 אֵיגרַגיֵאַר deliligimiz ‘our madness’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 66). Just like the vowel a, the vowel ä is mendän vowel signʻfrom ṣērê meʼ occurs in the in Book the of Job (Kowalski מֵ נְ דַ ן In indicated the Crimean by the Karaim vowel texts, sign onlypá ṯaḥ the, e.g., Hebrew 1972, 65). In final position, the vowel ä is written either with the combination of the vowel mendän ʻfrom meʼ in the Book of Job (Kowalski מֵ נְ דַ ן ,.vocalised parts, and it represents the vowel e in the firstindicated syllable. by theBesides vowel ṣērê sign, the p aṯaḥ, e.g eśitmádik ‘we didn’t hear’ in the prayerś (Sulimowicz אֵ שִ טְ מַ דִ כ ,’bilán ‘with בִ ָ ל ן ,(287 ,1929 śóziná ‘to the סוֹזִ ינַא ,(kečä e.g., ʻnightʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 ּכֵ צַ ,prayersא ,.vowel sign səḡōl is also used in the firstsign syllable pá ṯaḥ /inqā ́themeṣ Crimeanand ‘ā́ le pKaraim̄ , e.g eśitmádik ‘we didn’t hear’ in the prayers (Sulimowicz אֵ שִ טְ מַ דִ כ ,’bilán ‘with בִ ָ ל ן ,(287 ,1929 deliligimiz the vowel ‘our madness’ä is written (Sulimowicz either with 1972, the 66).combination Just of the vowel דֶ לִ לִ ,positionגִ מִ ז ז,’seni1972, ‘‘youyou 65) (ACC)’,(ACC. In )final סֶ סנִ ֶניִייִנֶס ,.also used in the first syllable in the Crimean Karaim prayers, e.g ,’júrúmá ‘to walk יוּרוּמַ ה ,.or mendän with p á ṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ + hē, e.g מ;ֵנ’ְדַןןַדְנֵמ kókgásign p a‘ṯaḥto the, e.g., sky כ וֹ כְ גָ אlike the vowel a, the vowel ä is indicatedword by of’ the, vowel deliligimiz ‘our madness’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 66). Just like the vowel a, the vowel ä is 1972, 65). In final position, the vowel ä is written either with the combination of the vowel śóziná ‘to the סוֹזִ ינַא ,(eśitmádik 287 אֵש,1929ִט ְמַדִככִדַמְטִשֵא ,’bilán (Kowalski‘with בʻnightʼִל ָןןָלִב kečä ּכֵ ,(287 צַ א ,ʻfrom signmeʼ inpa thé ṯaḥ Book/qā́ meṣ of Job and (Kowalski ‘ā́ lep̄ , e.g., 1929 .(bizgáposition, ‘to the us ’ vowel(Sulimowiczä is 1972, 65–6 בִ יזְ גָ הbizgá1972, ‘65).to us In’, final בִ י ְז גַ הwe didn’t hear’ in the prayers (Sulimowicz‘ śóziná ‘to the סוֹזִ ינַא ,(kečä ʻnightʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 ּכֵ צַ א ,.mendän ʻfrom meʼ in the Book of Job (Kowalski sign pá ṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ and ‘ā́ lep̄ , e.g מֵ נְ דַ ן ,.indicated by the vowel sign pá ṯaḥ, e.g ,’júrúmá ‘to walk כֵּצַאאַצֵּכיוּרוּמַ ה ,.combinationkókgá ‘to the of skythe vowel’; or with sign páṯaḥ/qā́meṣṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ and + hē‘ā́lep̄, e.g.,, e.g כ וֹ כְ theגָ א ,writtenword either of’ with atalarïn ַ א ַ ט ַ ל רִ י ן ,.The vowel a is generally indicated with the Hebrew vowel sign pá ṯaḥ, e.g ,’júrúmá ‘to walk יוּרוּמַ ה ,.kókgá kókgá ‘to‘to thethe sky’; or with paṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ + hē, e.g כ וֹ כְ גָ א ,,’śóziná ‘to theword word of’of סוֹזִינאַניִזֹוסַא ,(kečä ʻnightʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 ́ .(bizgá ‘to us’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65–6 בִ יזְ גָ ה ,’bizgá (Sulimowicz ‘to us בִ י ְז prayersגַ הeśitmádik ‘we didn’t hear’ in the אֵ שִ טְ מַ דִ כ ,’bilán ‘with בִ ָ ל ן ,(287 ,1929 atalarymyznyŋ ‘of אַ טַ לַרִ ימִ זְ נִ ג ,’jazyqły ‘sinful יַ זִ י קְ לִ י בִיזְגָֿההָֿגְזיִב,(bizgá ‘to1929, us’, 287 בִיזְגַהKowalski)הַגְזיִב ʻtheir júrúmá fathers ‘to (ACC walk’,)ʼיוּרוּמהַמּורּויַה ,.sky’; or with paṯaḥ/qā́meṣ+ hē, e.g .(bizgá ‘to us’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65–6 בִ יזְ גָ ה ,’bizgá ‘to us בִ י ְז גַ ה .(In final position, the vowel ä is written either with thebizgá combination ‘to us’ (Sulimowicz of the vowel 1972, 65–6 .(65 ,1972 atalarïn ַ א ַ ט ַ ל רִ י ן ,.The vowel a is generally indicated with the Hebrew vowel sign pá ṯaḥ, e.g + sign combination pá ṯaḥ + ‘ā́ lep̄ or qā́ meṣ אַטvowelַל ַרִיןןיִרַלַטַא The vowel a is generally indicated ourwith fathers’ the Hebrew (Sulimowicz vowel sign 1972 paṯaḥ, 65)., e.g., The atalarïn ַ א ַ ט ַ ל רִ י ן ,.śóziná ‘to the The vowel a is generally indicated with the Hebrew vowel sign pá ṯaḥ, e.g סוֹזִ ינַא ,(kečä ʻnightʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 ּכֵ צַ א ,.sign paṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ and ‘ā́ lep̄ , e.g atalarymyznyŋ ‘of אַ טַ לַרִ ימִ זְ נִ ג ,’jazyqły jazyqły ‘ ‘sinful’,sinful יַ יזִ ַזי קְ ִיקלִ ְלייִלְקיִזַיִי ,(atalarïnʻtheir ʻtheir fathers fathers (ACC (ACC)ʼ)ʼ (Kowalski (Kowalski 1929, 1929, 287),287 ́ ’qyłmama(q)qa ‘for not doing קִ ילְ מַ מַ קַ א ,.ālep̄ is used, in general, in final position, e.g‘ atalarymyznyŋ ‘of our fathers’ (Sulimowicź 1972, 65). The vowel sign combination atalarymyznyŋ ‘of אַ טַ לַרִ ימִ זְ נִ ג ,’jazyqły ‘sinful יַ זִ י קְ לִ י ,(júrúmá ‘to walk’, ʻtheir fathers (ACC)ʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 יוּרוּמַ ה ,.kókgá ‘to the sky’; or with pá ṯaḥ/qā́ meṣ + hē, e.g כ וֹ כְ גָ א ,’word of our+ fathers’or (Sulimowicz+ is1972 used,, 65). in general,The vowel in final sign combinationposition, e.g., pá ṯaḥ + ‘ā́ lep̄ or qā́ meṣ + qā́ meṣ + hē occurs in back words in final קִילְמַמַקַאcombination אַקַמַמְליִקpaṯaḥ ‘ā́lep̄ qā́meṣ ‘ā́lep̄ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). Rarely, the + bizgá ‘to us’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65–6). qyłmama(q)qa ‘for not doing’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). Rarely,our fathers’ the combination (Sulimowicz qā́meṣ 1972 , 65). The vowel sign combination pá ṯaḥ + ‘ā́ lep̄ or qā́ meṣ בִ יזְ גָ ה ,’bizgá ‘to us בִ י ְז גַ ה ’qyłmama(q)qa ‘for not doing קִ ילְ מַ מַ קַ א ,.ā́ lep̄ is used, in general, in final position, e.g‘ .(.ałdyałdyŋahŋah ‘‘inin frontfront ofof you you’’ (ibid אַ לְ דִ ָג ה ,.hē occurs in back words in final position,position, e.g + ’qyłmama(q)qa ‘for not doing קִ ילְ מַ מַ קַ א ,.atalarïn ‘ā́ lep̄ is used, in general, in final position, e.g ַ א ַ ט ַ ל רִ י ן ,.The vowel a is generally indicated with the Hebrew vowel sign pá ṯaḥ, e.g (ibid.).(Sulimowicz 1972, 65). Rarely, the combination qā́ meṣ + hē occurs in back words in final Similarly, in the Trakai Karaim sources,Similarly, the opposition in the Tr ofakai the Karaimvowels esources and ä ,is the opposition of the vowels e and ä is signified atalarymyznyŋ ‘of (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). Rarely, the combination qā́ meṣ + hē occurs in back words in final אַ טַ לַרִ ימִ זְ נִ ג ,’jazyqły ‘sinful יַ זִ י קְ לִ י ,(ʻtheir fathers (ACC)ʼ (Kowalski 1929, 287 ałdy, butŋah in combination ‘in front of youwith’ yōḏ(ibid., i.e.,). ṣērê + yōḏ indicate the אַ ṯaḥלְ דִ a ָג p ה signifiedposition, by ṣērê e.g., and by ṣērê and pá ṯaḥ, but in combination with yōḏ, i.e., ṣērê + yōḏ indicate the vowel e and .(.theałdy nightʼŋah ‘ in front of you’ (ibid אַלְ דִ ʻof ָג ה ,.kečänin e.g כֵיצַיאנןיִנאיַציֵכִין,our fathers’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). The vowel sign combinationvowel pá ṯaḥ e +and ‘ā ́ lepapṯaḥ̄ or +q āyōḏ́ meṣ represent + the vowel ä, e.g., position from PsalmSimilarly, 91 (Csató in the2011, Tr 15).akai FurtherKaraim vowels sources and, the combinations, opposition of e.g., the ṣērê vowel, səḡōls e and ä is signified kečänin ʻof the nightʼ from Psalm 91 (Csató כֵיצַיאנִין ,.pá ṯaḥ + yōḏ represent the vowel ä, e.g qyłmama(q)qaand səḡōl + yōḏ‘for, arenot only doing used’ sporadically. Similarly, in the Trakai Karaim sources, the opposition of the vowels e and ä is signified קִ ילְ מַ מַ קַ א ,.ā́ lep̄ is used, in general, in final position, e.g‘ by ṣērê and pá ṯaḥ, but in combination with yōḏ, i.e., ṣērê + yōḏ indicate the vowel e and The vowel sign paṯaḥ is usually used2011 in, 15)Trakai. Further Karaim vowels to indicate and combinations, the vowel a, e.g., ṣērê, səḡōl and səḡōl + yōḏ, are only used (Sulimowicz 1972, 65). Rarely, the combination qā́ meṣ + hē occurs in back words in final by ṣērê and pá ṯaḥ, but in combination with yōḏ, i.e., ṣērê + yōḏ indicate the vowel e and by Pinachas kečänin Maleckiʻof the nightʼ (Kowalski from Psalm 91 (Csató כֵיצַיאנִין ,.ṯaḥ mai̭a + yōḏʻto meʼrepresent in the Bookthe vowel of Job ä ,translated e.g ́מaַיpַא ,.e.g 1929, 285). The Hebrew vowel sign qā́meṣsporadically. occurs rarely, often next to the consonant kečänin ʻof the nightʼ from Psalm 91 (Csató כֵיצַיאנִין ,.ałdyŋah ‘in front of you’ (ibid.). pá ṯaḥ + yōḏ represent the vowel ä, e.g אַ לְ דִ ָג ה ,.position, e.g janijdan. Further ʻfrom vowels your and sideʼ combinations, in Psalm 91 (Csató e.g., ṣērê2011,, səḡōl 15). and səḡōl + yōḏ, are only used (15 ײ,ָנִײְדַן y, e.g.,2011 מַ יַ א ,.The vowel sign pá ṯaḥ is usually used in Trakai Karaim to indicate the vowel a, e.g Similarly, in the Trakai Karaim sources, the opposition of the vowelThes Haliche and ä Karaim is signified sources display the greatest 2011 variety, 15) in. Further signifying vowels a- and and combinations, e.g., ṣērê, səḡōl and səḡōl + yōḏ, are only used sporadically. e-sounds. The e-sounds are indicatedma withi̭ a ʻto the meʼ following in the HebrewBook of vowelJob translated signs and by Pinachas Malecki (Kowalski 1929, 285). The by ṣērê and pá ṯaḥ, but in combination with yōḏ, i.e., ṣērê + yōḏcombinations: indicate the ṣērê vowel, səḡōl e and, ṣērê + yōḏ and səḡōl + yōḏsporadically.. Certain tendencies can be מַ יַ א ,.The vowel sign pá ṯaḥ is usually used in Trakai Karaim to indicate the vowel a, e.g janijdan ײָ ִ נ ײְ ַ ד ן ,.observed in the use of the different vowelHebrew signs vowel and theirsign combinations.qā́ meṣ occurs Therarely, Hebrew often next to the consonant y, e.g מַ יַ א ,.kečänin ʻof the nightʼ from Psalm 91 (Csató The vowel sign pá ṯaḥ is usually used in Trakai Karaim to indicate the vowel a, e.g כֵיצַיאנִין ,.pá ṯaḥ + yōḏ represent the vowel ä, e.g vowelma signsi̭ a ʻtocombined meʼ in with the yōḏBook are of the Job usual translated forms used by Pinachasfor writing Malecki e-sounds, (Kowalski whereas 1929, 285). The ʻfrom your sideʼ in Psalm 91 (Csató 2011, 15). 2011, 15). Further vowels and combinations, e.g., ṣērê, səḡōl and səḡōl + yōḏ, are only used mai̭ a ʻto meʼ in the Book of Job translated by Pinachas Malecki (Kowalski 1929, 285). The janijdan ײָ ִ נ ײְ ַ ד ן ,.Hebrew vowel sign qā́ meṣ occurs rarely, often next to the consonant y, e.g The Halich Karaim sources display the greatest variety in signifying a- and e-sounds. The janijdan ײָ ִ נ ײְ ַ ד ן ,.sporadically. Hebrew vowel sign qā́ meṣ occurs rarely, often next to the consonant y, e.g ʻfrom your sideʼ in Psalm 91 (Csató 2011, 15). e-sounds are indicated with the following Hebrew vowels signs and combinations: ṣērê, səḡōl, .(ʻfrom your sideʼ in Psalm 91 (Csató 2011, 15 מַ יַ א ,.The vowel sign pá ṯaḥ is usually used in Trakai Karaim to indicate the vowel a, e.g The Halich Karaim sources display the greatest variety in signifying a- and e-sounds. The mai̭ a ʻto meʼ in the Book of Job translated by Pinachas Malecki (Kowalski 1929, 285). The The Halich Karaim sources display the greatest variety in signifying a- and e-sounds. The e-sounds are indicated with the following Hebrew vowels signs and combinations13 : ṣērê, səḡōl, ,janijdan e-sounds are indicated with the following Hebrew vowels signs and combinations: ṣērê, səḡōl ײָ ִ נ ײְ ַ ד ן ,.Hebrew vowel sign qā́ meṣ occurs rarely, often next to the consonant y, e.g

ʻfrom your sideʼ in Psalm 91 (Csató 2011, 15). 13

The Halich Karaim sources display the greatest variety in signifying a- and e-sounds. The 13 e-sounds are indicated with the following Hebrew vowels signs and combinations: ṣērê, səḡōl,

70 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

ṣērê and səḡōl without yōḏ only occur in certain lexical and grammatical forms, e.g., tenri ʻGodʼ טֶנְרִי reśimlerimni ‘my statues (ACC)’ and ר ִ ֵשימְלֶירִימְנִי ,’kece ‘night כֵיצֵיא (Olach 2013, 31–7). The vowel sign paṯaḥ is not used to represent the vowel ä. The vowel signs and their combinations ṣērê, səḡōl, ṣērê + yōḏ and səḡōl + yōḏ occur in vocalised texts written in Lutsk Karaim. The vowel e is usually signified by nece ʻseveralʼ נֵיצֵי zeret ‘cemetery’ and זֵרֵט ,.the vowel sign ṣērê or ṣērê + yōḏ, e.g ’fikirlerim ‘my thoughts פִֿיכִירְלֵרִים ,’(izleniz ‘seek! (PL אִיזְלֵנִיז ,(Németh 2011, 378) (Jankowski 2011, 166). The vowel sign səḡōl and the vowel sign combination səḡōl + Ešwowičke ʻto Ešwowičʼ עֶשוֹויצְכֵי ,tenri ʻGodʼ טֶנְרִי :yōḏ are only used in a few words ḱełmejđi ʻit has not comeʼ (Németh 2011, 378, 384, 397). In the Lutsk כֶילְמֶײְדִי and ektemlik אֶיקְטֶמְלִיק :Karaim prayers, the use of səḡōl and səḡōl + yōḏ is not exceptional sendedir ‘is in You’ (Jankowski סֶינְדֵידִיר ,’iwretsen ‘if you teach אִיװְרֶטְסֵן ,’pride‘ 2011, 166–7). The graphic representations of a-sounds show great variation in both Halich Karaim and Lutsk Karaim materials: paṯaḥ, paṯaḥ + ‘ā́lep̄, qā́meṣ and qā́meṣ+ ‘ā́lep̄,

Table 3. The representation of a-sounds and e-sounds Value of the Hebrew Crimean Trakai Halich Lutsk vowel in Krimchaks orthography Karaim Karaim Karaim Karaim Hebrew paṯaḥ ַ short a a a, ä a a a changeable qā́meṣ ָ a, o a, ä a a a long a səḡōl ֶ short e (open) ä e e e e changeable ṣērê ֵ e e e e e long e (closed)

י Combinations with yōḏ unchangeable e e e – – ֶי səḡōl + yōḏ long e (open) unchangeable e – e e e ֵי ṣērê + yōḏ long e (closed) paṯaḥ + yōḏ – – ä – –

אCombinations with ‘ā́lep̄ – paṯaḥ + ‘ā́lep̄ (only – – a a a in final ַ א position) – qā́meṣ+ ‘ā́lep̄ (only – a a a a in final ָ א position) ṣērê + yōḏ and səḡōl + yōḏ. Certain tendencies can be observed in the use of the different

vowel signs and their combinations. The Hebrew vowel signs combined with yōḏ are the

usual forms used for writing e-sounds, whereas ṣērê and səḡōl without yōḏ only occur in

reśimlerimni ‘my רֵ שִ י מְ ֶ ל י רִ י מְ ִ נ י ,’kece ‘night כֵ יצֵ י א ,.certain lexical and grammatical forms, e.g

tenri ʻGodʼ (Olach 2013, 31–7). The vowel sign pá ṯaḥ is not used to ֶ ט ְ נ רִ י statues (ACC)’ and

represent the vowel ä.

The vowel signs and their combinations ṣērê, səḡōl, ṣērê + yōḏ and səḡōl + yōḏ occur in

vocalised texts written in Lutsk Karaim. The vowel e is usually signified by the vowel sign

,(nece ʻseveralʼ (Németh 2011, 378 נֵ יצֵ י zeret ‘cemetery’ and ֵז רֵ ט ,.ṣērê or ṣērê + yōḏ, e.g

fikirlerim ‘my thoughts’ (Jankowski 2011, 166). The פִ י כִ ירְ לֵ רִ י ם ,’(izleniz ‘seek! (PL אִ י ְ ז ֵ ל נִ י ז

Hebrewvowel sign səḡōlValue and of thethe vowelKrimchaks sign combination Crimean səḡōl Trakai + yōḏ are Halichonly used Lutskin in a few words:

Karaim ḱełmejđ i Karaimʻit has not comeʼ ֶ כ י ְ ל ֶ מ ײְ דִ י Ešwowičke ʻto Karaim Ešwowičʼ andKaraim עֶשוֹויצְ inכֵי ,tenri ʻGodʼvowel ֶ ט ְ נ רִ יorthography

(Németh 2011,Hebrew 378, 384, 397). In the Lutsk Karaim prayers, the use of səḡōl and səḡōl + yōḏ

sendedir סֶ י נְ דֵ י דִ יר ,’iwretsen ‘if you teach אִ י װְ רֶ inטְ ֵ ס ן ,’ektemlik ‘pride(only אֶ יקְ טֶ מְ לִ יק :not ָ exceptionalא ā́ lepis̄‘

‘is in You’ (Jankowski 2011, 166–167). final

The graphic representations of a-soundsposition) show great variation in both Halich Karaim and

EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 71 קוֹזְ לַסִ ינְ לָ ר ,.Lutsk Karaim materials: pá ṯaḥ, pá ṯaḥ + ‘ā́ lep̄ , qā́ meṣ and qā́ meṣ + ‘ā́ lep̄ , e.g

dzanshort ‘ souli, whereas’ in Halich the combination Karaim (Olach of hîreq2013, + 24 yōḏ–31) as well צָ theאן In Hebrew,qozla the sïnlarvowel ‘let sign them hîreq teem’ signifies and dzan ‘soul’ in Halich Karaim (Olach צָאן qozlasïnlar ‘let them teem’ and קוֹזְלַסִינְלָר ,.e.g vowels bołhbołhaja existj ʻshould in Krimchak beʼbeʼ (Németh and 2011,Karaim, 380 the, 381 ). The בוֹלְגַאײsał saładanadan ʻfrom ʻfrom long villageʼvillageʼi. Since andno longס סַ ַלָדלָ ָןדָ unchangeable ן indicates as well asthe as(31–24 ,2013 (Németh 2011, 380, 381). The vowel sign paṯaḥ is the most used variant. It seems that the allographstwo forms withvowel represent ‘ā́lep̄ sign in pnomedialá ṯaḥ distinction is position the most in represent length.used variant. Ona kind the It ofother seems prominence hand, that asthe in in allographs Turkic languages with ‘ā́ le p in̄ in medial certain words. general, fronpositiont i and represent back ï area kind distinguished of prominence in spoken in certain languages words.. So the question arises: do In Hebrew, the vowel sign hîreq signifies the short i, whereas the combination of hîreq +the yōḏ two indicates types of the i- sounds unchangeable in Krimchak long iand. Since Karaim no long manuscripts vowels existcorrespond in to the two written Krimchak and Karaim, the two forms represent no distinction in length. On the other hand,form as ins Turkicin TableHebrew? languages 3. The The representation in investigationgeneral, front of clearly ia and-sounds back shows and ï are e that-distinguishedsounds the different in written forms only spoken languages. So the question arises: do the two types of i-sounds in Krimchak and Karaimrepresent manuscripts graphic correspond variants. Even to the if twothere written are two forms ways inof writing Hebrew? the The i-sounds, the distribution investigation clearly shows that the different written forms only represent graphic kibik ּכִי ּבִ י ּכ ,.of these do not correspond to the possible distribution of the front i and back ï, e.g variants. Even if there are two ways of writing the i-sounds, the distribution of these אִ גְ ַל ײ ם ,(10 ,7 ,1998 כִּיבּErdalִיכּ ,.frontqïlïč i ʻswordʼand back ( Ianbay,ï, e.g קִ ילִ the יץ theyigit possible ʻyoung distribution manʼ and of ײִ ִ ג toי ט ,do not correspondʻlikeʼ ,qïlïč ʻswordʼ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 7 קִילִיץ yigit ʻyoung manʼ and ײִגִיט ,kibik ʻlikeʼ 14 10), iglayïm ‘I shall cry’, išleriŋiz ‘your works’, dostlarïm bir בִ י ר ,’dostlarïm ‘my friends ד ו ְ ס ְ דוסט ַל ְטרִ ְלי ַרם ִים,’išleriŋiz ‘your works אִשְ לַריג׳יז ,’iglayïm ‘I shall cryאִגְלַײם אַטַלַרִין gibi ʻlikeʼ and גִיבִּי ;(bir ‘one’ in Krimchak (Ianbay 2000, 8–9 בִיר ,’my friends‘ atalarïn ʻtheir fathers ַ א ַ ט ַ ל kibikרִ י כן ִיבִיכ gibi 1929, ʻlikeʼ 287); and י גִ ּבִ י ;(atalarïn ʻtheir‘one’ fathers in Krimchak (ACC)ʼ in (Ianbay Crimean 2000, Karaim 8– (Kowalski9 ,atałaryn ʻtheir fathers (ACC)ʼ in Trakai Karaim (Kowalski 1929 אָָט ָ לרִין ʻlikeʼ and atałaryn ʻtheir אָ טָ לָ רִ י ן kibik ʻlikeʼ and כִ י בִ י כ ;(ACC)ʼ in Crimean Karaim (Kowalski 1929, 287) icinci אִיצִינְצִי ,’qatïnġa ‘to the woman קַטִנְגָא ,’tiwildiler ‘they are not טִיװִלְדִילֶיר ;(285 ,’ildiler ‘they are not בtiw ִ טִ ֵישי ינ ְװִ צ ְ ִיל דִי ֶל י and ר ;;(cïqtïq (ACC ‘we)ʼ in went Trakai out’ in Karaim Halich (KowalskiKaraim (Olach 1929, 2013, 285) 24 צִיקְטִיקthird’ and fathers‘ .(kyrk ʻfortyʼ in Lutsk Karaim (Németh 2011, 378 קִירְק beśińći ʻfifthʼ and cïqtïq ‘we went out’ in Halich צִ י קְ טִ י ק icinci ‘third’ and אִ י צִ י נְ צִ י ,’qatïnġa ‘to the woman קַ טִ נְ גָ א Consonants kyrk ʻfortyʼ in Lutsk Karaim ִ ק י רְ ק beśińći ʻfifthʼ and בֵ י שִ י ְנ צִ י Karaim (Olach 2013, 24); and Basically, the Krimchak and Karaim consonants in the manuscripts correspond to the Hebrew originals.(Németh Therefore, 2011, 378) I will. not go into a detailed description of the manner in which consonants are represented in Krimchak and Karaim here. Only a few special features will be mentioned. Hebrew offers an option to indicate fricative consonants. When a dot called Consonants a dagesh is used in a consonant letter, it means the consonant is pronounced as a plosive, i.e., b, p, d, t, k and g. When the dot is missing, the pronunciation changes to a fricative, i.e., v, f, δ, θ, χ and γ. 16 In Turkic manuscripts written with the Hebrew alphabet, the dagesh is usually not used. However, it can be found in the Krimchak text published by Erdal and Ianbay suv ʻwaterʼ and סוב ,.and in the Crimean Karaim text in the Gözleve edition, e.g kuwatï קוּבַטִי bašqa ʻotherʼ in Krimchak (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 10, 13) as well as בַּשְקָא gibi ‘like’ in Crimean Karaim (Kowalski 1929, 287). See also גִיבִּי ʻits strength’ and the table of consonant letters used in the Book of Ruth in Erdal, Ianbay (1998, 14). BasicallyBasically, the ,Krimchak the Krimchak and Karaimand Karaim consonants consonants in the in manuscript the manuscripts corresponds correspond to the to Hebrew the Hebrew

originals.originals. Therefore Therefore, I will, I willnot notgo intogo intoa detailed a detailed description description of theof mannerthe manner in whichin which

consonantconsonants ares represented are represented in Krimchak in Krimchak and Karaimand Karaim here. here. Only Only a few a fewspecial special features features will willbe be

mentioned.mentioned.

HebrewHebrew offers offers an option an option to indicate to indicate fricative fricative consonants. consonants. When When a dot a calleddot called a dagesh a dagesh is is

usedused in a consonantin a consonant letter, letter, it means it means the consonant the consonant is pron is pronouncedounced as a asplosive, a plosive, i.e., bi.e.,, p , bd, , pt,, dk , t, k

and gand. When g. When the dot the is dot missing, is missing, the pronunciation the pronunciation changes changes to a fricative,to a fricative, i.e., vi.e.,, f, δv,, θf,, δχ, andθ, χ γand. γ.

In TurkicIn Turkic manuscript manuscripts writtens written with withthe Hebrewthe Hebrew alphabet alphabet, the, dageshthe dagesh is usually is usually not used.not used.

However,However, it can it becan found be found in the in Krimchakthe Krimchak text text published published by Erdal by Erdal and andIanbay Ianbay and andin the in the

bašqa ʻotherʼ ʻotherʼ in in ּבַ שְ קָ bašqa אּבַ שְ קָ andא ʻwaterʼsuv ʻwaterʼ and סובsuv סוב,.CrimCrimean Karaimean Karaim text textin the in Gözlevethe Gözleve edition, edition, e.g., e.g

’ gibi‘like ‘’like י גִ ּבִ יgibi י גִ ּבִ andי ’kuwatï ʻitsï strength ʻits strength’ and קוּבַטִ kuwat י asקוּבַטִ י KrimchakKrimchak (Ianbay, (Ianbay, Erdal Erdal 1998 1998, 10, ,13 10,) as13 well) as wellas

in Crimeanin Crimean Karaim Karaim (Kowalski (Kowalski 1929, 1929, 287) 287). See. alsoSee alsothe tablethe table of consonant of consonant letters letters used used in the in the

BookBook of Ruth of Ruth in Erdal, in Erdal, Ianbay Ianbay (1998 (1998, 14)., 14).

Besides,Besides, an apostrophe an apostrophe-like- likemark mark called called a geresh a geresh following following the consonantthe consonant is employed is employed in in

72 ZSUZSANNA OLACH ana azγ ‘anaa little ‘a little’ and’ andאַ γזְ גָ az אַ זְ ׳אנָאגָ ׳אנָא,.Fricative consonants are usually indicatedthe Krimchakthe Krimchakin Krimchak texts texts to andindicate to Karaimindicate the texts fricativesthe fricatives with va andshort v χand , lineγ andχ , γ fand, e.g., f, e.g

(baš )( אוbaš) אורמג׳א ,’ofרמג׳א ,larïxan -‘larïthe ‘kingthe sking of’s -כ׳אןxan לרי כ׳אן,the ( לריefendi, however,‘mister, ‘mister, sir rather’ (sirIanbay,’ inconsistent(Ianbay, Erdal Erdal 1998 (see 1998, 13below), 13 אֶ isפֶ ׳ נְ efendiדִ יאֶ use פֶ ׳ נְ דִ Its י.above the consonant called a rāp̄ eh Besides, an apostrophe-like mark called a geresh following the consonant is The 9). The, .6(–59 , 6– 5 אַז,2000ְג ָ׳אנָא,indicate safar safar (theetildi fricatives(etildi) ‘it )was ‘ itv andwaswritten χ ,written γ ’and (Ianbay f’, e.g.,(Ianbay 2000 סאפ׳אר ,to ’סאפ׳אר ,written form of tatuwu ʻits tasteʼ in Halichurmaγaemployedurmaγa Karaim ‘for in ‘bow )thefor. Krimchakingbow downing down ’texts xan- are usually indicated in Krimchak and Karaim texts with a short line כ׳אן consonants לרי ,(efendi ‘mister, sir’ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998,Fricative 13 אֶפֶ׳נְדִי azγana ‘a little’ and ’ ’taŋdawn ‘dawn‘ טַ ג ׳ taŋ טַ it‘ג ׳,.Karaim withthe in (letterKrimchakthebaš and )letter urmaγa gîmelKrimchak gîmeland denotes ‘for Karaim denotes( bowingbêṯ also + textsrā alsothedown’,p̄ eh with nasal the nasala sonorant short sonorantsafar line ŋ (, etildie.g., ŋ, )e.g אורמג׳א The set of consonantsFricative with consonants rāp̄ eh isgeresh larïmainly aregeresh ‘the usuallycombined commonkings combined indicatedof’, within are usually indicated in Krimchak and Karaim texts with a short line סאפ׳ארFricative consonants FricativeFricative consonants consonants are are usually usuallywas indicated written’indicated in (Ianbay inKrimchak Krimchak 2000, and 5–6, and Karaim 9). Karaim The textsgeresh texts with combined with a short a short with line line theabo letterve the gîmel consonant denotes called a rāp̄ eh. Its use is, however, rather inconsistent (see below the .(the can‘of L theonlyord L’ ,ordbe (Ianbay ’, (Ianbay 2000 2000: 6). : 6 ֿכ rā -iyeŋpniŋ̄ eh -‘=niŋof ײג׳ +p ̄ iyeŋניג׳ ײג׳,of kaניג׳(butIanbay, Erdalthe combinationErdal 1998 1998, 12), 12 ),(פ ,pēh + rāp̄ eh =(Ianbay ,ג = gîmel + rāp̄ eh ,ֿב = iyeŋ-niŋ ײג׳ the ניג׳ ,(taŋ ‘dawn’ rather (Ianbay, inconsistent Erdal 1998,(see below 12 טַג׳ ,above the consonant calledalso the a nasalrāp̄ eh sonorant. Its use ŋ ,is e.g.,, however Fricative consonantsaboabove ve the are the consonant usually consonant indicated called called a inrāa prāKrimchak̄ ehp̄.eh Its. Itsuse anduse is, isKaraimhowever,, however, texts rather ratherwith inconsistent a inconsistentshort line (seeabo (see vebelow below the the consonant thewritten form called of a tatuwu rāp̄ eh .ʻits Its tasteʼuse is in, however,Halich Karaim rather). inconsistent (see below the Fricative consonants are usually indicated in Krimchak‘of and the Karaim Lord’, (Ianbaytexts with 2000, a short Fricative6). line consonants are usually indicated in Krimchak and Karaim texts with a short line observed in Krimchakwritten, formCrimean of tatuwu Karaim ʻitsA and furthertasteʼA Lutsk further in feature Halich Karaim feature canKaraim texts becan observed )to.be indicate observed in fricativeKrimchak in Krimchak χ,. e.g.,The. Tletterhe letter gîmel gîmel is written is written with witha dot a todot to above the consonantwrittenwritten called form form ofa oftatuwurā ptatuwū eh. Itsʻits ʻits usetasteʼ tasteʼ is ,in however, Halichin AHalich furtherFricative Karaim rather Karaim feature ) inconsistent.consonants ). can be observed are(see usually below in Krimchak. indicatedthe written Thein Krimchakform letter of gîmel tatuwuThe and is set writtenKaraim ʻits of tasteʼconsonants with texts in a Halich with with a Karaimshort rāp̄ eh line )is. mainly common in Karaim and Krimchak (bêṯ + rāp̄ eh above the consonant called a rāp̄ eh. Its use is, however, rather inconsistent (seeabo belowve the the consonant called a rāp̄ eh. Its use is, however, rather inconsistent (see below the ’ ’qoyjqoyju uqoyj ‘herdmanu ‘herdman קוײגֺו , קוײגֺו(asta ‘ǰanǰanKaraimsoul ‘soul’ʻsickʼ‘’soul (Ianbay, and (Ianbay,’ (Német( Ianbay,Krimchak Erdal Erdalh Erdal 1998 (1998,bêṯ 1998,+ 11)11), rā,p, ̄ eh11 גinχ ָֺן ǰan גָֺ ן,.e.g.,e.g ,ֿכאסטא ya ofχ šyconsonants ‘goodindicat’dot (Sulimowicz with indicatto eindicate therāep ̄ ehaffricatethe is the 1972, affricatemainly affricate ǰ,66), e.g.,common ǰ , ǰ יַ ֿכְ set שִ י saŋa ‘to you’,The סָ גָ א can only be ֿכ = inbut Karaim the combination and Krimchak of ka (pbêṯ̄ + rā+ prā̄ ehp̄ eh ,(פ = is (pēh seemainly +below rā pcommon̄ eh the , ג rathergîmel +inconsistentwith rāp ̄ rāehp ̄=eh , ֿב written form of tatuwuTheThe set ʻits set of tasteʼ ofconsonants consonants in Halich with Karaimwith rā prā̄ eh‘herdman’p)̄. eh is abomainlyis mainlyve (Ianbay the common common consonant 2000, in Karaim in6). calledKaraim12 and a andrā Krimchakp̄ ehKrimchak. Its use (bêṯThe (isbêṯ +, set however,rā+ prāof̄ eh pconsonants̄= eh written form of tatuwu ʻits tasteʼ in Halich Karaim). written form of tatuwu ʻits tasteʼ in Halich Karaim). can Karaim only betexts with a ֿכusuallycombinationsahysłary indicatedn ‘ oftheir ka in pthoughts̄ Krimchak+ rāp̄ eh’ = and סָ גִ יסְ arethe לָרִ י 12ןbut. ,,(’(6 פ, to pēh Fricative(Ianbaythose + 2000 rā whop ̄ eh2000 ,consonants 6) =act.12,‘ג qyłuwcułarh + rāp̄ eh =a(Ianbay קִ gîmel ,ילוּֿבְ ֿב =צוּלַרְ גָא ,(382 ,2011 can only be ֿכ = but the combination of kap̄ + rāp̄ eh ,(פ = pēh + rāp̄ eh ,ג = gîmel + rāp̄ eh ,ֿב = ,.can only )only. be observed be in Krimchak, Crimean Karaim and Lutsk Karaim texts to indicate fricative χ, e.g ֿכ Karaim can= ֿכ =but ),Karaim but theform the combination andof combination tatuwu Krimchak ʻits of oftasteʼka(bêṯ pkā + +p ̄inrā +rā pHalichrā̄peh̄ ehp̄ ehפ in,( =פ pēh + rā +common prā̄ ehp̄ eh= written ,גmainlypēh ,=גgîmel with + rā+ rāprā̄ ehpp̄ eh̄ eh= is ,ֿבgîmel ,=ֿב =The set of consonants The set of consonants with rāp̄ eh is mainly common in shortKaraim line and above Krimchak the consonant (bêṯThe + calledrā setp̄ eh of a consonantsrāp̄eh. Its use with is, however,rāp̄ eh is mainlyrather inconsistent common in Karaim and Krimchak (bêṯ + rāp̄ eh ,.fricative χ, e.g ֿד = Jankowski 2011,observed 166). C ertainin Krimchak signs only, Crimean occur inKaraim Krimchak and Lutsktexts, suchKaraim as dtextsā́ leṯ +to rā indicatep̄ eh) ,.can rā pʻitsonlȳ eh tasteʼis be mainly observed in Halich common inKaraim). Krimchak in Karaim , Crimean and Krimchak Karaim ( bêṯand + Lutsk rāp̄ eh Karaim texts to indicate fricative χ, e.g ֿכ but the (seecombination belowThe the set of written of ka consonantsp̄ + formrāp̄ eh of = withtatuwu ,(פ = pēh + rāp̄ eh ,ג = gîmel + rāp̄ eh ,ֿב = χasta ʻsickʼ (Németh ֿכאסטא ,(can only 1972, be 66 ֿכ = ya ofχšy ka ‘pgood + rā’p eh(Sulimowicz יַ ֿכְ שִ י ,’saŋa but the‘to combinationyou,( פ סָ =גָ א,.fricative, pēh +χ ,rā e.g.,χ,p ehe.gג texts, gîmeltexts to toindicate+ rāindicatepeh =fricativeֿב =observedobserved in inKrimchak Krimchak, Crimean, Crimean Karaim Karaim and and Lutsk Lutsk Karaim Karaim ̄ ̄ + withcan rāp̄ehonly beis mainlȳ common in Karaim̄ and Krimchak (bêṯ ֿכ = but the combinationThe of setka pof̄ + consonants rāp̄ eh ,(פ = pēh + rāp̄ eh ,ג = gîmel + rāp̄ eh ,ֿב = inχasta the ʻsickʼ (Németh ֿכאסטא yaχ lettersšy ‘good with’ (Sulimowicz rāp̄ eh are only 1972, used 66), by authors יַ ֿכְ שִ יsaŋaThe following‘to you’, Hebrew . ֿת סָ גָ = אand tāw + rāp̄ eh ’sahysłary (Németn ‘htheir thoughts סָ ʻsickʼגִ יסְ לָרִ astaי ןact’, χ ֿכאסטא Sulimowicz can only abe ‘ to 1972, those 66), who)ֿכ ’qyłuwcułarh= קִ ֿכpgood̄ eh=ילוּֿבְ ‘ šy rāצוּלַרְ +rāp̄ehp̄ χ גָאka , + yaיַ ֿכְ שִ kap̄of י (the the (Németsaŋa combination (Német combination ‘toh 2011,youh ’,of 382סָ גָ butʻsickʼ א ʻsickʼ ),butפ,( ֿפ =rāp̄ehrā pχ̄χeh,asta e.g., χ=asta ֿכאסטא + + ֿכאסטא ,(pēhfricative66 ,ג,(Sulimowicz ,gîmel gîmel texts + + to rārāp̄eh 1972,pindicatē eh 1972, = = 66)ֿב, ֿב’= χyašy χLutsk šy‘good rāp̄eh‘good Karaim’= (Sulimowicz יַ andֿכְ ya שִ יַ יֿכְ שִ ,’י ,’saŋa ,saŋa Crimean ‘to ‘ toyou you Karaimסָ גָ אסָ גָ אobserved in Krimchak observed in Krimchak, Crimean Karaim and Lutsk Karaim texts to indicate fricativeobserved χ, e.g., in Krimchak, Crimean Karaim and Lutsk Karaim texts to indicate fricative χ, e.g., sahysłary indicate Karaim nś and, ‘their Lutsk thoughts Karaim’ texts to סָ toגִ סיסְ לָרִ = Crimeanי ן to only represent be observed a ž‘ to and those s in ā ́ meḵ Krimchak, who + act rā p’̄,eh ז can qyłuwcułarh קִ= ילוּֿבְ rāp̄ ehצוּלַרְ +גָא ,Lutsk Karaim variety:2011, 382)zá yin ’sahysłaryn ‘their thoughts סָ גִ יסְ לָרִ י ן ,’qyłuwcułarha ‘to those who act קִ ילוּֿבְ צוּלַרְ גָא ,(χasta ʻsickʼ (Németh 2011, 382 ֿכאסטא ,(yaχšy ‘good’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 66 יַ ֿכְ שִ י ,’saŋa ‘to you סָ גָ א ֿד = thesahysłary, but Karaimuse the of nuse wāw‘ntheir of and‘ theirclearlywāw thoughtsLutsk clearlythoughts indicates Karaim indicates’(Jankowski ’a labial texts a labial vowel to2011, vowel indicatein final 166) in position.final .fricative C position.ertain χsigns , e.g., only occur in Krimchak texts, such as dā́ leṯ + rāp̄ eh סָ גִ qoyji butsahysłaryיסְ ,סָ גִ לָרִ Crimeanasיסְ י ,ןqoyjiלָרִ ,י ’asןqyłuwcułarh12 Ianbaya 12‘observeda toIanbay ‘ transcribestothose those transcribes whoin thewhoKrimchak act word theact’, word קִ qyłuwcułarh קִ ילוּֿבְ ילוּֿבְ צוּלַרְ צוּלַרְ גָא ,גָא ,(382 (382 ,2011,2011 χasta ʻsickʼ (Németh ֿכאסטא ,(ya χ‘good’šy ‘good (Sulimowicz’ (Sulimowicz 1972, 66), 1972, 66 יַ ֿכְ yaχšyשִ י ַכֿ,’ְשִי Német saŋa saŋa ‘to h‘ to you’, you) סָ גָ א fricative χasta χ, e.g., ʻsickʼ ֿכאסטא ,(yaχšy ‘good’ (Sulimowicz 1972,indicate 66 יַ ֿכְ שִ י ,’saŋa ‘to you סָ גָ א ,’who act ֿד = qyłuwcułarha as dā́ leṯ + rā ‘top̄ eh those ק .(such ִילוּבֿ376ְצוּל ,ַרְג,texts ָא śiwer. Certain ʻdear,χasta signs ʻsickʼbelovedʼ only (Németh occur (Németh in2011, Krimchak 2011 382),, 397כֿאסטא ס י ֿב (166ײ ר žadnyj(Jankowski ʻno, noneʼ 2011,and זאדנײ ,.e.g authors in the ֿד The ʻsickʼonly following occur (Német in Hebrew hKrimchak letters texts, with such rāp as̄ eh d areā́ leṯ only + rā usedp̄ eh =by .ֿת rāertainp̄ eh =χ astasignsֿכאסטאtāw 166)66), +. C ֿד and=ֿד,their yatexts,χ šysuch thoughts such‘good as asd’ā ’ ́ leṯ (Sulimowiczd(Jankowskiā́ leṯ+ rā+ prā̄ ehp̄ eh= 2011, 1972 ‘יַ ֿכְ,n textsשִ י ,’to sahysłaryKrimchakin you Krimchakסָ ‘inגִ יסְ occurלָרִ י saŋaן occur ,’סָ onlyגָ אqyłuwcułarh 2011, 2011, 166) 166)a .‘ Cto.ertain Cthoseertain signs who signs onlyact קִ ילוּֿבְ Jankowski)צוּלַרְ Jankowski)גָא ,(382 ,2011 ’sahysłaryn ‘their thoughts סָ גִ יסְ לָרִ י ן ,’qyłuwcułarh17 166). Certaina ‘to signsthose only who occur act ,2011קִ 7 1ילוּֿבְ צוּלַרְ גָא ’,sahysłarysahysłarynn ‘their‘their2011, thoughts’ thoughts 382) (Jankowski סָ גִ יסְ לָרִ י ן ,’qyłuwcułarha ‘to those who act קִ ילוּֿבְ צוּלַרְ גָא ,(382 ,2011 The in followingmasoretic Hebrewand older letters manuscripts, with rāp ̄ ehand are it isonly still used used by authors in the .ֿתThe diacriticaland mark tāw rā + prā̄ ehp̄ ehwas = used sahysłary followingn Hebrew‘their thoughts letters with’ rāp̄ eh are only used by authors in the סָ גִ Theיסְ .לָרִ ֿת =י ן= ,’to and those tāwtāw who + rāp̄ehrā actp̄ ehֿד ‘ = =ddā́leṯ āqyłuwcułarh́ leṯ + rāp̄ehrāp̄ eh aקִ asילוּֿבְ צוּלַרְ such גָא ,,Jankowski 2011, 166). Certain signs only occur inin KrimchakKrimchak2011, 382) texts,texts) ,to indicate ś ס = sā́ meḵ + rāp̄ eh ֿד d toā́ leṯ represent + rāp̄ eh ž= and ז The following following Hebrew Hebrew letters letters with with rā(Jankowski prā̄ ehp̄ ehare are only only 2011, used used 166)by byauthors. Cauthorsertain in signsthein theLutsk only Karaim occur in variety: Krimchak zá yin texts, + rā suchp̄ eh =as .ֿתThe .=ֿת =andand tāw tāw + rā+ prā̄ ehp̄ eh + by authors in the Lutsk Karaim variety: zayin ֿד Jankowski 2011, 166). Certain signs only occur in KrimchakHebrew texts, letters such with as d rāp̄ehā́ leṯ +are rā onlyp̄ eh =used) ,to indicate ś ס = of to medieval represent Hebrew ž and s āand́ meḵ Yiddish + rāp̄ eh areז = in Yiddish. CertainLutsk letters Karaim which variety: were/ arezá yin characteristic + rāp̄ eh .(to 2011indicate, 397 ś,, 376 ס = śiwer ž and ʻdear, sā́ meḵ belovedʼ + rāp̄ eh (Németh ֿדס י =ֿב ײ רto andrā representp̄ eh +ז =z ažadnyj ́žadnyjyin such + ʻno,rā ʻno,asp ̄ ehd noneʼā́ leṯז ,texts אדנײ ,occur indicateto indicateKaraim in Krimchak śś,, e.g., variety:ś סLutsk toto =ס = p torepresent̄toeh represent are 2011, only ž and žused166)ž and and s ā.sā́meḵby ́ meḵCsāertain ́authorsmeḵ + rā + signsrāp̄eh p rā̄inehp ̄the eh=only ז =rāto =ז KaraimThe Karaim following variety: variety: Hebrew za yinzayin + letters rā+ prā̄rāp̄eheh pwith̄ eh=(Jankowski .ֿת and tāw + rāp̄ ehLutsk =Lutsk The following Hebrew letters with rāp̄ eh are only used by authors in the .ֿת = The following Hebrew letterś ́ with rāp̄ eh are only used by authorsand tāw in +the rā p̄ eh .ֿת = and tāw + rāp̄ eh .(śiwerśiwersee below ʻdear,. belovedʼbelovedʼ (Németh (Németh 2011, 2011 397,, 397 376)., 376 , ס י ֿב yōḏײ ר doubležadnyj ʻno,wāw noneʼ and double and ז,,.e.gאדנײ ,.used in Turkic texts,e.g rā śiwerauthorsp̄ eh wasʻdear, in used the belovedʼ in masoretic (Németh and 2011 older, 397 manuscripts,, 376). and it is still usedס י byֿב ײ ר withžadnyj rāThe ʻno,p̄ eh diacritic arenoneʼ only andal used mark ז .( .אדנײ( following to indicate 2011 2011 , Hebrew397 ś, ,397 ,e.g., 376, 376letters סeh. (The Németh= ( Némethֿת̄ andśiwer tāw ʻdear, sā +́ʻdear,meḵ rā belovedʼp ̄+eh belovedʼ rā =p ס י śiwerandž ֿב ס י ײ רֿב ײ ר to and represent and ז žadnyj + rā ʻno,p̄ ehʻno, noneʼ = noneʼ זyinžadnyj ́ זzaאדנײ אדנײ ,.Lutsk Karaim variety:e.g.,e.g ,to indicate ś ס = manuscripts, to represent andž and sā́ meḵ + rāp̄ eh ז = to Lutskrāp̄eh indicate Karaim was ś ,used variety: in masoretic zá yin + and rāp ̄ oldereh ס to represent ž and sTheā́ meḵ diacritical + rāp̄ eh =mark ז = Lutsk Karaim variety: zá yin + rāp̄ eh The writing of vThe-sounds diacritic showsal mark a numberit rāisp ̄stilleh of was used variation used in Yiddish. ins .masoretic In Turkic Certain and texts, letters older single whichmanuscripts, and were/are double and characteristic it is still used of medieval toinwhich indicatemasoretic were/ ś, areand characteristic older manuscripts, of medieval and it isHebrew still used and Yiddish are ס =itto isTheitrepresent stillis diacriticstill used used žin andal Yiddish mark sā́ meḵ rā. Certainp+̄ eh rā wasp̄ eh letters used ז śiwerrā prā̄ ehp ̄ʻdear, ehwas was used belovedʼ usedLutsk in masoreticin Karaim(masoreticNémeth andvariety: 2011 and older ,older 397 z amanuscripts,́ yin, manuscripts,376 + )rā. p̄ eh and= and ס י markֿב ײ markalר žadnyj ʻno,TheThe noneʼdiacritic diacritic andal זאדנײ ,.e.g .(and śiwer double ʻdear, yōḏ belovedʼ, see (Németh 2011, 397, 376 ס י ֿב ײ wāwר žadnyj texts, ʻno, e.g., noneʼ double and זin Turkic אדנײ .(śiwer ʻdear, belovedʼHebrew (Németh and 2011 Yiddish, 397 are, 376 e.g.,used ס י ֿב ײ ר žadnyj ʻno, noneʼ and זאדנײ ,.e.g wāw and the letterin Yiddish bêṯ and. Certain bêṯ with letters rāp̄ ehwhich are usedwere/ toare represent characteristic v-sounds of medieval, e.g.,, in Hebrew Trakai and Yiddish are śiwerand inand YiddishYiddish ʻdear, Yiddish belovedʼ .are Certain areused in( lettersNémeth Turkic which 2011texts, ,were/ 397e.g.,,, are 376double characteristic). wāw and ofdouble medieval yōḏ, seeHebrew below and. Yiddish are ס י usedֿב ײ Hebrewר manuscripts, žadnyj ʻno,of ofmedieval noneʼand medieval it andis Hebrewstillז characteristic אדנײ The diacriticinal Yiddishinmark Yiddish rā.p ̄Certaineh. Certain was usedletters letters in which masoretic which were/below were/ ande.g.,are. are oldercharacteristic The diacritical mark rāp̄ eh was used in masoretic and older manuscripts, and it is Thestill useddiacritic al mark rāp̄ eh was used in masoretic and older manuscripts, and it is still used ofand v-sounds double olturu yōḏ showsβču, seeʻ dweller a below numberʼ .in ofPsalm variations. 91 In Turkic texts, single אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ צוּ usedtölewin in Turkicʻits payment texts, e.g.,(ACC,The double)ʼ and writing wāw ט י וֹ ַ ל י װִ י ן Karaim in Yiddish. Certainusedused lettersin Turkicin Turkic which texts, texts, were/ e.g., e.g.,are, double characteristic, double wāwand wāw doubleand andofThe double medieval wāwdoublediacritic yōḏand yōḏ , Hebrewal thesee ,mark seeletter below below rāand bêṯp.̄ eh Yiddishand. was bêṯ used with are in rāp̄ehused masoretic in are Turkic used and totexts, older Therepresent e.g., writingmanuscripts,, doublev-sounds, of v -wāwsounds and andit isshows doublestill used a yōḏnumber , see belowof variation. s. In Turkic texts, single and double in Yiddish. Certain letters which were/are characteristic of medieval Hebrew and inYiddish Yiddish are. Certain letters which were/are characteristic of medieval Hebrew and Yiddish are olturuβču אוֹלdouble ְטוּרוּבְצוּ and and טַ singleט וּֿבוּ tatuwTurkic paymentu vs.texts, (ACC)ʼ טַ ʻitsInט .sוּבוּ variation)’ tölewinandטיוֹל ַיװACCof ִין) awin shows zunTrakai ‘its a Karaim numbermouth ַ א װְ ז ,.e.gוּ ןaw writingur ‘heavy of v’,- sounds אַ ו וּ Theר ;(Csató 2011, 15) used in Turkic texts,The Thee.g., writing ,writing double of ofvwāw- soundsv-sounds and doubleshows shows ayōḏ numberain , numbersee Yiddish below of ofvariation. .Certain variations .letters Ins. InTurkic Turkicwhich texts, were/texts, singleare single characteristic andThe and doublewriting doublewāw of medieval vand-sounds the letterHebrewshows bê a ṯandnumber and Yiddish bê ṯof with variation are rā p̄ ehs . areIn Turkicused to texts, represent single vand-sounds double, e.g., , in Trakai .and awzun double ‘its yōḏmouth, see below אַװְזוּן awure.g.,, ‘heavy’,double wāw אַווּר,used in Turkic texts, e.g.,, double wāw and double yōḏ, seeʻdweller below. ʼ in Psalm 91 (Csatóused 2011,in Turkic 15); texts קַרוּב tełew ʻpaymentʼ and טֵ ילֵ י װ tatuwu ‘its taste’ in Halich Karaim (Olach 2013, 40); and ,to tatuwurepresent ‘its taste’v-sounds in Halich, e.g., ,Karaim in Trakai (Olach 2013ט ַטוּבֿוּ rā tatuwup̄ eh are vs. usedט ַטוּבוּ wāw and the letter bê(ACCṯ and) ’bê andṯ with v-sounds olturu, e.g.,βč,u in ʻdweller Trakaiʼ in Psalm 91 אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ צוּ bê tölewinṯ with ʻitsrāp ̄ ehpayment are used (ACC to )ʼrepresent and ט י וֹ ַ ל י andװִ . י ṯן The writing wāwof wāwv- soundsand and the theshows letter letter abê number ṯbê andṯ and bê of ṯbê withvariationṯ with rāused prā̄ ehs. p in̄ Inehare Turkic Turkicare used used texts, texts,to torepresent e.g., representsingle, double andv- soundsv -doublewāwsounds, ande.g., ,wāw e.g.,double, in ,and in Trakai yōḏ Trakaithe, Karaim seeletter below bê number karuw of ʻanswerʼ variation ins . In Turkic texts, single and double קרוaבֿ .of karuw v-sounds ʻanswerʼ shows vs ק ַרוּב tełew single ʻpaymentʼ andThe double andwriting ט,texts ֵילֵיװ The writing of v-sounds shows a number of variations40);. In Turkicand olturu). Furthermore,βču ʻdweller ʼ in Psalm 91 390 ,אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ 2011 צוּ ʻanswerʼtölewin ʻits in Lutskpayment Karaim (ACC (Németh)ʼ and ט י וֹ ַ ל י װִ karuwי ן קרוֿב .karuw ʻanswerʼ Karaimvs טַ טוּֿבוּ .91tatuw u vs טַטוּבוּ awzun olturu ‘its mouthβču ʻdweller (ACC)ʼ’ inand Psalm ַ א װְ אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ ז וּ ןצוּ ,’aw (ACCur and‘heavy)ʼ doubleand אַ single ו וּ andר ;stölewin .of In the 2011,Turkic letter ʻits 15) paymenttexts,bêṯ ט Csató 91)י וֹ ַ ל 91י װִ י ן v-sounds olturu, 390). e.g.,olturu showsβ, Furthermore, činuβ č ʻu Trakaidweller aʻ dwellernumber ʼKaraim theinʼ ofin Psalmcombination variationPsalm,2011 אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ ofsounds- צוּאוֹלְטוּרוּבְ v צוּ withtölewin rā ʻitsp ̄ ehʻits payment arepayment usedLutsk (ACC to (KaraimACCThe represent)ʼ andwriting)ʼ (Némethand ט tölewinṯי וֹ ַ ל ט bêי י װִ וֹ ַ לי י ןװִ andי ןwāw and the letterKaraimKaraim bê ṯ wāw and the letter bêṯ and bêṯ with rāp̄ eh are used to represent v-sounds, e.g.,wāw, in Trakaiand the letter bêṯ and bêṯ with rāp̄ eh are used to represent v-sounds, e.g.,, in Trakai ,Ianbay) טַ טוּ’pure ֿבוּ .tatuw‘to becomeu vs -טַ טוּבוּ and aruvlanaruvlan ’(אָרוּבְ ׳לַנ-in awin Krimchak, zunKrimchak, ‘its mouth e.g.,e.g., ,( ACC ַ א װְ ז וּ ן a aawgeresh gereshur ‘heavy also also occurs’, occursאַ ו וּ ר the combination(Csató of the 2011,letter bê15)ṯ ;and קַרוּב and טַ טוּֿבוּ tełuew vs. ʻpaymentʼ טֵ tatuwילֵ י טַ װט וּבוּ aw Karaimin zun Trakai ‘its (Olach mouth 2013 (ACC, 40))’ and; and , ַ א װְ ז וּ ,.e.gן ,its aw ur taste’v -‘soundsheavy in ’, Halich‘אַ ו וּ ר represent; טַ ט totatuwuוּ(15טַ ֿבוּט וּֿבוּ p(Csató ̄ tatuweh uare vs.u 2011, vs.usedטַ tatuwט rāטַ 91 וּבוּט וּבוּ and awzun olturuzun the‘its ‘ β itslettermouthču mouthʻdweller bê (ACCṯ (andACCʼ )in ’ bêand )Psalm’ṯ andwith ַ אװְ aw ז ַ א וּ װְ ן wāwז אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ וּ ,’ן צוּ,’ awur ur‘)ʼheavy ‘andheavy אַ ACC)ו awוּ אַ ר ו;וּ ר ;(Csató tölewin(Csató 2011, ʻits2011, payment15) 15) ט י וֹ ַ ל י װִ י ן Karaim olturuβču ʻdwellerʼ in Psalm 91 אוֹלְטוּרוּבְ צוּ tölewin ʻits payment (ACC)ʼ and ט י וֹ ַ ל י װִ 91י ן Erdal olturu 1998,βč u13). ʻdwellerʼ inKaraim Psalmאוֹלְטוּרוּבְ צוּ tölewin ʻits payment (ACC)ʼ and ט י וֹ ַ ל י װִ י ן Karaim קַרוּב tełew ʻpaymentʼ and טֵ ילֵ י װ to become pure’tatuwu (Ianbay, ‘its Erdal taste’ 1998 in , Halich 13). Karaim (Olach 2013, 40); and‘ קַרוּב tełew ʻpaymentʼ and טֵ ילֵ י װ tatuwu ‘its taste’ in Halich Karaim (Olach 2013, 40); and ,ʼkaruw in Psalm ʻanswerʼ 91 in Lutsk Karaim (Németh 2011, 390). Furthermore קרוֿב karuw olturu ʻanswerʼβču vs.ʻdwellerקַרוּבאוֹלְטוּרוּבְ קַרוּבצוּ ʼ and and( טַ ʻpaymentʼ(ACCטוּ ֿבוּu ewtełvs.ew ʻpaymentʼטֵ paymentteł ילֵ יטֵ װילֵ ʻitsיtatuw װטַ טand ;וּבוּand 40)tölewin; and,ט י (40’וֹ ( ַ ל ,י װִ 2013 י ן (Olach ( 2013ACC aw Karaimzun Karaim ‘its (Olach12mouthKaraim ַ א װְ Halich ז וּ ןaw‘its ur‘its taste’ ‘ heavy taste’ in’, in Halich אַ ו וּ רCsató 2011, 15)tatuwu; tatuwu) טַ טוּֿבוּ .tatuwu vs טַ טוּבוּ aw a labialzun ‘ vowelits mouth in (ACC)’ and ַ א װְ ז וּ ן awof wāwur ‘ heavyclearly ’,indicates אַ ו useוּ ר ;but15) the ,טַ טוּqoyji,2011 ֿבוּ tatuw the(Csató wordu vs. as טַ טוּבוּ awzun ‘its mouth (ACCIanbay)’ and transcribes ַ א װְ ז וּ ן ,’awur ‘heavy אַ ו וּ ר ;(Csató 2011, 15) ,consonantsfinal karuw position. ʻanswerʼ due to Slavicin Lutsk influence Karaim (Pritsak (Németh 1959, 2011 328), 390. ). Furthermoreקרו ֿב .Spoken Karaimkaruw contains ʻanswerʼ palatised vs -aruvlan אָרוּבְ ׳לַנ- ,,.geresh (Németh also occurs 2011 in, Krimchak,390). Furthermore, e.gטַ Karaimaט וּֿבוּ tatuwletter in ubê vs.Lutskṯ and טַ טʻanswerʼ theוּבוּ karuw’ and of( קרוֿבkaruw Furthermore,aw). Furthermore,zun ʻ answerʼ‘its mouththe vs. combination ( ACC ַ .א (װְ 390ז וּ ,ן 390קַרוּב ,’ ,aw(Némethur ‘ heavy2011 and 2011 אַ ʻpaymentʼ(Némethו וּ ר ;Karaim 15)teł Karaimewטֵ ילֵ י Lutskװ ,karuw karuw 2013 ʻanswerʼ ʻanswerʼ, 40)(Csató; inand inLutsk 2011 קרוֿבOlach) קרוֿב .tatuwu ‘its taste’karuw karuwin Halichʻanswerʼ ʻanswerʼ Karaim vs. vs קַרוּב tełew ʻpaymentʼ and טֵ ילֵ י װ its taste’ in Halich Karaim (Olach 2013, 40); and‘קַרוּב tełew ʻpaymentʼtatuwu and טֵ ילֵ י װ tatuwu ‘its taste’ in Halich Karaim (Olach 2013, 40); and -aruvlan אָרוּבְ ׳לַנ - ,According to Pritsak,the combination the palatalised of the consonantsletter bêṯ and are a gereshsystematically also occurs represented in Krimchak, by yōḏe.g., in -aruvlan אָרוּבְ ׳לַנ- ,,.occurs, 13). in Krimchak, e.g קַרוּב pure’teł ewbê (ṯ Ianbay,ʻpaymentʼand a geresh Erdal and also1998 טֵ letterילֵ י װcombination 2013 aruvlan aruvlan, 40)-‘to ; -and ofbecome theאָרוּבְ אָרוּבְ ׳לַנthe- ,׳לַנ- combination karuw ofʻanswerʼ ofthe the letter letterin bêLutsk ṯbê andṯ andKaraim a tatuwugeresh a geresh (Németh also‘its also taste’occurs 2011occurs in in, 390 HalichKrimchak,in Krimchak,). Furthermore, Karaim e.g., e.g., ,(Olachקרו ֿב karuw ʻanswerʼthe vs.the combination ,karuw ʻanswerʼ in Lutsk Karaim (Németh 2011, 390). Furthermore קרוֿב .karuw ʻanswerʼ in Lutsk Karaim (Németh 2011, 390). Furthermore,karuw ʻanswerʼ vs קרוֿב .karuw ʻanswerʼ vs ‘to become pure’ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 13). .(aruvlanʻanswerʼ- ‘toin Lutskbecome Karaim pure’S ((NémethpokenIanbay, Karaim Erdal2011 , 1998 contains390), .13). Furthermore, palatised consonants due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959, 328 אָרוּבְ karuw׳לַנ - ,קרוֿב ,.the combination‘to of‘to become the become letter pure’ bêpure’ṯ (andIanbay, (Ianbay, a geresh Erdal Erdal also 1998 1998occurs, 13).karuw, 13). in Krimchak,ʻanswerʼ vs. e.g -aruvlan אָרוּבְ ׳לַנ- ,,.the aruvlancombination- of the letter bêṯ and a geresh also occurs in Krimchak, e.gאָרוּבְ ׳לַנ- ,,.the combination of the letter bêṯ and a geresh also occurs in Krimchak,18 e.g Spoken Karaim contains palatised consonants due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959, 328). palatalised aruvlan due- consonants to Slavic influence are systematically (Pritsak 1959, represented 328). by yōḏ in אָרוּבְ theconsonants ׳לַנ- ,,.to become pure’ (SIanbay,pokenSpoken KaraimErdal Karaim 1998 contains contains, 13). palatised palatised consonantsthe consonants combination due due to of toSlavic the Slavic letter influence influence bêṯ and (Pritsak a(Pritsak geresh 1959,S pokenalso1959, 328) occurs Karaim328).According . in Krimchak,contains to palatised Pritsak, e.g‘ ‘to become pure’ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 13). ‘to become pure’ (Ianbay, Erdal 1998, 13). According to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented by yōḏ in Spoken KaraimAccordingAccording contains to palatised to Pritsak, Pritsak, consonants the the palatalised palatalised due ‘toto consonants Slavic consonantsbecome influence pure’ are are systematically ( Ianbay, systematically(Pritsak Erdal 1959, represented1998 328)represented, 13).. According by byyōḏ yōḏ toin in Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented by yōḏ in Spoken Karaim contains palatised consonants due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959,Spoken 328) Karaim. contains palatised consonants due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959, 328). 18 According to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematicallySpoken Karaim represented contains palatised by yōḏ consonantsin due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959, 328). According to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented18According by yōḏ in to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented by yōḏ in 18 18 18 According to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented by yōḏ in

18 18 18

EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 73

Spoken Karaim contains palatalised consonants due to Slavic influence (Pritsak 1959, 328). According to Pritsak, the palatalised consonants are systematically represented by yōḏ in Trakai Karaim and partly in Halich Karaim texts (Pritsak 1959, 326). If we consider how the examples provided by Pritsak are written in the Trakai Karaim translation of the Book of Proverbs, we see the following:13

Table 4. The function of the Hebrew letter yōḏ in Trakai Karaim texts Words in Pritsak’s transcription Words occurring in the Book of Proverbs דֵײִן d’äyiń ʻuntil, tillʼ איוּסְטיוּנַיא üśt’uńa ʻontoʼ איוֹז öź ʻselfʼ

It is clear that there is no yōḏ following the consonant z in öź ʻselfʼ, after the consonant s in üśt’uńa ʻontoʼ or after the consonant n in d’äyiń ʻuntil, tillʼ. This means that the palatalisation is not indicated in the text or only partly. If the yōḏ does not indicate palatalisation, then it functions as a part of the vowel; i.e., the yōḏ is the element of the vowel sign combination that represents ä in d’äyiń ʻuntil, tillʼ, it is part of the vowel ö in öź ʻselfʼ, and it forms part of the vowel ü in üśt’uńa ʻontoʼ. If the yōḏ functions to indicate palatalisation, it is not indicated consistently in the Karaim texts. The most obvious case can be observed in Lutsk Karaim materials, where yōḏ serves a clear palatalisation function; however, it occurs only once in the word ʻGodʼ teńri ʻGodʼ (Németh 2011, 377). In Halich Karaim texts, the טֵינְירִי :in letter no. 5 palatalisation is not indicated at all.

History of the Hebrew script among the Turkic peoples

The notion that conversion to a religion results in the establishment of the alphabet of that particular religion is generally accepted. Since there is no written historical evidence for a conversion to Judaism among the Turkic-speaking peoples, no circumstances of the introduction of the Hebrew script into the Turkic groups are known. However, it is not only the lack of historical sources that poses challenges in the study of the Turkic-Hebrew script, but also, for example, in the case of the Krimchaks, the shortage of materials published in their language and of scholarly studies on the use of the Hebrew script in it. It is thus an important task to locate additional sources and make them available for future investigations into the Krimchak language and orthography.

13 Examples were taken from Pritsak 1959, 332–3. 74 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

The history of the Hebrew script used in Turkic-speaking groups is much better documented in the Karaim communities; i.e., the most publications in the Hebrew script are available in Karaim and it is the changes in the orthography used by the Karaim that can best be examined. Therefore, in the following, I describe the history of Karaim orthography and the key factors that shaped its development. In the Middle Ages and up to the beginning of the nationalist movements in the nineteenth century, the collective identity was usually based on religion, e.g., the self-identification of the Krimchaks was yehudi ʻJewsʼ or srel balalarï ʻchildren of Israelʼ until the end of the nineteenth century, when they started to call themselves Krimchaks (Zand, Kharuv 2007, 357). Similarly to the Krimchaks, the Karaim used religion-based terms for themselves, such as yehudim ʻJewsʼ or yehudim qaraʼim ʻKaraim Jewsʼ (Harviainen 2003a, 642). Certain changes in Karaim self-identification ensued in the early nineteenth century after most of the Karaim communities fell under the control of the Russian Empire with the partition of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795. In 1795, the Crimean Karaim sent a delegation to St Petersburg to request an exemption from the double taxation levied on Jews in the Russian Empire. Claiming that they were Karaites, they succeeded in persuading the Russian authorities to exempt the Karaim from paying double taxes (Harviainen 2003a, 648). In 1827, the Karaim again sent a delegation to St. Petersburg to be released from the military service expected of Jews in return for paying a special tax. The process continued with the official separation from the administrative bodies of the Rabbanite Jews in 1837 with the establishment of the Karaim Spiritual Consistory (Harviainen 2003a, 649). The nationalist movement in nineteenth-century Europe also influenced the Karaim movement,14 as captured in their desire to seek out their origins, which prompted them to turn to their Turkic roots and to strengthen their Turkic self- identification. Shifting from a religious minority to an ethnic minority caused many changes, for instance, in their attitude to the Karaim language. Soon the Karaim started to publish in their vernacular, e.g., Zemerler, a collection of Karaim canonical and semi-canonical poetry and the literary almanac Onarmach ʻDevelopment, Successʼ.15 Moreover, their Karaim language was introduced into the ceremonies held in kenesa, the house of prayer (Harviainen 2003a, 650). The growing gap between Rabbanite Jews and the Karaim and the change in self- identification and attitude towards the Karaim language also caused changes in their attitude towards the Hebrew script that the Karaim had used for centuries.

14 Harviainen calls this period “Emancipation” (2003a, 648–51). 15 For publications in Karaim language, see Walfish (2003). For a periodisation of Karaim literature, see Shapira (2003, 665–6). EMERGENCE OF A NEW WRITTEN CULTURE 75

First, the Crimean Karaim community switched from the Hebrew orthography. They shifted from Karaim to Crimean Tatar—and also to Russian—during the nineteenth century. They had therefore lost their ability to read the Hebrew script by that time. They also introduced the Cyrillic alphabet for writing Karaim texts (Csató, Nathan 2007, 211). The first publication with the new alphabet was a book of poems (Yrlar ʻPoemsʼ) written in 1904 by Kobiecki, a Russian officer of Karaim descent, in the Trakai Karaim variety (Shapira 2003, 676). The new literacy tradition still continues among the Karaim of Russia. Halich and Trakai Karaim communities used Hebrew script up to Soviet times, but they also developed a Latin script based on Polish orthography (Csató, Nathan 2007, 212). Among the first publications in this alphabet was a journal, the Karaj awazy edited by Aleksander Mardkowicz from 1931 on, and a dictionary, the Karaj sez-bitigi ʻKaraim Dictionaryʼ published also by Aleksander Mardkowicz in 1935. World War II prompted new changes in Karaim orthography. Lithuania fell under the supremacy of the Soviet Union, and thus the medium of education became Lithuanian and Russian. Since then, the Trakai Karaim community started to use Cyrillic orthography. In order to escape Russian control, many members of the Halich Karaim community migrated from their homeland to Poland during the Soviet period and continued to use the Polish-based Latin alphabet (Csató, Nathan 2007, 213). The collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in another change in the Karaim orthography as the Lithuanian-based Latin orthography was created in the Karaim community of newly independent Lithuania, e.g., Karaj koltchalary (ʻPrayers of Karaimʼ) edited by Mykolas Firkovičius and published in 1993, Mień karajče ürianiam (ʻI learn Karaimʼ) written by Mykolas Firkovičius and published in 1996. Nowadays, the Karaim are not literate in the Hebrew script.

Conclusions

The history of the Karaim and the history of Karaim orthography show an interesting parallelism with the European nationalist movements that started in the nineteenth century. At the outset, the Karaim movement had a religious background, since the desire to be dealt with separately from the Rabbanite Jews in the region motivated the first actions. Later, however, the movement entered the domain of ethnic issues. This was, on the one hand, inspired by representatives of the Russian authorities who, in 1839, put a number of questions related to the origins of the Karaim and their faith to the Karaim Spiritual Consistory (Harviainen 2003c: 880). This change in the Karaim movement was also the result of influence from the surrounding societies with whom the Karaim had constant and close contact. As Harviainen states: “it would be a real 76 ZSUZSANNA OLACH

miracle if the Karaims … had remained untouched by other national movements [in Europe—Zs. O.]” (2013a, 53). Although the theory of a Khazar origin was first deeply investigated by Abraham Firkowicz, who was entrusted by the Karaim to ascertain the answers to questions from the Russian authorities, according to Troskovaite, it was Seraja Szapszal who played the most important role in the formation of a pure Turkic self-identification among the Karaim (2013, 217). It is also remarkable how the orthography reflects a parallel history with Karaim self-identification. As long as the Karaim regarded themselves as Karaite believers, the Hebrew language and the Hebrew script played an almost exclusive role in Karaim written culture. The strengthening of Turkic self-identification, however, had a weakening effect on the importance of the Hebrew language and thus on the use of the Hebrew script. Nevertheless, it would be narrow-minded to disregard the role of contemporary political and historical circumstances in the process of shifts in orthography. For instance, the language, religion and minority policy of the Soviet Union contributed to the disappearance of religious practice, e.g., among Krimchaks, and to the dispersion of communities—including those of the Karaim. As a result, the Turkic vernacular vanished among the Krimchaks and that of the Karaim has become extremely endangered.

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Zsuzsanna Olach, Ph.D. ([email protected]), researcher, MTA-SZTE Tur- kological Research Group *: Egyetem u. 2, 6722 Szeged, Hungary