The Languages of the Jews: a Sociolinguistic History Bernard Spolsky Index More Information

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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-05544-5 - The Languages of the Jews: A Sociolinguistic History Bernard Spolsky Index More information

Index

Abu El-Haj, Nadia, 178 Alliance Israélite Universelle, 128, 195, 197, Afrikaans, 15, 243 238, 239, 242, 256 learned by Jews, 229 Almohads, 115 Afrikaaners forced conversions, 115 attitude to Jews, 229 Granada, 139 Afro-Asiatic persecution, 115, 135, 138 language family, 23 alphabet Agudath Israel, 252 Hebrew, 30 Yiddish, 209 Alsace, 144 Ahaz, 26, 27 became French, 196 Akkadian, 20, 23, 24, 25, 26, 30, 36, 37, expulsion, 125 39, 52 Alsace and Lorraine borrowings, 60 Jews from East, 196 Aksum, 91 al-Yahūdiyya, 85 al-Andalus, 105, 132, 133 Amarna, 19 emigration, 135 American English Jews a minority, 133 Yiddish inﬂuence, 225 Jews’ languages, 133 Amharic, 5, 8, 9, 90, 92 languages, 136 Amoraim, 60 Aleppo, 102 Amsterdam emigration, 225 Jewish publishing, 169 Jewish Diasporas, 243 Jewish settlement, 198 Jewish settlement, 243 multilingualism, 31 Alexander the Great, 46 Anglo-Israelite beliefs, 93 Alexandria, 47, 59, 103 anti-language, 44 Hebrew continuity, 48 Antiochus, 47, 56 Jews, 103 Antipas, 119 Alfonso X, 137 Antwerp Algeria, 115 Anusim, 199 consistories, 236 multilingualism, 199 emigration, 197, 236, 237 Yiddish maintained, 199 French rule, 234 Antwerpian Brabantic, 18 French schools, 236 Anusim, 132, 139, 232 Jews acquire French, 236 Algeria, 115 Vichy policy, 236 Belgium, 199

342

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Index 343

emigration, 135 replaces Hebrew, 29, 30, 32, 35, 39, 40, 44, in Brazil, 231 53, 60 in Corfu, 165 script, 29, 44 in England, 193 spread, 33 in France, 195 status, 66 in Morocco, 237 Targumim, 67 in Netherlands, 193, 198 varieties, 60, 61 in Salonika, 161 vernacular, 52 in Venice, 167 Archelaus, 119 in Yavan, 160 archisynagogos, 59, 70, 173 Inquisition, 138, 164 Argentina, 230 London, 218 Jewish colonization association, 231 Mexico, 232 Jewish population, 230 multilingualism, 129 Russian Jews, 203 Apocrypha, 22 Spanish replaces Yiddish, 231 Apulian, 165 Arles, 121 Arab historians Jewish remains, 119 as source, 84 Armenian, 4, 11 Arabia Arta, 161 conversions, 83 Ashanti, 93 Jewish settlement, 83 Ashdodese, 30, 39, 40 Jewish tribes, 83, 85 Ashkenaz, 46, 118, 120, 122, Arabic 144, 146 adopted by Jews, 80 contrasted to Yavan, 162 Ancient, 84 language situation, 156 diffused by conquest, 80 Ashkenazim, 4 elite language, 97 Arabic, 254 in Israel, 6 Belgium, 199 in Ottoman Palestine, 253 converts, 178 ofﬁcial in 700 CE, 97 in Denmark, 200 Palestinian, 5, 9, 252 in Egypt, 238 purism, 111 in Hong Kong, 245 replaces Aramaic, 99, 100 in London, 218 replaces Coptic, 111 in Netherlands, 198 Arabicization, 109, 110 in Ottoman Palestine, 251 speed, 111 in Turkey, 242 Arabs, Israeli, 4, 5, 9 in Venice, 167 Aramaic, 11, 22, 23 Assyria, 26, 27, 29 ancient texts, 24 Augustine continuity, 109, 111 and Jews, 119 current varieties, 4 Australia Elephantine, 27 Jewish settlement, 229 eulogies, 66 Austria, 244 for contracts, 28 emancipation, 194 imperial language, 26 languages, 207 in ﬁrst century, 61 autobiographical account, 216 in Talmud, 67 Avignon Jewish Babylonian, 78 Jewish settlement, 123 language of contracts, 43 Nabatean, 61 Babel oral translation, 41 Tower of, 19 Philistines, 23 Babylon piyyutim,78 Aramaic, 41 Qumran, 48, 60 exile, 28, 29, 40, 75 replaced by Arabic, 67 Babylonian, 26

344 Index

Babylonian Talmud, 75 medieval kingdom, 91 Baghdad, 106 origins, 91 caliphate, 134 recognized as Jews, 92 Baghdadi Jews Bevis Marks synagogue, 218 in India, 246 Béziers, 121 Bar Kokhba archive, 48, 53 Bible Bar Kokhba revolt, 43, 54, 55, 63, 64, archeological evidence, 22 68, 81 as source, 84 Bar Kokhba, Simon, 81 dating, 20, 25, 36, 38 Bar-Asher, Moshe, 54, 60 Ge’ez, 36 Barcelona, 136 Gothic, 130 disputation, 137 Judeo-Arabic, 114 Jewish scholarship, 136 Judeo-Persian, 107 Jews, 139 Judeo-Tajik, 107 Baron, Salo, 151 languages, 36 Baruch ben Isaac, 152 malleability, 56 batei midrash oral transmission, 20 Roman Palestine, 69 Romance translations, 143 Bedouin, 4, 5, 11 translation, 47 soldiers, 97 Yemenite manuscripts, 90 Beit Guvrin, 64 bilingualism Belgium, 199 Hebrew–Aramaic, 60 Holocaust, 199 Bilu, 251, 256 language policy, 14 Birnbaum, Nathan, 209, 252 Belorussia Jewish language names, 144 emigration, 202 Knaanic, 171 expulsions, 201 Birobidzan Yiddish, 205 Yiddish, 205 Yiddish press, 204 Black Death, 118, 149, 150, 187 Ben Sirah, 38 Barcelona, 139 Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer, 257, 260 Saragossa, 140 spoke only Hebrew, 256 Toledo, 139 Zionism, 255 Black Hebrews Bene Ephraim, 246 in Israel, 94 Bene Israel, 245 Black Jews, 92 Bene Menashe, 247 Blau, Joseph, 112 Benjamin of Tudela, 139, 161, 163, Middle Arabic, 87 164 Blois, 124 Arles, 121 Blommaert, Jan, 73, 142 Bari, 164 Blondheim, David, 143 Corfu, 164 blood libel, 203 Fustat, 114 Blois, 124 Khaybar, 87 Cyrene, 160 Lunel, 121 in Spain, 137 Marseiles, 121 Mainz, 149 Narbonne, 120 northern France, 122 Sril Lanka, 247 Norwich, 127 Berbers, 78, 110 Saragossa, 140 Judaized tribes, 115 Speyer, 150 bet midrash, 38 Trani, 164 Beta Israel, 5, 9, 90 Troyes, 124 decline, 92 Bodo, 133, 138 discovery, 92 Bonﬁl, Robert, 166 in Israel, 8 Book of Enoch, 22 language, 8 Book of Jubilees, 54

Index 345

Bordeaux Caucasus, 241 Jewish remains, 119 censuses, 36 Boyarin, Daniel, 64 Champagne, 119 Brazil Charlemagne, 148 Jewish settlement, 231 emperor, 118 Britain owned Jews, 118 Ashkenazi migration, 219 Chazan, Robert, 151 Jewish resettlement, 217 Chile, 232 Royal Commission on Aliens, 219 Chmielnicki massacres, 154 British mandate, 261 Chomsky, William, 25 language policy, 10 Christianity Brook, Kevin, 175 and Jews, 122, 130, 163 Brussels and Judaism, 64, 119 Jewish assimilation, 199 ofﬁcial under Constantine, 103 massacre, 199 Chuadit, 120, 125, 126, 143 Buenos Aires, 231 Cilicia, 59 Bukhara Circassian, 11 Jewish immigration to USA, 224 Clearchus of Soli, 47 Bukhori, 224, 241 Cochin Jews, 246 Bund codices Yiddish, 203 replace scrolls, 99 Burma Cologne, 124 Jews, 247 Jewish settlement, 147 Byzantine Empire, 65, 97 community Byzantium, 65 language and speech, 3 conquest Caesarea, 49, 59 Islamic, 95 Cairo Genizah, 20, 66, 69, 75, 78, 87, consistories 99, 104 in France, 196 Judeo-Arabic, 112 Constantine, 64 letters from merchants, 89 and Jews, 119 Caliphates, 98 persecution of Jews, 114 calque languages, 184 restrictions, 160 Camp Ramah, 225 Constantinople, 75 Canaan conversion to Christianity languages, 19 Berbers, 78 multilingual, 24 German emancipation, 194 multilingualism, 34 conversos. See Anusim population, 22 Cooper, Robert Canaanite, 24 language spread, 32 Canada Coptic, 103 Jewish migration, 226 vernacular, 111 language policy, 14 Cordova, 135, 138 Cantonists, 201 autonomy, 134 Capet dynasty caliphate, 134 and Jews, 120 Corfu Carolingians, 118, 121 Apulian dialect, 165 Carthage, 110 emigration, 161 inscriptions, 114 expulsion, 160 Jewish settlement, 114 ghetto, 165 Jews, 109 Jewish settlement, 164 Cassius Dio, 64 languages, 165 catacombs multilingualism, 165 inscriptions, 163 co-territorial multilingualism, 32 Catalan, 138 Counter-Reformation, 154

346 Index

Cracow Diaspora Yeshiva, 173 Greek and Aramaic, 79 Crémieux, Alfred, 236 language loss, 3 Crimea synagogues, 71 Jewish settlement, 175 diglossia, 30, 52, 53, 111 Cromwell, Oliver, 193 definition and examples, 7 crusades Dijon England, 124, 127 Jews, 123 First, 121, 122, 124, 148, 150, 151, 153, Diophysites, 97, 103 160, 171 Disraeli, Benjamin, 218 Second, 148, 149 documentary hypothesis, 56 Second and Third, 124 documentary theory, 36 shepherds, 124 domains Crypto-Jews. See Anusim business, 12 culture areas definition, 7 Jewish, 144 government, 13 cuneiform, 18, 20, 24, 30, 37 Israel, 7 Cush, 80, 91 media, 12 Cyrenaica religion, 11 Jews, 109 schooling, 10 revolt, 81 workplace, 12 Cyrene, 59 Doughty, Charles Montagu, 87 Cyril Druze, 4 pogrom, 114 Dunash ben Labrat, 134 Cyrus, 29, 39 Dutch Czech replaces Yiddish, 199 replaces Yiddish, 209 Yiddish origin, 147 eastern Europe Czechoslovakia, 209 emigration, 217 Czernowitz, 255 nationalist ideologies, 207 congress, 141, 207, 209, 252 Eastern Yiddish, 185 Eck, Werner, 59 Dacia, 171 eduba (scribal schools in Sumeria), 37 Dagestan, 241 education Dagobert Roman Palestine, 69 expelled Jews, 119 Egypt, 102, 135 Damascus affair, 243 caliphate, 134 Danish emigration, 239, 240 replaces Yiddish, 200 exile, 25 Dari, 111 Greek, 47, 97 Darius, 39, 106 Greek and Coptic, 111 Darshanim, 77 Islamic conquest, 95, 102 Dauphin, Claudine, 67 Jewish community divisions, 238 de Vaux, Roland, 57 Jewish community languages, 239 Dead Sea Scrolls, 20, 22, 36, 43, 53, 54, 55, 56 Jewish immigration, 238 Aramaic influence, 43 Egyptian, 52 demotiki, 74 Elephantine, 27 Denmark languages, 52 Sephardim, 200 Elhaik, Eran, 178 dhimma, 86 emancipation, 191 Dhimmi Emmaus, 64 language restrictions, 87 England women, 86 expulsion, 127 dhimmitude,86 Jews, 126 dialects, 72 medieval Jewish multilingualism, 128

Index 347

English Vichy, 197 for Jewish immigrants to UK, 216 francophonie, 234 in Israel, 5, 6, 8, 263 Frankfurt parliament, 194 in Jewish Diaspora, 264 Frankish, 133, 155 Jewish variety, 225 Frederick I Barbarossa, 152 legal use, 12 French English Jews in Jewish schools, 10 assimilation, 219 in Israel, 5, 6, 8 Enoch language of schools, 196 in Aramaic, 52 Mizrahim, 9 Esperanto, 214 French language policy, 235 Essenes, 57, 58, 64 French Revolution, 195 Estonia emancipation, 196 minority rights, 211 Jewish citizenship, 125 Yiddish, 211 Frumspeak, 225 Ethiopia Fustat conversion, 84 Jews, 104, 114 Jews, 90, 91 Ethnarchate, 119 Galicia Eusebius, 74 Polish, 207 Evelina de Rothschild school, 257 Galilee Exilarchate, 75, 98, 101 in third century CE, 65 Eyak, 1 Ganzfried, Shlomo, 250 eyewitness accounts, 20 Gaon, Sa’adya, 113 Ezra, 39, 41, 56 Gaonim, 67, 98 Gaul, 71, 118 Faitlovitch, Joseph, 92 Romanized, 118 Farsi, 106, 107 Ge’ez, 22, 54, 55, 90 US Jews, 224 Bible translation, 20 Fatimid, 104 Christian language, 91 Fatimids, 114 texts, 24 Feder, Tuvya, 206 Gedaliah, 28 Fernandez, Perez, 54 Gedud lemeginei hasafa, 259, 261 Fine, Steven, 75 genetic evidence, 175, 177 Finland problems, 177 emancipation, 200 Geneva language policy, 14 Hebrew publishing, 169 languages, 201 German Fishman, David, 204 component of Yiddish, 146, 180 Fishman, Joshua, 13 in Jewish schools, 10 diglossia, 117 Old High, 118 domains, 7 replaces Czech, 153 evidence, 17 replaces Yiddish, 140, 206 Jewish languages, 141 German Jews Jewish languages deﬁned, 144 in USA, 223 language loyalty, xi, 1, 15, 225 Germanic tribes, 118 language maintenance, 29, 267 Germany, 194, 201 Folk Shule, 226 civil rights, 194 foreign workers emancipation, 194 language, 5 expulsions, 187 Fraade, Stephen, 66 Jewish printers, 168 France Judenrein, 195 expulsion, 118, 125 Gershom ben Yehudah, 149 Jewish emancipation, 195 ghetto, 153 resettlement, 128 as mode of accommodation, 166

348 Index

ghetto (cont.) Gumperz, John, 3 Britain, 219 evidence, 17 Corfu, 165 Gymnasia Herzliya, 259 Mainz, 150 Paris, 124 Hadrian, 64, 81 sociolinguistic effects, 166 Haile Selassie, 92 Speyer, 150 Haketia, 116, 129, 136, 140, 166 Venice, 165 in Morocco, 237 Vienna, 154 Harbin Gil, Moshe, 87 Jewish community languages, 245 Glasgow Jewish settlement, 244 Jewish settlement, 217, 219 Haredim, 4 glosses language in Israel, 4 loazit, 126 Yiddish, 10 Old Czech, 153 Hasdai ibn Shaprut, 134, 174 Old French, 117, 126 and Khazars, 176 Provensal, 125 Hasidei Ashkenaz, 149, 152 Golb, Norman, 57 Hasidim, 7, 149 Golombek, Zvi, 220 Yiddish, 4, 209, 221, 225, 227 Goodblatt, David, 68 Yiddish maintenance, 220 Gothic Hasidism bilingualism with Latin, 131 origin, 186 Christian liturgy, 131 Haskalah, 140, 202 literature, 131 German influence, 206 replaced by Latin, 131, 145 in Hungary, 212 Goths Haugen, Einar, 3 Romanization, 131 hazzan, 66 sack Rome, 131 Hebrew Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale, 13 as a Jewish language, 144, 264, 265 Granada, 139 as language of instruction, 10 Jews, 134 at Qumran, 44, 48 remained Arab, 137 at tertiary level, 10 Greece before exile, 30 Jewish settlement, 160 Brazil, 232 Southern Loez, 159 Christian knowledge, 79 Greek Classical, 29 at Qumran, 48 component of Yiddish, 179 Caesarea, 69 continuity, 3, 30, 32, 40, 42, 43, 44, 48, 53, Christian use, 61 54, 58, 60, 61, 64, 65, 67, 90, 100, 101, Gamaliel, 69 107, 124, 127, 128, 134, 135, 136, 154, in first century, 60 156, 160, 162, 249 in Diaspora, 47 Dead Sea Scrolls, 43, 54 in Egypt, 103 dialects, 23 in Judea, 47 direct method, 257 in liturgy, 78 dominant in Israel, 7 in Talmud, 49 end of vernacular use, 63 inscriptions, 48 first kindergarten, 256 language of Jews, 46 grammar, 138 official in Eastern Empire, 65 historical periods, 37 Rabban Gamaliel, 49 ideology, 253, 254, 267 Rabbis, 48, 49 in nineteenth-century Palestine, 253 Roman use, 59 in Caucasus, 242 Septuagint, 48 in Estonia, 211 Greek and Latin authors in Iran, 241 translated into Arabic, 102 in Israel, 7, 262

Index 349

in Kitzur, 250 Hellenization, 63 in Latvia, 210 Henry IV, 150 in Lithuania, 211 Heraclius, 65, 81, 98, 101, 103, 103, 160 in Ottoman Palestine, 254 Herat in USA, 225 Jews, 108 inscriptions, 163 heretics kibbutzim, 257 others, 122 known by elite, 250 heritage languages language of creation, 51 in Israel, 263 liturgy, 78 Herzl, Theodor made ofﬁcial, 260 language attitude, 251 merged, 179 language views, 207 Mexico, 232 Hezekiah, 26, 27, 28, 30 Mishnaic, 30, 43, 44, 53, 54, 59, 60 Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden, 10, 195, 256, 259 Modern Israeli, 5 Hirsch, Baron Maurice de, 203 name, 22, 25 historical linguistics, 18 native speakers, 6 historical sociolinguistics, 36 natural intergenerational transmission, 63 hochmat yevanit, 49 obligation to teach, 50 Homer opposition to, 261 oral transmission, 37 origins, 19 Hong Kong, 245 peer pressure, 8 hospitals Pharisees, 55 language, 12 poetry, 113 Hovevei Zion, 203, 251 printing, 169 Hundred Years War, 118 publishing Hungary Italy, 169 emigration, 217 Qumran, 55 Holocaust, 213 religious “lingo”,42 Jewish language use, 212 replaced by Aramaic, 67 Jewish settlement, 173, 212 revernacularization, 249, 250 Jews set apart, 213 revitalization, 10, 249, 255 Yiddish, 207, 220 revival, 258 Hurvitz, Avi, 37 sacred language, 11 scholarly knowledge, 117 ibn Ezra, Abraham, 126 scholarship in Italy, 164 Iceland, 200 school pressure, 8 Igbo, 93 shift to Aramaic, 41 India varieties, 2 Jews, 245 Yemenite Jews, 90 Judeo-Arabic, 246 Hebrew Language Academy, 15, 17 Inquisition Hebrew Language College, 260 Cordova, 138 Hebrew Language Council, 260 in Venice, 167 Hebrew literacy Toledo, 139 east Europe, 249 inscriptions Hebrew printing, 168 as evidence, 18 moves from Spain to Italy, 169 Greek, 48 Hebrew publishing, 195 in Italy, 162 Venice, 167 in Rome, 162 Hebrew Teachers’ Association, 257 Judeo-Aramaic, 99, 99 Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 10, 259 Judeo-Persian, 108 heder, 8, 250 language, 163 Hejaz languages, 79 Jewish settlement, 85 Latin and Greek, 163 Hellenism, 46, 47 Persian, 75

350 Index

intergenerational oracy, 13 Jehoiachin, 28 intermarriage, 31, 43, 119 Jeremiah, 29 after emancipation, 194 Jerusalem, 12, 124, 253 among Patriarchs, 32 Aelia Capitolina, 64, 81, 98 Argentina, 230 Arabians, 83 as loss of identity, 39, 40 Aramaic, 53 banned, 130, 173 Byzantine conquest, 65 banned in Hungary, 213 captured by Titus, 81 condemned by Ezra, 39 conquered by Umar, 98 condemned by Nehemiah, 40 Greek inscription, 59 forbidden, 163 Greek synagogue, 59 in Far East, 243 inscriptions, 59 in Judah, 43 languages, 8, 253 in Soviet Russia, 205 multilingual in nineteenth century, in USA, 223 253 Nehemiah condemns, 53 multilingualism, 31 interpretation opposition to vernacular Hebrew, by editing, 57 256 Iran pilgrimages, 69 emigration, 241 public signage, 9 Islamic conquest, 105 siege, 26 Iraq, 95 Jesus Islam Jews for, 232 protection of minorities, 80 multilingual, 30 sacred texts, 29 preaching, 77 Islamic countries Jewish cultural areas, 184 emigration, 226 Jewish Dutch, 144, 199 no emancipation, 234 Jewish education Islamic law, 86 in medieval England, 127 Islamicization, 111 in Ottoman Palestine, 259 Israel Jewish genetics, 175 immigrant, Jewish geography, 184 language use, 5, 6 Jewish interlinguistics, 183 neighborhood language patterns, 9 Jewish languages speech communities, 4 definition, 74, 140 Israel Defense Forces list, 144 language management, 262 origins, 182 language policy, 11 shift to Gentile languages, 191 Israel, Jonathan, 166 Jewish Languages Website Israeli census, 4, 17 Jewish language names, 144 Israeli Census, 6 Jewish multilingualism Israeli universities at millennium, 155 Hebrew, 11 Jewish Polish, 144 Israelis Jewish revolts, 64, 65 in USA, 225 Jewish Russian, 144 Italy, 144, 148, 316 Jewish varieties, 73 Jewish settlement, 162 Jews Jews, 78 as blacks, 93 Jews in first century CE, 162 definition, 2 Southern Loez, 159 forced conversions, 132 Ivy League minority in fourth-century Palestine, 67 Jewish quotas, 223 Jews in USA assimilation, 223 Jackendoff, Ray, 55 Jews’ Free School, 216 Japan Anglicization, 219 Jews, 247 Jizya, 88, 97

Index 351

Josephus, 22, 38, 47, 58, 64, 69, 74 Judeo-Italian, 144 education, 69 dialects, 166, 168 learning Greek, 49 varieties, 164 om Jewish revolt, 81 Judeo-Latin, 105 on Diaspora, 80 Judeo-Malayalam, 246 on Essenes, 58 Judeo-Mantuan, 170 on scribes, 56 Judeo-Persian, 105, 144, 234, 241 Josiah, 22, 27, 28 inscriptions, 107 Judah, 27 literary language, 107 destroyed, 28 literature, 106 Persian rule, 39 texts, 107 Judah Benveniste de la Cavalleria, 140 vernacular, 106 Judah Halevi, 138 Judeo-Piedmontese, 170 Judah Loew ben Bezalel (the Maharal), 153 Judeo-Portuguese, 144 Judah Maccabee, 48 Judeo-Provençal, 120, 125 Judea Judeo-Roman, 168, 170 Aramaic as vernacular, 27 Judeo-Romance, 73, 79, 143, 144 Judeo-Alsatian, 144 Judeo-Shirazi, 241 Judeo-Arabic, 94, 105, 115, 125, 136, Judeo-Slavic, 144 144, 234 Yiddish origin, 147 in Israel, 5, 9 Judeo-Spanish, 116, 140, 143, 144, 162 in Toledo, 139 in USA, 222 Maghreb, 116 in Yavan, 160 Maimonides, 89 Salonika, 165 newspapers, 116 Judeo-Tat, 144, 204, 205, 241 origin, 85 dialects, 242 poetry, 135 replaced by Russian, 242 replaces Judeo-Aramaic, 116 Judeo-Venetian, 165, 168, 170 replaces Judeo-Greek, 103 Judeo-Yemenite, 90 shuruh, 113 Judezmo, 126, 129, 136, 140, 162 Targumim, 113 in Egypt, 239 texts, 111 in Israel, 263 texts in Genizah, 112 in Jerusalem, 253 varieties, 142 in Mexico, 232 Yemanic, 90 in Turkey, 242 Judeo-Aramaic, 75, 102, 109, 141, 144 in Yavan, 160 Targumim, 113 Maghreb, 116 vernacular, 74 many names, 141 Judeo-Berber, 110, 144 Salonika, 162 Judeo-Catalan, 144 varieties, 142 Judeo-Corﬁote, 144 Juhuri, 241 Judeo-Ferrarese, 170 Justinian, 77, 78, 98, 109 Judeo-Florentine, 168, 170 forced conversions, 114 Judeo-French, 120, 125, 126, 144, 148 did it exist?, 117, 126 Kachru, Braj, 142 Judeo-Georgian, 144 Kaifeng Judeo-German, 144, 180 Jews, 243 Judeo-Golpaygani, 241 liturgy, 244 Judeo-Greek, 74, 75, 103, 144, 148, 162 Kalisch, Sven, 84 in Arta, 161 Kallah assembly, 76 in Diaspora, 79 Kalonymus, 149, 163 in Turkey, 242 ben Shabbetai, 151 in Yavan, 160 family, 148 vernacular, 78 Judah ben, 150 Judeo-Hamedani, 241 Karaim language, 101, 144

352 Index

Karaites, 75, 99 Ladislaus, 173 Avilei Zion, 99 language beliefs, 100 includes varieties, 2 in Egypt, 104 labelling, 72 in Yavan, 160 origins, 18 Judeo-Arabic, 101 Language contact languages, 101 Uriel Weinreich, 33 Lithuania, 101 language endangerment, 1 origin, 100 language labels, 142 present-day, 101 language loss Russia, 101 immigrants, 42 Toledo, 138 language loyalty Katz, Dovid Jews in USA, 225 attacks Wexler, 183 language maintenance, 1 Hasidic dynasties, 221 language nests, 257 Yiddish continuity, 209 language shift, 29, 32, 33 Yiddish origin, 146 language spread Kemal, Mustafa, 19, 243 Robert Cooper, 32 Kennedy, Hugh, 95, 97, 98, 100 Language War, 10, 195, 259, 260 Khaybar Languedoc, 121 Jewish community, 85 Lass, Roger, 19 Jews, 87 Lateran Councils, 164 Khazaria, 174 Latin, 78 as refuge, 175 in Spain, 145 Khazarian hypothesis, 174 inscriptions, 59 Khazarian language, 175 replaces Celtic, 118 Khazars replaces Gothic, 131 conversion to Judaism, 174, 176 Roman Palestine, 59 Toledo, 138 Latin America kibbutzim Jewish population, 230 language policy, 10 Latvia, 210 Kiev Jewish culture, 210 Jews, 176 League of Nations Rus’ conquest, 176 minority language policy, 10 Kievan Russ, 174 Lemba, 93, 229 Kimhi family, 120 Leninist constitution king’s Order-in-Council, 260 minority languages, 204 Kitos War, 81 leshon hakodesh, 44, 49, 50, 51, Kitzur Shulchan Arukh, 250 54, 179 Kiwan Lessing, Gotthold, 194 Yeshiva, 148 letter of Aristeas, 52 Kiwitt, Marc, 126 Levi, Primo, 170 Knaan, 125, 144 Lewicki, Tadeusz, 183 Knaanic, 158, 171, 179 Lewontin, Richard, 177 replaced by Yiddish, 171, 174, 181, 184 Libya Knesset emigration, 240 (Israeli parliament), 13 Jewish settlement, 240 Koestler, Arthur, 175 racial laws, 240 Kopeliovich, Shulamit, 8 shift to Italian, 240 Krauss, Michael, 1 Lifshits, Mordechai, 206 Kugel, James, 56 Lim, Timothy, 52 Kulick, Don, 33 linguistic landscape, 9, 18 Lithuania Labov, William, 3 emigration, 202 Ladino, 129, 136, 140, 144, 162 Holocaust, 207 US periodicals, 223 Jewish education, 211

Index 353

minority rights, 210 Manasseh ben Israel, 217 Yiddish, 205, 210 Māori Lithuanian regeneration, 256 Jewish variety, 211 Mapu, Abraham, 189 liturgy Marathi, 246 Algeria, 115 markets Amsterdam, 193 language, 12 multilingual, 70 Marseilles, 121 Palestine and Babylon, 76 Matteo Ricci, 244 Piedmont, 128 Mauretania, 109 Piyyutim, 70, 77 Medina Qumran, 70 Jewish tribes, 86 Roman Palestine, 69 Meir ben Boruch of Rothenberg, 149 Romaniotes, 165 Melbourne standardization, 70 Jewish community, 230 Loez, 125, 143 mellah, 165, 237 component in Yiddish, 180 Menahem ibn Saruq, 134 Judeo-Romance, 142 Menasseh, 27 London Mendele Mocher Sforim, East End, 216 141, 189, 202 Jewish migrants, 218 Mendelssohn, Moses, 194 Jews return, 193 and Yiddish, 140 medieval Jewish settlement, 127 Merovingians, 118, 119 Yiddish literary society, 220 meturgeman, 66, 77 Lord, Alfred, 37 Metz, 124 loshn koydesh, 46, 179, 188 Jewish settlement, 148 Loter, 118, 120, 122, 125, 144, 146 Mexico connected to Tarfat, 162 Jewish immigration, 232 Germany, 117 Jewish schools, 232 Yiddish origin, 146 Middle Arabic, 105, 110, 111 Lothar, 179 becomes Judeo-Arabic, 112 Louis IX Blau, 87 book burning, 123 dialects, 112 Lucca, xii, 163 Hebrew inﬂuence, 113 Lugdunum, 119 Mieses, Matisyohu, 183 Lunel, 121 Yiddish origin, 146 Luther Milan anti-Semitism, 193 Jewish settlement, 168 Lydda, 64 Mizrahim, 4 emigration, 128 Maccabean revolt, 46, 47 in Israel, 8 Machzor Vitry, 151 in Jerusalem, 254 Maghreb, 104, 115 modernization, 190 Maimonides, Moses, 100, 104, 115, 121, 125, Mohilever, Samuel, 251 135, 136, 137 moneylending, 122, 137, 153 Arabic, 111 Cologne, 148 epistle to Yemen, 89 Mainz, 150 Hebrew and Arabic, 138 Regensburg, 152 Mainz, 124, 148, 149 restrictions, 123 expulsions, 149, 150 Worms, 151 Malayalam monogenesis, 19 Jewish, 144 monolingualism malleability, 57 Anglo-Saxon, 35 Mamluks Monophysites, 97, 103 in Egypt, 104 Monteﬁore, Moses, 254 persecution, 114 Arabic for Ashkenazim, 253

354 Index

Montpellier, 120 Nazareth Montreal public signage, 9 first synagogue, 226 Nazis Francophone Jews, 228 and Jews, 195 Jewish immigration, 226 Nebuchadnezzar, 28, 30, 35, 44 Jewish schools, 228 Nehemiah, 39, 40, 50 Yiddish, 227 Nehemiah ben Hushiel, 65 Moore, Robert, 122 Neologists, 212 more judaico, 196 Netherlands, 193, 197 Morocco emancipation, 197 European influence, 237 Holocaust, 199 French rule, 235 Jewish successes, 198 Jewish emigration, 238 New Amsterdam, 193 Jewish life, 237 Jewish settlement, 218, 221 Jews, 115 New Christians. See Anusim pogroms, 237 New York Moscow Jewish migration, 222 ban on Jews, 186 Jewish settlement, 218 Jewish settlement, 203 Russian Jews, 224 Russian replaces Yiddish, 201 Yiddish, 222 Yiddish claimants, 204 New Zealand Yiddish press, 204 Jewish settlement, 230 Moses ibn Ezra, 135, 138 newspapers Mountain Jews, 242 in Israel, 12 Muhammad in nineteenth-century Russia, 202 and Jews, 85, 86 Nigeria, 93 conquered Arabia, 83 Norman French, 117 doubts, 84 north Africa, 109, 114, 137 ordinance for Medina, 85 emigration, 197 poll tax, 86 Islamic conquest, 95 multilingualism Northwest Semitic, 23 in third to fifth century, 68 Norway, 200 Jewish, 66 Nuremberg rabbis’ attitudes, 51 Jewish settlement, 152 Muysken, Peter, 182 printing, 153 Nuremberg laws, 195 Nabateans, 83 Nachmanides, 137, 138 Occitan, 118, 120 disputation, 139 Odessa Najran, 87 language choice, 203 Naples official languages, 13 expulsion, 161 definitions, 13 Jewish printing, 168 examples, 14 Jewish settlement, 163 Old French, 118 Napoleon Bonaparte, 125 few Jewish works, 126 and Jews, 196 Old Persian, 52 Narbonne, 120 Onkelos, 41 expulsion, 132 Targum, 60, 67 Jewish settlement, 120 oral performance, 69 Jews, 120 oral transmission Natione Penentina, 167 Homer and Bible, 37 Natione Todesca, 167 Ordinance of Medina, 87 natural intergenerational transmission, 224, 249 Oria, 164 Navajo Nation Ostjüden, 194, 195, 202 speech and writing, 36 ostraca, 36, 52

Index 355

Ostrer, Robert, 178 Philo, 58, 61, 74, 77 Otranto Phoenician, 23 languages, 164 pilgrimages Ottoman Palestine, 10, 13 Jewish and Christian, 69 Ashkenazim, 250 piyyutim,51 expulsion, 239 in Hebrew, 66 language situation, 252 language, 60 Plague of Justinian, 97 Pact of Umar, 86, 105 plurilingualism Pahlavi, 97, 101, 111 uneven, 31 Pale of Settlement, 34, 186 versus multilingualism, 30 Palestine pogroms Roman, 46 1880s, 202 urbanization, 68 Russia, 197 Paper, Herbert Poitiers, battle of, 105 Aramaic, 33 Polak, Frank, 37 on Wexler, 184 Poland Papua New Guinea fate of Yiddish, 209 language shift, 33 minority policy, 208 multingualism, 31 status of Yiddish, 208 papyrus, 36, 57 Yiddish, 207 parallel architecture, 55 YIVO, 204 Parﬁtt, Tudor, 93 Polish Paris in Ireland, 14 Jewish settlement, 123 in Israel, 5 Patriarchs Jewish vernacular, 207, 208 multilingualism, 32 ofﬁcial language, 208 Paul political parties in Russia Hebrew and Greek, 52 language policies, 203 preaching, 77 Pollack, Jacob, 152, 173 visit to Arabia, 83 polygenesis, 19 Peretz School, 226 Polzin, Robert, 37 Persia population capture of Jerusalem, 65 estimates, 67 defeat, 46 population growth Islamic conquest, 95, 102 as problem for Yiddish, 181 Jewish community, 241 Posquières, 121 Jews, 105 postmodernism Pahlavi, 97, 111 and personal history, 216 Persian, 44, 50 Prague, 124 borrowings, 60 Hebrew printing, 153 continuity, 106 Jewish schools, 209 in Jewish schools, 241 Jewish settlement, 153 Jewish use, 106 printing Old, 39 Prague, 153 Persian army privilegium, 173 defeated by Arabs, 106 Provençal, 119, 125, 143 Persian Jews Provensal, 125 in USA, 224 Provense, 125, 144 Person, Raymond, 36, 37 Pseudepigrapha, 22 Peter the Venerable, 122 Ptolemy, 46 Pharisees, 20, 64, 119 public signage, 9 Philip Augustus, 123 Pumbedita Philistines, 23 Yeshiva, 76

356 Index

Quebec Rishon le Zion Yiddish, 227 farming cooperative, 251 Queen of Sheba, 81 school, 256 Qumran, 20, 44, 55 roads Aramaic, 52 Roman, 69 Dead Sea Scrolls, 20, 36 Roman Empire Hebrew, 44 partition, 64 Hebrew continuity, 48 Roman Palestine languages, 53 languages, 22 scribal activities, 56, 57, 58 multilingualism, 55 scriptorium, 57 Romania site, 57, 58, 60 Yiddish, 207 texts, 57 Romanian Qur’an in Israel, 5 as historical source, 84 Romaniot rites, 75 Rabbanites Romaniotes, 75, 160, 161, 162, 165, 242 versus Karaites, 99 in Poland, 181 Rabin, Haim, 24, 44, 55 Rome Jewish languages, 143 early Jewish settlement, 162 Rab-shakeh, 26 Jewish community, 163 Radhanite traders Libyan Jews, 240 multilingual, 174 Rothschild, Baron de, 251, 256, 259 Radhanites, 183 Rothschild, Nathan, 218 Rashi, 49, 50 Russia, 251 commentary, 117 conscription, 201 glosses, 117 education in Russian, 202 Old French glosses, 126 emigration, 4, 197, 199, 200, 202, 203, 221, 251 Reconquista, 131, 134, 135, 136, emigration to USA, 224 138 Hebrew banned, 204 Saragossa, 140 Jewish population 1897, 201 Reform Judaism Jewish problem, 201 language policy, 222 language choice, 203 Reformation, 193 Pale of Settlement, 186, 201 refuseniks, 205 restrictions, 201 Regensburg, 124, 149 Revolution, 201 Jewish settlement, 151 Yiddish, 207 origin of Yiddish, 180 Russian Yiddish origin, 146, 157 in Israel, 1, 3, 5, 6, 8, 12 relexiﬁcation Soviet policy, 205 creoles, 182 Russian emigration hypothesis, 182 to the US, 221 Modern Hebrew, 183 religiolects, 144, 264 sacred texts, 29 Renaissance Sadducees, 64 ghettos, 192 Salah al Din, 114 Renaissance Europe, 192 Salonika reversing language shift, 15 Jewish community, 161 revolts Jewish settlement, 161 Jewish, 81 persecutions, 160 Rhineland, 120, 146 synagogues, 162 Rhineland hypothesis, 173 Samaritans, 26, 60, 81 Richelieu, Cardinal, 119 Hebrew, 43 language policy, 128, 196 Samaw’al [Samuel] ibn ‘Adiya, 83 Rio Grande pueblos, 31 Samuel Ha-Nagid, 134

Index 357

Santiago Sisebul, 132 Jewish community, 232 Slavic Saragossa, 140 origin of Yiddish, 181 Sassanid Empire, 65 region, 171 Satanover, Mendel, 206 Slavic element Scandinavia in Yiddish, 158 Jewish settlement, 200 Slavic region, 173 Schechter, Solomon, 112 Smelik, Willem, 54 Schniedewind, William, 44 Smelik, William, 61 Schwartz, Seth, 53 Social Survey, 4, 6 Scola, 167 sociolinguistic ecology, 2, 3 scribal education sociolinguistics biblical Israel, 38 historical, 267 scribal schools, 37 Solomon scribes, 56 spoke seventy languages, 26 Qumran, 58 Solomon ibn Gabirol, 138 Roman Palestine, 69 Solomon Ibn Verga, 192 script Soncino Paleo-Hebrew, 54 Press, 168 Sea Peoples, 23, 25 publisher, 168 Segal, Moses Hirsch, 53 Sophronius, 98 Seleucus, 46 Sorbian Sennacherib, 26 origin of Yiddish, 182 Sepharad, 120, 144 Yiddish origin, 147 Sephardim, 4 South Africa in Denmark, 200 emigration, 229 in Egypt, 238, 239 Jewish schools, 229 in Jerusalem, 254 Jewish settlement, 228 in London, 218 language policy, 14 in Mexico, 232 Soviet immigrants in Netherlands, 198 learning Hebrew, 8 in Ottoman Palestine, 250 Soviet support for Yiddish, 204 in Turkey, 242 Soviet Yiddishists, 204 in USA, 222 Spain in Venice, 167 emigration, 115, 132 Sephiha, Haim, 143 expulsion, 137 Septuagint, 20, 47, 52, 55, 74 Hebrew continuity, 138 Aramaic inﬂuence, 52 Islamic conquest, 105, 132 in synagogue, 66 Jewish settlement, 129 sermons, 77 Latin dominance, 129 Shabbetai Zvi, 161, 193 Romanization, 129 Shamash, Jack, 221 Spanish Shanghai in Israel, 9 Jewish community, 244 Spanyiolit, 140 Jewish refugees, 244 speech community, 3, 7, 30, 33 sharḥ,113 deﬁnitions, 3 shibboleth, 23, 25, 185 Speyer, 124 Sholem Aleichem, 189 Jewish settlement, 150 shtetl, 186 Spinoza, Baruch Yiddish, 201 languages, 194 shurūḥ,113 Spinoza, Baruch, 193 Sicut Judaeis, 163 Spitzer, Leo, 143 Simon ben Gamaliel, 60 Sri Lanka, 247 Singapore St. Gilles, 121 Jews, 247 States General of French Judaism, 196

358 Index

stele, 36 Babylonian, 102 Stewart, William, 141 burning, 127 Stillman, Norman, 133 censorship, 137 Strasbourg Oaths, 118 glosses, 126 Sumeria in Spain, 133 scribal schools, 37 Tamazight, 110 Sumerian, 37 Tannaim, 60 super-diversity, 73 Tarbut Sura schools, 211 Yeshiva, 76 Targumim Sweden in synagogue, 65 forced conversion, 200 status, 65 Switzerland translation or interpretation, 66 language policy, 14 Yemenite tradition, 89 Sydney Tayma, 87 Jewish community, 230 Te Ataarangi movement, 256 synagogue Technion, 10, 259 Capernaum, 71 Teiku Dura Europus, 71 “we do not know”, 34, 35, 38, 44, 49, 61, 91, functions, 71 178, 191, 267 synagogues Tel Aviv Alexandria, 58 Hebrew city, 258 banned under Christianity, 163 Telma, 87 Byzantine Palestine, 71 Telugu, 246 Design, 71 Temple diaspora, 58, 70, 71 destruction, 63 Dura Europus, 75 Ten Lost Tribes, 26, 91, 92, 93 ﬁrst century, 58 territorialism, 30 in Greece, 161 territoriality, 54 in USA, 221, 223 Tetuani inscriptions, 71 in Oran, 140 Na’aran, 99 third solitude Patras, 161 Jews in Canada, 227 Roman Palestine, 70 Tiberias, 78, 254 Roman period, 58 Tiglath-Pilezer, 26 Rome, 72 Tigrinya, 8, 9, 90, 92 sermons, 77 Tkhines, 188 Torah reading, 65 Tlingit, 1 Syria Tok Pisin, 33 Greek, 97 Toledo Islamic conquest, 95 Black Death, 139 Jewish emigration, 243 expulsion, 139 Jews, 78 Jewish settlement, 138 Ugaritic, 24 Reconquista, 135, 136 Syria Palestina, 64 Torah, 20, 36 Syriac, 4, 11, 38, 49, 50, 109, 111 burned, 47 Syrian, 30 in Greek, 47 Syrian Jews languages, 66 in US, 225 synagogue reading, 70 translated into Yiddish, 141 Taiap, 31 Toronto Tajiki Jewish population, 227 Bukhara, 205 Jewish schools, 228 Talmud Tosafot, 117 Babylonan, 102 glosses, 117

Index 359

travel language diversity, 167 rabbis, 69 Versteegh, Kees, 110 Treaty of Versailles Vienna minority rights, 207 Jewish settlement, 154 triglossia, 30, 52, 63 killing and expulsions, 154 in ﬁrst century?, 61 Vienne trilingualism, 63 Jewish settlement, 123 Troyes, 124 village Tsarfat, 117, 122, 125, 126, 144 homogeneity, 68 connected to Loter, 162 Vilna Tsene-rene, 188 Yiddish, 208 Tudela, 139 Visigoths refugees from France, 139 in Spain, 105 Tunisia, 115 Romanization, 131 emigration, 237 French replaces Judeo-Arabic, 237 Wasserstein, Bernard, 191, 205 French rule, 235 decline of Yiddish, 204 language policy, 15 Yiddish maintenance, 209 Yeshiva, 148 Weimar Republic, 195 Turkey Weinreich, Max, 126 Jewish population, 242 “language and dialect”,72 Jews add French and Turkish, 242 Ashkenaz, 125 Ottoman, 242 co-territorial multilingualism, 32 under Kemal Ataturk, 243 dialect, 141 Turkic words Hebrew continuity, 40 in Yiddish, 176 History, 141, 146 Turkish, 4, 19 Jewish culture areas, 144, 159, in Ottoman Palestine, 252 162, 184 Turkomans, 99 Jewish intralinguistics, 144 Jewish language names, 144 Ugaritic, 23, 24, 30 Jewish languages, 142 tablets, 24 language shift, 32, 33 Ukraine native language, 209 Yiddish, 205 on Judeo-French, 126 ulpanim, 262 rejects Khazarian hypothesis, Umar 177 Covenant of, 98 Romance component, 146, 157 expels Jews, 86 varieties of Yiddish, 173 Umayyads, 102 Yiddish components, 179 United Monarchy, 26 Yiddish origins, 73, 157 urbanization, 8 Weinreich, Uriel, 141 Uruguay, 232 language contact, 33 US German Jews, 222 Weizmann, Chaim, 260 US Jewish communities Wellhausen, Julius, 20, 36 growth, 222 hypothesis, 84 Ussishkin, Menahem, 257, 260, 261 Western Loez Spain and France, 159 van Straten, Jits, 181 Western Yiddish, 73, 185, 187 varieties of language, 141 in Hungary, 212 deﬁnition, 72 written, 188 Venice Wexler, Paul diversity, 166 Khazars, 177 ghetto, 165 on Jewish languages, 184 Iberian Jews, 167 Sorbian hypothesis, 158, 182 Jews, 165 three origins of Yiddish, 184

360 Index

Winnipeg dialects, 185 Jewish settlement, 228 diglossia with Hebrew, 188 Wissenschaft des Judentum, 140 Early, 187 World Englishes, 142 for prayer, 188 Worms, 124, 149 Haredi schools, 10, 11 Jewish settlement, 150 Hasidim, 8 writing Hasidim, 11, 146 origin, 18 historical periods, 187 in nineteenth-century Jerusalem, 253 Yarmuk, battle of, 98 in Argentina, 231 Yavan, 144 in Britain, 219, 220, 221 contrasted to Ashkenaz, 162 in Canada, 226, 227 Yavanic, 159, 162 in Canadian schools, 227 Yehoshua, Abraham B., 155 in Diaspora, 264 Yehuda Ha-Hasid, 149 in Egypt, 239 Yehuda Halevi in Estonia, 211 Hebrew and Arabic, 135 in France, 197 Yehuda Halevy in Glasgow, 220 Khazars, 176 in Israel, 4, 5, 6, 9 Yehuda Hanasi, 44 in Latvia, 210 maid, 44 in Lithuania, 210 Yehudit, 22, 25, 26, 39, 40 in Montreal, 227 Yellin, David, 260 in Netherlands, 198 Yemanic, 88, 90 in Ottoman Palestine, 251 Yemen in Poland, 208 emigration, 89 in Russia, 207 Himyar, 88 in Soviet Russia, 204 Himyarites, 78 in USA, 222 Jewish settlement, 88 in Winnipeg, 228 Jews, 79, 89 Jewish attacks, 206 Orphans Decree, 89 linguistic atlas, 185 persecution of Jews, 89 literature, 188 Yeshivish, 225 Melbourne, 230 Yeshivot, 98 metalinguistic community, 227 Babylon, 76 Middle, 187 Babylonian, 99 names of language, 180 Lucca, 163 natural intergenerational transmission, Mainz and Worms, 149 146 Palestine, 99 New, 188 Rome, 163, 164 Old, 187 Sura and Pumbeditha, 101, 102 opposition to, 141, 216, 219, 220, Yiddish 255, 261 a creole, 141 origins, 154, 178 a fusion language, 174 premier Jewish language, 146 a national language, 252 replaced by Russian, 205 anti-Semitic attacks, 206 Romance elements, 118 as “zhargon”, 140 schools in Ukraine, 204 as national language, 189 schools in USA, 225 Bratislava Yeshiva, 206 secular nationaism, 251 Brazil, 232 shift to English, 219, 220 British newspapers, 220 Slavic origin, 146 components, 179 Soviet support, 204 Czech elements, 181 status, 207 decline in Russia, 204 stigmatized in Britain, 219 decline in Soviet Union, 205 US newspapers, 222

Index 361

varieties, 142 Yoruba, 93 Venice, 168 Yudelovich, David, 256 Zionist use, 207 Yiddish and Hebrew Zamenhof, Ludwig, 251 ideological struggle, 255 Esperanto, 214 Yiddish sign language, 144 grammar of Yiddish, 214 Yiddishists and Hebraists, 207 plurilingual, 214 Yishuv Zealots, 64 Hebrew required, 255 Zedekiah, 28 YIVO, 141 Zephaniah in Poland, 204 on Hebrew, 51 Vilna, 208 Zhitlowsky, Chaim, 255 York Zionist movement massacre, 124, 127 Hebraist, 203