Zachary Ndegwa Kabatha (D4059) Agikuyu Understanding of the Last

CARDINAL STEFAN WYSZYNSKI UNIVERSITY in WARSAW

FACULTY OF THEOLOGY

ZACHARY NDEGWA KABATHA (D4059)

AGIKUYU UNDERSTANDING OF THE LAST THINGS

IN THE LIGHT OF CATHOLIC ESCHATOLOGY

Doctoral dissertation written under supervision of

Rev. prof. UKSW dr. hab. Wojciech KLUJ OMI

WARSAW (POLAND) 2020

1 2

DECLARATION I the undersigned, declare that this dissertation is my original work. It has not been presented to any institution for academic credit. All the sources used have been duly acknowledged. ks mgr lic Zachary Ndegwa Kabatha (D-4059)

Signature…………………………………

Date……………………………………...

This dissertation has been written under supervision of;

Ks. Prof. UKSW dr hab. Wojciech Kluj (OMI)

Signature......

Date......

Table of Contents List of Abbreviations...... 7 Abstract...... 9 GENERAL INTRODUCTION...... 11 Objective of the Study...... 12 Research Methodology...... 15 Sources...... 16 Outline...... 17 CHAPTER ONE:THE AGIKUYU CONCEPT OF THE LAST THINGS...... 19 Introduction...... 19 1.1 Background of the Agikuyu People...... 20 1.1.1 Geographical Location...... 20 1.1.2 Agikuyu People...... 22 1.1.3 Religion ...... 23 1.1.4 Administration...... 28 1.1.5 Economy and Social Life...... 29 1.1.6 Rites of Passage...... 32 1.1.6.1 General Concept...... 32 1.1.6.2 Conception Birth and Naming...... 34 1.1.6.3 Initiation...... 37 1.1.6.4 Marriage...... 41 1.1.7 Initial Contact with Christianity...... 44 1.2 The Last Things in the Agikuyu Perspectives...... 48 1.2.1 Death...... 48 1.2.1.1 General Notion...... 48 1.2.1.2 Causes of Death...... 53 1.2.1.2.1 Divine Call...... 53 1.2.1.2.2 Curses...... 55 1.2.1.2.3 Magic, Witchcraft and Sorcery...... 57 1.2.1.2.4 Diseases and Tragedies in Life...... 59 1.2.1.2.5 Punishment...... 59 1.2.1.3 Funeral Rites Mourning and Burial...... 60 1.2.1.3.1 Rituals and Mourning...... 60 1.2.1.3.2 Committal of the Body...... 63 1.2.2 Life after Death...... 65 1.2.2.1 Judgment...... 68 1.2.2.2 Punishment...... 70 1.2.2.3 Reward...... 71 Conclusion...... 73 CHAPTER TWO: CATHOLIC DOCTRINE ON ESCHATOLOGY...... 74 Introduction...... 74 2.1 Sacred Scriptures……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75 2.1.1 Old Testament ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 75 2.1.1.1 Genesis...... 75 2.1.1.2 Ezekiel...... 78 2.1.1.3 Isaiah...... 81 2.1.2 New Testament ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 84 2.1.2.1 Matthew...... 84 2.1.2.2 Mark...... 86 2.1.2.3 Luke-Acts...... 88

5 2.1.2.4 John...... 90 2.1.2.5 Revelation...... 93 2.1.2.6 Pauline Eschatology...... 96 2. 2 Sacred Tradition …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99 2.2.1 Patristic Eschatology...... 99 2.2.2 Ecumenical Councils ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 106 2.2.2.1 Council of Trent...... 106 2.2.2.2 Second Vatican Council...... 108 2.2.3 Contemporary Theologians ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 117 2.2.3.1 Karl Rahner...... 117 2.2.3.2 Hans Urs Von Balthasar...... 122 2.2.3.3 John Paul II...... 126 2.2.3.4 Benedict XVI...... 129 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...135 CHAPTER THREE: TOWARDS AN AGIKUYU THEOLOGY OF THE LAST THINGS ……………………………………………. 136 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 136 3.1 Comparative Analysis of the last things in the Agikuyu Traditional Religion and the Catholic Eschatology.137 3.1.1 Similarities...... 137 3.1.1.1 Belief in Supreme Being...... 137 3.1.1.2 Reality of Death...... 138 3.1.1.3 Concept of Life after Death...... 142 3.1.1.4 Community...... 144 3.1.1.5 Close Proximity to the Supreme Being...... 147 3.1.1.6 Notion of Eternity...... 149 3.1.2 Dissimilarities...... 150 3.1.2.1 The Day of Parousia...... 150 3.1.2.2 Goal of Life...... 152 3.1.2.3 Notion of Time...... 153 3.1.2.4 Link of Relationship...... 155 3.1.2.5 Ancestor-hood and sainthood...... 157 3.1.2.6 Mediation...... 158 3.2 Doctrine of Christian Eschatology in the Light of the Agikuyu Understanding of the Last things...... 160 3.2.1 Death...... 160 3.2.2 Particular Judgment...... 165 3.2.3 Purgatory...... 166 3.2.4 Final Judgment and Parousia...... 168 3.2.5 Reward...... 169 3.2.6 Punishment...... 172 3.3 Some Doctrinal Recommendations ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 174 3.3.1 Building Hope-Filled Communities...... 174 3.3.2 Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue...... 177 3.3.3 Ongoing Christian Formation …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 180 3.3.4 Inculturation as a necessary Tool of Evangelization...... 182 3.3.5 Active Liturgical Participation ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 185 3.3.6 Solidarity of Human Family ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 187 3.3.7 Care of the Universe...... 190 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 194 GENERAL CONCLUSION ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 196 BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 206 Primary sources...... 206 Secondary Sources...... 215

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

1. Biblical Abbreviations Old Testament Gen The Book of Genesis Ez The Book of Prophet Ezekiel Ps The Book of Psalms Dt The Book of Deuteronomy Dn The Book of Prophet Daniel Is The Book of Prophet Isaiah Hos The Book of Prophet Hosea Mal The Book of Prophet Malachi New Testament Mt The Gospel according to St Matthew Mk The Gospel according to St Mark Lk The Gospel according to St Luke Jn The Gospel according to St John Rev The Book of Revelation 1Cor The First Letter of St Paul to Corinthians 2Cor The Second Letter of St Paul to Corinthians 1Thes The First Letter of St Paul to Thessalonians 2Thes The Second Letter of St Paul to Thessalonians Rom St Paul’s Letter to Romans Gal St Paul’s Letter to Galatians Eph St Paul’s Letter to the Ephesians Col St Paul’s Letter to Colossians Heb The Letter to Hebrews Acts The Book of Acts of the Apostles 2Tim The Second Letter of St Paul to Timothy Phil St Paul’s Letter to Philippians 2Pet The Second Letter of St Peter Rev The Book of Revelation 2. Documents of the Church AG Ad Gentes CCC Catechism of the Catholic Church DV Dei Verbum GS Gaudium et Spes

7 LG Lumen Gentium NA Nostra Aetate SC Sacrosanctum Concilium UR Unitatis Redintegratio 3. General Abbreviations AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ff following HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus ks ksiadz (Catholic Priest) Prof Professor dr Doctor OMI Oblates of Mary Immaculate Kms Kilometres Ibid ibidem (in the same place) CUEA Catholic University of Eastern Africa Ltd Limited Cf Confer Ed/s editor/ editors No (s) number/numbers Vol Volume PCEA Pentecostal Church of Eastern Africa FGM Female Gental Mutilation et al et alii (and others) Rev Reverend Fr Father d. died USCCB United States Conference of Catholic Bishops St Saint Jan January Feb February Mar March Apr April Aug August Sept September Oct October Nov November Dec December

ABSTRACT

At the heart of every religion is a doctrine of the cause and destiny of all that there is. Eschatology is a theological doctrine that explains the destiny of the individual and the world at large. The Agikuyu traditional religion has a supreme being Ngai (God) as the source and destiny of all reality. This study examines the Agikuyu concept of the last things in the light of Catholic eschatology. Both the Christian faith and the Agikuyu concept of the life after death affirm that man is called to live forever. This research on local theology results from a comprehensive reflection based on the Sacred Scriptures and the Church’s living Tradition within the Agikuyu social cultural context. Hence, the research examines eschatology and its relationship to the Christian faith of Agikuyu Christians. The research considers the place of end times and eternity in the Agikuyu social cultural context. Adherents of the Agikuyu religion believe in the existence of life after death. For them human life does not come to an end with death. But it is transformed into a new form. The study argues that Christian eschatology is hope filled and can be used as a model if inspiring Agikuyu Christians to live fully their Christian calling. It argues that the notion of life after death in the Agikuyu world view was purely spiritual with no material evidence. Through Christian eschatology the Agikuyu Christians are invited to a life after death which is both material (bodily resurrection) and spiritual. Subsequently, the research submits that the Catholic eschatology overcomes the gaps in the Agikuyu traditional belief in the last things. Agikuyu in their world view believe in the existence of two worlds. These are the visible and the invisible world. The visible world is home to all that is material and is where the human beings prior to their death live and operate. This explains why they lived harmoniously with one another and with nature. The invisible world is referred as the spiritual world where the beings with super nature have their residence. These include Ngai, the deities, spiritual forces that include the good and bad spirits and the ancestors. The invisible world is the home of the afterlife where life continues uninterruptedly. But they were aware that the Spiritual world

9 is better and there is fullness of life thus calling the Agikuyu to use their life in the world as the field of preparation in order to join the Spiritual life and live forever. The dissertation thus using a comparative analysis shows the excellence of the next world in more clear terms with certainty that is based on the event and the Person of Jesus Christ. In this pursuit the dissertation on one hand gives a positive appreciation of the Agikuyu religious heritage. On the other hand the dissertation using the themes of found in the Catholic eschatology invites Agikuyu Christians to discard anything within their cultural heritage and beyond that is contrary to the Christian message.

The dissertation examines in depth how an understanding of the religious roots of a given people can facilitate the reception of Christian Mysteries without suspicion. At the same time the dissertation addresses the role played by the Agikuyu religious heritage in the formation of the Agikuyu Christians. The monotheistic nature of the Agikuyu religion directed their lives in totality exhibiting mutual respect, dignity, gratefulness, and other desired human and religious values. In such a context there were many elements that demonstrated their spiritual tradition which began at ones conception through natural death. However this did not end with death but rather it spilled over to the next world. The world of Spirits had a very great influence to the material world. The reality of the existence of the Spiritual world gave a religious meaning to their work, social behaviour, feelings and above all impacted positively to the family life. Specifically the research gives a critical analysis that indicates various elements that shows Agikuyu perspectives on the last things. The study advocates for an Agikuyu Christian eschatology of life and solidarity here on earth and which spills over to the next world. Life in heaven joins the Agikuyu into communion not only with their ancestors but with all the redeemed as they behold the Triune God.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Death is reality to all people regardless of their religious, political, social, or economic background, believers or non-believers. It is an inescapable fact that faces all people. Even though it is a known fact it instills fear that make people feel helpless. In response to the fear that comes with the reality of death various religions and cultures propose ways and beliefs of handling this fear. African Traditional Religion exercises a strong influence over Africans who are naturally religious. They apply their religion to explain and instill hope as far as the fear of the unknown is concerned. The Agikuyu people of Central Kenya are not exceptional in this. They have their culture in which religion is the most important tool of their cultural expression. It is in their religion in which their origin, identity and destiny as a people unique as they are, are well expressed. Their notion on the last things captures the Agikuyu way of handling the reality of death. Realizing the reality of death they developed in their religious traditions in various ways unique understanding, explaining and imaging the life after death. In this way they handled the fear that came with death. Agikuyu in their notion of the Last Things developed and handed on to their generations the ideas on the spirits and ancestral veneration urging them to be conscious of death and its implications on life thereafter. This became their belief that was aimed at answering the fundamental question what is next, after death? This is the question that all people try to answer in their beliefs on the last things. Today Christianity is flourishing in Africa. There has been enormous effort in theological research to make Christian faith feel at home in Africa. And in the same manner Africans feel at home in the Christian faith. This has seen the Catholic Church convoke two special synods for Africa. These synods have encouraged local theology in various theological disciplines using African categories. Inculturation has thus been understood to be one of the ways of effective evangelization in Africa. At times I allow my memory to go back to my past life. And I marvel at the events of my life. When I was a young boy I joined the altar boys association in our parish. I remember one day I attended the funeral mass of one of the Christian who had passed on.

11 During the sermon the priest who was a Consolata missionary from Italy preached on hell emphasizing on the pains unending to those who will find themselves there. He stated that non-Christians and all those who do not go to Church will go to hell. At this juncture I remembered my own grandfather who refused to go to Church and worse still he was not baptized. When I went home I shared with him the sermon of the day with a hope that he will consider joining our Church in order to avoid being subjected to the pains of hell. To my surprise my grandfather was not moved. He explained to me that when he was a young boy as I am he was taught by his grandfather that an Agikuyu man who had lived his life in harmony with other people and brought up his family respecting the societal norms was assured of a good life after his death. This he said was why he did all what he could to bring up his family and offer libations to his fore fathers so that when he will pass on they will welcome him happily in the abode of the ancestors. He went on to tell me that Agikuyu are very religious people and they never talked to him about hell. He explained to me that hell is for the Europeans since they have no ancestors. He remarked that hell belongs to them and their followers for us our ancestors will always take care of us now and after death. They will welcome us in their abode to take care of the generations to come. This made me wonder whether Catholic eschatology and its various notions is a doctrine specifically for Catholics or whether it binds all people regardless of their religious beliefs. As I grew up I realized that the initial work of evangelization among the Agikuyu propagated an eschatological doctrine that ignored the local beliefs on the life after death and their notion on the immortality of the human soul. They preached that the non- Christians will be condemned to hell and this hampered the reception of the Catholic eschatology. The Catholic eschatology became a feared doctrine among the new converts in the new missionary land. This is part of what has inspired this theological research.

Objective of the Study The purpose of this study is to analyze Catholic eschatology using the Agikuyu category of the last things. We will therefore investigate the cultural background of the Agikuyu people in order to better evaluate their concept of the last things. It is our expectation that through this theological analysis we will be able to instill hope to Agikuyu

12 Christians. We hope that such an endeavour will make the life, witness and mission of the Church in the Agikuyu land and beyond more meaningful and fruitful. The critical task in this research thus will be to interpret how Agikuyu Christians can reap more fruits by experiencing anew the doctrine of the last things and its relevance to their daily life. The study intends to bring out the inherent relationship between the Catholic notes on eschatology and the last things as understood and held in the Agikuyu traditional religion. The objective of the study may enable us to determine how much the Catholic teaching on the eschatology has influenced the Agikuyu Christians today. The goal of this academic endeavour will help us draw some conclusions that can help Agikuyu Christians see their own traditions in light of the Catholic theology of the last things. The Catholic Eschatology may be deepened using the rays of the African culture. This will enable us to see whether there are some positive elements that Christian faith can borrow from the Agikuyu culture. We will explain and express the Christian faith to the African Christians using the categories of their culture. This will help us to set out the new way of inserting the Catholic eschatological message into the Agikuyu culture in such a way that this message finds a new expression proper to the Agikuyu religious heritage. Through such an endeavour the principles of the Catholic eschatology will animate and transform the Agikuyu culture in order for it to become a carrier of the good news of salvation. Generally speaking this dissertation sets out its goal on how the Agikuyu can better understand the truths of revelation and attain the fullness of their goal. In other words we will see up to which extent the Catholic eschatology can influence and give life to the Agikuyu ideas on the last things, so as to Christianize this particular culture. On the other hand since we hope there are some good elements in the notion of life after death in the Agikuyu worldview we will see how the Agikuyu culture can Africanize the Christian message. Christian message is carried in various human cultural elements.1 The Church from her early beginnings learnt to use languages and various notions of different communities in proclaiming the Gospel.2 The goal of our dissertation will thus help us to find out the already good elements useful for the establishment of the Gospel ideals in the

1 The event of the Pentecost facilitated the apostles in proclaiming the Gospel in such away all those present understood it in their own native languages (Cf. Acts 2:1ff). The neophyte Church inculturated the Gospel in various cultures that she encountered in her task of evangelization. 2 GS no. 44. 13 Agikuyu culture. This will offer a vital contact between the Gospel and the Agikuyu community. The ideals of the Gospel must renew the Agikuyu culture using her own positive elements from within. We will, therefore, seek to establish which Agikuyu elements of the last things can carry the Catholic theology on eschatology to instill the Christian hope of salvation to the Agikuyu Christians. In this dissertation we focus on the Agikuyu notion of the last things in order to express and interpret the Catholic teaching on eschatology. We will employ familiar terms from the Agikuyu culture in order to develop an eschatology that touches the soul of the Agikuyu and instill hope of salvation. Catholic eschatology can be examined and expressed in the rays of an African culture. Some themes contained in the Catholic eschatology are dreadful and they do frustrate people of little faith. Such terms like the final rupture, the pain of fire in hell, the anguish of the souls in purgatory, final judgment and the imagination of the catastrophic end of the world leaves some believers frustrated. We will engage in a theological reflection of the Catholic eschatology as based on the Sacred Scriptures and the Church’s living Tradition in order to give the correct meaning to these terms. The dissertation will explore the Agikuyu concept of the last things in comparison to the Catholic eschatological discourse. This we hope will help us to answer such questions like how do the Agikuyu Christians appropriate the Catholic teachings of Scripture and Tradition on the last things in the context of their social cultural milieu? How does the Risen Christ help present day Agikuyu Christians to develop a culture of life giving hope and solidarity in their pilgrimage of faith expressing the wonders of God’s love? By addressing such questions we will strengthen and confirm the Agikuyu Christians in their faith. We hope that this dissertation will become an eye opener on how we can acquire a new theological impetus through Christian adaptation in various cultural backgrounds where Christianity has been planted. Simply we hope this research will affirm the claim of Moltman that, “Christianity is eschatology, is hope, forward looking and forward moving and therefore also revolutionizing and transforming the present.”3

3 J. Moltmann, Theology of Hope on the Ground and Implications of Christian Eschatology, (New York: Harper, 1975), 16. 14 Research Methodology The methodology adopted will be exclusively based on written sources. The theological method used in this research leans greatly to the concept of inculturation. John Paul II outlined inculturation as a method of doing theology and a means of evangelization in Africa.4 By using this method in this study we hope that we will contribute to the greater debate of doing African theology.5 The Gospel taken as a seed must be planted in the soil. In this case the various cultures are the various soils, in which the seed of the Kingdom of God finds root and as it grows it nourishes and imprints a positive transformation to the cultures in which it is planted. This is a gradual process, a movement in which the Church remains open to the promptings of the Spirit. The Church is always discerning the best ways to proclaim the Risen Christ to various epochs of human history as well as planting the seed of faith on various cultural backgrounds. Through inculturation the Church always incarnates the Gospel into various cultures and at the same time welcomes people from all cultures to her fold.6 This process will enable the Agikuyu culture to receive joyfully the values of the Gospel and the entire body of Catholic teachings. Christian faith is above every culture, yet it does not exist outside given local culture. It is “translatable” to every culture.7 This is why we have adopted inculturation as part of the method in this research. Inculturation as a method of doing theology will help in facilitating a mutual genuine encounter between the Church and the local culture.8 We hope this will allow the Christian faith to purify, transform and renew the Agikuyu culture. We will follow an in-depth exposition of the Sacred Scriptures

4 John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, Encyclical letter on the Permanent Validity of the Church’s Missionary Mandate Dec 7, 1990, no. 52-54. Inculturation as a method of doing theology and evangelization has found favor from the magisterial works such as; John Paul II, Catechesi Tradendae, Apostolic Exhortation on Catechesis in our time, Oct 16, 1979, no. 53, Paul VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi, Apostolic Exhortation on Evangelization in the Modern World, Dec. 8, 1975, nos 19-20, GS. nos 44, 58-59 and LG. no. 13. John Paul II Address to the Bishops of Nigeria, Lagos 15TH Feb 1982, John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa, Post Synondal Apostolic Exhortation Sept. 14, 1995, no. 61, Paul VI, Africae Terrarum, Message of Pope Paul VI to the Sacred Hierarchy and all the People of Africa for the Promotion of the Religious, Civil and Social Welfare of their Continent, Oct 29, 1967. Pope Paul VI Homily on the Eucharistic Celebration at the Conclusion of the Symposium Organized by the Bishops of Africa in Kampala (Uganda) July 31, 1969. Benedict XVI, Africae munus, Post-Synondal Apostolic Exhortations, Nov. 19, 2011. 5 W. Kluj, “Studia nad Tradycyjna Religia Afrykanska. Zarys Problematyki i Sposoby Badan,” Collectanea Theologica 69, no. 3 (1999): 181-185. 6 John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, no. 52. 7 L. Sanneh, Translating the Message; The Missionary Impact on Culture, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1989). 8 S. Bevans, and R. Schroeder, Constants in Context; A Theology of Mission for Today, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2004), 388. 15 and the magisterial teachings to see the development of Catholic eschatology in the course of the Church history. The Sacred Tradition which incorporates the patristic teachings on the last things, magisterium, ecumenical councils and some contemporary theologians will be examined. This will be a theological reflection which focuses on the values that touch on the eschatology of the people of God. We will use also the anthropological data on the Agikuyu traditional religion and analyze them theologically. This will allow “the African themes to enter internally into the theological elaboration of revealed truth so as to form an organic part of it and thus influence its constitution, presentation, orientation and progress.”9 In this pursuit the good elements in the Agikuyu cultural understanding of the last things will be used to explain the Catholic eschatology thus helping us to construct an Agikuyu Christian eschatology that is truly Christian and filled with hope. Lastly, a research of this kind will lean towards a theological comparative analysis on the Catholic eschatology and the Agikuyu concept of the last things.

Sources Since we seek to explain the Christian doctrine to the Agikuyu people, then the main sources of our research will be the Sacred Scriptures and the Sacred Traditions. It is in these two that any Catholic doctrine is founded for it to be a true Catholic doctrine. This will show how the Catholic doctrine on eschatology has been developed and expressed in the course of Church history. In other words by examining the Sacred Scriptures, the eschatological reflections in the patristic age, the decrees of the councils, the papal teachings as part of the magisterium will give us a basis for the true reflection on the Agikuyu Catholic eschatology. We will briefly look at the eschatological teaching of Pope Benedict XVI both as a pope and as a theologian. Due to the influence of Pope John Paul II as one of the great figures of Catholic faith of our times we intended to look at his concept of the last things from his papal teachings. The eschatological dimension of Karl Rahner, a German theologian who contributed enormously in the Vatican II will be examined from his writings. These and other works that can help us to have a holistic reflection on Catholic

9 C. Nyamiti, The Scope of African Theology, (Kampala: Gaba Publications 1979), 16. 16 theology of the last things will be put into consideration. Written and online platforms will be our main source in this scope. On the Social anthropological sources we will study the written works on the Agikuyu people and their cultural background. The background in this context includes their beliefs, myths, origin, religious expressions and above all the sources that capture their conceptual framework on the last things. Such works includes, A History of the Agikuyu people 1500-1900 as presented by Godfrey Muriuki. This work elucidates the origin of the Agikuyu people and a good description of their cultural heritage. Another source that will be useful in this part will be a monograph entitled The Agikuyu; Their customs Traditions and Folklore written by a Consolata Missionary a priest who worked among the Agikuyu people in their early age of the Agikuyu encounter with the Christian faith. In this work Fr Cagnolo traces the culture of the Agikuyu people. He expresses the rich culture of the Agikuyu people as far as sowing the seed of faith is concerned. The sources on African theology based on Christian teachings and the African social cultural context will be utilized to enrich our research.

Outline This theological research beside the general introduction, conclusion and bibliography will be developed into three chapters with their relevant subdivisions. The chapters are linked together by the theme under consideration. The first chapter will be concerned mainly with the Agikuyu notion of the last things. For a better presentation of this chapter we will subdivide it into two major sections. The first will examine the background information of the Agikuyu people. This will highlight their social, economic, political and geographical location. In the second section we will examine the Agikuyu concept of the last things. The notions on their beliefs on death and what happens after the death of a person will be the primary concern in this section. In the second chapter we will analyze the basic content of Catholic eschatology. Eschatology orients man towards his final destiny. We will thus attempt to articulate the Catholic eschatology as it has been developed in the course of Christian development. Christian doctrine must find its basis in the Scriptures. Catholic doctrines are also grounded

17 in the Church’s living Tradition. For this reason we will develop this chapter into two main parts. The first part will attempt to present the eschatology as found in the Scriptures. Since the Bible is a library in itself we will consider some pericopes of certain books of the Bible while trying to present the thread of eschatology in the whole of the Sacred Scriptures. The second part of this chapter will briefly present the understanding of Catholic eschatology from the patristic age, some ecumenical councils magisterial teaching and the theology of some renowned theologians. Since theology is a dynamic scientific discipline then we will add flavor by examining some contemporary theologians on their take in Catholic eschatology. These are Karl Rahner and Balthasar owing to their contribution in this theme which has elicited various debates among theologians in the Church history. In the third chapter of this dissertation the researcher will engage in a comparative analysis between the Catholic eschatology and the cultural notion of the last things from the Agikuyu people. This will enable us to see the gaps in the Agikuyu concept of the last things and we will try to bridge them by constructing an Agikuyu Christian eschatology which is hope instilling and truly Catholic. This chapter will be a synthesis, an attempt to develop an Agikuyu Christian theology on the last things. We will seek to identify both the similarities and the dissimilarities between the Agikuyu notion of the last things and the Catholic theology of the last things. Towards the end of this chapter we will develop suggest some doctrinal recommendations based on the research findings.

CHAPTER ONE

THE AGIKUYU CONCEPT OF THE LAST THINGS

Introduction Human beings are by nature, social, so are meant to intermingle with one another. Thus the encounter of people from different cultural backgrounds should be met with mutual respect and understanding. One of the ways to enter into this process is to learn about diversified cultures with honesty. With this in mind, we enter into the journey of this chapter, which is, to learn about the cultural background of the Agikuyu people. The term, Gikuyu and Agikuyu, in its usage refers to the people themselves, their inhabitant place (land) and also their language. Hence in this work the name will be used to indicate such understanding interchangeably. So, we will begin with the basic information of the Agikuyu people as a community that sprung forth from the family of Gikuyu and Mumbi. 10 We examine their culture in this chapter in view of developing a contextualized theology of the last things. It will also play a vital role of inculturation of Catholic Eschatology. This chapter will analyze the subject in two sections. Firstly, it will briefly outline the socio-anthropological and historical information of the Agikuyu, their socio-cultural identity and their environment as an integral part of the Agikuyu existence. The social organization and religious administration is also addressed. Secondly, it proceeds to explore the central theme of our academic survey. This involves a scholarly treatment of the traditional Agikuyu understanding of the last things. A conclusion to this chapter will follow thereafter.

10 According to a well-known Kikuyu myth these are the founders of the Agikuyu community. They are taken to be the Adam and Eve of the Bible and all Kikuyu are their descendants. This myth is well documented in the minds of all the Agikuyu people. Cf. C. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu: Their Customs, Traditions & Folklore, New Edition, eds., H. Wambugu, J. Mwangi & P. Muriithi, (Nairobi: Wisdom Graphics Place, 2006), 12-27.

19 1.1 Background of the Agikuyu People 1.1.1 Geographical Location The Agikuyu land is found in the Republic of Kenya,11 in the East African region of Africa. Agikuyu inhabits the Central province which formerly consisted of Nyeri, Murang’a and Kiambu Districts and later it included the Nyandarua district which was created after Independence. The Agikuyu land lies in between Mt. Kenya12, which for the native Gikuyu people has a religious affiliation and the Aberdare ranges.13 It is between a thousand to two thousand five hundred meters above sea level. Gikuyu land has favorable climatic conditions for farming and the keeping of livestock. Cagnolo attributes these conditions to abundant rainfall. “The Gikuyu land has two main seasons, the long rain season which occurs between the beginning of April and the beginning of June, and the short season between the beginning of November and the end of December.” 14 The land has a tradition of being fruitful and beautiful as Scoresby and Katherine point out; “the kikuyu land is as fertile as it is beautiful [...] in its natural condition. It abounds, in both wood and water, while the soil is so high yielding for cereal crops that it has become the granary of this part of Africa. When a famine occurs in other districts, large supplies of corn are bought here by the government, and then forwarded to these districts for the purpose of relief.”15The Gikuyu land to date is admired for its high agricultural productivity. The nature of their land explains to a large extent, the reason behind the Agikuyu spirit of hard work and vigor in their daily activities. Due to the fact that it is surrounded by mountains, water is plentiful as it is well catered for by various rivers. So it is well looked after, by both the rivers and the relief rainfall. Another beneficial aspect of the Gikuyu territory is its fertility, on account of the fact that the two mountains around it are volcanic as Wanjohi records, "meaning that most of the land is

11 Best of Kenya, Vol 2, Global Village Encyclopaedia, (Nairobi: Global Village Publishers, 2011), 8. “Kenya is located in Equatorial East Africa and shares borders with Uganda to the West, Tanzania to the South, Sudan to the North West, Somalia to the North East and Ethiopia to the North. For more information about the geology, climate hydrography, mountains, flora and fauna on the Gikuyu land Cf. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 1-10. 12 Mt Kenya is the highest mountain in Kenya with 5199 Meters above sea level and the second in Africa, from Mt Kilimanjaro which is 5895 Meters above sea level located in Tanzania. Cf Mount Kenya, Primary facts, www.primaryfacts.com>mount-kenya-facts (accessed on Feb. 6, 2019). 13 Aberdare Ranges are a volcanic range which extends a distance of over 100 Kms and forms the Eastern wall of the Great Rift Valley. www.bestofkenya.com>aberdares (accessed on Feb 6, 2019). 14 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 4. 15 W. Scoresby and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People The Akikuyu of British East Africa, (London: Edward Arrold, 1910), 38.

20 endowed with rich volcanic soil which is conducive for agriculture."16 The Gikuyu land today is known for cash crops such as coffee and tea. Food crops such as maize, beans and potatoes and other traditional foods like millet, sorghum, yams, cassavas, and bananas do well on this land too. In recent times horticultural farming has become popular and is now common practice. It is also worth noting that today, since the Gikuyu land is nearer to the growing urban cities; housing is becoming a way of money making to many, by selling their land or instead of farming turning it to real estate to meet the demand of housing as a basic need. The Agikuyu land is of great value in monetary terms and many are not able to afford land in this geographical location. From the beginning land has been a major concern for the Gikuyu people and is looked at as a gift from his God. Eric notes that, “to the kikuyu, land has always been a very important part of their lives as a result, for one to understand them, one need to understand traditional Kikuyu land laws, customs and its relevance to modern times.”17 It should be noted that the traditional Gikuyu land was surrounded by four mountains; Kia njahi (mountain of big rain) in the East commonly today known as Kilimambogo. Kiambiruiru in the south, mountain of the clear sky also known as Ngong Mountains, kia Nyandarua in the west, mountain of hides today known as the Aberdare ranges and lastly the Kirinyaga in the North, today known as Mt. Kenya. It was the duty of the entire community to defend their land against any aggression from outside. Land for the Agikuyu was taken to be a sacred gift from God to their ancestors and defending its boundaries was understood to be doing the will of Ngai and his messengers, in other words it was a sacred duty.18 The Agikuyu people were full of gratitude to Ngai for the sacred gift of such a beautiful fertile and productive land. They felt proud of their land. In recognition of this fact they had composed a prayer for thanksgiving to Him. Kenyatta presents to us such a prayer. “Oh our Heavenly great elder, we are thankful for the natural gifts which you have bestowed upon us, unlike the land of our neighbours, some of which you passed over in a hurry and threw one river here and another there, leaving the rest of the country dry and in many places un-forested.”19 It is clearly seen in this prayer that mugikuyu considered his land to be

16 G. Wanjohi, The Wisdom and Philosophy of the Gikuyu Proverbs, (Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1997), 20. 17 Kenya Land Problems, http://realtalkwitheric.wordpress.com/2013/04/20/kenyans-land-problems- part/understanding-the-kikuyuview/ (accessed on Dec. 16, 2018). 18 J. Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, the Tribal Life of the Gikuyu, (London: The Heinemann Group of Publishers, 1938), 22-23. 19 Ibid, 23-24.

21 uniquely endowed as compared to the land of his neighbours. Thus his land was his pride and in recognition of this fact he remained forever grateful to Ngai. Land was the most prized resource treasure in the Agikuyu life. Land holds the community together.20 Agikuyu as a people are well understood through their land which is explained through their religion economy, social and moral dimensions

1.1.2 Agikuyu People The Agikuyu are part of the Bantu people who comprises many different communities.21 According to the census carried out in Kenya in 2009, “the top ethnic communities by numbers are Gikuyu at 6.62 million, Luhya at 5.33 million, Kalenjin at 4.96 million and Luo at 4.04 million.”22 The Agikuyu are the largest single ethnic community. In Kenya, the Gikuyu language is considered a third language after Kiswahili and English. This is because of the high number of Gikuyu people and that they are widely dispersed in the country with a great influence in all matters. Another reason as to why they are well known is that, “the Kikuyus, also known as Gikuyu or Agikuyu, have been known since the colonial times as a tribe that wields a lot of political and economic influence in Kenya.”23 Therefore, these people are well known by not only other tribes in Kenya but also outsiders who are interested in the tribe for their fight against colonialism and influence in all spheres of national interest. The name Gikuyu came from the tree in which the father of the Agikuyu people was told by Ngai to build his home. Therefore, we can agree with Mukuha that basically Agikuyu are the "people of the fig tree."24 They are known worldwide for their resilience and achievement in all major sectors of social, political, and economic developments. Today they are dispersed all over Kenya due to employment, business, farming, intermarriages amongst other reasons. It is also worthy to note that they are also found outside Kenya for various reasons. Before the advent of

20 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 305. 21 Bantu people are believed to have migrated from Cameroon towards the last millennium. They are divided into three; Western, Central and Eastern Bantus. This is explained by W. Ng’ang’a in his book entitled, Kenya’s Ethnic Communities; Foundations of the Nation, (Nairobi: Gatundu Publishers Limited, 2006), 5-6. 22 B. Mutahi, Census: Kenya has 38.6 M People, www.nation.co.ke. Tuesday 31st August 2010, (accessed on Nov. 29, 2018). The National bureau of statistics also puts the Agikuyu people as number one in terms of population as compared to other tribes in Kenya Cf. 2009 Kenya Population Statistics and Distribution, www.kenya-information- guide.com/kenya-population.html (accessed on Jan. 31, 2019). 23 The Kikuyu Tribe, www.kenya-information-guide-.com/kikuyu/-tribe.html (accessed on Jan. 31, 2019). 24 J. Mukuha, The Integration of Religious Preparation of Traditional Marriage with Special Reference to Kikuyu Community of Kiambu District, (Thesis Submitted at C.U.E.A. Nairobi, 1996), 13.

22 the Europeans the Agikuyu lived their autonomous life although they interacted with their neighbours for barter trade and intermarriages. Agikuyu have a number of myths that explains their origin. The most common myth well preserved in both the written and the oral archives narrates of their founder as a man called Gikuyu who was the product of Mugai’s or Ngai’s creative work. After he was created Ngai took him to Mt. Kenya (Kerenyaga) and showed him all the land that he bestowed on him and in fact pointed where he (Gikuyu) should build a house, a place that had a lot of fig trees. This place is called Mukurwe wa Nyagathanga which is the ancestral home of the Agikuyu people. The legend narrates that on arrival there he found a beautiful woman, Mumbi, who became his wife. Together as a couple they had nine full daughters (kenda muiyuru).25 Ngai had assured Gikuyu that in case of any need he could always sacrifice to him and call upon him and he would grant his need. On this account, Gikuyu sacrificed to God requesting him for sons, a favour that he listened to by granting him nine sons to marry his nine daughters, though with one condition that the families be matrilineal. This is why the Gikuyu clans bear feminine affiliation down to our days. The families of the Gikuyu daughters grew in numbers and built up the Agikuyu community or the nyumba ya Gikuyu na Mumbi (The family of Gikuyu and Mumbi). Today the descendants of the Agikuyu as pointed earlier number over six million.

1.1.3 Religion Religion is an essential element of a people’s cultural heritage. As defined by Muyingi in his article it offers to man an understanding of himself and his relation to the larger universe. “It provides meaning to the phenomena such as life, suffering, despair, death, as well as establishes for individuals and groups, an anchor, location, or ‘root’ in the mass of phenomena confronting them as the universe. As such, it deals with worship as much as moral conduct, ideology, and institutional action frames.”26 Among the Agikuyu religion responds to their quest for a better life in its entirety. This includes life from conception to death and thereafter. In other words for the Agikuyu people in their worldview religion was central to their existence. Shorter

25 This was out of Gikuyu's cultural wisdom that people and livestock are not counted for it would bring a bad omen and for other magical reasons. Instead of saying Gikuyu had ten daughters one says he had nine full daughters. For more information on the Agikuyu clans, Cf. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 19-20. 26 M. Anicet, “African Traditional Religion: A New Struggle for African Identity,” The Asian Journal of Theology Vol.29, no. 1 (2015): 89.

23 argues that through religion, “society teaches man about man and man’s relationship to the world, to other men and to facts ultimate concern.”27 Agikuyu religion inserted the Agikuyu in their right place in the universe offering explanation of their origin and destiny as well as the purpose of the universe. African communities in general are known to have a strong belief in the supernatural world and the spiritual forces. Agikuyu people are not to be exempted from such a strong link with the divine. The African religious heritage is made manifest in every African community though with differing aspects but in general as Mbiti noted, "Africans are notoriously religious and each people has its own religious system with a set of beliefs and practices."28 In their own cultural system the spiritual link with their community is easily discovered. The Agikuyu people are truly a religious people. At the center of every religion is the notion of a supreme being. This is the case with the Agikuyu traditional religion. One fact is clear that Agikuyu believed in a Supreme Being who is at the highest level of both the Visible (material world) and the invisible (spiritual world). This being is other than what they are. Kenyatta observes that the Agikuyu people of Central Kenya believe in one God, Ngai,29 the creator and giver of all things.30 The Supreme Being is revered in the Agikuyu traditional religion and is uniquely one. Their understanding on the superiority of His being is central to their concept of their religious world view. The Supreme Being is the head of all things and he has the power to control everything at will in the universe. Their origin, daily life and their destiny is hinged on the existence of Ngai who creates and sustains the Gikuyu world. “Ngai is the creator and giver of all things, the divider of the universe and Lord of nature. He gave birth to the human community, created the first Kikuyu communities and provided them with all the resources necessary for life: land, rain, plants and animals.”31 Their religious dimension of life explains their origin, sustenance and destiny. Religious convictions and belief systems of the Agikuyu people were an oasis of life for the community.

27 A. Shorter, African culture and the Christian Church: An introduction to social and Pastoral Anthropology, (London: Geofrey Chapmann, 1973), 21. 28 J. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, (Nairobi: Heinemann Press, 1969), 1. 29 Ngai, is the Agikuyu Supreme Being who is the origin of the universe with man as the climax of His creative work. Ngai literally means the one who divides or gives his goodness to each according to His will. 30 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 233. 31 J. Finke, Traditional Music and Cultures of Kenya, www.bluegecko.org/kenya/tribes/kikuyu/beliefs.htm (accessed on Nov. 16, 2018).

24 The members were firmly resolved to carry on their beliefs in the deepest part of their hearts and practice them in their daily lives. Religion in the traditional Agikuyu community was a school of virtues where all the members learnt the value of the other and the apex of religious training was love which was the power to hold the members together as a one people. In its concept Agikuyu religion focuses on the moral conduct of a people as they desire to live harmoniously with one another in a life that is pleasing to their Supreme Being and ancestors. Therefore, for the Agikuyu religion is life itself, there is no way to separate life from religion. Religion was very deep among the Agikuyu people and was in deed taken to be life in itself. Religion and life could not be divorced in any way. Everything was interpreted religiously while as, religion was only understood in reference to the Agikuyu concept of life. Lugira makes this point clear as he points out that; Followers of African religion make no distinction between religion and other aspects of their lives. Their beliefs are so closely bound to their culture that religion and culture are one. Religion is therefore not something people do at certain times and in certain places, but it is part of the fabric of living. Although a Supreme Being is above the living, lesser gods, spirits, and ancestors walk besides the living and guide them in the direction they must go. They are sometimes displeased by those who do not heed them. People and gods are constantly interacting through ritual, prayer, and sacrifice, but mostly through the business of living. Among African peoples community, culture, and religion are tightly bound together.32

For one to get a certain level of understanding Agikuyu traditional religion it is important to put into consideration their culture as a whole. And in order to understand their culture a better glimpse on their religion is a condition worth fulfilling. Both are deeply intertwined together. Their religion is directly proportional to their life and to what constitutes them as a people both individually and collectively. The belief in an Omnipotent God forms a solid base in the Agikuyu traditional religion. African religion does not have recorded events, books or other forms of preserving the beliefs. Their beliefs are in their life which is identical with their religion. The daily social political, economic activities are permeated by their strong belief in the Divine. For the Agikuyu, the mountains are the earthly dwelling place of Ngai and specifically Kerenyaga Mountain is his

32 A. Lugira, World Religions African Traditional Religion 3rded., (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 2009), 17.

25 earthly official residence.33 The presence of the aforementioned mountains in the Gikuyu land thus pointed to the presence of Ngai an assurance that mugikuyu was aware that Ngai is not far from him. The big trees are taken to be the rightful places of worship. Everything that is elegant and magnificent expresses the eminence of Ngai. Above all the Gikuyu reveres mugumo tree and it is under it that they sacrificed to Ngai facing the sacred mountain Kerenyaga.

The Agikuyu religious practices were deep in their blood such that everything that they passed through every day in their life they believed had a connection with God and thus had a divine interpretation. Religious conviction gives relevance to every cultural group as Kimbal notes in his scholarly work when he writes that, “Religion is arguably the most powerful and pervasive force on earth. Throughout history religious ideas and commitments have inspired individuals and communities of faith to transcend narrow self-interest in pursuit of higher values and truths. The record of history shows that noble acts of love, self-sacrifice, and service to others are frequently rooted in deeply held religious worldviews.”34 This is true of the Agikuyu people in their religiosity they have been found to work for high ideals even going higher to unite themselves with the spirits of the long dead. There was the religious ceremony that accompanied every social and ritual activity with the various sacrifices proper to each stage and circumstance in life. This is why we agree with Ng’ang’a that, “Agikuyu before occupation by the Europeans were deeply religious.”35 Their daily life and experiences was surrounded and interpreted from religious practices. This includes such things like rites of passage, social events, planting, and harvesting. Agikuyu had a very high sense of religion which is clearly manifested in their way of life as a whole. Agikuyu believe in the existence of the spirits who are the intermediaries between Ngai and the living. The spirits were appeased and invited in the life of the living people when they had different celebrations. The spirits of the dead including their ancestors were very close to the community and they were invited in all the community's gatherings. Furthermore, “In black

33 Kerenyaga is Ngai’s earthly official residence. According to famous Kikuyu legends Mt Kerenyaga is a mountain of Mystery as Agikuyu held that this mountain had supernatural powers for it was the abode of Ngai who is the possessor of mysteries and who alone is the source and destiny of man. Cf. Kenyatta, Facing Mt Kenya, 2. 34 C. Kimball, When Religion Becomes Evil: Five Warning Signs, (New York: Harper Collins, 2009), 1. 35 J. Mbugua, Agikuyu Christian Martyrs: An Exploratory study of the Faith of Selected Agikuyu Christian Martyrs During the Mau Mau Period in Kenya (1952-1960), (Thesis Submitted at South African Theological Seminary in Bryanston, Feb. 2011), 47.

26 Africa, ancestral veneration is intimately linked with the traditional world view; life is understood as sacred power (vital force).”36 The community respected the will of their ancestors since everything they had including land belonged to them. Agikuyu were expected to maintain good relation with their ancestors. This involvement of the spirits assured the living of a peaceful life here and in the world to come. For the Agikuyu the sense of religion is self-explanatory from the environment as Wanyoike writes, “one does not need to proof existence of God because the world manifests His presence and power.”37 There was a clear manifestation of their religion such that their success in any event was interpreted to mean that Ngai is happy with how the community is moving on with life while the contrary is true. That is if things are not right and there is tragedy in life like diseases, famine, the community is not in good relation with God. This meant they had offended God and thus they sacrificed to him so as to enjoy his favour. Their religion strengthened their link with God. “The Gikuyu people, it is certain, maintain a close and vital relationship with spiritual entities. Their daily lives, both as individuals and groups are influenced at all points by belief in the supernatural.”38 Gikuyu used to beseech God from time immemorial for various reasons such as thanksgiving for his benevolence to their lives, petitioning him to come to their rescue in times of need etc. Their religious orientation is based on the fact that, “For all Kikuyu are descendants of the descendants of the original ancestors Gikuyu and Mumbi, to whom the land was first given by the Kikuyu Supreme God, Ngai or Mugai who dwells on Mount Kenya.”39 They hold firmly that their origin, sustenance and destiny lays on the hands of Ngai hence the need to be religiously united with him. Their religion was simply their life. Agikuyu had a monotheistic religion with Ngai being one and having no origin. He was believed to be the origin of all men and all that exists. This is why, “the sense of sacredness permeates every act of the traditional life, from childhood the Kikuyu grew up in an environment that helped them to learn the basic beliefs and values of their tribe.”40 Even though there were deities and spirits none of them was understood to be God. They were messengers and servants

36 C. Nyamiti, Jesus Christ the Ancestor of Humankind: Methodological and Trinitarian Foundations, (Nairobi: CUEA Publications, 2005), 65. 37 E. Wanyoike, Dissertation on Contemporary Perception of Sacred Places, Objects and Personnel (SPOP) Among the Agikuyu Christians of Nyandarua Kenya, (Dissertation Submitted to CUEA June 2010, Nairobi), 8. 38 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 231. 39 B. Ray, African Religious Symbols, Rituals and Community, (New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. 1976), 166. 40 S. Bottignole, Kikuyu Traditional Culture and Christianity, (Nairobi: General Printers, 1984), 34.

27 of Ngai who is referred as the Supreme Being, beyond him no other being. Religion is a very important aspect of their life and without it we cannot talk of the Agikuyu for their origin, sustenance and destiny is accounted for by their religion. Agikuyu believed that Ngai cannot be presented in any image for he created all that there is while himself has no origin.

1.1.4 Administration In the Agikuyu community administration began right away from the family where the husband played the role of the chief administrator of his household. His wife or wives were his principle assistants until the elder son could reach the initiation stage. A married man who had carried well the role of administration in his family could be enrolled in the council of elders. The Agikuyu people like many other communities in Africa follow a patriarchal system of administration. Even though a myth has been in existence that they were once a matriarchal society, a myth that Muriuki says cannot be affirmed with certainty. “The traditional claim, for instance, that at one time the Kikuyu society was matriarchal and that the men folk staged a coup d’état which ended the female rule remains unsubstantiated.”41Agikuyu are governed by the council of elders. The main reason for the council was that Agikuyu believed that no individual man would be wise like Ngai. Thus the need for a number of seasoned men to form the governing body instead of entrusting leadership to one person who can be corrupted or be wanting in one way or the other. The council had a strong army. “The country was governed by a council of elders, supported by strong councils of fighting warriors.”42 These warriors helped the council in the provision of security of the Agikuyu nation. The elders were the highest governing body in the Agikuyu land. “They carried out legislative executive and judicial functions.”43 This council was all inclusive with members from all the villages as Kenyatta points, “Every village appointed a representative to the council.”44 These elders together form one council that governs the village and they in turn have a representative in the traditional council commonly known as Kiama kia ma (a council that embraces justice, truth and peace as the guiding principles). This council was the governing body in all matters that touched on the lives of the Agikuyu people.

41 G. Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu 1500-1900, (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1974), 110. 42 J. Kenyatta, My People of Kikuyu, and the Life of Chief Wang’ombe, (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1966), 9. 43 Ng’ang’a, Kenya’s Ethnic communities, 191. 44 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 188.

28 The Agikuyu arm of administration was rotational and hinged upon two categories that is, Mwangi and Irungu each ruling for thirty to forty years and then handing over to the other.45

These leaders were chosen according to their moral conduct and how they had portrayed a sense of leadership right away from their families. Such values like moral integrity, justice and peace were also desired. “In the whole governmental organization there was no inevitable position, everything depending on personal merit.”46 In this case the demand of a common good was achieved in the Agikuyu nation. The council assured the community as a whole that individual interests will not at any time penetrate or injure the administration of the Agikuyu nation. This is in line with the general African understanding that the individual has no place if he loses his link in the community. This was the Agikuyu form of governance before the advent of the colonial government. The council of Elders solved all the social conflicts from the family, political, and religious conflicts. However, within the council there were specialised elders who dealt with certain areas of specialization. Some were entrusted with the issues of land others with family matters but they all worked together harmoniously for the community progress as one group.

1.1.5 Economy and Social Life For the survival of every person there must be the provision of basic needs.47 The economic activities that Agikuyu engaged in are various in order to have the resources required to sustain human life. To begin with, the Agikuyu people have a great link to land as the foundation of their economic activities.48 Murage elucidates this fact when he points out that, “land gives us all we need for continuing in existence.”49 They relied heavily on land both for their survival and economic activities. This explains why they fought the colonizers fiercely for

45 Ibid. 46 Kenyatta, Facing Mt Kenya, 195. 47 According to Maslow’s theory, the first and basic needs are those to do with physical survival, they constitute food drink and shelter. These needs are to be met first. Cf. Maslow’s Theory, theneyrotypical.com/maslows-basic- needs.html, (accessed on Feb. 1, 2019). 48 The Agikuyu being agriculturalists had special link to land as the ground of their existence. It is from the land that they acquired their daily sustenance. It was a sacred resource which sustained their community. 49 B. Murage, Marian Devotion among the Agikuyu, (Roma: S.T.A. 1995), 38.

29 taking their land. The main economic occupations among the Agikuyu people are carried out on tracts of land. As previously noted the Agikuyu land is essentially agriculturally suited.50

Agikuyu are known as farmers. Their farming includes food crops such as beans, cassava, arrowroots, yams, sorghum, sugarcane, maize among other food crops. They also engaged in rearing domestic animals such as sheep, goats and cattle. The domesticated animals are very important in the life of Agikuyu for they were used as a means of exchange in the barter trade, bride wealth, and offering sacrifices in their religious practices. Above all one with a lot of animals was accorded higher status in the society and it was also a sign of wealth. Kenyatta affirms that, “the chief occupations among the Agikuyu are agriculture, and the rearing of livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats.”51 Although these are the two major economic activities the Agikuyu also engaged to a certain degree in other activities such as: dressmaking, pottery, blacksmith and trade. Agikuyu people are known for hard work; they used to share their family and economic activities among themselves in consideration of their age, gender, and the kind of work under consideration.52 They engaged in barter trade with their neighbours. In this trade they exchanged their produce with the produce of other tribes to achieve what they needed and was not within their territory. In their economy each member was required to be actively engaged in accordance to his or her age, gender, status and health. The success of the family and the society depended on each member. This notion is well captured in the following statement, “each member of the family unit knows perfectly well what task he or she is required to perform, in their economic productivity and distribution of the family resources so as to ensure the material prosperity of the group.”53 The members were therefore required to be hardworking and collaborative. Economic activities enhanced their social life, for they were a means of achieving their common and individual good.

The social life of the Agikuyu people is well established. The entire community has a responsibility of ushering the new-born members of the community into the Agikuyu social

50 Scoresby and Katherine, With a Prehistoric People, 39. 51 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 53. 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid.

30 system. “Ever since a child is born in this world, it is a society that takes over responsibilities to the maturity. A person is growing, shaped in terms of behaviour, the ways of life, culture, custom, traditions, the mentality and the norms.”54 Among the Agikuyu like with any other community such a process of socializing a new born is impossible unless the community itself exists, hence, the Agikuyu community makes an Agikuyu person. This process begins from the family where the new born is socialised in that basic community and as he or she grows he is introduced to the larger community. “The nuclear family, which consists of a husband and wife or wives and children, is the basic social unit of Kikuyu society.”55 Individualism has no place in the traditional Agikuyu family. Every person is a social being and his success, fulfilment, and status depended highly on the good relationship he enjoys with other members of the community. This is because they believed that, “The most fundamental basis of Gikuyu social and political organisation was the family unit.”56 The family where one is born and nurtured is the basic social unit among the Agikuyu people like any other African traditional community. The family unit as the basic cell of the Agikuyu community was greatly desired. “Unlike the European, the African kinship tie is so strong that all man’s children and grandchildren are considered as forming the family group, and as such they must stick together.”57 Unity was very important among the Agikuyu people. The various rites of passage and religious celebrations are all done within and by the community.58 The entire Agikuyu life is guided by the laid norms and regulations that guide the human relationship among the people of different ages, gender, and social status. For example, in building, carrying and cutting of the grass for thatching and plastering the walls with clay or cow dung is the work of women. While as the rest belongs to men. These tasks required people of the same age group to do it communally not individually. The social life was organized such that no one felt left out unless the one who had stubbornly chosen to be out of the community. Their social system was founded on kinship, marriage and family ties.59 The Agikuyu had certain sayings that highly discouraged

54 W. Chibago, African Political Philosophy, https://www.academia.edu/38266556/african-political- philosophy?email-work-card-tittle (accessed on Feb.12, 2019). 55 Kikuyu Facts Information, https://www.encyclopedia.com (accessed on Dec. 2, 2018). 56 Ng’ang’a, Kenya’s Ethnic Communities, 178. 57 Kenyatta, Facing Mt Kenya, 31. 58 Ng’ang’a, Kenya’s Ethnic Communities, 178. 59 Kikuyu Pre-Colonial History, https//www.bluegecko.org (accessed on Jan. 2, 2019).

31 individualism such as “Muria wiki akuaga o wiki, (He who enjoys his success alone dies and loses everything alone). This encouraged the communal spirit by encouraging group consciousness. It was a common phenomenon to see people of the same group spending the day together; the children could be seen playing together, the Kikuyu warriors spent and organized themselves and their activities together. The young women could share their life stories and help each other in their family matters and in fulfilling their roles. Men also carried out their tasks in communion like opening up of the virgin lands, and grazing. Fellowship and union of age groups was highly upheld. “The kikuyu society is characterised by its strong unity on all levels”60 In fact, at the tender age the young ones were taught the societal values that united them and the need to respect all people especially the parents and the senior citizens in the community. They were taught, “that the family consists of all the members both living and dead.”61 All the members of the community were involved in social gatherings, feasts, and in various community celebrations. There were established taboos that checked the balances in the social life. These taboos safeguarded the social cohesion of the Agikuyu as a one people. They guided the behaviour of people within their age group and even with members of other age groups and gender. They encouraged social life which was a major aspect of the Agikuyu life. To enhance the social life of the Agikuyu people the community had various dances that were performed by same age group. Above all the participation of every person in the communal activities was not a choice but an obligation of every member.

1.1.6 Rites of Passage

1.1.6.1 General Concept The theme of rites of passage is a common phenomenon among Africans of various ethnic backgrounds. These stages of life are used in African traditional communities as marks of human growth and development. In the Agikuyu community they run from conception up to death. Death in its own is considered as a rite of passage. Through the rituals that accompany these rites the candidates are linked with both the living and the dead. They are given cultural instructions proper to every stage; hence they play an informative role to the candidates. The

60 Tony, Essays Social Organization of the Kikuyu, tonnyessays.blogspot.com>2011/03>soc..html (accessed on Feb. 1, 2019). 61 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 115.

32 Agikuyu people used various proverbs proper to each stage to inculcate among the initiates knowledge proper to their level. Proverbs are very important among the Agikuyu people. Baara defines them as the “quintessence of Gikuyu eloquence and represented for centuries the code of tribal laws used for lack of written books. They are full of wisdom and embody the maxims of natural law written by God in the heart of all.”62 Agikuyu used proverbs as a text for educating the members of the community during various rites of passage. Proverbs of the Agikuyu covered all areas of their life. Wanjohi also takes note of the centrality of proverbs in passing knowledge and wisdom in the Agikuyu community. He argues that, “Proverbs point to the basic philosophy: to metaphysics to an epistemology and to the ethics of the Agikuyu as well as that of education, of religion, of society, and political philosophy.”63 Rites of passage are used to connect the Supreme Being and all the community members both the living and the dead. Rites of passage do have various interpretations from various cultural communities. But the encyclopedia of religion has harmonized these meanings and have come up with a definition of rites of passage as a, “category of rituals that mark the passage of a person through the life cycle, from one stage to another over time, from one role or social position to another, integrating the human and cultural experiences with biological destiny: birth, reproduction and death.”64 They use them to mark various stages of human life from birth to death. Rites of passage are understood to be transition marks and celebrations which ushers the candidates to a new stage while closing the door of the prior stage. These stages are in a continuum which exhibits the Agikuyu belief in life that once born there is no break in life for it has value for both the individual and the community. These ceremonies mark the stage of life and provide a clear definition of society’s expectation of the individual, and they give him “a sense of identity and belonging.”65 Rites of passage define one’s role and status in the society. The role and the status of an individual consequently add up to the community’s common good. For Agikuyu in their indigenous community, a communitarian dimension was greatly valued

62 G. Baara, 1000 Kikuyu Proverbs, Second Edition, (Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1960), iii. 63 Wanjohi, The Wisdom and Philosophy of the Gikuyu Proverbs, 38. 64 M. Eliade ed. The Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol., 12, (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company), 380. 65 D. Johnson, “African Ceremonies: Passages,” https//artsandculture.goggle.com/exhibit/Africa-ceremonies- passages/QQgfgg2 (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018).

33 while as individualism was abhorred. Thus the members of the community looked forward to the next stage in life in connection to the progress of their community. The members who underwent a rite of passage together were closely knit for they belonged to the same age group. Age groups are very useful in the Agikuyu community for building strong bonds among people of the same age group. They had a responsibility over each other and together they worked for the unity of the entire community. They acquired a sense of belonging and ownership in their community. Rites of passage were also referred as stages of life and are marked with ceremonies that are full of jubilation and brought people from all walks of life together. However, when entering these stages of life the candidates were considered vulnerable to the spiritual forces which can be harmful. The community invoked the spiritual leaders and offered sacrifices to the spirits to accompany and protect the initiates. Lastly, the rites of passage have a purpose as Imasogie notes down that; It provides the initiates a ritual process for recapitulating what their forebears said, did and experienced as members of the same community that transcends the temporal to embrace the "living dead" from the "scared mythical time." The symbols, incantations and movements in the rites of passage are crucial elements in African traditional religion. They are ritual vehicles through which the role of the ancestors who, must be revered as the custodians of the ethnic morals, may be visualized. It is believed that without enlisting their active participation in societal affairs, cultural cohesion would be a mirage.66

In the entire Agikuyu practice of the rites of passage the society and the individual members are given an opportunity to renew themselves. In other words through the various rites they die in the old stage and are reborn in the new one. Ray confirms this as he argues that, "In this phase people are metaphysically and sociologically remade into 'new' beings with new social roles.”67 The rites of passage are determinant on the status worth of a person in this life and in the life to come. Rites of passage are moments of dying and rising to new roles and privileges.

1.1.6.2 Conception, Birth and Naming In the Agikuyu community these three events are treated as one rite of passage owing to their interrelatedness. The Agikuyu people understood procreation to be the second goal of

66 A. Imasogie, “The Nature of Rites of Passage in African Traditional Religion,” Ogbomoso Journal of Theology, 1992: 16. 67 B. Ray, African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Community, (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976), 91.

34 human life after, joining the ancestors after death was the primary goal. After the couple got married the community expected a child from them soonest possible. The preservation and continuation of the community depended on this stage which was required to get new members of the community for its future. The Agikuyu as a community of persons included the unborn, the living and the dead. Hence, from conception to eternity one was considered a member of this community. There were various taboos governing human sexuality to safeguard its sanctity and avoid its abuse before and even after marriage. Conception and birth are very important stages of human life. Agikuyu in their traditional community highly valued this stage. It was believed that sex, conception and birth were a sacred and religious part of human life. Birth was not just to be understood as a matter of only the mother, father and the child being born. But it brought together the couple, the living community, the spiritual world and the Supreme Being. In this rite the visible and the invisible realm were united. A successful delivery of a new born baby was not taken lightly but was interpreted to mean divine favour and a favorable consideration from the ancestors. Magesa notes that, “It is a sign of tranquility in the universe, the pleasure of the ancestors the good moral standing of the parents, and a sign of the defeat of bad people or malevolent spirits by the protection of the ancestors.”68 Anew born is a victory over forces of death and their agents. The new born was therefore welcomed warmly as a gift from the spiritual world. Birth is a very important stage. It has importance to the mother, the child born, and lastly the entire community including the ancestors. The moment of birth is a wonderful time of great rejoicing and dancing. “The birth of a child is an important event not only for a family but for society as well. Children ensure the continuity of a community and therefore a woman’s ability to bear children inspires awe.”69 This moment brings community together to celebrate the arrival of a new member in the family. Children in the traditional Agikuyu community were a sign of divine blessings. A barren woman was considered to be of low social status while a fruitful woman was a pride for both her husband and the community. Children were a mark of wealth for the man of the house. They were never seen as a burden in fact they were understood to be the source of labour in the family,

68 Magesa, African Religion, 83. 69 C. Clarke, Rites of Passage, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/african-art-intro/a/rites-of- passage, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018).

35 a blessing and the future of the community. In the Agikuyu community there's a period of waiting before the celebrations begin, in order to make sure that the new born is alive and strong and to assure the community of his or her survival. They had to wait for at least five days before the news could be announced to the community. This time the mother and her child were secluded allowing only the close relatives to access them. It is interesting to note that Agikuyu had a deeper meaning to names given to their children. They gave names to the newborn members expressing their special attention to their religion, land use, history, blood ties, prevailing circumstances and other cultural elements. The naming of the new members of the community pointed to the fact that he belongs to the community and the community owned him fully. For his or her name was a property of the community. Through the name one acquired meaning and identity in the community. In many cases the newborn was understood to be a link with the living dead. This in turn demonstrated the fact that they are related with their way of life and understanding of various important aspects of their culture. Ademola tells us that; The naming ceremony, as part of the birth rituals, signifies that the baby is jointly owned by the parents and the community. The child is considered an integral part of the society through the participation of the extended family and the neighbours during the naming ceremony. The naming ceremony is thus considered to be an initiation into the human community. This indicates that the child is a social being, and corporately owned.70 The names followed a certain reasoning that was attached to how they viewed life. This could be based upon seasons, situations they are in, names of relatives especially those who are dead or their ancestors among other factors that were put under consideration by the community through their elders. Every name given to an Agikuyu child had a unique relevance to the entire community. In fact it is true as Gebre points out that, “names express, shared experience, belongingness and identity.”71 Since almost all Agikuyu names have a clear meaning, naming a child has great interpretation that resonates well within the mind of the community. Among the Agikuyu when a boy was born the message was relayed to his father through five ululations and if a girl was born

70 S. Ademola, “The Sociological Significance of the Traditional African Concept of Rites of Passage,” Ogboso Journal of Theology 1992: 27. 71 G. Yntiso, "Cultural Contact and Change in Naming Practices among the Aari of Southwest Ethiopia," Journal of African Cultural Studies Vol. 22, no. 2 (2010): 184.

36 there were four ululations. This was a public announcement of the gender of the baby. The belief that a new born has a connection with the dead or the ancestors was well demonstrated during birth and naming ceremonies. Hence, the naming of the child after those recently or long dead was a common practice. Parrinder takes note of this practice as he comments that, “A new born child is often thought to be reincarnation of some ancestor who is seeking to return to this life, or at least part of his spiritual influence returns.”72 Continuity of life was expressed through the naming ceremony and the rationale that accompanied the whole process. The Agikuyu people would therefore name the new born after close relatives beginning with the grandparents, uncles and aunties in that order.

1.1.6.3 Initiation Initiation rites are an integral part of communities in the traditional Africa. Among the Agikuyu, “these rites were very important in the life of Gikuyu especially in indigenous education. They were basic cultural fundamentals of their life. It was through these rites that an individual was ushered into the next social status by being taught his role with respect to that social status.”73 On this stage of life when young boys and girls are approaching maturity there was a rite of passage that was coupled with assiduous training, and a physical mark. To some communities this stage is also referred to as circumcision for boys and cliteridectomy for girls. The latter has been abolished with the coming of Christianity and the result of better understanding of human sexuality. Kenyatta in his book emphasized on the importance of circumcision to the Agikuyu people. He confirms that circumcision was the most important custom through which one socially and psychologically became a man or a woman.74 But the circumcision of boys is still in practice among the Agikuyu people today. Initiation was a, “deciding factor in giving a boy or a girl the status of manhood or womanhood in the Gikuyu community.”75 A boy became a man and a girl became a woman after undergoing this rite of passage. This rite of passage includes a

72 G. Parrinder, West African Religion: A Study of Beliefs and Practices of Akan, Ewe, Yoruba, Igbo, and Kindred Peoples, (London: The Epworth Press, 1961), 95. 73 The Education Function of Gikuyu Rites of passage, uonRepositoryerepository.uonbi.ac.ke/…/kuria- The%20education%20function%20%of %2%gikuyu% (accessed on Nov.26, 2018). 74 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 75. 75 Ibid, 128.

37 period of seclusion where the candidates are taught a number of communities’ secrets with an intention to safeguard them and to hand them over to their children. They were taught on how to get married and the issues of human sexuality. Since after this stage both girls and boys were no longer considered children but adults and after sometime they were allowed to get married. The young men were expected after this rite to be warriors of their community to defend it both within and outside its borders. They were expected to abandon any form of childish behavior and were accorded high status in the entire community and they were recognized as such. Libation76 was offered to the ancestors and to the entire lineage of spirits beseeching them to watch over the initiates to undergo the rite and get healed successfully. Strijcom captures briefly the purpose of this rite when he writes that initiation was a mark towards maturity which came with a physical mark. Of the rites of passage, initiation serves to change the status of adolescent boys and girls from childhood to adulthood. During this ritual, they are typically secluded from their families and clans, taught about the traditional tasks expected of men and women and a physical mark is often made on their bodies to remind them of that crucial event in their lives. After the seclusion, they are reintegrated into their groups as adults, now ready to get married with the intent to procreate, that is, to perpetuate life.77

The children were longing for this stage though they had to endure pain since the art of circumcision was painful. But after that the initiates were treated in a more respectable way with more rights and responsibilities as Isichei explains that it was a, “prelude to adult social identity and marriage.”78 They were required above all to portray a high sense of endurance in order to demonstrate to the community that they are ready to endure the burdens of life that comes along with the issues of being warriors, and parents.

76 Libation as the main form of the cult of the ancestors was used by the Agikuyu to reconnect with the ancestors. Pobee defines it as the pouring of alcoholic drink or water, or the sprinkling of some food to the spirit-beings, accompanied by prayer. Libation is poured by the individual or social group to his or their own ancestors. To pour libation to another's ancestors is considered most inhospitable, indeed hostile and amounting to a declaration of war on the ancestors of another group. This is because libation is another reminder that the family consists of the living, the dead and the still unborn. Cf. J. Pobee, “Sociological Analysis.” Association for the Sociology of Religion, Vol. 37, no. 1 (1976): 10. In the Agikuyu custom libation was a great sign that the living are in touch with the dead. 77 J. Strijcom, “Towards a Critique of Indigenous African Religion.” Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 2. 78 E. Isichei, A History of Christianity in Africa from Antiquity to the Present, (London: The Cromwell Press, 1994), 245.

38 According to Nga’ng’a, among the Agikuyu community, “The male initiates became members of the junior warrior group and could now defend the country together with the senior warriors.”79 They were accorded full rights and privileges of adulthood in their communities. This is why this stage had aspects of painful episodes since the stage they were entering into required handwork, perseverance and a lot of maturity. The initiates had to show bravely in their life and in all what they face. In all cases, there is a much emphasis on bravery and enduring pain without complaining. The Agikuyu concept of initiation compares favorably with the Samburu community of Kenya, Once every seven years a generation of boys from the Samburu tribe in Kenya undergoes circumcision. This Ancient tradition serves as a rite of passage for Samburu men as they leave boyhood and become warriors. During the circumcision ceremony, boys must show their courage and manhood by not making any noise or flinching, even though the operation is done without anesthesia. Typically, many boys are circumcised with the same knife to symbolize the brotherhood and bond between the entire group that is undergoing circumcision.80 As is the case with the Samburu the Agikuyu circumcision of boys to date unites them and implores on them to endurance of the ups and downs of life. The unity that was demanded by the community from the initiates was meant to last for life. Above all they were to demonstrate a high sense of responsibility after undergoing this rite. They became worth companions in the challenges that lied ahead of them. They were to treat each other well in a very considerable manner. They were not allowed to offend each other as Kenyatta explains, “When a man of the same age-group injures another it is a serious offence. They are like blood-brothers; they must not do any wrong to each other. It ranks with an injury done to a member of one’s own family.”81 Mutual concern and reciprocity was demanded among people of the same age group at all times. Those who underwent this rite together were grouped into one age set. Age set among the Agikuyu, “carried with it powerful obligation of brotherhood and sisterhood towards all other members.”82 In many communities in Africa during circumcision of boys it is inculcated in them that real men are not to fear or cry in any situation. Thus initiation according to Magesa is intended to

79 Ng’ang’a, Kenya’s Ethnic communities, 187. 80 Rituals and Rites of Passage, https//path.azureedge.net/media/documents/cp-kenya-eetg-3pdf, (accessed on Nov. 26, 2018). 81 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 115. 82 R. Macpherson, The Presbyterian Church in Kenya: An Account of the Origins and Growth of the Presbyterian Church in East Africa, (Nairobi: PCEA, 1970), 7.

39 instill courage and endurance among the initiates.83 This was done primarily during circumcision although it began during childhood when the little boys were ridiculed when they cry. If the candidate shown fear he could be regarded as a coward and could be chased away or another form of painful punishment could be applied to him. He could also be a laughing stock among his age groups. Worse still such a coward could not even be able to get a woman to marry. Circumcision as done during those days was extremely painful but the initiates had to wear a strong face to prove man enough worth the responsibility of being a warrior and a husband in a family. Today initiation rites continue with a number of adaptations to contemporary lifestyles. For example the Agikuyu boys do not go to the river for circumcision but thanks to the modern medicine they go to the hospital for hygienic purposes among other reasons. Due to the system of the formal education these rites are done during the December holidays after the candidates have sat for the primary national exams prior to joining the secondary school. Nowadays it’s less communal since with the coming of colonization and rural-urban migration certain cultural elements are getting lost along the way. Unlike in the traditional Agikuyu set up where it was done in groups and the initiates were grouped into an age set. Age sets were given a specific name for identity. “Each age set was given a name which was distinct and institutionalized and consisted of novices (both girls and boys) initiated at any given time, who remained members of it throughout their lives.”84 They were supposed to remain united together in life. However, the Agikuyu community is still using this rite as a mark towards adulthood. The rite has also been modified to include a period of seclusion. In which the initiates both boys and girls are given guidance separately or even together on how to handle themselves in life. Circumcision as an initiation rite is one of the rites from the traditional Agikuyu community that has undergone tremendous metamorphosis. These changes have been necessitated by the health concerns out of the many health risks that were posed in the traditional way of circumcision. Rural urban migration whereby the younger families have moved to urban centers in search of employment, business opportunities among other reasons has also diluted this rite. This has made them lose contact with their traditional customs. The coming of Christianity in traditional Africa has greatly discouraged

83 Magesa, African Religion, 101. 84 Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu, 117.

40 female circumcision. The missionaries and other pastoral agents who were working in the Agikuyu land enumerated the reasons against female circumcision. They exposed the problems associated with it. Some of these problems include excessive bleeding, fear of sexually transmitted diseases like AIDS85 infection through the apparatus used in the exercise among other challenges. Above all the missionaries coined the term female genital mutilation86 as a catchy statement to show its negative impact on the woman anatomy. Today the Church is engaged to an alternative rite of passage for girls. In this rite they are taught a number of ways to handle the challenges of adolescents as they look forward to join secondary school. In other words they are prepared on how to handle challenges in life and how they can and should work towards realizing meaningful contribution in the society through formal education. Of importance to us here is that circumcision was very important as it accorded the initiates social status in the community.

1.1.6.4 Marriage The Agikuyu are a highly communal and social people. Marriage was the institution that was understood to be at the center of the communitarian and social life. Marriage exhibited ones worth, having been understood to be contracted by mature people, “and therefore a family is constituted by a permanent union between one man and woman or several women.”87 Agikuyu marriages were understood to be sacred hence their permanence. In fact among the Agikuyu such things like divorce and separation were rare. After successfully undergoing the initiation rite in accordance to the Agikuyu custom, the initiates were expected to look forward to marriage. Initiation completed the childhood stage and ushered one into adulthood. In the Agikuyu community initiation rite was understood to be complete when the initiates got married. Initiation in the community conferred various rights and obligations to the initiates. One of the prime rights

85 AIDS is caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) that attacks a person’s immune system thereby reducing the ability of the human body to fight diseases. Cf. A. Felman, Explaining HIV and aids in Medical News Today 2018, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com>arti. (accessed on Dec. 16, 2018.) 86 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) was previously referred to as women circumcision. Female Genital Mutilation includes procedures that injure or remove parts of the female genitalia for nonmedical reasons in line with the traditional African communities’ practices of initiation rites. Cf. J. Beller, and C. Kröger. 2018. Differential Effects from Aspects of Religion on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, psyc.apa.org/record/2018-27804-001 (accessed on Dec. 16, 2018). 87 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 163.

41 was that of getting married in which the couple were licensed to use human sexuality to procreate children for the community. Thus marriage in the Agikuyu community is a sacred and a highly communal ceremony. It is joined together with giving birth to children as Magesa argues that, “marriage and procreation have the greatest importance in the moral thought of African Religion.”88 The institution of marriage was so central to the progress and continuity of the entire community that without it we could not talk of the existence of this community. It is highly valued among all Africans in their traditional communities. The purpose of which was meant to be procreation. One was a person of worth when he acquired the title of father or mother of so and so (ithe wa... na nyina wa...). One who was married and had children could not be referred to using his or her name. As a rite of passage it accords the couple social status and responsibility of procreation not for themselves but for the entire community.

Traditionally, marriage in the Agikuyu community was a communal affair and the society had set the conditions of marriage be it in terms of the qualities of a good husband or wife and even the time to get married as well as the bride wealth to be given. “In fact, it may be said that in Africa you do not marry an individual; you are married into a family because the individual is not human apart from his community.”89 This is very true as far as an Agikuyu marriage was concerned. The Kikuyu community allowed the young people after undergoing circumcision to look for their marriage partners but the family had to approve the one chosen.90 This was done, "to ensure that the families have no records of social maladjustments, or other problems that might affect a successful marriage."91 There were some undesired characteristics such as laziness, or engaging in the art of witchcraft. One who possessed such characteristics could not make a good wife and could not be trusted with motherhood or fatherhood. These were labeled to be unfavorable when selecting a marriage partner. The families of the young people had to be involved in the task of investigating the family of the proposed bride or groom for any undesired character. The married couple was expected after marriage to get children as this was the guarantee to the continuation of their clan and generally humanity here

88 Magesa, African Religion, 101. 89 O. Imasogie, African Traditional Religion, (Ibandan: Ibandan University Press, 1982), 62. 90 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 115-118. 91 S. Ademóla Ishola, “Towards a Contextualized Missiological Approach to the Yoruba Religio-Cultural Milieu,” Ph.D. diss. (South-Western Baptist Theological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas, 1992), 154.

42 on earth. Procreation was the purpose of the Agikuyu marriage. Barrenness was not acceptable and in many times it was blamed on the wife. The husband was allowed to marry another wife who can bear children. The two families that is, of the bride and groom, had to engage each other in a number of ceremonies to seal the marriage and to show affirmation. In these engagements bride wealth was exchanged and strong bonds of friendship were established between the two families and their clans. Above all bride wealth92 was a major phenomenon in traditional Africa which was fulfilled before the couple can be allowed to live together as a family. It was understood to be a way of recognizing the work done by the bride’s family in their upbringing of their daughter. A hardworking and virtuous woman was highly regarded and in this regard her family was given a higher bride wealth. Above the bride wealth the families exchanged gifts often with many visitations before, during and after marriage. This minimized the chances of separation and divorce in the Kikuyu traditional society for it would have brought shame to the two families. For marriage involved families and their respective clan not mere individuals. The elders invoked the blessings of the ancestors to the newly wedded couple so that they can live joyfully and that their union may be fruitful and long lasting. Upon settling down in Marriage and as they carried out their sacred duty of procreation they became people of good standing in the community. As they progressed in age it was understood that they also progressed in wisdom. They entered slowly into the state of being elders in the community. Elder hood came as a privilege from the community since one could be trusted and get involved in all the community functions where his wisdom was sought. Ndugu captures this concept clearly when he writes in his article that; To be an elder in Africa is an honor since they help people grow and avoid repeating mistakes. They work significantly with the youth in dealing with family life, heritage, history and traditions that need to be preserved, with moral lessons that need to be internalized, with reprimands and warnings to be heard and obeyed, with actions and practices acknowledging the need to preserve and promote those values of self- worth and communal responsibility.93

92 Bride wealth should not be confused with bride price for it was more as a sign of exchanging gifts and not buying a woman for it involved the two families. In traditional African societies, bride-wealth was related to goods and services that a bridegroom and his kinsmen transferred to the family of the bride. Cf. T. Kanogo, African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya 1900-1950, (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2005), 105. 93 N. T’Offori-Atta, “Eight Stages in The Holistic Life Cycle in The Hood of Traditional African Religion,” The Journal of interdenominational Theological Centre 23, no. 2 (1996): 112.

They earned respect from how they nurtured their family. The community having realized their commitment to family ideals they vested them with a responsibility of forming the young ones in the community. They were expected to live long until their old age where they would join the land of their ancestors after their natural death. In the Agikuyu community polygamous marriages were allowed so long as the husband was able to meet the bride wealth and cater for all the women and the children thereof equitably. Cagnolo puts it candidly that, “Polygamy was common, and to marry eight, ten or fifteen wives was a sign of wealth.”94 The practice of polygamy gave the husband a prestigious position in the community. This system was ordered in such a way that the women were not jealous toward each other. In fact they were happy because they could help each other to work in the garden and up-bring children together. This kind of a marriage union enhanced the community and social understanding of the Agikuyu people.

1.1.7 Initial Contact with Christianity The traditional Gikuyu land comprised the larger Archdiocese of Nyeri and partly the Archdiocese of Nairobi especially the district of Kiambu. In this scope we consider the larger part which falls on the ecclesiastical province of Nyeri. The initial work of evangelization was initiated by the Consolata missionaries from Italy over a century ago, a religious institute that was founded by Blessed Joseph Allamano.95 The Consolata missionaries must be overjoyed for the work of evangelization witnessed in the Agikuyu land today. A lot can be seen in this territory which bears testimony that the seed of faith planted by the Consolatas is bearing fruits in abundance. The famous Kikuyu chief by the name Karuri wa Gakure was yearning for the development of his people. In view of this, he warmly welcomed the Consolata missionaries in his territory.96 The first group of these missionaries arrived in 1902 unfortunately they were received with suspicion by the natives as noted by Baur, "The natives looked upon them suspiciously and notwithstanding the assurance of Karuri, their chief, they were unable to lay aside that natural

94 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 126. 95 L. Njoroge, A Century of Catholic Endeavour; Holy Ghost and Consolata Missionaries in Kenya, (Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1999), 81. 96 Ibid, 84.

44 suspicion."97 Consolatas traversed the territory amidst many challenges but this notwithstanding they opened mission stations. According to Njoroge one of the prominent Consolata priests named Perlo, “was a zealous and dynamic missionary. Having arrived in Central Kenya in 1902 he started eleven stations in Kikuyu land by the end of 1902.”98 The Consolata missionaries made friendly contact with the Kikuyu chiefs and learnt the Gikuyu language to bring them close to the natives.99 Since, the Agikuyu had a deep religious heritage and a number of admirable beliefs compatible with Christianity the work of evangelization bore fruits within no long time. This is explained well by Bottignole that, “One may discover some typical traits of the traditional Kikuyu culture such as hospitality, curiosity, sociability, honesty as perceived by these first missionaries.”100 The missionaries noting these traits lived a simple life, eating the local food and living in houses similar to those of the Gikuyu people. And above all they made friendly contact as much as possible with the Gikuyu community to counteract the suspicion that Agikuyu had with the white people. The Agikuyu’s hostility towards the whites was explicit. It was based on the fact that colonization almost came at the same time with missionaries. The Agikuyu could not therefore trust them for through colonization the Agikuyu lost their precious land and were subjected to more inhumane treatment. Consolata missionaries employed various methods to win the Agikuyu people and fulfil their mandate of evangelization. They established schools where they taught formal education as well as catechism. All those people who were looking forward to the education of their children sent them to the missionary schools. In these schools they were taught arithmetic, religion and writing.101 The healing mission of Jesus was also applied such that these missionaries established dispensaries to cater for the sick. In other cases they visited the Agikuyu families to socialize with them, see the sick and teach them catechism. The work of schools and hospital apostolate was largely carried out by the Consolata Sisters, a task that earned them a great admiration as Bottignole notes, “the people gladly remember the part the sisters played in the whole missionary

97 J. Baur, The Catholic Church in Kenya, (Nairobi: St Paul Publications Africa, 1990), 67. 98 Njoroge, A Century of Catholic Endeavour, 84. 99 Njoroge, A Century of Catholic Endeavour, 93 100 Bottignole, Kikuyu Traditional Culture and Christianity, 39. 101 This saw the establishment of schools in the missions that the Consolata began. For instance when they established Tetu Mission in 1903, they soon began a school and a hospital in the same compound. It was rare to see a Catholic mission in the Agikuyu land which was not adjacent to a school and a hospital. This strategy worked well for the missionaries to reach out to the locals.

45 activity by working in dispensaries, hospitals and schools and by visiting villages quite often.”102 The Consolata sisters made a very vital contribution in the work of evangelization and Blessed Sr Stefani Nyaatha103 is one of those highly remembered for such a selfless service to the Gikuyu community. The Consolata brothers on their part were engaged in the work of establishing structures like the churches, residential houses, hospitals, and schools. More so they were part of the evangelising team through their daily witness to the Gospel.104 The Priests on their part worked tirelessly under the leadership of Perlo in founding new mission stations. They administered the Word and the Sacraments and the general welfare of the neophyte church taking shape in the Agikuyu land. The three groups, priests, brothers and sisters, worked tirelessly for the same goal, namely establishing Christianity in the Gikuyu heartland, and improving their daily life. This was realized through education, hospital apostolate and mission engagements. During their initial task of evangelizing in Gikuyu land they used the local catechists as the link in order to learn the Gikuyu culture and in turn the catechists introduced the missionaries to their people. Therefore, it must be understood that, “The African catechist must be considered as the most suitable link for the Gospel message between the missionary and the Kikuyu folk.”105 Catechists were the link between their tribesmen and the missionaries. This necessitated the establishment of a catechetical school which was established in Mathari in 1905.106 The rate of expansion and progress of evangelization was enormous and in 1909 there was an increase in mission activity, presence and demands and this required a concerted effort and a real ecclesial authority on the ground. Hence, “In 1909 it was decreed by the Holy See that all the territory on which the Consolata Fathers were working was to become the Vicariate of

102 Bottignole, Kikuyu Traditional Culture and Christianity, 5. 103 Blessed Stefani Nyaatha was a Catholic missionary nun. During the First World War she worked in Kenya and Tanzania helping the wounded soldiers and civilians. In between 1920 to 1930, she was in the heart of Gikuyu land in Gikondi Catholic Mission where she was working as a teacher and a nurse. She contracted bubonic plague which made her succumb to death in 1930. She carried out her work among the Agikuyu people and out of this she was thus nicknamed Nyaatha a local name of depicting her as the merciful one. She was beatified by Pope Francis on 23rd May 2015. She remains a strong pillar among the Agikuyu when considering the evangelization work that has been accomplished in the Gikuyu territory. Cf. Catholic Saints Information, https://www.catholicsaints.info/blessed-irene-stefani.html (accessed on Feb. 10, 2019). 104 Diocese of Nyeri, A Living Church, 5. 105 Ibid, 8. 106 Ibid.

46 Nyeri, the first vicariate in Kenya, and that Fr. Filipo Perlo was to be its first Bishop.”107 With Bishop Perlo, the work of evangelization reached far and wide with new mission stations being opened in the territory of now Meru and Embu dioceses. More missionaries and even lay Christians kept on joining the Perlo wagon and this increased missionary activities. New tools of evangelization like the monthly magazine Wathiomo Mukinyu108 were established. Due to the growth of faith in the archdiocese of Nyeri in 1961 this local church was blessed to have one of their own sons appointed by the Holy See to be the auxiliary bishop to assist bishop Cavarella who later became the first African bishop in Nyeri.109 His consecration to the episcopate was a confirmation that the seed of faith among the Agikuyu people was growing in the right direction. In 1964 Bishop Cavarella was moved to the newly created diocese of Marsabit and bishop Gatimu took over from him as the ordinary of Nyeri. There was great joy to see the diocese in the Kikuyu land under an African bishop from and working among the Agikuyu people. After the demise of Bishop Gatimu, Bishop Kirima succeeded him in 1988 and in 1990 it was elevated to an archdiocese with bishop Kirima becoming the first archbishop of the ecclesiastical province of Nyeri.110 Today, "there is no doubt that the Church in Gikuyu land has grown in leaps and bounds and happily, the sower of the seed our Lord Jesus Christ through his servants continues to guide and nourish the faithful in every corner."111 The mission continues with the hope that more people from the Agikuyu community and beyond will come to the flock of Christ and bear witness to the risen Christ awaiting his second coming

107 Bottignole, Kikuyu Traditional Culture and Christianity, 54. 108 Wathiomo Mukinyu literally means a true friend. It is a monthly publication began in 1916 to inform and catechize using the local language. It circulates all over the diocese and in other Kikuyu speaking areas like Murang'a, Nyandarua, and Nairobi. It is in print to date. 109 Diocese of Nyeri, A Living Church, 17. 110 The diocese of Nyeri became an Archdiocese in 1990. The late Nicodemus Kirima was the first Archbishop. Meru (1926), Marsabit (1964), Murang’a (1983), Embu (1986), Maralal (2001), Isiolo (1995) and Nyahururu (2002) are the suffragan dioceses that constitute the Archdiocese of Nyeri today. Nyeri archdiocese has eight deaneries and fifty four parishes. More information on the Archdiocese of Nyeri can be accessed from, Archdiocese of Nyeri, www.adnyeri.org (accessed on Oct. 12, 2018). 111 Archdiocese of Nyeri, Strategic Plan 2010-2014, (Nyeri: Mathari Printing School, 2014), 3.

47 1.2 The Last things in the Agikuyu Perspectives

1.2.1 Death

1.2.1.1 General Notion Death was understood by the Agikuyu people to be part of the initiation rites as it ushered the dead to a new stage of human life and closed the door for the deceased on the worldly existence. The source of all good is understood to be the Supreme Being in the indigenous Agikuyu community. However, the existence of evil side by side with good is a reality in every community throughout the history of mankind. Agikuyu understanding is that man is the cause of the evil that surrounds him. Man causes evil to himself and to others. Death is understood in the Agikuyu community to be transition. In his search for the reasons for death man blames himself and the forces of other men or their spirits. Death is a central theme on all religions and communities all over the world. Although much has been written about it and even with modern advancement in medicine and technology it still remains mysterious and an inescapable fact. Every community on the face of the earth has its deep reflection on this inescapable reality of death that concerns all people. It strikes at will regardless of one’s social status. Each community has reserved its philosophy on death as a point of reference for consolation and as a guide on how to live. “It is also believed that usually when God, deities or ancestors are involved in evil; it is corrective, disciplinary, or punitive.”112 In other words for them to engage themselves in punishing the wrong doers is for the common good. This supports our line of thought that evil is not to be blamed on God. When he punishes, it’s as a result of rectifying man’s behavior otherwise he will not send evil to the good man. The spirits of the ancestors will also at times send evil with a good intention of safeguarding the communities’ interest. When death strikes Agikuyu are known to enter into a dialogue with the spiritual world by invoking spiritual help through sacrifices and prayers to the deities and the spirits of the ancestors. Agikuyu totally believed that the souls of the departed upon the departure from the body joined the spiritual world.113 Bondi tells us that; In African society the conception of death is intricately tied to life, in fact they are not mutually exclusive concepts but exist in a continuum. Thus according to many traditions throughout continental Africa, death

112 D. Adamo, Christianity and the African Traditional Religion; The Post-Colonial Round of Engagement, www.scielo.org.za/pdf/vee/v32n1/24.pdf, (accessed on Nov., 27, 2018). 113 L. Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, Before 1903, (London: Academic Press, 1977), 937.

48 is merely a rite of passage through to another plain of existence, a transition which does not alter or end the life or change the temperament of a person, but only causes a change in its form. This is expressed in the idea of “ancestors,” individuals who have died but who continue to “live” in the community and commune with their families. The goal of death is to become an ancestor. For this reason, individuals must be given an “accurate” burial, bounded by abundant religious formalities.114

Agikuyu community like other African communities understood death as a natural transition from the material world to the immaterial one. The encyclopedia of death briefly presents the general understanding of traditional Africans on the concept of death. It points that, “Death, although a dreaded event, is perceived as the beginning of a person's deeper relationship with all of creation, the complementing of life and the beginning of the communication between the visible and the invisible worlds. The goal of life is to become an ancestor after death.”115 In these words it is clear that death released the dead from a closed perception towards the universe to a broader view of the entire creation. This gave Agikuyu people a reason to long for death after a fruitful well lived and long earthly life. Generally Agikuyu holds death to be the final rite of passage that does not destroy the person but ushers him into eternity;

The final of the initiation rites concerns the soul passing into another continuous phase of existence, the spirit world, and is an extension of the elder distinction because the status that a person has in life is the same status that they bring with them when they pass on. In African societies there is little distinction between the sacred and the secular. The spirit is a part of the all and therefore when a person dies it is believed that communication and ties with the living continues. Because African philosophy from one culture to another agrees that the spirit of the deceased is still with the living community, distinction must be made in the status of the various spirits, as there are distinctions made in the status of the living. So we see a notable difference between an old person who dies and is seen as nothing more than a dead relative; without honor and will not be remembered as a great person nor is someone who should be followed or emulated vs. a respected elder who passes and is a revered and respected ancestor given the highest honor. This group of ancestor wields great power and is often called upon in matters of trouble or uncertainty to help influence a favorable outcome. So a true ancestor is a respected member of the African community

114 V. Bondi, Death and Burial in the African Context: A Case Study on Kenyan Customs and Kenyans Customary Law, https://hitcchcker’sguidetolaw.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/death-and--burial-in-the-african-context-a-case- study-on-kenyan-customs-and-kenyans-customary-law (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). 115 Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, African Religions, http://www.deathreference.com/ A-Bi/African- Religions.html (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018).

49 who continues to serve as an extension of the family and community, often acting as a go-between between earthly and spiritual realms.116

The dead are able to relate freely with the entire universe including the spiritual world. They are integrated into the realm of the visible and the invisible world. Agikuyu had a well-structured system of initiation rites. These rites run from birth, naming, circumcision, marriage and the last one is death. Every rite of initiation has its own rites which prepares one well for the next stage that he or she is entering into. In every rite of passage there was death and resurrection or rather rebirth. One died and ceased to be in his previous stage of life and was reborn in the new stage of life. In death the Agikuyu held that the one who has died has ceased to exist in the world and has been reborn in the spirit world. According to the Agikuyu although, “ the relatives felt lonely and sorrow for their departed member they were comforted by two beliefs the dead person’s spirit would always be near at hand and death was inevitable and therefore there need be no regrets that perhaps the life could have been saved if more had been done.”117 Agikuyu thus takes death as any other stage in human life that is marked with a ceremony to prepare one for entry to the next stage that is, life after death. Death is the lot of all people born in this world. It is clearly demonstrated in the rites of passage that death and life are inseparable. Through earthly life we move towards death and through death we move towards life in the spirit world. This is clearly seen when the Turkana people are burying an elder they bury him with some of his important items uttering words of farewell. “Oh! Father leave us, here is your stool; here is your tobacco, chew it, this is your milk, drink it, this is your feather holder, take it. Here is your oil, drink it, this is your meat, eat it. Father helps us now and gives us life, make us rich and give us food.”118 This community believed that since life continues after death it was necessary to carry some properties which will be helpful. The Agikuyu people on their part gave the dead some of his properties so as to appease him so that he becomes a blessing to them not a source of a curse. That’s why they petitioned him of his help after offering him some items. With death one is wiped away from his

116 African Holocaust, African Rites of Passage, africanholocast.net/rites-of-passage, (accessed on Nov.25, 2018). 117 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 939. 118 A. Barrett, Dying and Death among the Turkana, Part 1, (Eldoret: Gaba Publications, 1987), 35.

50 physical existence in the world. But Agikuyu recognized the continuation of life after the reality of physical death. On the other hand the concept of death as annihilation from existence does not have any place among the Agikuyu people. Human life which begins with creation as enshrined in the myth of creation and which is appropriated to an individual person through conception continues even after death. This explains why among the Agikuyu the belief in spirits is very strong. Murage notes that, “once born into the tribe, one remained an active member even beyond the grave.”119 This has a deep implication that for Agikuyu there is no death as such since once born, life continues beyond the grave. The immaterial world is also referred as the spiritual world or the abode of the spirits. This follows their belief that the spirit in a person after his death does not die but it moves to the spiritual world to be reunited with the living dead and thereafter the ancestors. Death for the Agikuyu opens the transition towards the spiritual world while as the body ceases to be. “There is therefore continuous and unbreakable communication and connectedness between the living and the living dead. For the traditional African people the deceased is believed to be living in the ontology of the invisible intangible beings, dynamically engaging in an evolving state of existence in the world of the animated being.”120 After death the deceased are able to communicate and connect with both the spirits and the living. In other words the dead are in between the dead and the living. Agikuyu from their traditional background have a deeper conviction that human life since it comes from God cannot be annihilated by death. But it continues in a new form after the death of the body. The living relate with the dead in a very realistic and genuine manner which bears testimony that the dead are alive. For traditional Africans, the living dead are an inseparable and influential part of their being. It is for this reason that when Africans perform rituals by the grave side for example, that they do not refer to connecting with the dead person’s spirit. They communicate with the living dead as, ‘I am talking to my father or mother or grandfather, not the spirit or body of my dead father or dead mother.’121

119 Murage, Marian Devotion Among the Agikuyu, 36. 120 J. Baloyi, Psychology and Psychotherapy Re-defined from the Viewpoint of the African Experience. Un-Published Doctoral Thesis, (Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2008), 54. 121 L. Baloyi, & M. Rabothata. “The African conception of death: A cultural implication.” In L. T. B. Jackson, D. Meiring, F. J. R. Van de Vijver, E. S. Idemoudia, & W. K. Gabrenya Jr. (Eds.), Toward sustainable development through nurturing diversity: Proceedings from the 21st International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. (2014), https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/iaccp_papers/119/ (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018).

51 This is a clear illustration that the living dead are regarded as genuinely and authentically living with and among the living and having an influence on them. This lays a solid argument for their strong belief in the spiritual world. In turn this belief gives them a platform of living harmoniously with one another for fear of offending the dead. When a person dies, he passes on to continued existence as an ancestor who is still responsible for and concerned with the conduct of living relations. At death, the individual becomes somewhat idealized: his flaws and faults are forgotten and he is elevated to the status of moral paradigm whose concern with proper conduct among his relatives is correspondingly enhanced.122 Hence to be an ancestor required communal approval based on ones standing in the community prior to his death. Death is a transition from the temporal world with its pains to a better life which is spiritual and eternal. This idea is well phrased using the words Opoku who notes that, “Death is a transition which involves transformation from the physical into the spiritual as the dead continue to live as ancestors.”123 In terms of living, life is not cut by death it is only changed to another state which is spiritual. Opoku continues to explain that the dead continues to live after death, “in the afterlife, the dead are not cut off from the living, for they may reveal themselves in dreams or appear to their living relations to give instructions, warnings or information. The dead may summon their living relatives to appear before them and explain their misconduct, and may punish them.124 The concept of death is taken strongly for it underlines the physical separation of the one dead and the living members of his community. But which opens his existence to a transcendental life. In traditional Agikuyu religion death was not welcome; especially the untimely death of children and the young people was in no way acceptable in the minds of the traditional Agikuyu people. The investigation of the reasons behind death was thus established through the use of experts. These experts could include the medicine men, witches among others. We can therefore agree that death was an intruder into the affairs of Agikuyu traditional community. In another way we can see somehow Agikuyu were denying the reality of death by not accepting it as an inevitable reality to any human being regardless of his age. We concur that like other African communities the Agikuyu people feared death, “Africans do not like facing the reality of death

122 R. Green, “Religion and Morality in the African Tradition Setting”, Journal of Religion in Africa, Vol. 16, no. 1 (1983): 7. 123 A. Opoku, West African Tradition Religion, (Lagos: F.E.P 1978), 133. 124 Ibid, 7.

52 and often do not encourage the contemplation of death, be it their own death or the death of their loved ones.”125 It is true that they were not even free to discuss about it or to mention it. It was a taboo for people to discuss death. They did not even have to give divide their possessions to their sons even at old age. In other cases the death of an elder person after having attained a long earthly life was taken easy. They understood that his death opened for him a door to a better life. This is what gave them consolations to accept the passing on of the dead person. If the assurance that death leads to life is lacking on the deceased member then the community was left hopeless. Wilson takes note of this fact as he writes that, “The fear and sorrow of death are only emotionally tolerable if their expression is followed by, or combined with, an assertion of life.”126 The belief in life after death was thus the consolation after death occurred among the Agikuyu people.

1.2.1.2 Causes of Death

1.2.1.2.1 Divine Call In traditional Africa everything that happened was believed to have a cause and so was death. When death took away a community member it followed necessarily that they had to establish the cause of his death. This is in spite of their understanding that death is inevitable for one to join the spiritual world. Agikuyu from their traditional religion held firmly that everything was imbued with religion. Thus, when death occurred they had to look for religious reasons as to its cause. By trying to get to the cause of death they came into terms with it and offered sacrifice and prayers to their God and the Spirits of their ancestors. The Supreme Being was believed to be in charge of life generally. Names used by the Agikuyu people to refer to him depict him as the source and sustainer of life.127 However, the underlying reality behind the many names given

125 Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. The African Concept of Death, https:www.reference.com/A-B:/African- Religions.htm (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). 126 M. Wilson, Rituals of Kinship, Among the Nyakyusa, (London: Oxford University Press, 1957), 30. 127 Agikuyu people used various names to describe God according to the prevailing circumstances and depending on their understanding of Him in various states. The use of various names to refer to God also points out to the fact that He is beyond description. Such names includes Ngai which for them it meant the highest being who created and sustains the Mugikuyu in all his needs, the Agikuyu also called Ngai, Mugai as the one who gives each his daily needs, he is also called Murungu, which points to him as the one who dwells underworld or in the hades. For them He is in charge of that which is above and under the world. Other times the Agikuyu call God Mwene Nyaga which depicts him as the owner of ostrich (the biggest bird mugikuyu knew of and Ngai was associated with everything that is amazing, excellent and magnificent). There were many names used for the Agikuyu Ngai

53 to him is that he is under control of every being and he is beyond human description. He has power to give it to whomever he wills and whenever he deems it fit. On the other hand he has the power to call someone to the spiritual world. Among the Agikuyu people, “upon the death of a member of a family, the relatives squatted dismally in a group in the courtyard talking together in low voices and concluding their discussions saying it is the will of God.”128 Thus they learnt to surrender to God by interpreting it to be God’s will that has taken up their beloved. Through such a calling one would cease to exist on the physical world and we would talk of him having died. In fact the Agikuyu after trying to get to the root cause of death they will conclude that God is in charge of their lives. God willed to be reunited with people thus He called them from the world to the world of Spirits. Among the Agikuyu there never existed such a word as to die (gukua) for them it was unheard of. But when someone died they used such terms like he or she was summoned, (niaretirwo), he or she has fallen asleep (niarakomire), has gone to rest (niarahurukire), or he has preceded us (niarathiagire). These notions demonstrate to us that death was understood by the Agikuyu people as a gateway to another sphere of life that is the climax of human which is without limitations. For them “though death was never in any ordinary circumstances welcomed of course, the Kikuyu did not have the haunting fear of death which grips the people of many civilizations.”129 Even though they understood that Ngai had given each person a long earthly life in which one was supposed to live a good family life and leave behind a good family with many and well behaved children. One having lived a fruitful life was expected to go for rest and death was understood to be the rest awaited after the earthly labors. This is why they used such terms that exhibited death as taking rest or being obedient to a higher being who calls people to join the land of the spirit. God as the author of life was understood to be in charge of bringing one to the world and when days allotted to him comes to an end the same Supreme Being calls him to have life in the next world. Leaky takes note that for the Kikuyu people, “the conception of death was that the

depicting of his various attributes as the community understood them.Cf. Gikuyu Center for Cultural Studies, https://www.mukuyu.wordpress.com/2011/03/20/gikuyu-names-for-god (accessed on Feb. 10, 2019). 128 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 152. 129 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu Before 1903, 937.

54 appointed days of any individual were numbered by some unseen supernatural power.”130 Ngai was understood by the Agikuyu as the one who determines the number of days one has to stay in the world before he joins the spirit world. For the Agikuyu the date of death of each person was fixed hence no need to worry when death strike for Ngai is in control.131 This argument reduced fear and worry among the Agikuyu as far as death is concerned. When one died he or she was then understood to have obeyed the voice of the Supreme Being. And since obedience was a highly desired virtue among Africans then the dead were taken to be good people. They were understood to be moral guardians and for this reason their dark past was forgotten unless they were social enemies who brought pain and sufferings to other people like thieves and witches.

1.2.1.2.2 Curses In traditional Agikuyu community curses were a common phenomenon. Like any other African community as Wachege notes, “In many African communities, the fear of curses and cursing is real. A curse is a disturbing anguish in life and living.”132 Generally the Agikuyu people pronounced curses or blessings to those who are against or for their social structure respectively. Those who worked against the established social units like families, sub clans or clans were a cursed people. This is explained well by Muriuki in his work, “anybody or phenomenon seen to be severing the social organization not only incurs a curse, but is taken to be a curse personified. On the other hand whoever or whatever positively enhances these bonds within this invaluable family solidarity acquires blessings. Such a person becomes a yearned for blessing.”133 The pronunciation of a curse especially from ones parents and seniors was a tragic moment which had a far reaching consequences on the one cursed. Curses can shorten the span of the victim by bringing up a premature death on the one cursed. To avoid death of young people from curses it was a general requirement that the young will act respectfully towards the elders including the parents. If this happens the young will receive blessings in their lives from their parents. Contrary to this the young will receive a curse from the elders if they do not act respectfully. The living members of the community were

130 Ibid. 131 Ibid. 132 P. Wachege, Curses and Cursing Among the Agikuyu: Socio-Cultural Religious Benefits, https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/patrickwachege/files/curses-and cursing-among-the-agikuyu.pdf (accessed on Dec. 13, 2018). 133 G. Muriuki, A History of the Agikuyu to 1904, (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1969), 50.

55 expected to act respectively towards the deceased members of their community. If this didn’t happen then the deceased would send a curse in form of a calamity or a misfortune of any kind. The reasons behind curses are better understood in comparison with the reason for blessings. Among the Agikuyu people the iron smith deserves a lot of respect from the community for they are believed to impose strong curses to those who do not accord them their deserved respect.134 In the Agikuyu traditional set up there were taboos which regulated the daily conduct of all and made sure that respect was upheld at all times by all people in the community. If a member in the community would transgress certain taboos death would necessarily follow as a result of his sin. There was a general understanding that as one progressed in age he acquired more wisdom and hence he deserved more respect from the society. When an elder was mistreated, abused or ashamed by the young he could alter words that could harm the offender. The greatest harm could result to death of the culprit. It was catastrophic for one to abuse his parent. Death in this pericope was as a result of a grievous mistake against the society or the elders including the relatives who are senior citizens. Other sources of curses would come from offending the spirits of the living dead and the ancestors. Among the Agikuyu when one profaned the sacred he incurred a curse both from the community and from God. Being obedient to the living dead and the ancestors was a blessing and a guarantee to a longer life on the world as well as progress and success in ones activities. Those who angered the Spirits of the living dead and the ancestors were faced with a premature death. It is clear that every member of the society was to maintain a harmonious living with both the dead and the living members of the community. In the traditional Agikuyu community destabilizing the community or failing to maintain law and order attracted a painful sentence which could result to death. The members of each community were taught to observe such a harmony throughout their life. At their formative stage the young ones were taught in a special way the things that their community interpreted to be a taboo and on how to avoid them in life. All the spirits understood by the community were to be appeased through sacrifices and libations so as to continue offering the protection and sustenance to the living. Forgetting the spirits of the dead was also a fatal episode which could invite a curse from the spirit world to the living. They believed that muturi135 had the capacity to impose a

134 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 75-76. 135 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 75-76.

56 serious curse to those who are known to be very injurious to the community welfare. “For this reason the muturi was secretly resorted to for the most solemn curses, and those were supposed to curse unfailing havoc.”136 Hence, the Agikuyu in their wisdom enshrined in their traditional religion sacrificed to appease the spirits of the dead and their ancestors.

1.2.1.2.3 Magic, Witchcraft and Sorcery These three elements found in the Agikuyu traditional community are a cause of evil and death to a number of community members. They are major contributive factors that make Agikuyu traditional religion to be interpreted as being mystical and fearful especially to the outsiders. People from outside Africa term the traditional religions found in Africa as barbaric and primitive because they fail to understand the rationale behind the practice of magic, witchcraft and sorcery. In many communities magic, witchcraft and sorcery were contributing factors to human mortality. The use of these three practices is based upon the belief that in nature there is a powerful or a mystical force or power that is at disposal. This power is within the reach of the Supreme Being, spirits and the ancestors. These three categories of beings can use this power at will. It is also believed among the living members of the community that some had access to this power and could use it for their interest or as a way of helping another member of the community. Magic and sorcery are classified to be either white or black. It is referred to as black when it is used to harm others and white when it is used for helping someone that is, for a worthy cause. Black magic and sorcery are used against the enemies hence the resultant effect being evil. The sorcerer makes a choice to use his mystical powers to cause evil to his enemies.137 Some cases of barrenness, illness, or death were taken to be caused by these practices among the members of the Agikuyu community. The two thus were understood to be the cause of some percentage of human deaths. The white part of magic and sorcery is that it is meant to bring peace by bringing protection against evil. These three cause death when they are used to cause harm to the life of other members in the community. The concept of witchcraft is broader than that of magic or sorcery. In the Agikuyu community witchcraft is also called black magic. It causes a lot of evil and “Not only have the witches killed and eaten their fellow in the past, it is

136 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 202. 137 F. Domingues, Christology and Traditional Religion in Africa, (Roma: Pontifical University Gregorian, 1999), 232.

57 certain that they will kill again.”138 In other words the witches are known to strike again and again without mercy causing a lot of evil. Witchcraft is real even today whereby the Agikuyu fear its practice either within the community or even being sought out from other communities in Africa. In other cases it incorporates the concepts of magic and sorcery within itself. The thought of witchcraft and how witches behave can be scaring. When one read the stories of the operations, conduct and even the mode of dressing and association of the witches’ is left dumbfounded. According to Jeffrey, in his article he argues that, “In some African cultures witches are believed to assemble in cannibal covens, often at graveyards or around a fire, to feast on the blood that they, like vampires, extract from their victims. If they take the soul from a victim’s body and keep it in their possession, the victim will die.”139 The witches are associated with human corpses, and are depicted to reside in the graveyards. Witchcraft is highly feared to cause death of people in a very inhuman way. Witches are the most feared people in the traditional Agikuyu community and it is claimed that they have extraordinary powers of ruining people’s life. These powers help them to act mysteriously and in ways that their victims are not able to rescue themselves from their hands. Witchcraft was thus in the Agikuyu community understood to be the major cause of evil in the community. This concept is well expressed in the thought of Magesa as he writes that, “In the African mentality, everything wrong or bad in society and in the world, and most particularly, various afflictions, originates in witchcraft. There is no kind of illness or hardship at all that may not ultimately be attributed to witchcraft. When natural or religious explanations fail to satisfy, the social explanation – witchcraft - is invariably invoked.”140 When the cause of one’s death is not clear in the Agikuyu community it was generally believed to be from witchcraft or that witchcraft can explain its cause. Witchcraft was thus the court of last instance when other measures to establish the cause of the trouble failed to work. In other cases it was used by people as a way to revenge against their enemies. Magic, witchcraft and sorcery are understood to be a possession of mysterious powers to tamper with natural powers either for good or bad. It points to the Agikuyu understanding on the reality of evil and suffering in life.

138 E. Winter, “The Enemy Within: Amba Witchcraft” in Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa, ed. J. Middleton (London: Routledge, 1963). 283-284. 139 J. Burton and L. Lewis, “Witchcraft,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/witchcraft (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). 140 Magesa, African Religion, 167.

1.2.1.2.4 Diseases and tragedies in life Today even with the scientific developments we have diseases without cure which are causing pain and death to people from various corners of the world. These diseases include H.I.V, cancer and other terminal ailments. In traditional Africa as it is the case today there were ailments including terminal illnesses that brought pain and death to many people. The success of scientific discovery we enjoy today was not a reality at that time. Thus people could be brought down by many ailments. Today we also experience natural tragedies that cause human suffering and death. These tragedies include floods, famine, and earthquakes. In the Agikuyu traditional community these natural calamities were still live and they caused human loss through death. However, the Agikuyu people interpreted such instances as a consequence of being bewitched, or generally the work of their enemies with an intention to harm them. This is based on the fact that they felt everything must have a cause. For them such eventualities in life could not give a better explanation. So they could employ the services of black magic to know why these calamities were befalling on them. They could beseech the spirits through sacrifices to look for a healing. Today we can clearly understand that general sicknesses and calamities were there in Agikuyu traditional community and caused human mortality naturally as it happens today.

1.2.1.2.5 Punishment Among the Agikuyu people there is a common saying that says, Maciaro ma wihia ni gikuu (sin leads to death).141 Following this statement some crimes attracted death penalty to the offenders. Capital punishment was a reality in the traditional Agikuyu community. It was used after one committed certain crimes in the community. For example, “the adulterer may be physically attacked or punished with death by poisoning or be made impotent. The death of an adulterous person is seen as a just punishment and is not much mourned.”142 In the Agikuyu traditional society there was no written and guarded legal framework as we have it in the postcolonial Africa. However, this is not supposed to mean that there was no strong legal

141 This is loosely translated to mean that the fruits of sin are death. Death understood as a consequence of sin was thus not a foreign idea to the Agikuyu community. They used such sayings often to dissuade the community members from crime. 142 S. Adewale, Crime and African Traditional Religion, www.africaspeaks.com.reasoning (accessed on Dec. 13, 2018).

59 framework on pre-colonial Africa. But through the oral traditions, Agikuyu had a well-known legal mechanism that was well known to the community members. This is what guaranteed law and order in their communal life in all its dimensions. Such legal provisions obliged all people to live in line with the good of the community. The criminality of the acts of members in the community depended on how one is responding to the set code of conduct in their lives. All the community members shared the role of safeguarding their community interests and to hand over their community law and regulations orally to the young generation. This was done through, stories, proverbs, songs and other channels. The elders and the parents were charged with this noble task. The Agikuyu community considered murder, stealing and poisoning to be very serious crimes. The punishment that was to be accorded to the offenders of such crimes was capital punishment. A thief could be killed through stoning, drowning, or be subjected to fire.143 There are certain crimes that when they were committed the offenders were sentenced to death by the community through their leadership. Hence, death when pronounced and executed we say that it happened as a result of punishment of the offender. Capital punishment as a sentence was meant to dissuade members of the community from committing serious crimes which could disintegrate the Agikuyu community; no wonder the invocation of this form of punishment was used.144 Agikuyu believed so much in the communitarian life and any threat to the community was met with the full force of the law. This is why though rarely they resulted to the use of the capital punishment. The young were beseeched to avoid such crimes by explaining to them the end goal of their conduct and the consequence of failing to respect it. The consequences had far reaching effects which were painful to endure and difficult to explain.

1.2.1.3 Funeral rites, mourning and burial

1.2.1.3.1 Rituals and mourning The period of mourning among the Agikuyu is a time of family reunion. Death in the traditional Agikuyu community and even today brings people together those in far places and

143 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 168. 144 Ibid, 169.

60 those near. It brings the relatives of the deceased down emotionally. The period of mourning ensures consolations to the family of the deceased. The community comes together to mourn and in the spirit of oneness escort the dead to the spirit world. It becomes a special moment for the living to commune with the spirit world as they beseech the spirit world to receive the spirit of the deceased. They demonstrated communal solidarity, affability and mutual support to the family affected. In this period the elders are consulted on the rites to be performed and how the family is to deal with this inescapable incident. The mourning period becomes a moment of coming together to share the grief and to celebrate. Agikuyu understood life events as events of celebration and this was true even in regard to death. One was considered to be a hero if his burial was attended by a large number of people. Mourning is thus considered a community event that is really important for all. “Religious traditions, kin groups and social relationships in general play a strong role in funerals than in the west where these events are generally handled in more intimate circles and are usually much smaller.”145 After the bad news of death a period of mourning for the nuclear family, extended family and the entire community was declared by the elders of the community. Death left a wound on the heart of the family and the community. This wound required time to heal and due to the pain it brought there was a need to let them mourn as they come into terms of the physical departure of their beloved. This time of mourning was also meant to give the deceased person a peaceful transition from the temporal world to the spiritual realm. During this time the community invoked the spirits of the ancestors to look favorably on the dead and receive him into the spirit world. These invocations had a double effect. That the dead will rest peacefully and secondly that the community will not be tormented by the spirits of the dead. Some traditional mourning and burial rituals are still in existence today among the Agikuyu who have converted to Christianity. These rituals are at times mixed with Christian rituals for the community to be at peace. During this period of mourning various activities are carried out, by various groups of people in the Agikuyu community. The rituals that were carried out when someone died in traditional Agikuyu community were deeply rooted in the cultural beliefs of the community and its traditions. They are guided by Agikuyu perception on the existence of life after death which

145 B. Thomas, et al, Funerals in Africa; An Introduction, eds M. Jindra, and J. Noret, (London: James Currey, 1994), retrieved from www.berghahnbooks.com2011, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018).

61 was a cherished belief. The desire to be among the ancestors after one’s death was also a great motivation that inspired the burial rites and ceremonies in the Kikuyu community. During the prescribed period of mourning there were extensive celebrations whereby animals are slaughtered, food prepared for the mourning families and the entire group of people coming to console with them. For the Agikuyu people the beauty of life is found in celebrations and they will always look for a reason to celebrate in all what they go through every day. Although mourning the deceased was sorrowful they ate and drank for they understood it that the deceased is on a journey to a better place which is the desired destiny of all the Agikuyu people. The community had to come together and offer food stuffs that were to be feasted on during the entire period of mourning. Agikuyu are well known for generosity hence the question of looking at these celebrations as an expense on the bereaved family does not arise in the traditional Agikuyu context and amazingly the same is true up to date. The period of mourning does not close with the burial of the deceased but continues thereafter. The last rite that was carried out one moon146 after the burial of the dead was called the Hukura ceremony. All the relatives of the deceased were supposed to attend this ceremony. This ceremony brought the family together to participate in this important ceremony. Gerald points clearly that this ceremony is concluded at night as he writes that, “The culmination point is a nocturnal celebration of dancing, singing, drumming, during a visit of the tomb of the deceased where libations are poured out in honour of him or her who has died. He or she is invoked with formulas such as: Our father, today we return to you and we pass you onto the hands of the other spirits'. The third day, decisions are taken concerning the heritage.”147 We can notice that in the wisdom of the Agikuyu people after one month they come back to invoke the ancestors to allow the deceased to be one among them. They did this to have an assurance that it is well with him since he died and now he will be protecting them as he resides among the other spirits of the dead especially his or her ancestors. In this ceremony they made sure that the family is well and that they are observing the will of the deceased. “This ceremony once more re-united the members of the family as a whole

146 According to the Agikuyu way of counting time one moon is compared to twenty eight days. The month for them was calculated to be 28 days. This ceremony was thus held 28 days after the burial of the deceased. It was accorded only the deceased who were in good standing in the community. 147 G. Spijker, “The Role of Social Anthropology in the Debate on Funeral Rites in Africa” Exchange, Vol. 34, no. 3 (2005): 169.

62 with the immediate family of the deceased who, for the past five weeks, had been in isolation owing to their contamination.”148 This was to protect them from attracting the wrath of the spirit of the dead through a curse or ghost visitation. The death of a family member was understood to make them ritually unclean. The community used kuhukura ceremony to purify the family members so that they can be socially clean and resume normalcy in their life.149

1.2.1.3.2 Committal of the body The rituals performed when one died and the accompanying mourning rituals are of various types among the Agikuyu people. This is explained by Mbiti when he notes that, “there are many, and often complicated ceremonies connected with death, burials, funerals, inheritance, and the living dead, among others.”150 In the Agikuyu community the rituals connected to the committal of the body varied on condition of the status of the dead and the cause of his death. For example, “the death of unmarried uninitiated man did not require complicated ceremonies as those of a married man.”151 The rituals were carried out after the confirmation of one’s death. The Agikuyu handled the unfortunate incidences of illnesses, death, and bereavement in a very serious way; they kept the memory of their dead relatives.152 The rituals conducted during and after the burial of the dead are based on the reality of the separation between the dead and the living. Special attention was paid to the whole process of giving a worth burial to avoid offending the spirit of the dead person. The rites that accompanied the death of a human person in the traditional Agikuyu community had a one major importance. That is to demonstrate their belief in the life after death. And secondly they were meant to show the dead that they are not forgotten by the living. If the living forgot the dead, “the spirits of the dead would haunt the people claiming they were ignored.”153 Death as the last stage of initiation was marked with various rituals before the committal of the body. The Agikuyu believed that if the body of the dead was not disposed of properly there was fear that the dead would return to haunt the living as a ghost. On the day that was chosen by the elders and the family of the deceased to lay the dead to rest, the entire village

148 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 951. 149 Ibid, 943. 150 Mbiti, African Religions, 149. 151 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 955. 152 Mbiti, African Religions, 116-130. 153 O. Oruka. Sage Philosophy Indigenous Thinkers and Modern Debate on African Philosophy, (Nairobi: Acts Press, 1991), 71.

63 was not allowed to leave the village until the burial was over.154 The visitation by ghosts is a dreaded phenomenon among the Agikuyu. Such visitations happen during the night in dreams or the deceased appears in bodily form to one or more of his relatives. Thus the Agikuyu had to give the best disposal according to their customs to the departed members in their community. The life after death informed the Agikuyu of the need to mourn and perform rituals connected to the life in the spiritual world. For they believed strongly that human life does not end with the death of a human person rather it continues in the spiritual world. For them everything that one does has a religious implication. Therefore, death and burial rituals have a religious significance. But people who died having a questionable character or premature death were denied some rites that pertained to the funeral. According to the belief of the Urhobo people in the Republic of Nigeria; People died in a bad death, are those which died prematurely, members of witchcraft, evil people, those that died in an abominable death. Such people are not given what is called good burial. They are thrown into the evil forest to be eaten by wild animals. This is done to prevent the reincarnation of their spirit. Some criteria that differs good and bad death can be changed, like for example that good death means among other having children.155

Thus how the body of the dead was handled was a clear manifestation of the decorum awaiting him in the next world. It demonstrated the kind of life he lived in the world. This was dependent on the quality of life he lived prior to his death. This was supposed to transfer ones earthly existence to the spiritual realm among the Agikuyu people. It the case with the Luo of Kenya as Bondi notes, “Under Luo custom, the modes in which one goes through his/her rites of passage from birth to burial are important considerations in the transition from the physical to the spiritual mode of existence.”156 This is why they were done carefully so as to help the dead transit peacefully. “Amongst the Kikuyu, the dead body was taken out to a burial ground called a kĩbĩrĩra. Certain rituals were practiced prior to burial including the careful wrapping of the body with the legs and hands in the sleeping

154 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 940. 155 African Death Rites, traditioncustoms.com/death-rites/African-death-rites, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018). 156 V. Bondi, Death and Burial in the African Context: A Case Study on Kenyan Customs and Kenyans Customary Law, https://hitcchcker’sguidetolaw.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/death-and--burial-in-the-african-context-a-case- study-on-kenyan-customs-and-kenyans-customary-law, (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018).

64 position, and the kĩbĩrĩra would be placed facing the homestead.”157 This was important in that he was expected to be watching over his family and indeed the entire community. The dead were supposed to assume the watchful care over the living members of the Agikuyu community. Hence the fact of the belief that the dead are still alive and they have a responsibility over the living. The dead are watching and waiting for the living to join them in the spirit world.

1.2.2 Life after death One of the major characteristic of any religion is the existence of a higher life that transcends the material life. The understanding of an ideal life which is attainable is central to every religion worth the name. Agikuyu traditional religion is part of the other religions which holds of the existence of a life after death which is attainable to everyone who lives according to the teachings of a religion. Agikuyu people in their traditional religion held that life after death is a reality beyond any doubt. The reality of life after death is made manifest by the elaborate rites that followed the death of an Agikuyu member.158 Their belief in its existence rhymes well with the thought of Oosthuizen writing on the life after death as conceived by Africans in their traditional set up. He noted that, “The dead live in an invisible world, where they experience spiritually the same kind of existence that they had in life, without its trials and tribulations.”159 Agikuyu people on their part believed that, “the spirits of the ancestors were still alive and were known as the living dead.”160 Of special note is the use of the word living showing that they are alive though dead. This is our point of the existence of life after death which according to the Agikuyu is not a utopia kind of a life because our own people who died are alive in that realm of existence. For the indigenous Agikuyu life after death is understood to be better than the life in this world. Accordingly it is desirable and worth to work for its realization. This belief points clearly that they understood the human person as a being that lives eternally ones born. Agikuyu had a clear distinction between the body and the soul. For them the body does not experience the continuity of life after death. But the soul which is spirit joins the ancestors in

157 Ibid. 158 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 990. 159 G. Oosthuizen, “Ecumenical Burial Societies in South Africa: Mutual Caring and Support that Transcends Ecclesiastical and Religious Differences,” Missiology, 18, no. 4 (1990): 464. 160 Murage, Marian Devotion, 37.

65 the spiritual world where it lives eternally. In this concept the Agikuyu joined other Africans in believing in the eternity of the human soul as Celucien argues that, “in African traditional theology, the soul and the body are two different entities belonging to the individual. While the body may decay and even cease to be, the soul never dies. There is something very important of the person that does not die after the death of the body.”161 That which remains after the physical death is understood to be the core of a person. This explains why Agikuyu believed in its perpetual existence even after death. Thus the reality of life after death was not and is not debatable among the Agikuyu people. The doctrine of the immortality of the human soul is not foreign to them. In fact it dominated a great part of their life.162 The dead people are understood to be closer to the Supreme Being. To practically demonstrate that the Agikuyu believed in the life after death, they used the children of the deceased member to be the sign of his presence among the living. His children had to name children after their parents so that their parents were brought back to life. Hence if an Agikuyu, “man dies without a male child his family group comes to an end. This is one thing that the Agikuyu people fear dreadfully, and it can be said to be one of the factors of the polygamous system of marriage.”163 One with many wives and children left a big sign of his perpetual existence on the world as he progressed to the spiritual world.164 This idea of their proximity moved the adherents of the Agikuyu traditional religion to have a high degree of respect towards the dead. For Charles Okeke, “every religion that is worth being a religion believes in the life after death.”165 So for him if the Agikuyu tradition religion does not have the notion of the existence of life after then it’s not a religion. It is clear that Agikuyu had a strong belief in the life after death which determined how they lived in relation to one another and other beings in the universe. We can see that the belief of life after was not just something to be taken for granted but it informed their daily life and actions. It made human life better among the Agikuyu for they lived in a more humane and spiritual manner. Thus we strongly hold that Agikuyu had a religion worth the name religion.

161 C. Joseph, “Jean Price-Mars and Contemporary Scholarship on African Traditional Religion” Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies Vol. 11, no.5 (2018): 41. 162 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 151. 163 Kenyatta, Facing Mt Kenya, 13. 164 Ibid, 14. 165 C. Okeke, Belief in Life After death in African Traditional Religion Vis-A-Vis Christian Religion, www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/aproaches/charles/okeke/.pdf (accessed on Nov. 27, 2018).

66 According to Mbiti “Many Africans believe that their beloved ones who are dead do not actually leave them but hover around and protect them.”166 On this note Agikuyu believed that the deceased members of their community are within their reach helping them to live better in this life and attain their ultimate end. “Furthermore, it is an African cultural belief that to be in the world of the dead confers supernatural powers over those in the world of the living, such as the ability to bless or to curse, and to give life or to take life among others.”167 Such was the Agikuyu concept in understanding life after death. This was even made firm by the special place that was held by their ancestors though long gone yet so close and relevant to both the living and the unborn members of the community. For instance in the Agikuyu community one, “who knew that his end was near usually faced the fact calmly and with equanimity, and this can be accounted for in a large measure by the belief that all departed spirits were reunited in a single spirit world.”168 The reality of the spirit world instilled in them a sense of assurance that their life is not coming to an end. The indigenous religion of the Agikuyu people informed all the members that their ancestors were very close to their Supreme Being as the highest being in both the sensible and the supersensible universe. Hence, “the ancestors constitute the most important chain, binding humans to God. They occupy an exalted rank, in that they are not regarded as the ordinary dead.”169 The ancestors are the bridge between the spirit world and the material world. They are understood among the Africans to have power and control over the two worlds. More so this power has a double effect. That is they can use this power as a source of blessings for the living or as a curse on those who live contrary to the established moral fabric of the society. Being close to God they can attract favors from him for the wellbeing of their community members who are alive. Having been members of their community on earth they understand better their community’s aspirations and thus they are better placed to champion the course of their community. They are understood to be the link between the Supreme Being and the members of their community. They are greatly revered for their dual connection and the community tries to live in accordance to their dictates.

166 Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 158. 167 B. Ekore, “African Cultural Concept of Death and the Idea of Advance Care Directives”. Indian J Palliate Care. 2016; 22(4), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/pmc5072226/ (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). 168 Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu, 937. 169 C. Iteyo, Belief in the Spirits of the Dead in Africa: A Philosophical Interpretation, https:// www.ajol.info/index.php/tp/article/download/46312/32710, (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018).

67 The Agikuyu community during important celebrations could always invite their ancestors to grace their meetings and celebrations. In such meetings they could leave some seats empty to be occupied by the spirits of their ancestors. The belief that the ancestors are not dead was so real among them that even during celebrations they were expected to offer food and drinks for their ancestors through libation. This was meant to appease the entire galaxy of spiritual beings from the Supreme Being to the spirits of the dead. In the Agikuyu traditional religion like is the case with the African traditional religions there is no hope of the Supreme Being coming back in the future to perfect creation as is the case with Judaism or Christian religions. Nyatugah in her article confirms that in the African religion the Messianic hope is not part of the religion. “There is no messianic hope or apocalyptic vision, with God stepping in at some future moment to bring about a radical reversal of people’s normal life.”170 Hence for Agikuyu their hope is to join their ancestors protecting and blessing their community after death. Life continues uninterrupted from this world to the next after crossing the bridge of death in the Agikuyu traditional world view.

1.2.2.1 Judgment Those who lived good lives during their earthly life are assumed and received warmly in the spiritual world precisely by the spirits of their ancestors. Agikuyu generally lived their lives in expectation of joining their dead family members and so live happily with them thereafter. However, those who lived badly, that is, contrary to the societal norms died bad deaths and were judged by the living community and the spirit world. In their daily life Agikuyu people judged the members in terms of their behavior. The council of elders adjudicated all matters that required legal redress. The guilty party was fined and reconciliation process was initiated. Reconciliation entailed the community at large not just the warring factions for Agikuyu believed that any crime against a member affected the entire community. If there was no evidence forthcoming in a given case yet a crime had been committed judgment was left to God.171 Judgment being left to God was an indication that they believed in the notion of God as a judge who is supposed to vindicate those who were wounded by actions of other people. The

170 G. Nyatugah, “Revisiting Our Indigenous Shrines,” African Affairs Vol 100, no.400, (2001), 458. 171 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 163.

68 offenders who committed crime and were never punished, it was believed that they cannot become ancestors after they died. They were regarded as evil ghosts. Agikuyu like other Africans in their indigenous religion strongly believed and upheld communal life. In this set up there were set rules and regulation or in other words the code of ethics that guaranteed peaceful co-existence with the two realms. That is, both the material and the immaterial world. However, it is point worth to note that African concept of what is morally right or wrong formed the rationale behind judgment. Such a concept was religious in nature for their religion was so deep in every aspect of their life. Ronald explains that, “African peoples cannot understand their experience without reference to religious beliefs wholly permeated by vivid judgments of moral right and wrong.”172 According to the Agikuyu people an individual person’s character is the determinant as far as his judgment after death is concerned. It is also to be understood that one’s moral righteousness also determined the kind of social status one was to be accorded before and after death, this concept was central to the notion of judgment in the Agikuyu community. Tasie made it plain that traditional African religion, “is not a missionary religion per se: there is no Messianic expectation or apocalyptic warnings of the end of the world.”173 This explanation of Tasie finds a firm resonance within the parameters of the Agikuyu people. Even though judgment for them happens on this world according to ones response to the morals and daily conduct as per the dictates of his community set standards. After death one only gets the consequences of his or her earthly conduct. The punishment imposed on the wrongdoers was meant to reconcile the two worlds. “African religion recognizes that human wrong-doing against the ancestors and God will sometimes bring times of adversity and suffering to the family, clan or community.”174 Judgment was basically understood to be here and now with far reaching effects to the next world. However, some of the consequences were to be experienced in the life to come by being excommunicated from the world of the spirits or by being denied burial rites after death. These side effects of sin were feared by the Agikuyu people and this explains why the Agikuyu to a large extent lived peacefully

172 Green, “Religion and Morality in the African Tradition Setting”, 7. 173 G. Tasie, “The Heritage of the Mouth: Oral Sources and the Study of African Traditional Religion.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention Vol. 2, no. 3 (2013): 26. 174 Magesa, African Religion, 246.

69 1.2.2.2 Punishment In many of our African communities the notion of hell is not clear as it is the case in the Christian doctrine. Punishment in this scope is to be understood as a consequent for acting contrary to the customs of the community. In the Agikuyu religious heritage it is a common belief that one of the many attributes of Ngai is his power to punish.175 The notion of punishment among the Agikuyu people to the wrong doers is very clear. The errant members in the community were faced with the full force of the law. This was done here and now at the time that they were caught on the bad side of the societal law. It was believed that the wrong doers even after death will face punishment from the Supreme Being and the ancestors. Notorious people in the community when they died they were denied a worth send off. They were cut off from the community. It was believed they could not be welcomed to the spiritual world. They had no connection with either the Supreme Being or with the ancestors. Thus they had nowhere to go after death. Being cut off from the community was a very painful decision with far reaching effects. Hence, they ended up wandering around as ghosts and being restless they tormented the living members of the community. The people who were treated like this in the Agikuyu community included the wizards, murderers, and witches who were understood to be the enemies of the community. When one of such nature died he was thrown away or cut into pieces. The idea of not according them a worth burial is simply to show that they were not welcome to the spiritual world and the community had nothing to do with them. This is how we can understand the Agikuyu traditional concept of hell. However, other kinds of wrongdoers were buried so that their spirits may not haunt the living even though the living understood that these members of the community will receive punishment on arrival to the world of the spirit. “It is believed that if a person is a thief, murderer, has died unnaturally, broken a community code or had an “improper” funeral, that such persons are doomed to punishment in afterlife as a “wandering ghost.”176 This adds up our case that the idea of punishment after death was existent among the Agikuyu people and can’t be wished away.

175 H. Sawyerr, Creative Evangelism: Towards A New Christian Encounter With Africa, (London: Lutterworth Press, 1968), 15. 176 O. Litvac, After Life Beliefs in Africa; Traditional African Perspectives on after Life and Burial blog.sevenponds.com/cultural-perspectives/African-afterlife (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018).

70 This can be understood as a way of laying a ground for the doctrine of hell. Not getting a fitting burial with its accompanying rites was equivalent to be thrown away from the spirits of the ancestors and this was hell for them. The reason for punishment to hell is passed by the community, the spirits or the Supreme Being. One is sent to suffer perpetually simply by being denied entrance to the spiritual world. His spirit lacks rest and he stands excommunicated from eternal joy with the ancestors. He suffers the absence of his ancestors perpetually.

1.2.2.3 Reward Heaven can be understood in the Agikuyu traditional context as the state of being received joyfully in the world of the spirits. Heaven is the reward of those who have lived peacefully and responsibly in this world. It is viewed as a reward of a good earthly life by the community and sealed by the warm acceptance by one’s ancestors after one died having lived uprightly here on earth. Agikuyu may not have a concept of heaven as we have it in Christianity and other worldwide religions. But they understood the reality of a good everlasting life after death. In this life they believed that it is the life with no sorrows of any kind. But their conception of the spiritual world other than the material world fit well to be their basic understanding of what we call heaven in Christian terms. The land of the spirit they believe is where the righteous live with their ancestors and deities and in turn communicate and live peacefully with one another. On attainment of this level of life Agikuyu desired for nothing else for this state was their ultimate longing and desire. In their understanding there is no suffering in the life after death and death for them is the last suffering that one passes through as he exits to the life of happiness. This world of the spirits was the destiny of one who has passed through all rites of passage and having fulfilled the requirements of every stage deserved a rest. Death as we have seen previously opened the doors for one to enter into this life of spiritual existence. Adebisi shows his understanding of this state when he pointed out that; The spiritual world seems to be heaven for the Africans. In their belief, heaven is the same as the present world of the living. The only clear distinction they seem to make is that, in the spiritual world, there is no more death and no evil calamity will befall anyone. The inhabitants of heaven,

71 that is, the spirits, divinities, ancestors and the unborn, can see and know what is taking place on earth.177

The dead who have found their way in the spiritual world move and communicate freely with all the beings in the entire universe. This is because the question of joining the Supreme Being has been shown not possible but they joined the second highest level of being one with the deities after having been in the stage with ancestors. In the world of the spirit, the dead receives a new body which has the capacity to enable him move about as an ancestor. In the spiritual world the spirits of the dead move about to offer help to the living from the power they receive from the divinities and from the Supreme Being. More than this, they act as guardians of their communities by making sure that the community thrives both in numbers and in the aspect of living righteously in accordance to the societal norms. The Agikuyu people in their world view believe that the two worlds are eternal since there is nothing like the end of the world. They believe that the destiny of man after death is to join the other world and be with his ancestors and the galaxy of spirits of all the dead. We can therefore, infer that the course of history for them is not linear but circular. For everything rotates round the cloud and life continues uninterruptedly, thus the living aspire to get the best in the world to come, for it is eternal and it is determined by their lives here in the material world. The reality of the existence of life after death is not questionable among the Agikuyu people in their traditional religious concept. “The apparent belief in the survival of the dead has made Africans to believe that much as a person dies, he does not disappear from the day to day program of the living because he is still there with the people.”178 This concept invited the living to act righteously, justly and to be humane towards all people especially the needy. This concurs with the foundation of the reality of another life envisioned in other religions. For example in Christianity this state of life is understood as being in heaven with God forever. Even though the word “heaven” is not found in the Agikuyu indigenous religion their concept of the life after death directs us to the two notions that follow necessarily. These are

177 A. Adedisi, “African Concept of God, Evil, and Salvation in African Traditional Religion: Critique from Cultural Point of View,” Journal of Global Intelligence & Policy Vol. 5, Issue 9 (2012): 51. 178 A. Omona, Comparison between Biblical and African Concept of life after Death, https://www.academia.edu/5116200/comparison-between-biblical-and-african-concept of life after death (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018).

72 reward and punishment which gives us the allusion to heaven as the eternal reward and to hell as eternal punishment. The life after death connected with their desire to join the world of spirits is their purpose of life. Heaven in this scope refers to the aspiration of being one with the ancestors and close to the Supreme Being that is the communion with the spirits and ancestors of the Agikuyu people.

Conclusion The Agikuyu traditional religion had the key points fertile for spreading the eschatological hope as enshrined in the Catholic doctrine on the last things. It is amazing to note as we have expounded on this chapter their faith in the existence on the life after death. This belief is proper in helping them to develop and receive well the idea of hell and heaven after death. The idea of the Agikuyu people being reunited with their forefathers and ancestors compelled them to work for tribal harmonious living every day. They feared punishment from the world of the spirits hence they had to try and live faithfully to the dictates of their community. Community aspirations were at the center of their life. Individualism had no place so at all times as one was growing from childhood towards the old age they had to observe the set standards of life. As one progressed in maturity through various rites of passage he acquired social status which they believed were confirmed by the ancestors and prepared them well for the next world. In the foregone chapter, we have labored more to see some of the beliefs about the state of the human person after death following the Agikuyu traditional concept on their understanding of the last things. Some views on the last things as found in Christianity are not clear in the African indigenous religion others are not well developed. Hence, in our next chapter we will work more on the presentation of Catholic eschatology, so as to make the Christian eschatology more understood among the Agikuyu people and in turn awaken them to a lively hope as promised by Christ to all who believe in Him as we await his second coming.

73 CHAPTER TWO

THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE ON ESCHATOLOGY

Introduction Everything has a reason for its existence. The Church and her members exist for God. She teaches this to her members through the doctrine of the Last things. Eschatology as the theological study in which God is the destiny and climax of all that there is,179 will be our concern in this chapter. We will examine the two channels of Christian revelation that is, the Sacred Tradition180 and the Sacred Scriptures which flows from a single source.181 It is our conviction that no one has all the answers to questions about the future and those that touches on the core of the human person. The history of Christianity teaches us to be modest in our claims, and tentative in many details of doctrine of the future. They shape our lives as Christians and are at the center of our faith and hope. The purpose of this chapter is a modest one. It is to set forth some of the certainties and uncertainties of Catholic eschatology. We will attempt to elucidate this fact with the sole purpose of doing eschatology as a reflection on our relationship with God and the world.182 This reflection will help us to deepen our understanding on the Catholic doctrine on the last things and make our lives here and in the afterlife meaningful. In this chapter we will endeavour to expose the teaching of the church on eschatology as found in the Sacred Scriptures. The understanding of the last things from the patristic era, some ecumenical councils and the ongoing development from some contemporary theologians will be presented. Lastly a conclusion will be made.

179 R. McBrien, Catholicism Completely Revised and Updated, (New York: Harper Collins, 1994), 1124. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church developed the definition of eschatology as a theological discipline that concerns itself with the last things with special emphasis on the destiny of the individual soul as well as humankind in general. "Eschatology," F. Cross and E. Livingstone (eds), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Second Revision, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 469. 180 CCC, no. 81- 83. Both the Scriptures and the Tradition must be upheld with equal importance in the Catholic Church. 181 The Church draws the certainty of Revelation from Jesus Christ who is the source of Christian Revelation through two channels that is Scriptures and Tradition and the two channels direct the Church towards the same end. Cf DV nos 9-10. This affirmation of the Tradition as a channel of revelation is contrary to the belief of our separated brethren who from the time of reformation hold sola scriptura. However, the Scriptures also attest to the Tradition as a channel of Revelation Cf. 2Thes 2:15, Acts 15:28, and Jn 21:25. Thus in the history of the Catholic Church there have been synods and councils which gives testimony of the Sacred Tradition and its relevance in Christian revelation hand in hand with the Sacred Scriptures. 182 McBrien, Catholicism, 1123.

2.1 Sacred Scriptures

2.1.1 Old Testament

2.1.1.1 Genesis The Old Testament as a whole doesn’t offer a fully developed eschatology. However, dealing with the Israel’ hope through the messianic prophecies the Testament lays a fertile ground for the Christian eschatology. Genesis lays the foundation of the entire theology of the Old Testament. Zuiddam explains that, “the doctrine of creation is important. It affects the way we look at this world, but also how we see God and what we expect of him.”183 In this way the beginning and the end are seen together. That which was lost in the beginning will be regained at the end. It begins with creation narratives where God created heaven and earth and everything He created was good.184 An eschatological question arises did God create hell? After the fall of man, death followed. Dryness responds to this question in that, “death was both a symbol of the destruction sin brought into the world not a normal part of the destruction itself. In this sense death was not a normal part of the world, but something alien to God’s good purposes [...] and Genesis 6:3 confirms that man’s unrighteousness is related to his end.”185 Death as both punishment and consequence of sin became part of human experience. “Death is like water split on the ground; it cannot be gathered again. We must return to the ground, for we were taken out of it (Gen 3:19).”186 The story of Noah (Gen 6-9) gives an indication of recreation for those who were saved from the floods are a sign of life after death. Israel’s migration from their homeland to Egypt has an eschatological image of end of earthly life which one belongs to another place prepared by God (Gen 42-47). Genesis is highly eschatological, “in that it looked to the fulfillment of greater and greater promises.”187 These promises are patriarchal based. They were given to the founding fathers of

183 B. Zuiddam, “Early Church Fathers on Creation, Death and Eschatology.” Journal of Creation, 28, no. 1 (2014): 66. 184 In the creation accounts (Gen 1-2), God pronounced his creation to be good. That which has been pronounced by God to be good must be really good having been the result of God who is the Supreme Good. 185 W. Dryness, Themes in Old Testament Theology, (Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 1977), 238. 186 Ibid. 237. 187 Moltman, Theology of Hope, 124.

75 the nation of Israel. Genesis explains the origin of the universe.188 At the same time it lays the ground for Israel’s hope for an eschatological restoration after the fall.189 This is put explicitly by Schrock; New creation is the goal. Just as it was from the beginning, God’s goal is not a return to Eden; God’s goal is the new heavens and new earth that will be filled not with men and women made in the image of Adam and Eve. Rather, the new creation will be established by Christ (the last Adam) and filled with Christ’s image-bearers (those sons and daughters of Adam and Eve who have been made new by the power of God in the Gospel.190 To amend that which was disfigured by man’s sin there was need to recreate him. Genesis presents this idea through the eschatological promises prophesied in this book.191 The author sets the theme of waiting the one to be born by a woman with the power to overcome the serpent which led mankind astray. After the first eleven chapters we await the seed of the woman to conquer sin and offer redemption. Although it’s generally accepted to be the book of the beginning, it contains the theological concept of the end. God who created man in his own image and placed him in paradise out of love, even after the fall through the original sin he did not forget him but promised salvation. Salvation here understood as restoring him to the lost glory. This promise is eschatological and will find fulfillment in the messiah who is at the heart of the New Testament, though prophesied in the Old Testament.192 The promise is an assurance that man helped by God will overcome evil and live in God’s presence. The achievement of this promise is a process which unfolds in the course of salvation history in which God gradually acts to its fulfillment.

188 Even though the author of Genesis gives two different accounts of creation the underlying point is that God is the origin of everything, with man as the apex of His creative work. He created not out of necessity but out of his will. 189 The first sin of man is his fall from perfection (Gen 3:7). The fall implies losing the preternatural gifts. These gifts are impassibility, immortality, integrity, and infused knowledge. L. Ott, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, tran. P. Lynch, (Dublin: Cahill & Co. Ltd 1958), 103-104. But, the Virgin Mary due to her role as the mother of the Redeemer was preserved from the original sin. Cf. A. Kippes, “The Immaculate Conception and the Preternatural Gifts,” Marian Studies Vol.5, no. 8 (1954): 186-199. 190 D. Schrock, Eschatology from the Start, https://davidschrock.com/2013/07/25/eschatology-from-the -start-- genesis-128/ (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). 191 Gen 3:15, is interpreted to be the first proclamation of the Good News (proto-evangelium) after the fall of man. It imparted hope of salvation. The apostle Paul identified the Seed to be Jesus born of Mary at the fullness of time, Gal 4:4. 192 Some Old Testament prophecies about the Messiah includes, Gen 3:15, 22:1-18, Dt 18:15-19, Ps 16:8-11, 22:1- 31 Jer 31:31, Is 61:1-2, 7:14, Dn 9:24-27.

76 Genesis presents man choosing evil at the expense of good. God uses man’s evil to work out salvific wonders for His own Glory and man’s salvation.193 As we move towards eschatological fulfillment we must chose to do good as God destroys our evil choices inviting us to perfection. These instances in which man chooses evil over good and God permitting it to happen are providential.194 The figure of Joseph is a type of the messiah who was condemned unjustly being crucified on the cross. “Joseph summarizes that his brothers’ intentions and actions were to choose evil. Choosing evil is at the heart of the fall of mankind at the beginning of the book. Apart from total dependence upon God, Joseph brothers at the end of the book characteristically chose sin.”195 But Joseph chose rightly to be a blessing to them and many more (Cf Gen 50:20). This theme of choosing good and avoiding evil cuts across the book of Genesis and spills over to the entire Bible. Man’s destiny is with God who is the originator and sustainer of mankind. The author exalts us to use our freedom and chose well under the model of Joseph not his brothers. Joseph even with an opportunity to revenge he did not do it for God is the Judge. God as the just judge calls us to forgive and wait upon his vindication. To go back to the promised land we must make a choice for holiness and faithfulness to the landlord of the promised land. The choice of good over evil is a step towards bringing into effect the Kingdom of God. The good we do contribute to the establishment of God’s reign on earth. Genesis is connected closely to the revelation of the new creation later envisaged in the book of Revelation. So that the book of creation has the seed of the end in itself and sets the stages for the final world order. In other words the origins and the end are linked and contained in each other; This all shows the inextricable links there are not just between Genesis and Revelation, but between creation and consummation. The new creation is very much fashioned after, or in contrast to, the old

193 God is the Supreme Good but in history He uses man’s evil to bring into being His purpose for His glory and the salvation of man. Such examples can be found in Gen 50:18-20, Dn 6:25-27, Esther 7:9-10, and Acts 4:25-28. In all these instances and many more evil will finally be defeated by the Good. 194 R. Ryland, “O Felix Culpa! O Happy Fault!” The Coming Home Network International, April 3, 2012, https://chnetwork.org>2012/04/03>0-f (accessed on Mar. 12, 2019). The Author using these words attributed to St Augustine and adapted to the Roman Easter Liturgy sings for the Sin of Adam. He explains that, “had our first parents not fallen by sin, they would have remained in a state of supernatural grace. Eventually they would have been taken into Heaven, and would have shared in the vision of God. For unfallen persons, that would be the deepest possible union between God and human beings, through the redemption of Jesus Christ we have been restored to the supernatural state in a way far surpassing in glory what we could have known had there been no fall.” 195 C. Leusch, Eschatology in the Book of Genesis, www.mountainretreat.org.net/eschatology/genesis.eschar.shtml, (accessed on Nov.18, 2018).

77 creation. In a sense, the Genesis creation account sets the parameters of the Revelation new creation account. The new creation is new in that it transforms the old into what it always promised to be, not in that it obliterates the old and starts completely from scratch. Thus, even the structure of the Biblical canon is testimony to the importance of Genesis to eschatology.196

The message in Genesis is about man’s destiny with the whole economy of salvation having its basis in the story of redemption. God’s promises to Abraham and his descendants established the renewal of humanity which Yahweh was designing (Gen 12:1-5). The promises of God to Abraham are the foundation of the eschatological hope. In that; The first eleven chapters of Genesis focus primarily on the terrible consequences of sin, God’s promises to Abram in Genesis 12 focus on the hope of redemption, of restored blessing and reconciliation with God. God is going to deal with the problem of sin and evil, and he is going to establish his kingdom on earth. How he is going to do this begins to be revealed in his promises to Abram.197 God promised to bless all nations through Abraham. Hence, “the Israelite Nation saw itself as the starting point of God’s redemption in history; eventually God would send the long awaited messiah to bring peace and justice to the earth.”198 His mission will destroy this age old curse of sin and its consequences on man and creation.

2.1.1.2 Ezekiel Prophecy in the Old Testament had covenant centered eschatology. It’s about calling the nation of Israel to fidelity in their pact with Yahweh. The promises contained in this pact were the eschatological hope of Israel. Ezekiel was temple-centered in his ministry. Cleansing the temple was a key part of his promise of restoration (Ez. 36:16-32). “This is set among sustained oracles about the restoration of the land itself, with its people, its buildings, its agriculture, its

196 A. Young, The Eschatology of Genesis, With Particular Reference to Chapters 1 & 2,” https://www.rts.edu/shared resources/ documents/global/student-young-eschatology-of genesis.pdf, (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). 197 K. Mathison, The Promise to Abraham - The Unfolding of Biblical Eschatology,” Ligonier Ministries the Teaching Fellowship of R.C. Sproul, https://www.logonier.org/blog/promise-abraham-unfolding-biblicaleschatology, (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). 198 M. Lowery, “The Eschatological Principle in Catholic Social Thought,” Journal of Markets & Morality, Vol. 8, no. 2 (2005): 436.

78 flocks and its herds (Ez. 36:1-15, 33-38).”199 The universal restoration will take place during the parousia. One of the themes in this covenantal relationship is the figure of the Messiah. Davidson notes that, “The messianic hope is the transition to the doctrine of the last things.”200 Ezekiel in his prophetic role was aware of the historicity of Israel as a chosen people of God. “Ezekiel is deeply concerned about Israel's future because he remembers whence she has come and why she now stands under divine judgment. He is deeply interested in history, past and future.”201 For him eschatological hope lies in uniting her history with the thread of obedience to the covenant she entered with Yahweh. Israel hope that Yahweh would restore her fortunes at last is assured. “The ideal future in Ezekiel acknowledges that for God to make things right, a threefold transformation of the world as it now is will be required. God must transform the human person; give a new heart and new spirit. God must transform human society; restore Israel to the Promised Land, rebuild cities, and make Israel’s new status a witness to the nations.”202 A renewed creation is foretold by Ezekiel. His encounter with the valley of dry bones is well understood as a vision of the resurrection of the body. That which is dead now will be brought back to life through God’s Word. The bones are lying unburied on the surface of the ground, and God promising to open Israel’s graves and bring up the dead, provide a highly charged and vivid metaphor of the way in which unclean Israel would be cleansed, exiled Israel restored to the land, and scattered Israel gathered, by a powerful and covenant-renewing act of new creation. Yahweh’s breath or spirit will make them once again a living people. This is not a mere resuscitation. The fleshless bones can only be brought to life by a new and unprecedented act of the creator God.203 In fact, “Ezekiel 37 is perhaps the most famous of all ‘resurrection’ passages in the Old Testament; it is the most obviously allegorical or metaphorical; it does not appear to have influenced, or to have been influenced by either Isaiah or Daniel; yet the parallels of overall thought are remarkable.”204 In this prophecy the Holy Spirit mentioned as the Spirit of God is present and active in giving life to the dry bones.

199 N. Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. III, (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 2003), 119. 200 A. Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament, (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1904), 357. 201 S. de Vries, “Remembrance in Ezekiel; A Study of an Old Testament Theme,” Interpretation, 16, no.1 (1962): 58. 202 D. Gowan, Eschatology in the Old Testament, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 2. 203 Wright, The Resurrection of the Son of God, 120. 204 Ibid, 119.

79 This resonates well with the Nicene Constantinople creed where the Church professes that the Holy Ghost is the giver of life.205 Ezekiel is not sure whether these bones will come back to life. God through his creative power recreates and brings them back to life. God reverses decomposition of these bones.206 The process of resurrecting the bones is totally God’s work. Recreating Israel to be a people obedient to Him is on His hands. Ezekiel used this as a hypothesis as Welch points out that, “if God can restore the dead to life—can re-create desiccated skeletons into breathing bodies—then God can surely restore the people of Israel.”207 This prophecy is about bringing Israel back to life for they are considered dead out of their unfaithfulness. “Those bones were the house of Israel, the chosen People of God. She was dead, by her sin and apostasy. Israel, the people of Divine Love and adoption, the obstinate, rebellious and stiff necked people, and yet still the Chosen People [. . .] And God brings her out of the valley of the shadow of death.”208 In resurrection human life is realized in its fullness after undergoing renovation. This is well understood today in view of the Christian perspective of being brought back to life after death following the model of the resurrection of Jesus. For the resurrection of the dead Israel, repentance and fidelity is very important. God is glorified only when Israel remains ritually clean. Vries notes that, “The glory of YHWH can return only when Israel is spiritually pure.”209 Barriers created through sin distances man from God (Cf. Ez. 8-11). The coming back of God is an eschatological movement. For when we think of Christ’s first and second coming both call us to reflect on sin and righteousness. As Ezekiel has taught, God desires purity observance in his temple. He called the Israelites to welcome God by remaining holy through covenantal renewal (Ez. 34-39). Eschatological theme in the work of Ezekiel is founded on remembrance. Israel must remain in touch with her history. Ezekiel understood that for Israel’s hope to be restored she needs to recall her covenant with Yahweh and resume the obedience she demonstrated at her youthful days (Ez. 16:59). Going back to her roots means going back to the Lord and this in turn

205 The Symbol of Nicene- Constantinopolitan Creed is the result of the work of First Council of Nicaea, (325 A.D) and council of Constantinople, (381A.D). Cf. Decree Concerning the symbol of Faith (Feb 1546), The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, (Charlotte, North Carolina: Tan Books & Publishers Inc., 1978). 206 K. Darr, “Ezekiel,” The New Interpreters Bible, Vol. 12, (Nashville: Abingdon, 1994), 1499. 207 J. Welch, “Ezekiel 37:1-14” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology 70, no 1 ( 2016): 79. 208 G. Florovosky, “O ye Dry Bones ... Ezekiel XXXVII,” St Vladimirs Seminary Quarterly Vol. 1, no.3 (1953): 5. 209 P. de Vries, “The Glory of YHWH in the Old Testament with Special Attention to the Book of Ezekiel,” Tyndale Bulletin, 62, no. 1 (2011): 153.

80 will be translated into restoration and deliverance. “The result of such unexpected grace will be that Israel herself will remember the covenant, returning in shame and humility to serve her God.”210 The movement towards restoration and deliverance of Israel is mutual. Both Yahweh and Israel are actively involved. Israel must feel sorry and shame of her sins seek forgiveness from Yahweh and observe the commandments. In turn Yahweh will come back to Israel offer pardon and re-orient her again towards His service. This according to Vries includes renewal of her mental faculties. “In the eschatological future envisaged by Ezekiel and his school, even Israel’s memory is to be sanctified and renewed.”211 Through the renewal of mind, actions and seeking repentance, eschatology according to Ezekiel is made a reality even as we wait for the day of the Lord.

2.1.1.3 Isaiah This book gives the messianic hope of a suffering servant and the Son of Man, contrary to the Jewish expectation of a political king. God promises a cloud by day and a fire by night which depicts His permanent presence among his people (Cf. Is. 4:2ff). Gowan notes that this will be about the Lord’s presence. “It is thus the certain, never failing, all-sufficient, caring, and protecting presence of God ‘in that day’ which this text promises. Its central concern is the future existence of a holy people enjoying the presence of God in their midst.”212 The promise of restoration is dealt mostly on the passages on the future of Jerusalem. God has not forgotten and intends to restore everything, to make it better than ever before, despite the catastrophe which has befallen Jerusalem and the Israelites. The new exodus will be a triumphal procession across a transformed land (Is 49:8-11). Throughout Second Isaiah there is rejoicing because God has already forgiven Israel (Is 40:2-43:1). Among the triumphs to be celebrated when the exiles are restored to their homeland are the vindications of Israel in the sight of the nations, who will acknowledge the supremacy of Yahweh by assisting in the restoration (Is 45:14-17, 49:2-23), and the complete gathering of the dispersed.213 During post-exilic period restoration was difficult and slow. They needed great hope for a glorious new era thus giving the element of new heavens and a new earth. Emandi notes that,

210 S. de Vries, “Remembrance in Ezekiel: A Study of an Old Testament Theme,” 63. 211 Ibid, 64. 212 D. Gowan, Eschatology in the Old Testament, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986), 13. 213 Ibid, 27.

81 “Isaiah does encourage those of his own day to repent to avoid God’s judgment.”214 The hope of Israel is centered on repentance and holding dearly the demands of the covenant, failure to which they will be punished (Is 1:16-17). Receiving punishment from Yahweh is something that Israel as a covenantal nation should avoid. Isaiah gives us a glimpse towards the eternal punishment which is alluded to through his concept of God’s punishment. However, the faithful ones of Yahweh enjoy a banquette prepared for them by YHWH Himself (Is 25:6-9). Isaiah is very categorical that the end will be peaceful. The everlasting peaceful end will be ushered in by a new King that the prophet announces (Is 9:1-7). He continues the messianic hope as the figure of a peaceful king who will rule forever. Davidson interpreting prophecies in the Old Testament explains this fulfillment on the last day, the day of the Lord. He holds that, “The messianic conceptions and hopes in Israel are mainly connected with the last days, the period of Israel’s perfection and final peace and blessing. This restoration of Israel and its perfection are realized through this event, the day of the Lord.”215 The prophet is looking towards a peaceful Kingdom and by virtue of the fact that the kingdom will enjoy peace perpetually then the King must be God who reigns eternally. The reign that the prophet is prophesying will make the nation peaceful simply based on the character of the king himself. Isaiah talks of the values cherished by the King of peace who shall spring forth from the lineage of Jesse (Is 11:1-6). From this family of Jesse the king “will grow and produce this fruit, in commitment to God, fairness to the weak, and the putting down of the faithless”216 The entire theme of a peaceful righteous king in the prophesies of Isaiah no doubt points to the messiah who fits well in all these descriptions. The concept of eschatology in the Jewish religious heritage depicts of the times in which Jerusalem will extend to all the ends of the earth. This extension of the holy city will mean an eternal new creation (Is 65:17-25). Beale expounds this eschatological concept further by arguing that, the Promised Land with Jerusalem as its holy city will go out to embrace the entire universe at the fullness of time. The Temple of Jerusalem will be central to the renewed eternal creation.217 The new Kingdom is a sign of a renewed nation of Israel which is totally God’s work

214 S. Emandi, “Repentance Eschatology, and Prophetic Hope: Repentance in the Book of Isaiah,” Puritan Reformed Journal Vol. 5, Issue 2 (2013): 26. 215 Davidson, The Theology of the Old Testament, 365-395. 216 John & Kathleen, Eschatology in Isaiah, johnandkathreenshow.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/...eschatology- in-isaiah-2doc.html (accessed on Feb. 9, 2019). 217 G. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission, (Leicester: Intervarsity Press, 2004), 82-135.

82 (Cf. Is. 10:33-34). God’s Kingdom proclaimed by Isaiah must be understood to be “the destiny of present society.”218 Goswell argues explicitly that the King will not be a political ruler for he will be Yahweh himself.219 The kingdom of God as a renewed reign in the nation of Israel is under the Divine achievements through a promised leader who is very close to Yahweh (Cf. Is 9:6-7). A proper understanding of the prophecies in the Old Testament is attainable in the light of the New Testament. This is true in regard to the third part of the book of Isaiah. “A theological reading of Isaiah 56-66 reads these chapters with a hermeneutic that locates the life, death, resurrection and second advent of Jesus as its focal point.”220 The insertion of the suffering servant in this scope and his mission is totally eschatological. “The whole unit of chapters 56-66 is eschatologically oriented, so it is difficult to find any information in these messages that points to an identifiable historical date for the actual audience that first heard these messages.”221 These chapters present the suffering servant of Yahweh as both one and many. This points to Christ the Messiah and thereafter to God’s holy ones who suffer innocently on account of His name. This establishes eschatological hope in God’s redeeming works for all those who suffer innocently. The final chapters of Isaiah show sufficiently the theme of hope and judgment. The author intertwines these two themes and presents them interchangeably. He shows that Isaiah is against evil leaders in that they are going to face punishment (Is. 57). Thereafter he does not fail to present the eschatological hope (Is 66:22-23), and the final judgment (Is 66:24). In this prophetic book Isaiah demonstrated the hope of Israel’ restoration and which on further analysis in view of the New Testament proves to be of an eschatological relevance. Eschatology in the works of the Old Testament authors is purely God’s work. However man has a role of being faithful to the commandments of God and acting justly to his neighbor.

218 W. Pannenberg, Theology and the Kingdom of God, (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1969), 84. 219 G. Goswell, “Messianic Expectation in Isaiah 11,” The Westminster Theological Journal 79, no.1 (2017): 123-135. 220 R. Leesing, “Preaching from Isaiah 56-66,” Concordia Journal 39, no. 1 (2013): 48. 221 P. Smith, Rhetoric, and Redaction in Trito Isaiah; The Structure Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 40-66, (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 520.

83 2.1.2 New Testament

2.1.2.1 Matthew The New Testament contains eschatological message. It “describes the final victory in various images: the parousia, the punishment of Satan and his cohorts, the millennial reign, the victory of Christ, the new heaven and the new earth, the heavenly Jerusalem.”222 Matthew enlightens us on some of these themes. For example, “The Matthean Jesus prophesies the arrival of the Son of Man who would sit on his throne of glory and preside over the final judgment. The fate of the wicked in particular is recounted in the most graphic terms. They will weep and gnash their teeth as they burn forever in the unceasing fires of Gehenna.”223 According to Matthew everyone is to be judged, and the standard by which each is to be judged is the attainment (or not) of the higher righteousness. The higher righteousness consists in adherence to the law but governed by the twofold love command. The future judge is the weak and humble servant who shows mercy to the meek in strict accordance with the principles of the higher righteousness.224 The coming judgment calls us to strive for holiness. “For Matthew the end of the existing world order is neither particularly near nor particularly distant.”225 In this gospel the term Malkuth Shamayim (Reign of God) is used to denote the presence of Basileia tou Theou (the Kingdom of God), “But if it is by the Spirit of God I drive out demons, then the Kingdom of God has come upon you” (Mt 12:28). Matthew presents a paradigm shift from the Jewish religion to Christianity. In this journey Matthew translates, “Jewish eschatology to adapt this progressively into a Christian eschatology under the influence of Matthews story of Jesus.”226 He uses the phrases kingdom of God and kingdom of the heavens interchangeably.227 The mission of Christ as Dulles points out is universal, “justices to victory; and in his name will the gentiles hope.”228 The time of the coming of Christ is the time to proclaim good news to the World before he comes again. The time to instill hope to all people Jews and Gentiles alike is the Good News. Matthew does not give the definitive time of the Parousia but teaches that it will be imminent after the Gospel is

222 P. Phan, Responses to 101 Questions on Death and Eternal Life, (New York: Paulist Press, 1997), 46. 223 D. Sim, Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Gospel of Matthew, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 1. 224 Ibid, 4. 225 Ibid, 6. 226 B. Cooper, “Adaptive Eschatological Inference from the Gospel of Matthew,” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 33, no. 1(2010): 61. 227 G. Ladd, Crucial Questions about the Kingdom, (Grand Rapids: WMB Eerdmans Pub. Co. 1952), 122. 228 A. Dulles, A History of Apologetics, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005), 18.

84 proclaimed to the whole world. “And this gospel of the kingdom will be preached throughout the whole world, as a testimony to all nations; and then the end will come,” Mt 24:14. There is no scriptural basis for the chronological time for the Parousia. Matthew speaks of the Kingdom of God as a time of separating the wicked and the righteous through Judgment where Christ in his second coming will be the judge. “In Matthew's Gospel, Jesus speaks of the kingdom of heaven in terms of inclusion and exclusion. And [those on his left] will go into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal life." (Mt 25:46).”229 This will be the time of parousia and judgment. Christ in his second coming comes with might and power to judge each person on the basis of his actions towards the needy (Cf. Mt 25:31-46). In this pericope Matthew presents hell and heaven as the final destiny of man depending on the quality of life he lived in the world. The righteous will be received in God’s Kingdom while the unrighteous will be damned forever. “We can imagine the last judgment as a great assembly before a royal or triumphant Christ.”230 Those on his right are judged worthy of the kingdom because they fulfilled Christ’s call of being servants to other people (Mt 20:26-27, 23:11). In their lives they demonstrated a high degree of being disciples “In their works of kindness towards the marginalized, those on Jesus' right side mirror the compassion Jesus is known to show to all those who suffer.”231 They were the faithful disciples. Using the parable of the weeds (Mt 13:24-30), Matthew advocates for the recognition of the presence of the kingdom which is present though waiting perfection which will happen during the time of harvesting. Ladd accepts that the Kingdom is present but the climax is not yet “Only when the son of Man sends his Angels in judgment will the kingdom be perfected.”232 There is need to wait for the full realization in which the righteous will have their blessings in full (Mt 13:43). This is the eschatological hope to all the faithful followers of Christ who are suffering in the world since the good and evil exists together. Patience is necessary for the attainment of our eschatological hope. “Christians have affirmed from the very beginning of the

229 C. Surrey, “Heaven Attracts and Hell Repels: A Dynamic Interpretation of Balthasar’s Dare we Hope, ‘That All Men be Saved.” Pro-Ecclesia 25, no.3 (2016): 322. 230 T. Rausch, Eschatology, Liturgy and Christology; Toward Recovering an Eschatological Imagination. (Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2010), 143. 231 S. Grindheim, “Ignorance is Bliss: Altitudinal Aspects of the Judgment According to Works in Matthew 25:31- 46,” Novum Testamentum Vol. 50, no. 4 (2008): 324. 232 G. Ladd, “Consistent or Realized Eschatology in Matthew,” Southwest Journal of Theology Vol. 5, (1962) retrieved from preachingsource.com>journal>consistent (accessed on Mar. 1, 2019).

85 Church that at some final definitive point in history on the last day, or at the second coming of Christ all persons will rise and be re-united with their bodies.”233 The general judgment which is dependent on the ones way of earthly existence will take place after the resurrection of the body.

2. 1.2.2 Mark Mark presents the kingdom of God as a reality that has dawned with the arrival of Christ. Right away from chapter one he connects the presence of Christ and God’s Kingdom as a reality that is linked together (Mk 1:15). Although he does not mention its completion he points out that it has already begun. In this position Beasley explains that, “It does not mean that Jesus declared that it had been completed. It signifies rather that a decisive beginning has been made for the establishment of the Kingdom of God, which shall issue finally in its universal victory.”234 The work of Markan Jesus is to show the kingdom of God which is here with us and demonstrate what needs to be done for its completion. The Good News is then meant to open our eyes to see Christ as the King, repent our sins and believe in him and in his teachings (Mk 1:14-15). Mark is one of the proponents of the fact that the kingdom of God is here with us although it has not attained its climax. Christ and the believers continue to work towards its fulfillment. The defeat of the devil and his works is one of the eschatological dimensions. The ruin of Satan and his works manifests the kingdom of God in that now the multitude are able to see the newness he has brought through his Word and deeds (Mk 1:27). Mark like other Gospel writers is presenting the Good News of the person and mission of Christ. Of special importance in the life changing message of Christ is “the event of the resurrection, toward which the whole Gospel ineluctably moves, signifies the triumph of Jesus’ power over all the forces of evil- sin, sickness, death, blindness and unbelief.”235 The words and deeds of Jesus in the entire Gospel is all about the Kingdom of God and calling people to join it. “The entire ministry of Jesus is burdened with the secret of the Kingdom of God: he is the bearer of the kingdom, its Mediator, and it’s Revealer.”236 This is the destiny of mankind in which every person is invited. Mark does not give a definite day for Christ’ second return though he

233 W. Mattison, Introducing Moral Theology; True Happiness and the Virtues, (Grand Rapids Michigan: Brazos Press, 2008), 268. 234 G. Beasley, “Eschatology in the Gospel of Mark,” South West Journal of Theology Vol. 21, no. 1 (1978): 39. 235 Dulles, A History of Apologetics, 17. 236 Beasley, “Eschatology in the Gospel of Mark,” 44-45.

86 cites some characteristics of the nearing Kingdom.237 But he teaches that Christ will come back soon. Jesus calms down his followers who were anxious about the day of his second coming. He makes them aware of the many events and upheavals that must occur first and will be only “the beginning of the sufferings” (Mk 13:8). The coming of the final day of the Lord is a process. “According to many Markan scholars, a significant part of Mark's purpose was to bolster hope among distressed hearers by assuring them that the one who was crucified will come soon.”238 Mark presents cosmic signs (Mk 13:24-27), that go along with Jesus’ second coming. These signs recall the apocalyptic signs that were announced in apocalyptic works of the Old Testament (Cf. Is 13:10, 34:4, and Joel 2:10). The purpose of these signs is not meant to instill fear among the believers but to emphasize that the day of the Lord will have a great impact on the universe. “For Mark, the mission of Jesus signified the dawn of eschatological fulfillment.”239 Although the Gospel of Mark does not use the term parousia, a deep reflection of various verses refers to it (Cf. Mk 8:38, 13:26, and 14:62). This event will gather all people into one community.240 In Mark’s thought the parousia is to happen soon. “This eschatological perspective indicates that the people to whom this Gospel was written experienced crises. The expectation that Jesus who had suffered, would return as Son of God, comforted the readers in their present situation.”241 Jesus pointed to the parousia, “I am; and you will see the Son of man sitting at the right hand of Power and coming with the clouds of heaven” (Mk 14:62). The central position of Jesus in the kingdom is expressed and towards the end He will come again. Death is a door way to the parousia and in turn it ushers the Day of Judgment. There after the righteous enter heaven where Christ reigns. In the parable of the tenants (Cf. Mk 13:34, Mt 25:14-46, Lk 19:12-27), Mark presents Jesus as the last offer in view of the impending judgment. “Finally, the landlord sent a ‘beloved son,’ who was to be the ‘last’ (eschatos)

237 Mark gives some signs of the end times (Mk 13:1-30). 238 D. Neville, “Moral Vision, and Eschatology in Marks Gospel Coherence or Conflict?” Journal of Biblical Literature 127, no. 2 (2008): 360. 239 Ibid, 372. 240 A. Hultgren, "Eschatology in the New Testament: The Current Debate," The Last Things: Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Eschatology, eds Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, (Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2002), 69. 241 F. Viljoen, “Mark the Gospel of the Suffering Son of Man, An Encouragement Directed to a Despondent Religious Minority in the City of Rome,” School of Biblical Studies & Bible Languages 36, no. 3 (2002): 467.

87 offer.”242 The sending of the Only Son of the Land Lord expresses the Land Lord’s mercy to the tenants. Trench explains that this is the greatest expression of God’s mercy to sinners as he writes that, “it is the last and crowning effort of Divine Mercy.”243 This is informed by the fact that God desires all men to be saved.

2.2.2.3. Luke–Acts The justification of looking at the two books at once comes from the undisputed recognition of its authorship, addressee and a thread of continuation on the two books of Luke in the New Testament. The Gospel presents the life of Jesus up to His ascent to heaven after His resurrection. The continuation of his ministry through the Spirit and in the Church is offered in Acts of Apostles. Igbakua explains it further, “that Luke-Acts is Luke‘s presentation of the one story of Jesus’ messianic kingdom project.”244 The two books run the theme of Kingdom of God as already present here and proclaim the same kingdom as what we are waiting for (Cf. Lk 4:43, 8:1, 9:2, 10:1, Acts 8:12, 28:17-31). Luke has records of the anticipation of God’s reign which has been established through Christ (Cf. Lk 11:20, 17:21). Luke has a command in presenting the life, work and deeds of Christ and the mission of his disciples after his ascension as they looked forward to his second coming. He presents a theology which is christological and pneumatological and this is captured well in his eschatological teachings. The centrality of Luke’s eschatology is the person of Christ who is the salvation of mankind. “With Him a new epoch dawned in history, a time of salvation, and the Messianic era. In Christ, climaxed the long series of events comprising the history of the world and the history of Israel.”245 The Lucan eschatology begun with Christ’s first advent and will reach climax in his second advent. Wright puts it that Christ “has reversed the work of Adam, fulfilled the promises to Abraham, repeated the deliverance from bondage, not indeed from Pharaoh but from sin and Satan, and inaugurated the new age and the new covenant.”246 This is the Lucan Jesus who is the eschatos both in his words and deeds. His arrival in the world inaugurates the fulfillment of

242 J. Wayne, “A Study of the Last Things,” https://www.christiancourier.com/articles/1470-study-of-the-last- things, (accessed on Jan. 28, 2019). 243 R. Trench, Notes on the Parables of our Lord, (London: Macmillan, 1877), 209. 244 I. Igbakua, “The Messianic Kingdom Theology in Luke-Acts,” Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies Vol. 6, no. 2 (2016): 58. 245 R. Smith, “History and Eschatology in Luke-Acts,” Concordia Theological Monthly Vol. 29, no. 12 (1958): 884. 246 G. Ernest, God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital, (London: SCM Press, 1952), 57.

88 God’s promises. “Luke was one of those who undertook to recast the Christian message in a way that would allow for a continuation of life in this world notwithstanding the fact that the “last age” had come with the Christ event.”247 Even with death, resurrection and ascension of Jesus his ministry did not cease to be. For even after his ascension, “the ministry of Jesus was not stopped.”248 The eschatological times begun with the birth of the messiah and continues after his ascension. It can be understood then that after the earthly life of Jesus he has now entered into the second part of his mission which will move up to the parousia. The Church becomes the playground of his second phase. After his earthly ministry Filson agrees that He is at work: “Jesus' resurrection is the open door through which He entered upon the further work which in God's plan He was still to accomplish.”249 Luke understood the Church to be a community in which the works of love and peace are central.250 For the continuation of his mission, Christ sent His Holy Spirit to this faith community as an eschatological sign. “For God's Spirit is an eschatological gift and power.”251 The Pentecost event fulfilled the prophecies of the Old Testament (Cf. Joel 2:28-29, Is 2:2-4). Peter in his maiden speech on Pentecost demonstrated to the wondering multitude that what has happened is the fulfillment of prophecies (Cf. Acts 2:16ff). The time of life of Jesus through whom the messianic era has arrived, is already here with us, that is, it is within our reach.252 However, Luke talks about the second coming of Christ arguing that the kingdom of Christ is spiritual and it’s here with us as we await his second coming. In his parousia He will judge the world. “This coming leads to a series of separations: those who wait for it will be saved, and those who concern themselves only with their mundane lives will perish.”253 In his second coming, man will be judged on the basis of how he lived in view of the day of the Lord. The establishment of the Church is a highly eschatological event that Luke demonstrates in Acts of the Apostles. This event gives credibility to the Church as an eschatological

247 Dulles, A History of Apologetics, 21. 248 T. Manson, The Servant Messiah; A Study of the Public Ministry of Jesus, (Cambridge: The University Press, 1953), 89. 249 F. Filson, Jesus Christ the Risen Lord, (New York: Abingdon Press, 1956), 165. 250 Dulles, A History of Apologetics, 21. 251 Smith, “History and Eschatology in the Luke-Acts,” 892. 252 Here a change is noted in the understanding of the Kingdom of God and the Day of the Lord as a futuristic event but as an event that has already dawned (Cf. Lk 17:20). 253 I. Faraoanu, “The Waiting of Parousia- Aspects of Lukan Eschatology Lk 17:20-37,” International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences Vol. 57, (2015): 86.

89 community. A community of faith that is Spirit-filled right away from its first day. In fact, “The manifestation of the Spirit at Pentecost was an eschatological event, and one connected with the climactic cosmic drama.”254 The story of God’s offer of salvation continues after the dramatic events of Christ on the cross. Luke proclaims that the time after the resurrection of Christ is a time to bear witness to the Good News (Cf. Lk 21:13). The Church is the living testimony that the Messiah has come and is to come again. “In other words, the core of the Gospel consists in the good tidings of the resurrection and, consequently, in the good tidings of Gods action, which precedes all human doing.”255 Luke captures the theme of judgment where he envisions the Day of Judgment coming in the future (Cf. Lk 21:26-35, Acts 8:24, 13:40). Luke shows that we are in the last days but the last day is yet to come. In the landmark sermon that Jesus gave in his hometown Nazareth, he demonstrated that he has come to fulfill the prophecies (Cf. Lk 4:16ff). He quoted the words of prophet Isaiah and appropriating that prophecy to himself. The audiences are called to receive him as the awaited Messiah. Through the second part of his work Luke shows the continuation of the works of the Messiah through the works and deeds of the apostles in their apostolic ministry guided by His Spirit who descended on them on Pentecost. With the coming of the Holy Spirit in Acts, “The kingdom of the Spirit had been already inaugurated. Thus the Church was living in two dimensions at once.”256

2.1.2.4 John John’s Gospel underlines the fact of Jesus’s true divinity right away from the prologue (Jn 1:1ff). The author directs his audience that God through Incarnation became Man and now dwells with us. The indwelling of the Son of God in the midst of human beings is a wakeup call that God is not far from us but He is one with us.257 Jesus Christ in our midst directs us to his hour which has a relevance to our hour. The eschatology in this fourth Gospel rotates on his

254 F. Francis, “Eschatology and History in Luke-Acts,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion Vol. 37, issue 1 (1969): 51. 255 J. Ratzinger, Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology, trans Mary Frances McCarthy, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1987), 185. 256 G. Florovsky, “Eschatology in the Patristic Age: An Introduction,” The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 2, no. 1 (1956): 28. 257 Matthew (1:22-23) uses the term Immanuel to demonstrate that Christ born of Mary is the prophecy fulfilled as prophesied by Isaiah 7:14. The Blessed Virgin Mary as our mother accompanies us in our pilgrimage towards the Parousia. Cf. Z. Kabatha, “The Blessed Virgin Mary as our Mother; The Lucan Marian Perspective,” Studia Theologica Varsaviensia 57, no. 1 (2019): 73-88.

90 understanding of the hour of Jesus. “The concept of the Johannine hour reveals its eschatological character which can be fulfilled in the passion, death and resurrection of the Son. The prayer of Jesus opens heaven for every person who together with Him can fulfill the will of God.”258 The aspect of the hour is very eschatological. It touches on the paschal mystery of Christ “The hour in which Jesus becomes man’s salvation.”259 In his priestly prayer Jesus prays for all men who believe in Him that they may be preserved for eternal life. This is his eschatological gift to every believer. It is a desire and a hope for all his followers from all over the world throughout the ages. In this priestly prayer, He explains his purpose of coming into the world (Cf. Jn 17:2). His purpose mainly underlined glorifying His Father and granting eternal life to those who believe in Him. He continues to pray for His disciples now that His Father may protect them in the world for His hour has come to move from the world and go back to His Father.260 His disciples get the assurance that Christ prays for them continually till the hour of the parousia. He prays that His Father may protect them. The need to trust in Jesus’s prayer is paramount in our daily life. His prayer for us is a manifestation that he is actively involved towards the realization of the eschatological hope. The eschatological dimension of this prayer is to unite Christians among themselves as clear manifestations of their love to Him and in turn their unity with God which will be perfectly made manifest on the last day. This shows the profound extent of God’s love to humanity. We agree with Wrobel that, “In the glorification of the Father and the Son one can clearly see the mystery of salvation through combining earthly things with Heaven.”261 Hence, modern man in appreciation of God’s work for us must continuously glorify God uniting our daily labours with His divine plan for his glory and the salvation of mankind. This makes a connection between what we are passing through here on earth to what is awaiting us in heaven. The theme of the hour of Jesus in the Johannine Gospel pointing towards his passion had a deeper meaning which focused on his hour of second coming. “His hour is the time when the

258 M. Wrobel, “Theological Concept of the Fourth Gospel in the Context of Jesus, Glorification Prayer, Jn 17:1-5 in the Person and Challenges,” The Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by John Paul II Vol. 7, no. 1 (2017): 223. 259 A. Nichols, The Thought of Pope Benedict XVI: An Introduction to the Theology of Joseph Ratzinger, New Edition, (London: Burn & Oates, 2007), 89. 260 Christ our high priest continues to intercede for us being the mediator between God and Mankind. (Cf Jn 17:9, Heb 7:25). 261 Wrobel, “Theological Concept of the Fourth Gospel,” 239.

91 union with his people is accomplished. It is both his wedding [...] and his death, because his death accomplishes the union.”262 As well it can refer to our hour; the hour of redemption to be joined to Him eternally. This is his will that where he is, his faithful ones be. Man must be directed towards this hour of his redemption which is the motivation of his in his earthly engagement. “Jesus’ glorious death reveals glory, the love of the Son and the love of the Father. […] at this hour the earth touches the heights of heaven with a kiss of love.”263 Everything that God permits to happen will find explanation only when we use it to glorify Him. The world is slowly being moved by the power of God to its final destination. It is then clear to us that God’s glory and man’s salvation are at the heart of the Johannine Gospel. John teaches that Jesus is the judge of all men. His authority to judge comes from his Father (Jn 5:27). If judgment obviously foresees the possibility of condemnation, it is nevertheless entrusted to the one who is the “Son of Man,” that is, to a person full of understanding and in solidarity with the human condition. Christ is a divine judge with a human heart, a judge who wants to give life. Jesus is the one with us and as the saviour of all men wills to give life to all people. Save for those who stubbornly reject Him. This he showed clearly on the cross when he chose to die on our behalf. John “finally proposes the image of the light who has come into the world to shine upon the children of God in every nation and to give them a more abundant life of freedom, truth and mutual love.”264 The kingdom of God has already come here and moves towards the final consummation. Losel writes that, “The kingdom of God has already dawned in Christ, even if its completion on earth is still awaited. Progress in history must therefore give way to eternity’s enduring presence in time.”265 The Gospel of John teaches the already and the not yet kingdom of God. Jesus announces that the dead shall resurrect back to life (Jn 11:1-44). He speaks of the hour. “When all who are in the tombs will hear his voice and come forth, those who have done well, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of judgment (Jn

262 Exegetical Notes: The Wedding Theme in the Gospel of John, exegeticalnotes.blogspot.com>2011/03 (accessed on Mar. 11, 2019). The theme of Christ as the bridegroom of Israel is stressed as a time of joy and fulfilment. On the cross the hour is here (Jn 3:29), Jesus the bridegroom of the people of Israel recalls Is 49-50, 54, Jer 2, Ez 16 and Hos 1-3. A time of joy is here with us. 263 Wrobel, “Theological Concept of the Fourth Gospel,” 237. 264 Dulles, A History of Apologetics, 25. This is captured well in the Johannine Gospel where the author points out that the mission of Jesus is to give life (Cf. Jn 10:10). 265 S. Losel, “Unapocaryptic Theology: History and Eschatology in Balthasar’s Theo Dramma,” Modern Theology 17, no.2 (2001): 204-205.

92 5:28-29). The criteria of this judgment will be human response towards the person and the message of Christ. “He who rejects me and does not receive my sayings has a judge; the word that I have spoken will be his judge on the last day” (Jn 12:48). It is worth to note that the evangelist uses the word “the last day” for five times when talking about the last day of mankind history (Jn 6:39-40, 44, 54, 12:48). John thus presents to us the fact that there is the last day in which the resurrection of all is to occur and there will be judgment.266 However, the Kingdom will not come definitively until the current history and final judgment happens.267

2.1.2.5 Revelation Apocalypse describes what will happen at the end-time and in the beyond (Rev 1:1-3), using a highly imaginative and symbolic language. These images have a purpose as Muller puts it, “The apocalyptic images serve to illustrate the salvific drama in the soul of the individual persons and in history’s major conflicts.”268 On the other hand, “Revelation provides a limitless resource for crystal ball gazers with its numerous visions, angels, beasts, numbers, the antichrist, cosmic catastrophes, and the Armageddon.”269 A proper interpretation of these images is required in order to get the salvific message. Phan gives eschatology in Revelation as he understood it in the following words; In this narrative the enemies of God’s people are punished; Babylon - Rome is destroyed; and Christ is depicted as a field marshal leading the heavenly armies in a decisive combat with his enemies, natural and supernatural. Satan’s defeat ushers in a kingdom over which Christ and his resurrected saints will reign for a thousand years, followed by the final battle and punishment of Satan and his allies. Then come the general resurrection of all the dead and the judgment by Christ. After the destruction of the first heaven and earth, a new heaven and earth are created, and the heavenly Jerusalem descends from heaven to earth, ushering in the new age.270 Revelation argues for the apocalyptic eschatology which deeply proclaims hope of humanity after physical death where some will be saved from undergoing a second death (Rev 2:11).

266 Cf. Jn 6:39-40, 12:48, and 5:28-29. The three passages bears testimony that both the righteous and the wicked will arise on the same day which is understood to be the last day, the day of final judgment. 267 McBrien, Catholicism, 1141. 268 G. Muller, Catholic Dogmatics; For the Study and Practice of Theology, (New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 2012), 154. 269 Phan, Responses to 101 Questions on Death and Eternal Life, 44. 270 Ibid, 45.

93 The book of Revelation proposes an eschatological hope which is imminent to those subjected to persecutions.271 This is the author’s point of departure to show the opposition between God and the world.272 Revelation envisions judgment. And as Mattison notes “Judgment is simply the extension of a trajectory that one has voluntarily lived during one’s live.”273 Being clothed in white garments (Rev 3:4), demands one prior to his death to live in witness to Jesus faithfully in word and deeds. The author presents the ugly side of evil while presenting the reward of eternal life to the righteous. Liturgical eschatology is well founded with Christ the lamb at the center in this book. Hahn is quick to note a resemblance of our liturgy in mass and that of Revelation, and he argues in using our liturgy in interpreting the Johannine apocalypse.274 Yarbro explains that, “apocalyptic eschatology expects God to deliver the elect from the unjust present order into a new transformed order.”275 The elect wait upon the vindication of the Lord to deliver them and punish those who infringe suffering to the elect. Revelation gives warning to all those who are unrighteous. “But as for the cowardly, the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators, sorcerers, idolaters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and brimstone, which is the second death” Rev 21:8. Hell is the fate that awaits the morally immature. Here the author presents the Augustinian concept of the second death which will be experienced by the damned.276 Death is defeated by the angelic life that is given to those who remain faithful to God even when faced with great forms of sufferings.277 The elect “who conquers will surely not be injured by the second death (Rev 2:11). All people are prone to the first death but those who fail to conquer this world through holiness will be subjected to punishment. The imagery of the white garments refers to the resurrected life as was presented to Jesus during transfiguration (Cf. Mt 17:2, Mk 9:2-3). This shows the excellence of the heavenly life that awaits the holy ones of the Lord who for the time being have to persevere in the world. “In the cultural context ... these

271 C. Rouland, “The Eschatology of the New Testament Church,” The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, ed. Jerry Walls (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 65. 272 Ibid., 64. 273 Mattison, Introduction to Moral Theology, 264. 274 S. Hahn, The Lamb’s Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth, (New York: Double Day Press, 1999), 61-72. 275 C. Yarbro, “Eschatology in the Book of Revelation,” Ex-Auditu, 6, (1990): 63. 276 Augustine argues that there are two kinds of death. The body is subject to the first kind of death while as the second death has soul as its object. The second death concerns the soul which is damned to Hell. Cf Augustine, De Civitate Dei, Book III, as quoted in Church Fathers, newadvent.org/fathers/ (accessed on Mar. 16, 2019). 277 J. Collins, “Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death,” Catholic Biblical Quarterly, 34, (1974): 43.

94 white garments express in pictorial language the idea that the human body will be transformed into or replaced by a spiritual body.”278 There will be a spiritual transformation of our bodies after resurrection under the model of the transfiguration of Jesus. The white garments are a sign of the good life awaiting the holy ones who will join the heavenly bliss (Rev 4:4, 7:14). “Similarly, Revelation presents the resolution of the present crisis as deliverance from the old order and the establishment of a radically new order.”279 The newness in the next order consists in the fact that, “death shall be no more” (Rev 21:4). Death shall be totally destroyed. Resurrection (Rev 20:4-6,11-16), is sure to come for all people after which there will be judgment in which those found worth to be in the presence of the Lord owing to their virtuous life will be rewarded while as those not worth will be damned. The author talks of salvation which destroys the world as it is now and establishes a new earth and heaven “And I saw a new heaven and a new earth. For the first heaven and the first earth had passed away and the sea was no more” Rev 21:1. There will be radically new transformation of the universe. Salvation brings down the enemies of God’s people and consoles those who suffer for being His followers. The fact that the New Jerusalem comes from above is a testimony that the eschatological work of renewing creation is purely an action of God. “Throughout the apocalypse, angels execute the sentence, too, precipitating the destruction of Jerusalem, along with its inhabitants and its temple.”280 Eschatology cannot be understood purely as man’s effort. The New Jerusalem and the new life there of after the resurrection is totally God’s gift. Thus man owing to the presence of evil and suffering in this current order is left convinced that it’s worth looking forward for the arrival of the renewed order. In the new order every form of human suffering will be a thing of the past (Rev 21:4). Christ is the conqueror of his enemies. “This conqueror destroys his enemies, not with a literal sword, but with the sword of his mouth; his only weapon is his Word, the Word of God which he himself is (19:13).”281 Christ effects the restoration of his people and brings the new glorious order.

278 Yarbro, “Eschatology in the Book of Revelation,” 64. 279 Ibid. 280 Hahn, The Lamb’s Supper; The Mass as Heaven on Earth, 107. 281 E. Boring, Revelation Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching, (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989), 194.

95 2.1.2.6 Pauline Eschatology Paul was a very religious person in his Jewish and Christian religious backgrounds. However, as far as his concept of religion was concerned we agree with Irving that, “Paul's religion was grounded in eschatology. His hopes and motives in life, the passion and urgency of his religion, center in his conception of the future.”282 Prior to his conversion to Christianity like other faithful Jews he looked upon to the Messianic times. Even after his conversion to Christianity he believed in the resurrection of Christ who is the promised messiah the new Adam of the renewed mankind. Pauline eschatology rotates around the resurrection of Christ. There is a relationship between the Kingdom of Christ and the future when Christ will consign the kingdom to his Father. Paul’s eschatology developed as he continued to write his letters. Christ’s Parousia for Paul is described in vivid tones and with symbolic imagery which conveys a simple and profound message: we shall ultimately be with the Lord forever. Over and above the images, this is the essential message that our future is to be with our Lord. After Paul had evangelized to the people of Thessalonica, they were expecting the second coming of Jesus to be soon. Thus he told them that “the expectation of Jesus’ parousia does not dispense us from working in this world but, on the contrary, creates responsibility to the divine Judge for our actions in this world.”283 Paul’s readiness to do God’s will made him have no fear of death and prepared for the future for he is totally with Christ (Rom 14: 7-10). Paul encourages the Christians that Jesus is risen and is with the Father and with them forever. This gives certainty of hope since Christ’s light is stronger than darkness and also Christ, Judge and Saviour is merciful. Paul argues for the universality of the Parousia “which unites Jews and Gentiles, that is, non-Christians as a sign and an anticipation of the future reality.”284 Paul depicts Christ already seated in heaven where there is glory that can’t be compared to the present time of suffering (Cf. Eph 2:6). Paul was crystal clear that Christ’s return was imminent (Cf. 1Thess 1:10, 2:19, 3:13, 5:23, 4:13-18, and 5:1-11). The imminence restored hope among the audience of Paul whom he addressed in this letters. In turn he encouraged them to live faithfully so that when Christ comes again he will find them worthy of him. The thought of Paul was that the Parousia will be cosmic; “The descent at the parousia will be of the Lord in person. The cry of command, the Archangel’s

282 I. Wood, “Paul’s Eschatology,” The Biblical World Vol. 38, no.2 (1911): 79. 283 Benedict XVI, Saint Paul The Apostle, (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 2009), 69. 284 Ibid, 72.

96 call and the trumpet of God all stress the majestic arrival of a king.”285 The day of the Lord will be manifested and made visible to the universe. Paul must have been influenced by the prophecies of the Old Testament in his idea of the cosmic day of the Lord (Cf. Is 65:17-25 and 66:22). Before the parousia Paul teaches that this age is full of struggles as seen in his writings both to the Romans and Corinthians.286 For him the last age has begun. This is the reason that there is a lot of struggle. Harrison puts it that, “Paul asserts that the new age of Christ had broken into the present evil age and that its reality was currently the experience of the Church.”287 In this final age the Church plays an important role. Paul encourages Christians that even though there is turmoil in this world they should not forget that it is fading away.288 All creation is “groaning in travail,” waiting impatiently for the revelation of the sons of God (Rom 8:19-22). The entire creation looks forward for redemption, “Creation cries out desperately; not for a theoretical entity who redeems in a spiritual and metaphorical sense only, but for actual deliverance from pain and loss.”289 This is a transformational process that makes creation new. Paul pointed out that the goal of history lies in the Father's plan to “unite all things in him [Christ], things in heaven and things on earth” (Eph 1:10). Christ through his first coming into the world is the center of the universe. He is drawing all men to himself through his grace. Jesus for now shares his grace with men and moves them towards Eternal life. In the later Pauline letters he uses the notion of the kingdom as futuristic (Cf 1Cor 6:9-11, 15:24, Gal 5:21, Eph. 5:5 Col 4:11, 1 Thes. 2:12, 2Thes 1:5). This should not make us lose the fact that Paul taught that the Kingdom of God and the Messianic times are already with us though awaiting its climax. Paul insists that celebrating the Lord’s Supper is our concern until he comes again (1Cor 11:26). Resurrection and Eucharist are closely related. “Jesus not only saw the Eucharist as a participation in his bodily death on the cross. He also saw it as a participation in his bodily resurrection.”290 Liturgy is our concern and duty as a people who keep the memorial of the Lord’s death and resurrection. Paul is one of the biblical proponents of the

285 H. Uprichard, “Eschatology in 1Thessalonians,” Journal of Irish Christian Study Centre Vol. 2, (1984): 69. 286 The present world is depicted to contain evil elements (Rom 12:12, 1Cor 1:20, 2:6-8, 3:8-18, 2cor 4:4, and Gal 4:4). Paul goes ahead to teach that sin leads to death (Rom 6:23). 287 J. Harrisson, “Paul Eschatology and the Augustinian Age of Grace,” Tyndale Bullettin Vol. 50, no. 1 (1999): 81-82. 288 The world, its structure of sin and the painful experiences of death are all passing away (Cf. 1Cor. 7:31). 289 Zuiddam, “Early Church Fathers on Creation,” 66. 290 B. Pitre, Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist; Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper, (New York: Double Day, 2011), 197.

97 realized eschatos as Hunter notes, “for Paul the End has begun. This is what we know nowadays as "realized eschatology.”291 Paul is convinced that we are in the Messianic times. Paul shares with the rest of the apostolic writers the conviction that in the life, death, and resurrection of Christ and the outpouring of the Spirit, God's ancient promises to Israel have come true, the Reign of God has been decisively manifested, and the powers of the new order—the age to come—set in motion. Christ has met and overcome ‘the last enemy, death;’ by his resurrection.292

Those to attain the fruits of the Kingdom must refrain from indulging in sin. “Do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived; neither the immoral, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor sexual perverts, nor sieves, nor the greedy, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor robbers will inherit the kingdom of God” 1Cor 6:9-10. Thus sin has far reaching implications especially being excommunicated from the presence of God forever. Paul understood that with the death and resurrection of Christ man has been given a chance to live forever. Man was dead but, “life in Christ is resurrection life.”293 The resurrection of Christ is a turning event which has launched a new man restored by Christ for the fulfillment of God’s plan. Those who have died with him through baptism have begun a new life. The Holy Spirit is central to Christian eschatology. Paul’s view is that the Holy Spirit, “bridges the gap between resurrection and the Parousia administering to men the benefits of the messianic age. He is the agent for inaugurating eschatology in the life of believers, and his presence is itself the pledge of redemption in all its future stages.”294 Since the Spirit is at work now with Christians Paul upheld that eschatology is here and not yet (Cf. 2Tim 1:9-10). Those in Christ have received the gifts of the Spirit who guides and enables them to fulfill God’s law. It is the very same Spirit who resurrected Christ from the dead and has the same power to grant life in the age to come to those who believe in Him. Those who reject Christ’ teaching will remain dead for the Spirit is not with them and will not resurrect them either.295 The Holy Spirit is open to the Gentiles of whom Paul understood

291 A. Hunter, “The Hope of Glory; The Relevance of the Pauline Eschatology,” Interpretation Vol. 8, no.2 (1954): 134. 292 Hunter, “The Hope of Glory: The Relevance of the Pauline Eschatology,” 134. 293 C. Pinnock, The Structure of Pauline Eschatology, https://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/iles/3-2- pinnock.pdf (accessed on Feb. 24, 2019). 294 Ibid. 295 St Paul was convinced that those who persevere in righteousness and good works aided by God’s Grace will definitely be rewarded with eternal life. (Cf. Rom 2:6-11, 8:1-17, Gal 6:6-10).

98 himself to be their missionary. His missionary journeys are eschatological for he was convinced that he must preach the gospel to the Gentiles before the parousia, for the gospel is urgently to be handed on to all people (Mt 28:18-20). He moved far and wide establishing eschatological communities. He taught that the kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Christ is all the same thing. The realities of these two notions are a reality now in the world though the world awaits their climax.296 There is a relationship between the resurrection of Christ and that of the holy ones of the Lord. According to Vos, Paul, “views the resurrection of Christ as the beginning of the general resurrection of the saints. The resurrection of the saints is an eschatological event.”297 He is explicit that this is God’s work under the model of the resurrection of Christ (Rom 8:18-25). The resurrection of the believers is a major Pauline teaching.298 Lastly, “Paul shares with the rest of the apostolic writers the conviction that in the life, death, and resurrection of Christ and the outpouring of the Spirit, God's ancient promises to Israel have come true, the reign of God has been decisively manifested, and the powers of the New Order—the age to come—set in motion.”299 The event of Christ is central to unlocking Pauline theology on eschatos, for it is Christological in nature.

2. 2 Sacred Tradition 2.2.1 Patristic Eschatology The writings, teachings and life of the Church Fathers touch various disciplines. But, “typical of all these writings is their eschatological character. The second coming of Christ is regarded as imminent.”300 Amidst the various challenges experienced during their time, “It was their eschatological hope that enabled them to face these threats [...] with the assurance of life

296 G. Vos, The Pauline Eschatology, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1931), 259-260. 297 G. Von, “The Eschatological Aspect of the Pauline Conception of the Spirit,” Biblical & Theological Studies, (1912): Retrieved from www.biblicaltheology.org (accessed on Feb. 24, 2019). 298 J. Ramsey Michaels, “The Redemption of Our Body: The Riddle of Romans 8:19-22” in Romans and the People of God: Essays in Honor of Gordon D. Fee, On the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, ed Sven K. Soderlund and N.T. Wright, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999), 92-96. 299 Hunter, “The Hope of Glory,” 134. 300 J. Quasten, Patrology, Vol. 1 The Beginnings of Patristic Literature From the Apostles Creed to Irenaeus, (Washington DC: Avemaria Press, 2005), 40.

99 and happiness in a world without end.”301 St Irenaeus understood it clearly that there was need to put a strong struggle for the attainment of eternal life. This included refuting the fight against heresies.302 During this time the expectancy of the parousia was so urgent in the neophyte Church. They celebrated the Eucharist with a high conviction of Christ’s presence awaiting His physical return. Eucharist in the early Church was, “an act of memory and hope in which the transcendent becomes immanent in sacramental signs.”303 Patristic eschatology was shaped by both the Christian and pagan thought that were prevailing at that milieu. In this period, the Church Fathers were the theologians who expressed and taught the Christian doctrines. In the early church, “eschatology was the quality which marked the Christian message off from its Jewish forebears, and rendered it truly distinctive.”304 This gave Christianity its distinguishing characteristic from other religions. “What is perhaps most evident from our sampling of the eschatological language of the writings that have come down to us from the first two centuries of the Christian movement is its variety, both in formulation and in application.”305 Of special mention is the reality of Christian persecution in which Christianity was under attack. Both Christians and their leaders were persecuted and killed for their faith. During this time, “it was common teaching that the Martyrs entered heaven immediately upon their death.”306 The knowledge of heaven as the home of Christians after their earthly life inspired them and gave them every reason to believe. Martyrdom was admired as a crown that gave one entry to heaven. Chrysostom writing on luxuries encouraged his audience to see beyond the luxuries and beauty of this world. He admonished them not to be fixed to things of this world for

301 B. Daley, “Eschatology in the Early Church Fathers,” The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, edt Jerry Walls, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 91. 302 J. Akin, The Fathers Know the Best; Your Essential Guide to the Teachings of the Early Church, (El Cajon, California: Catholic Answers, Inc., 2010), 381-382. 303 Rausch, Eschatology, Liturgy and Christology, 130. 304 C. Pinnock, The Structure of Pauline Eschatology, https://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/iles/3-2- pinnock.pdf (accessed on Feb. 24, 2019). 305 A. Wayne, Meeks, The Origins of Christian Morality: The First Two Centuries, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 188. 306 M. Aquilina, The Fathers of the Church; An Introduction to the First Christian Teachers, (Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Inc.1999), 36.

100 those who do so will be condemned to the fires of hell.307 A Christian must always be conscious of the next world where we have a permanent home after facing death.308 On purgatory, “in the early Church, it appears that the idea of a purging place that existed between the death of an individual and his or her full entrance into heaven developed from the practice of praying for the dead.”309 The Church in her early times understood the dead as falling into two categories, those who die in friendship with God and those who died as sinners.310 In her prayer life she remembered that, “our Lord and the apostles had stated that nobody enters heaven unless he is sinless. The Early Church did not seem to be very clear about where these souls were or how prayer could help them, but she definitely knew that prayer and sacrifice could be of benefit for those faithful departed.”311 Other patristic writers were able to see that after death one experienced particular judgment and was allowed to enter into where their earthly conduct deserved.312 In this era a number of the Fathers of the Church upheld that prayers should be offered on behalf of the dead as an aid to be admitted to the divine presence. Origen taught that the slight mistakes that one had done during his earthly life needs to be rectified before he can be admitted in heaven. “If a man departs this life with lighter faults, he is condemned to fire which burns away the lighter materials, and prepares the soul for the kingdom of God, where nothing defiled may enter.”313 Thus after purgatory one is admitted to Heaven. But one thing common is that a flourishing uninterrupted life is realizable through God’s divinely appointed future which is not far away from now. The believers must remain in Christ. This has deeper implications for it imposes demands. The demand is to lead a righteous life in union with Christ (Cf. 1Cor 6:12-20, 10:14-22). The eschatology of the patristic times is a highly

307 Aquilina, The Fathers of the Church, 198-199. 308 The beloved of Christ are sojourners for they do not belong to this world but to God’s abode (Cf. Jn 14:2, 17:16- 18). 309 M. Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, Karl Rahner on Death and Life after Death, (New York: Paulist Press, 1989), 20. 310 Those understood to be friends of God included the martyrs, apostles and prophets while as all those who did not live their baptismal commitment to the full were seen to be sinners and not able to enter the presence of the holy God. 311 E. Fortman, Everlasting Life after Death, (New York: Alba House, 1976), 110. 312 Dalley, The Hope of the Early Church, 137. Augustine furthers the idea that upon ones death his soul is allowed to enter into heaven, purgatory or hell in accordance to one’s quality of life here on the world before death. 313 Purgatory According to the Church Fathers, catholicbridge.com/catholic/purgatory-church-fathers.php (accessed on Feb. 28, 2019).

101 realized eschatology.314 In this notion many of the Church Fathers held that the day of the Lord was to come soon, and Christians were convinced that they were in the final days what Kelly calls, “the last times.”315 The Christians of this era were waiting for the glorious return of Christ after his ascension. Ignatius of Antioch beseeched Christians not to prevent him from being crushed by the beast in his letter to Romans.316 The joys of heaven were so clear to him that he demonstrated the urgency of joining the saints in heaven. Accepting suffering was something very noble and lead to man’s union with him who suffered for him. Augustine taught explicitly on offering prayers for the souls in purgatory. “The whole Church observes this practice which was handed down by the Fathers: that it prays for those who have died in the communion of the Body and Blood of Christ, when they are commemorated in their own place in the sacrifice itself.”317 He urged Christians to offer works of mercy, prayers and Mass for the souls in purgatory.318 He recognized that there is temporal punishment in the next life after death by which souls are purified and which will come to an end with the judgment.319 Temporal punishments are suffered by those in this life only, others after death, others both now and then but all before the last judgment. Hence he gave the idea of purgatory in which according to the Fathers of the Church, souls are aided by the saving sacrifice and good works of the faithful. Souls will not enjoy the beatitudes before the resurrection, but only a consolation of deferment.320 In accepting the need of prayers for the dead Tertullian exhorts widows to offer prayers on the anniversary of the memorials of their deceased husbands.321 On the acts of martyrs of Felicity and Perpetua, Perpetua gave a clear indication of purgatory, the pain that is experienced and the usefulness of the prayers offered for the faithful departed whose souls are in

314 Cf. E. Ferguson, (ed.), Eschatology in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, (New York: Garland Publishing, 1990), 310. 315 J. Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines, (New York: Harper & Row 1960), 462. 316 Ignatius of Antioch Letter to Romans, as quoted by Aquilina, The Fathers of the Church, 37. 317 Purgatory, https://www.catholic.com/trait/the-roots-of-purgatory (accessed on Feb. 27, 2019). 318 Quasten, Patrology Vol. 1, 453. 319 F. Cayre, A Manual of Patrology and the History of Theology, (Paris: Desclee & Co., 1936), 712. 320 J. Quasten: Patrology Vol. IV, The Golden Age of Latin Patristic Literature (New York: Christian Classics Inc. 1986), 452. 321 Purgatory According to the Church Fathers, catholicbridge.com/catholic/purgatory-church-fathers.php (accessed on Feb. 28, 2019).

102 this state.322 In the patristic era the theme of purgatory though not defined as a dogma was well understood and accepted by the Christian community. On resurrection the Church Fathers held and taught resurrection of all people basing their argument on the resurrection of Christ. According to Ignatius of Antioch, Christ’s body rose from the dead. “For I know that after His resurrection, too, He still had flesh, and I believe that he has flesh now.”323 His resurrection is a proof of the resurrection of our bodies after the physical death. Irenaeus of Lyons using his understanding on the sacrament of Eucharist, pointed to the reality of the resurrection of human bodies after death. This begins in the time of communion. For Irenaeus, “our bodies when they receive the Eucharist are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrection to eternity.”324 He based eschatology on the Eucharistic theology. Those who commune do touch the two worlds. Eucharist affirms our resurrection and becomes the meeting point of heaven and earth. The resurrection of bodies inspired Christians in the patristic era to partake in the Lord’s Supper. Augustine did not hold the chiliastic view. He believed that the reign of Christ has already begun. “In Christ the spiritual resurrection of believers has already started. That first resurrection is necessary for believers to have a part in. The second is the bodily resurrection which will take place after the final judgment.”325 Christians are already reigning with Christ now. The first resurrection here we understand it to refer to the resurrection of Christ from his bodily death as well as the resurrection of Christians upon dying with Christ in baptism. The second resurrection of the bodies here looks forward to the resurrection of all people which will happen during Christ’s return which we await in hope. Augustine upheld the fact that our hearts are created with a capacity for God. That is, “our hearts are restless until they rest on Thee oh God.”326 Schaff notes that, “the most striking point in the eschatology of the ante-Nicene age is the prominent millenarianism that is, the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the

322 H. Musurillo, (ed and trans), The Acts of the Christian Martyrs, (Oxford: Clarendon 1972), 114-116, also Cf. J. Salisbury, Perpetua’s passion: The Death and Memory of a Young Roman Woman, (London: Routledge, 1997). 323 Aquilina, The Fathers of the Church, 61. 324 Ibid, 88. 325 J. Van Oort, “The End Is Now: Augustine on History and Eschatology,” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 68, no. 1 (2012): 5. 326 St Augustine, Confessions of St Augustine, www.newadvent.org>fathers, (accessed on Mar. 16, 2019).

103 risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgment.”327 Justin the martyr held onto this theory. “But I and others are right-minded Christians in all points and are assured that there will be a resurrection of the dead and a thousand years in Jerusalem which will then be built, adorned and enlarged.”328 The Christians strongly believed parousia with a reward of eternal life after the general judgment. This is as indicated in the Scriptures that, “Speedily will He come, and will not tarry; and, The Lord shall suddenly come to His temple, even the Holy One, for whom ye look,” (Mal 3:1). However, with the edict of Milan there was a paradigm shift. A Church that was happy in bearing witness to Christ, “ceased to be concerned so much about the other world, imminent return now experiencing comfort and protection from the state ceased to be concerned about so much with the other world.” Towards this, “Christianity suffered a receding, indeed disappearing eschatology.”329 Owing to the centrality of eschatology in Christianity, the fathers contributed greatly in its formulation and development. Hence, “The early Church fathers deserve great admiration for their courage to stand boldly for Christ, even at the cost of their lives. They shame us in our worldliness.”330 They have demonstrated how to behave in this world as we seek our eternal destiny. The patristic era held firmly that the punishment or reward that begins at the particular judgment will be made complete. “But when the resurrection takes place, both the joy of the good will be fuller and the torments of the wicked heavier when they shall be tormented in the body.”331 Some Church Fathers upheld the doctrine of apokatastasis.332 “It is essential that the providence which manages all be both supreme and good. It is the power of both which dispenses salvation—the one correcting by punishment, as supreme, the other showing kindness

327 P. Schaff, History of the Christian Church Vol. II, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910), 614. 328 Quasten, Patrology, 219. 329 P. Johnson, A History of Christianity, (New York: Athenium, 1976), 80. 330 M. Allen, Theology A drift: The Early Church Fathers and their Views of Eschatology, https://bible.org/article/theology-adrift-early-church-fathers-and-their-views-eschatology (accessed on Mar. 3, 2019). 331 J. Wills, The Teaching of the Church Fathers, (New York: Palm Publishers, 1966), 499. 332 J. Sachs, “Current Eschatology: Universal Salvation and the Problem of Hell,” Theological Studies 52, no.2 (1991): 227. The doctrine of apocatastasis, commonly attributed to Origen, maintained that the entire creation, including sinners, the damned, and the devil, would finally be restored to a condition of eternal happiness and salvation.

104 in the exercise of benefice, as a benefactor.”333 Origen had argued his case for this doctrine where he had taught at the end all will be saved. But this doctrine then negates the perpetuity of hell for those damned souls who have stubbornly made a choice against God. God respects their freedom. This dimension of explaining universal salvation was condemned.334 But Rahner clarified that hell is not imposed by God but the sinner himself who rejects a personal relationship with the all good God. It then flows naturally that hell is a, natural consequence of sin which creates guilty conscience. Augustine taught that the citizens of the city of God will enjoy an eternal union with God where their work will be to behold the face of God, love and praise him eternally.335 With the apostolic age, the last days have begun and will end with the return of Christ.336 Thus for him man is in the last period of history which determines his place perpetually in the life to come. God’s actions of salvation have been gradual in history as we move towards the parousia. After the coming of Christ in his second advent there shall be judgment. “Augustine even states that God’s plan for salvation is eternal and already includes the fall and God’s project of salvation. Thus, what is happening now is simply a temporal unfolding of a pre-temporal concept.”337 God all through is a major actor in history from creation through redemption towards the parousia. Tertullian holds that “the judgment will be one of punishment for the wicked and of salvation for the righteous. The form of punishment is everlasting fire that of salvation is eternal life.”338 Hell was understood by the Fathers of the Church to be a place for the damned after the general judgment. The imagery of fire was used to depict the pain that awaits those who will be judged unworthy of the communion with the saints and God. Hell was understood by Polycarp of Smyrna as an

333 Clement, Strom. I 17. as cited in W. Gregory, Clement of Alexandria's Treatment of the Problem of Evil, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971), 40. 334 It is alleged that the council of Constantinople in 553A.D condemned Apokatastasis which was championed by Origen in the early Church. Though this condemnation remains doubtful. Cf D. Hart, Fifth Ecumenical Council, https://www.mercyuponall.org/2017/03/23/is-origenism-heresy-on-the -fifth-ecumenical-council-in553/ (accessed on Mar. 22, 2019). However, care should be taken whether it was condemned or not so as not to doubt hell as a real possibility to all those who reject God and His offer of Salvation. 335 J. O’Donnel, St Augustine, Christian Bishop & Theologian, https://www.brittanica.com/biography/saint/Augustine, (accessed on Mar. 22, 2019). 336 Oort, “The End Is Now: Augustine on History and Eschatology,” 4. 337 Ibid. 338 E. Roberts, The Theology of Tertullian, https://www.tertullian.org>articles>roberts-11 (accessed on Mar. 4, 2019).

105 eternal fire for all those who are ungodly.339 Tertullian candidly argued for the resurrection of the body. He says resurrection of the body “is actually necessary, if we admit that the judgment of God is perfect. It would not be so, if man were not judged exactly as he had lived. Therefore the whole man, body and soul must come to judgment.”340 This for Tertullian meant that man as a whole who has been redeemed by Christ is offered an opportunity of eternal salvation. In other words in the patristic era the Christians looked forward to the Gift of God Himself for, “in your Gift we find rest.”341 Desiring no more than God was their main concern.

2.2.2 Ecumenical Councils 2.2.2.1. Council of Trent342 (1545-1563) This council was convoked specifically to counter the wave of protestant reformation. The reformation wave had questioned some major doctrinal teachings of the Church. Hence, the pope convoked this council to set the record straight on the matters of faith, discipline and morals in the Church. On the decree on original sin the council taught that death is a punishment of sin as found in the book of Genesis.343 The Church has taught that because of the sin of Adam and Eve, death, suffering and the guilt of sin have been passed on to every man. The council fathers pointed out that, “if anyone asserts that Adam’s sin harmed only him and not his descendants and that the holiness and justice received from God which he lost was lost only for him and not for us also; or that, stained by the sin of disobedience, he transmitted to all mankind only death and suffering of the body but not sin as well which is the death of the soul, anathema sit.”344 Death is universal; it touches on the entire progeny of Adam and Eve. If death is universal

339 Aquilina, The Fathers of the Church, 72. 340 A. Souter, Tertullian Concerning The Resurrection of the Flesh, www.tertullian.org>works, (accessed on Mar. 4, 2019). 341 J. Rotelle, (ed.) The confessions; St Augustine, trans Maria Boulding, (New York: City Press, 1997), 348. 342 Cf. The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, Translated and introduced by H.J. Schroeder, (Charlotte, North Carolina: Tan Books, 1978) in which he explains that the purpose of the Council was twofold, to define the doctrines of the Church in reply to the heresies of the protestants, and to bring about a thorough reform of the inner life of Christians. 343 The Council of Trent reading Gen 3 emphasized that death is as a result of the first sin. Original sin, “Implies that all men only Mary is exempted here are lacking something: what our first parents lost through their personal sin.” C. Schonborn, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Vol. 1, trans D. Kipp, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1995), 67. 344 J. Neuner and J. Dupuis, The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church, (New York: Alba House, 1982), 138.

106 and no one not even the reformers question this, then that which caused it, is also universal and should not be a subject of division. Death touches on all those who are affected by the original sin hence no one can evade it. Adam and Eve had to pass over the consequence of their sin to their generation for they lost the gift of immortality. They received mortality which they transmit to the latter generations and this continues down to our times till we reach the end of the world when Christ will restore and renew creation. Ott holds that death as decreed by God is punitive out of his sin of disobedience. “As a punishment for the transgression of the Divine probationally commandment, he was sentenced to death with which he had previously been threatened.”345 The council pronounced itself clearly on the reality of death, “that the first man, Adam, when he had transgressed the commandment of God in Paradise, immediately lost the holiness and justice wherein he had been constituted; and that he incurred, through the offence of that prevarication, the wrath and indignation of God, and consequently death.”346 However, through baptism in the name of Christ who justifies men both young and old are washed from the original sin.347 Christ purifies us through baptism from the stains of sin and from sin itself. The Council responding to the protestant reformers who taught that the Eucharist was just a commemoration of the last supper held firmly that Christ is really present348 in the Eucharist. The Eucharist makes him present as He was in the events of the Paschal Mystery which we celebrate during the triduum whenever we celebrate mass in our altars although mediated through sacred things.349 The presence of Christ in the Eucharist bears testimony that we have begun the end times. The council responding to the reformers who had denied the doctrine of purgatory affirmed its reality and relevance. They stated, “that there is a purgatory and that the souls detained there are helped by the prayers of the faithful and especially by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar.”350 The council affirmed the early church teaching on the need to offer mass and prayers as spiritual goods to the faithful departed. While at the same time the council

345 Ott, Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, 473. 346 Council of Trent, Concerning Original Sin, www.thecounciloftrent.com/chl.htm, (accessed on Jan. 2, 2019). 347 Ibid. 348 The Council of Trent, Thirteenth Session, On the Most Holy Sacrament of the Eucharist traditionalcatholic.net/tradition/council/trent/thirteenth-sessions-canons.html (accessed on Mar. 22, 2019). 349 Cf. J. Waterworth, ed., The Council of Trent, The Canons & Decrees of the Sacred Oecumenical Council of Trent, (London: Dolman, 1848), 75-76. 350 Fortman, Everlasting Life after Death, 132.

107 upheld of the existence of purgatory as a place of purgation, through which the souls are purified to be capable of God. The council thus followed the teachings of the council of Florence (1439 A.D) which had held that after death souls were cleansed in purgatorial punishments and that the prayers of the living help in relieving their pains.351 The Christians are encouraged to continue in this spiritual tradition. In the early Church the faithful had already understood the need to pray for the departed brethren. However, it took time for the establishment of the doctrine on purgatory even though there was a general feeling and need to pray for the dead. Later in the councils of Lyons and Florence352 the Church formulated the doctrine on purgatory. During the reformation era the reformers having casted doubt on the need of indulgencies and prayers for the dead the Council of Trent in response redefined the purgatory as an intermediate state which the reformers were disregarding. The Tridentine understanding of purgatory was expressed. “That there is a purgatory and that the souls detained there are helped by the prayers of the faithful and especially by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar.”353 The Council thus taught on the reality of purgatory. The prayers of the faithful and the saints are of great help to those in this intermediate state. Above all the Eucharistic celebration is of enormous value to the faithful departed who have not arrived in the presence of God after their departure from the world.

2.2.2.2 Second Vatican Council (1963-1965) The second Vatican council was convoked by Pope John XXIII354 and concluded by Pope Paul VI. It is the latest council in the history of the Roman Catholic Church. It remains the most

351 Neuner, and Dupuis, The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church, 18. 352 Although there is no clear indication of purgatory as a doctrine in the Sacred Scriptures, Christians from the early Church had always believed and demonstrated in their prayer life its reality. However, in the Second Council of Lyon (1274), Florence (1438-1439) and that of Trent (1545-1563), the Church formulated the doctrine of purgatory. 353 Fortman, Everlasting Life after Death, 133. 354 After Pius, XII, death, Cardinal Angelo Roncalli was chosen to the papacy and he took the name John XXIII. In the third month of his pontificate he announced his plan to call the new Council. Cf. N. Brockman & U. Pescantini, A History of the Catholic Church, (Nairobi: Paulines Publication Africa, 2010), 197. The Council was opened on Oct 11, 1962 and closed on Dec 8, 1965. Also Cf M. Serafian, The Pilgrim: Pope Paul VI, The Council, and the Church in a Time of Decision, (New York: Farrar, Straus and Company, 1964), in which the author looks at the politics of the time and the success of the council as well as its failures. The Council was concluded by his successor, Pope Paul VI. The intention of the Council was to renew the Church in the modern times and complete the reformation that was begun by the Council of Trent.

108 renowned worldwide council after the Council of Trent. It adapted the Church to the modern world while remaining faithful to the task of evangelization in her fidelity to her Founder. This direction of orienting the Church to new ways of evangelization conscious of the contemporary situation of the world was badly needed. The Church as explained by Pope Paul VI after understood herself as a community that comes together, “in order to seek together the Kingdom, build it up and live it.”355 The Church therefore is at the service of the Kingdom as a reality here with us and as a destiny into which we are moving towards. The Council was important in continuing the work of reformation of the Church. “Together they constituted the first comprehensive treatment of doctrine and Church order since the Council of Trent. The most solemn documents were the four constitutions on the Church, divine revelation, liturgy and the church in the modern world.”356 The centrality of the doctrine of the eschatology did not escape the mind of the Council, although they did not have it on a document on its own but the eschatological nuances did run through various documents. However, in the Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen Gentium, the fathers reflected on the Church as an eschatological community and her relationship with the community in heaven. The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the modern world dealt with the salvation of all men. Minch tells us that: The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World is not, at least at first glance, automatically related to ‘eschatology’. Its four chapters deal with the intrinsic dignity of the human person, the social dimension of humanity, human activity in the world, and the role of the Church within the modern world. Both the preface and the introduction make it clear, however, that the main concern of the document is the salvation of humanity as the content of the gospel message, and that this message is directed to all people, not just those ‘who call on the name of Christ.’357

The salvation of humanity is the main message of Christ. It is at the heart of Catholic theology of the last things. Eschatology is part of human life and continues to be understood better in view of human advancement towards its ultimate goal. The Church reoriented herself through the contents of the Lumen Gentium to the apostolate of the salvific works of Christ for the salvation of man in totality. The council fathers entered into the real life situation of man to

355 Paul VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi, no. 13. 356 Brockman and Pescantini, A History of the Catholic Church, 199. 357 D. Minch, Eschatology and Theology of Hope: The Impact of Gaudium et spes on the Thought of Edward Schillebeeckx, https://online library.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/heyj12352 (accessed on Nov. 17, 2018).

109 accompany him in the uncertainties of the world. The Church laboring to instill hope to the believers incorporated in this constitution the eschatological hope. The message of eschatos as the only sure source of the real hope based on the promise of God was central to this council. The council maintained that, “It is in the face of death that the riddle of human existence becomes most acute; not only is man tormented by pain and by the advancing deterioration of his body, but even more so by a dread of perpetual extinction.”358 However, the death of Christ has transformed human death as Galot notes: “in fact death would have been the fundamental punishment for sin if the Son of God had not personally chosen death as a way for redemption.”359 The death of Christ became transformative in that human death has now become a channel of helping man reach his ultimate goal. The fathers of the council were realistic to the fact that death instills fear of being lost in an abyss. This shrouds human life in darkness. But with the marvelous works of God demonstrated through the resurrection of Christ man need not entertain this fear. Jesus Christ through his suffering and victory on the cross has shown us the way and the attainability of such hope.360 Thus human death does not have the last word on man. God has become man and experienced all that pertains to humanity save sin. He has emerged victorious, giving a direction to man on how to conquer sin and death and lead meaningful life in the process of attaining perfect happiness. Such happiness is possible when man gives himself totally to God as Christ did.361 Through His death Christ destroyed death and won life so that man can have God as his Father through Him. In Lumen Gentium according to McBrien, the Church362 as eschatological community is a means to an end. “The Church is not an end in itself but that it exists always and only for the

358 GS, no. 18. 359 J. Galot, Eschatology from the Second Vatican Council to our Days, www.cletus.org/cletus/dati/2002-02/12- 999999/02ESING.html, (accessed on Mar. 10, 2019). 360 Cf. GS. no 22. 361 The words of Jesus on the Cross, “On your hands I commend my Spirit.” In which He totally surrendered to His Father. The time of death is the final moment of surrendering. 362 The term Church is used here to denote a building or rather a sanctuary has also an eschatological message. This is well captured by Wale when he says that, “The icons that fill the Church serve as a point of meeting between heaven and earth. As each local congregation prays Sunday by Sunday surrounded by the figures of Christ, the angels and the saints, these visible images remind the faithful unceasingly of the invisible presence of the whole company of heaven at the liturgy. The faithful can feel that the walls of the Church open out upon eternity, and they are helped to realize that their liturgy on earth is one and the same with the great liturgy of heaven. The multitudinous icons express visibly the sense of heaven on earth.” T. Wale, The Orthodox Church, (Middlesex UK: Penguin Books, 1963), 277-278.

110 sake of the reign of or Kingdom of God. In other words the Church is an eschatological community.”363 This articulates the self-understanding of the Church in relation to eschatology.364 She is a major actor towards the realization of the eschatos in the divine plan. The eschatological message is the hope she gives to the people in their pilgrimage towards their ultimate end. The council taught that;

The promised and hoped for restoration, therefore, has already began in Christ. It is carried in the sending of the Holy Spirit and through Him continues in the Church in which, through our faith, we learn the meaning of our earthly life, while we bring to term, with hope of future good, the task allotted to us in the world by the Father, and so work out our salvation (Cf Phil. 2:12). Already the final age of the world is with us (Cf. 1Cor 10:11) and the renewal of the world is irrevocably under way; it is even now anticipated in a certain real way, for the Church on earth is endowed already with a sanctity that is real though imperfect. However, until there be realized new heavens and a new earth in which justice dwells (Cf. Pet 3:13) the pilgrim Church in its sacraments and institutions which belong to this present age, carries the mark of this world which will pass, and she herself takes her place among the creatures which groan and travail yet and await the revelation of the Sons of God (Cf. Rom 8:19-22).365

In the Church we have partly the fulfillment of the eschatological hope while moving with the Holy Spirit towards the fullness of God’s Kingdom, where the entire God’s family will be reunited.366 Through the work of the Holy Spirit, “God’s tomorrow comes closer to us, so that his kingdom begins even today among us.”367 Moltman puts it in the right perspective that God’s Kingdom is the “eschatological fulfillment of the liberating Lordship of God in History.”368 Eschatology gives identity to the Church and the entire theology after Vatican II. The council adopted the already and the not yet concept of the theology of the last things. As an eschatological community the Church partly enjoys the fruits of restoration and partly looks forward to the parousia when all will be restored. The Church waits for the parousia urging all

363 R. McBrien, “Vatican II Themes; The Church as an Eschatological Community,” National Catholic Reporter, https://www.ncronline .org/blog/essays/theology//vatII-themes- church-eschatology-community, (accessed on Nov. 16, 2018). 364 C. Mostert, “The Kingdom Anticipated: The Church and Eschatology,” International Journal of Systematic Theology Vol. 13, no. 1 (2010): 25. 365 LG, no. 48. 366 Schonborn, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 106. 367 Benedict XVI, On the way to Jesus Christ, trans Michael Miller, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005), 105. 368 J. Moltman, The Church in the Power of the Spirit, (New York: Harper & Row, 1977), 190.

111 people to partake in her sacraments for they give a foretaste of the Kingdom. The Mention of the Trinity in the above quotation from the council makes it crystal clear to us that the question of eschatology is the question of God who is steering the cosmos towards its fulfillment. God Himself is part of this salvific event. God is working in the Church to bring about the end times for the Glory of His Holy Name and the salvation of mankind. The council was open to the fact that the Church is not perfect but in constant renewal towards perfection. Hence, the understanding of the fact that, while the Church is part of the kingdom of God she is not the kingdom but its visible manifestation here on earth. The Church is part of the creatures to be redeemed by Christ and she eagerly awaits the final Day of Judgment. In the Church God’s Grace operates and flows directly from Christ.369 This self-understanding of the Church towards the end ought to be so with every follower of Christ. The teachings of the Vatican II in the eschatological dimension is a consolation to the modern man who is faced with many challenges in that God is with us and in our midst moving us to greater and nobler things. This is our hope and our joy as we participate in the ecclesial life with hearts full of hope and assurance. We agree with Galot that eschatology cannot be distinct from Christology, “eschatology is first of all Christology as it follows the discovery of its last development in the life of mankind. The centrality of Christ is essential. Jesus has already announced His coming as a great event with which His presence would have in a mysterious manner procured mankind.”370 Eschatology is intertwined with the theology of Christ and it finds relevance only when interpreted in the context of His Mission. The council fathers gave special attention of the mystery of death.371 Death is one of the great causes of fear to the modern man.372 Their reflection on this unavoidable part of human experience was based on philosophy illuminated by faith which emphasized that death is a translation towards new heaven and new earth. Death ushers us in to our eternal home where

369 D. Marmion, “Karl Rahner, Vatican II and the Shape of the Church,” Theological Studies Vol. 78, no.1 (2017): 32. 370 J. Galot, Eschatology from the Second Vatican Council to our Days, www.cletus.org/clerus/dati/2002-02/12- 999999/02ESING.html (accessed on Nov. 16, 2018). 371 R. Firestone, The Impact of Death Shapes our Behaviour in our Everyday Lives, https://www.psychologytoday.com (accessed on Mar. 11, 2019), The author explains in detail how the fear of death affects human perspectives towards life in totality. 372 Fear is taking a great toll on the modern man, and he requires assurance that all will be well or in other words he stands in need of hope. He has engaged in various activities to address his fears. This is explained in detail by H. Balthasar, In the Fullness of Faith: On the Centrality of the Distinctively Catholic, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988), 20.

112 there will be the final restoration. The council was real in acknowledging the fact and the cruelty of the pains of death on man. “It is in regard to death that man’s condition is most shrouded in doubt. Man is tormented not only by pain, and by the gradual breaking-up of his body but also, even more, by the dread of forever ceasing to be. Because he bears in himself the seed of eternity, which cannot be reduced to mere matter, he rebels against death.”373 Man’s fear of death has made him advance in trying to look for a solution to alienate death from his human experience. Such efforts are visible in science, medicine, technology, nutritional advancements peaceful co-existence through a great deal in education among others. But even where life has been made better by such human efforts death has not been removed from the scene of man’s life. The imperfections of this world should not diminish man’s hope.374 However, holiness is a goal and purpose of Christian life in which all believers regardless of their status must work for.375 The Council fathers aware of this reality taught that, “While the mind is at a loss before the mystery of death, the Church, taught by Divine Revelation, declares that God has created man in view of a blessed destiny that lies beyond the limits of his sad state on earth.”376 Modern man now is cautioned by the council to cling to the promise of redemption which cannot be destroyed by death.377 This is both a consolation and an assurance from God through the Church that death does not have the final say but Christ through his mission for humanity of returning man back to his lost glory. Eschatology as taught by the council becomes a sure foundation of our resilience in facing the daily struggles. Death now has to be understood as a bridge which man needs to cross over to his homeland. However, care should be taken in that we do not propose an eschatological hope after death while surrendering to a defeatist orientation but we look for a fulfilling existence in the life after death.

373 GS, no. 18. 374 Jesus calls us to be perfect after the perfection that is His Father. This was theologically taught in detail by the second Vatican II Council as a call to everyone. The universal call to holiness is based on the Gospel of Mt 5:48, Cf. LG, nos. 39-42. Working for perfection is our assignment. Struggling to achieve the beatific vision is the work of every believer. However, for those who die without this degree of perfection purgatory becomes a blessing in disguise in that through the prayer of the Church they are purified to be good enough capable for the beatific vision. Cf. R. Martin, The Fulfilment of all Desire: A Guide Book for the Journey to God on the Wisdom of the Saints, (Ohio: Emmaus Road Publishing, 2006), 7. 375 M. Kelly, Rediscovering Catholicism; Journeying Toward our Spiritual Northstar, (Ohio: Beacon Publishing, 2002), 63. 376 GS, no.18. 377 Ibid, no. 18.

113 On life here on earth we must build a more humane, just, peaceful and loving community.378 This is because having been made sharers in the Trinitarian life through the sacramental grace conferred upon us we have a role to play in establishing the Kingdom of God here on earth.379 This is why the council aware of what remains for the full realization of the Kingdom of God urged man to remain committed to his baptismal promises. Kung holds that, “man’s part is the way of readiness and openness, obedience and watchfulness, faith and repentance.”380 He has his role to play as he waits for the parousia. This is based on the resurrection of Christ. For Christ rose from the dead not just for him but to show us what will happen after our death. We are destined to resurrect and join him in Heaven. This is a sure foundation of our destiny such that now the thought of death does not fill us with sadness but even if there is that sorrow of dying the realization of the position of the resurrected Christ calls us to cheer in exercising the gospel ideals. For where he is, is where we are to be after our earthly life (Jn 14:3). The council understood that during the parousia the tripartite nature of the Church will be united into a single unit. But even today this unity is to a certain degree realized though not fully, “even so the faithful whether living or dead are united in glorifying God, a point to what mankind is awaiting.”381 The Church is still on the process of discernment as she sits at the feet of her Master. The council urged Christians to be fruitful in this world, because it’s after being true to our being that we will have a well ordered cosmos. Living true to our being means to; Spread on earth the fruits of our nature and our enterprise- human dignity, brotherly communion and freedom- according to the command of the Lord and in His Spirit, we will find them once again, cleansed this time from the stain of sin, illuminated and transfigured, when Christ presents to his father an eternal and universal kingdom of truth and life, a Kingdom of holiness and grace, a kingdom of justice love and peace. Here on earth the kingdom is mysteriously present; when the Lord comes it will enter into its perfection.382

378 T. Fox, Pentecost in Asia: A New way of Being Church, (New York: Orbis Books, 2002), 69-77. The author argues for the church to be felt and recognized as an important institution that is imbued with the seed of the Kingdom of God, she must seek to enter into the daily experience of Man today. 379 K. Irwin, Models of the Eucharist, (New York: Paulist Press, 2005), 268. The central role of the Triune God should not be side lined in the theology of Eschata. The three divine persons One God is the mover of human history from creation through Incarnation towards the parousia. The use of Doxology in our liturgies which are greatly eschatological is a testimony on this important theological point. 380 H. Kung, The Church, (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968), 92. 381 J. Mirus, Vatican II on the Church: Eschatological Identity, https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/otc.cfm?id=610 (accessed on Mar. 10, 2019). 382 GS, no. 38.

114

The council insists on our responsibility in this present world. Ours is not a wait and see but active participation in the transformation of the world. Our eyes remaining fixed on the great day of reckoning as we observe the Commandments of God. That is the Love of God and neighbor with words and actions.383 For through such acts the Kingdom of God is made manifest and its final consummation coming nearer and nearer. All the deeds done by man in this line are essential in restoring hope to victims of injustices, hatred, marginalization and any other form of human rejection and exploitation. Man aware of his God’s given responsibility should be inspired by leading a prayerful and holy life aspiring to be united with fellow man and with God when that day comes. The council fathers saw eschatological fulfillment in Church’s liturgical activities. In the liturgy on earth, we are sharing by anticipation in the heavenly one, celebrated in the holy city, Jerusalem, the goal towards which we strive as pilgrims, where Christ is, seated at God’s right hand, he who is the minister of the saints and of the true tabernacle [Rev. 21:2; Col. 3:1; Heb. 8:2]. We are singing the hymn of God’s glory with all the troops of the heavenly army. In lovingly remembering the saints in our liturgy, we are hoping in some way to share in what they now enjoy, and to become their companions. We are waiting for our saviour, our lord Jesus Christ, until he, our life, appears, and until we appear with him in glory.384

This paragraph is a veritable treasury of liturgical eschatology. Even as we struggle with sin and await the return of the Lord in glory, we enjoy a foretaste of heavenly liturgy.385 As God gave Israel manna in the wilderness, so through liturgy God gives us today a fore taste of the resurrection life where we will live in the presence of Christ. Through the Eucharist, Heaven and earth are consummated.386 We live in his presence through the liturgy where we encounter Him for he is truly present in his body and blood. He is in our bodies and souls whenever we commune rightly.

383 Summary of the commandments by Jesus in response to the question that was put to Him by a Pharisee, what must I do to inherit the kingdom of God? The Kingdom of God should preoccupy our mind and should be the driving force of our daily conduct (Cf. Mt 19:16-22). 384 SC, no. 8. 385 Irwin, Models of the Eucharist, 207. The eschatological emphasis of Eucharist is upheld throughout the Christian tradition. 386 S. Hahn, The Lamb’s Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth, (New York: Random House Inc., 1999), 125.

115 The council called forth the faithful to believe in the real presence of Christ.387 In the liturgy the Church participates fully in the heavenly liturgy. However, care should be taken not to have an orientation towards total contentment in the earthly liturgy and lose the sense of Heaven. “The earthly liturgy is only a foretaste of the kingdom to come.”388 It should lead us to awaken the desire for eternal liturgy in our hearts. However, any time we celebrate liturgy worthily we join the heavenly battalion in praising God. All men must realize that, “sainthood is everyone’s destiny, sainthood is everyone’s purpose.”389 The sacramental celebrations are moments of Christ’s real presence. His presence has a redemptive value to those present and indeed to the humanity in general. We are exulted that whenever we partake of the liturgy in the right disposition we become aware of the fulfillment of God’s salvific works under consideration. Liturgy has a power to bring heaven down on earth and take earth to heaven. In other words it becomes now the meeting of opposites where the divine and human encounter each other. Therefore, our liturgical celebrations are eschatological, they are meant to lead us to God in the Word and Sacraments celebrated in the liturgy of the Catholic Church. Those who partake in the liturgy though historically bound in this world find themselves joining heaven with the Risen Lord and in communion with all the saints.390 Heaven brings into reality a perfect communion both with God and his saints.391 The council did not give a detailed account of the teachings of the Church on hell. But they did not hesitate to acknowledge the fact of the struggle that the modern man encounters against evil. This struggle can only be won if man would remain united with the other and with God. Claiming independence from God and from the human community one becomes “split within himself.”392 The movement towards self-centeredness instead of becoming one with the other is a movement towards hell. That which is in contradiction to human life leads to destruction of humanity and is hellish.393 Hell has begun in this world and will be worse in its fullness. “Hell is now and hell can be forever. We have the power to set ourselves in

387 SC, no. 7. 388 T. Kocik, “Liturgical Renewal and Eschatology,” Homiletic and Pastoral Review, (2003): 24. 389 G. Weigel, The Truth of Catholicism: Ten Controversies Explored, (New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2001), 172. 390 CCC, nos. 1137-1139. 391 Ibid., no. 1024 and Schonborn, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 49. 392 GS, no. 13. 393 Ibid., no. 27.

116 contradiction, in all the dimensions of our being, to be finally lost and estranged from ourselves, from the community of humankind, from the cosmos, and from God.”394 Hell is here and now in accordance on how we seek unity with God and others. Guided by the commandments of God man must deepen his love of Him and the other. This is the sure way of giving hell a wide berth. The council taught that the second coming of Christ is the most awaited event in history of man and the world. Parousia does not remove personal responsibility. We have to play our role in changing the structures that discredit human dignity in effecting the second coming of Christ.395 Every person has a transformative role to play towards the parousia. In agreement with Murphy we can conclude this scope by expressing that, “by the second coming of Christ we may correctly understand that through Christ, God has become immanent or part of our human history and yet at the same time we are now part of a destiny which absolutely transcends our human history.”396 Christ having united himself to every person is working with us towards recreating the creation as we await his second coming. It is then that, “the human race as well as the entire world, which is intimately related to man achieves its purpose through him, we will be perfectly reestablished in Christ.”397 The council concluded that the day of this great event which will usher in the day of new earth and new heaven and the resurrection of every man is not known to us but will remain cautious that sin may not destroy the fulfillment of this great day of renewing creation.398

2.2.3 Contemporary Theologians

2.2.3.1 Karl Rahner (1904-1984) Karl Rahner was a member of the Society of Jesus, an internationally credited theological scholar, writer and a pastor in the Catholic Church. He was one of the great voices of theological experts during the Second Vatican sessions.399 To understand his eschatology we need to understand his theory of the question and answer in which he contends that the human person is

394 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 71. 395 GS, no., 21. 396 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 76-77. 397 GS no., 48. 398 Ibid, no., 39. 399 D. Marmion, “Karl Rahner, Vatican II, and the Shape of the Church,” Theological Studies Vol. 78, no.1 (2017): 30- 31.

117 the question to which God is the answer.400 Christ is the answer of all the human aspirations. On human death Rahner gives his reflection from the point of view of Jesus’s death. He holds that “When the vessel of his body was shattered in death, Christ was poured out over all the cosmos; he became actually, in his very humanity, what he had always been by his divinity the heart of the universe, the innermost center of creation.”401 The death of Jesus on the cross brought a change in the universe whereby the human person was divinized and reconciliation between the world and God was made possible. The death of a Christian is directly related to the death of Christ. His death must be understood as His gift to every man for through it we have obtained eternal life. “Those who have died in faith are not ‘dead in Christ’ only because they lived in Christ, but also because their dying itself was in Christ.”402 The human relationship with Christ gives death a new meaning. Thiel argues from the same point with Rahner and explains that, “It is not surprising that personal death would gain prominence as the moment of eschatological encounter with God.”403 Death is not a moment of fearing God but opening up to Him. In this quest death becomes an oasis of new life and this is what Rahner holds in discovering the new life established on those who die in union with Christ. A new form of existence after the physical death is what Christians awaits. “Our Christian faith teaches that death is the death of our earthly pilgrimage toward God. An event in which we hope by letting go of our earthly lives we enter into a different manner of existence.”404 The Christian life that was ushered in, during baptism is fulfilled through death when one awakens in the everlasting life having lived life of faith to the full. The Christian journey from the baptismal font leads us to the new existence in God through Christ. This brings out well the idea of Rahner that death and life are intertwined together. “Death became life; visible condemnation became the visible advent of the Kingdom of God.”405 For a Christian death makes the kingdom of God manifest. Rahner being realistic on death, taught that although it opens us up to God it still has the painful conferment to humankind

400 K. Rahner, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of Christianity, trans William V. Dych, (New York: Crossroad, 1987), 225. 401 K. Rahner, On the Theology of Death, trans. Charles H. Henkey, (New York: Herder and Herder, 1971), 66. 402 Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 69. 403 J. Thiel, Icons of Hope; The Last Things in Catholic Imagination, (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 2013), 69. 404 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 3. 405 Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 70.

118 for it is as a result of the sin of Adam which is passed on to all people.406 Because of Adam’s sin man experiences death in a painful and fearful way which makes it a dark experience.407 Man passes through death with the fear that comes with it. But with the reality of Christ’s death there is a new way of unlocking the painful experience of death. To better understand human death the proper understanding of the death of Jesus is important.408 Murphy borrowing from Rahner holds that “In becoming human, Christ assumed the whole of our existence including our human experience of death. Christ accepted the total powerlessness and self- surrender and death. He abandoned himself to that mystery which waited in the darkness.”409 The painful experience of death faced by Christ on the cross does not infringe total pain, for Christ has conquered that pain on behalf of the believers. Therefore, the death of Christ offered to God a satisfying wage for man’s sin which man as a finite being could not have achieved on his own.410 Through Christ’s death man has been reconciled with God. “Rahner’s understanding of death, then, has serious implications for our understanding of our own death. The death of Christ has made what was darkness light. His death has made what was an expression of sin into an expression of God’s presence.”411 He is related to everyman and in turn he has lessened the fear, pain and darkness that clothed man in his former experience of dying. Rahner holds that, “by surrendering his limited bodily structure in death one becomes open towards the all.”412 After death the soul enjoys unlimited access to the entire universe. For he was convinced that all things in the world are related and that there exists unity of creation with the Creator. Hence, “for Rahner the creation of humankind, the world and the universe was a supernatural, not a natural event.”413 Through God’s creative work God has given himself to his creation. The event of Christ has an impact on the universe. The soul after death reunites with the creation which is the visible manifestation of God’s grace in his work. This leads us to see the fact that Christ is at the center of the universe both through creation and Incarnation making

406 Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 56. 407 Ibid, 42. 408 Ibid, 65. 409 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 9. 410 Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 66-70. 411 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 10. 412 Rahner, On the Theology of Death, 31. 413 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 15.

119 him to be truly part and person of the world. After death one through his or her soul embraces the world and the universe which has already been remade by Christ.414 Rahner understood purgatory to be a painful process. The process could be shortened through the prayers offered for the dead by the living members of the Church. For him, “purgatory is a period after death in which a person achieves full maturity.”415 It is a period between death and ones attainment of the beatific vision. This is a time for maturation, a period in which one is cleansed for perfection. This Purgation is for perfecting the soul to attain the heavenly bliss. He continues his argumentation on purgatory by holding that it should not be understood as a place where one spends time. Since after death one passes from the confines of time. He writes that, “Eternity is not an infinitely long mode of time. But rather is a mode of spiritual freedom.”416 He makes such an important theological observation of the cessation of time beyond the grave. Murphy is in agreement with Rahner that after ones death he is released from the prison of time. “In death we enter a state of being in which time no longer exists.”417 We should not talk of time spent in purgatory but through our prayers and sacrifice offer the souls of the faithful departed to God’s mercy that they may join him. The Church teaches explicitly on the existence of hell.418 Those who are denounced after death are thrown into hell for ever.419 Brotherton argues candidly that, “condemned souls exists in objective separation from the love of God [...] assuming the cursedness of sin itself.”420 Hell is as a result of punishment to those who have totally rejected God in their earthly life. He does believe in the existence of hell where the damned are punished eternally. Upon the result of the particular judgment those who have denied communion with God and the other beings isolate themselves. This being alone not with God and others is his understanding of hell. Rahner’s position is that, “hell is a drive toward self-centeredness and self-autonomy.”421 One makes a choice for hell while on the world by refusing to move from self-centeredness to the other centeredness approach to life. Man finds fulfillment only in surrendering to God and to the human family otherwise human actualization becomes impossible.

414 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 16-17. 415 Ibid, 22. 416 Rahner, The Foundations of the Christian Faith, 437. 417 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 24. 418 CCC, nos 1033-1037 teaches on the existence and perpetuity of hell. 419 Fortman, Everlasting Life after Death, 161. 420 J. Brotherton, “Hans Urs Von Balthasar, On the Redemptive Descent,” Pro-Ecclesia 22, no.2, (2013): 179. 421 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 28.

120 When one dies he faces particular judgment in which God is the Judge. “In Rahner’s thought, the particular judgment is not a sentence imposed on us by God, but rather is the fulfillment of all that the person has tried to become in life.”422 The consequence of making a choice for or against God in concrete human actions is the determinant of the judgment to be received by each person. Rahner emphasizes the need for each individual to act responsibly and make a choice freely and consciously for God. No one should hide in the masses. Everyone must contribute through his particularity in the general judgment. Through particular judgment each contributes to the cosmic judgment for each of us is a part of the entire mankind and the human history belongs to each of us. Rahner’s theological insight on the final judgment is that, “we are responsible for all that humankind and that creation becomes since we are inescapably a part of the whole.”423 For a favorable final judgment which touches both on humanity and the universe as a whole every individual must be an active participant in the process. However, Rahner in his understanding of both the particular and the general judgment God is at the center of this evaluation. “The particular and general judgment reveals that God is already present and He is at the center of human existence as the standard by which we judge ourselves.”424 Even then the presence of God is experienced in the here of our existence. Thus the eschatology of Rahner embraces the already and not yet concept of the kingdom of God. God is restoring the human person both individually and collectively. To affirm this understanding Rahner writes that, “Christ is already at the heart and center of all the poor things of the earth. He is present in the history of the earth, whose blind course he steers with unearthly accuracy through all victories and all defeats to the day predestined for it, to the day on which his glory will break out of its own depths to transform all things.”425 The general judgment is not something that will come in the future but it is happening here and now. This is made possible through the mystery of Incarnation which has inserted God in the history of mankind. Through Incarnation the universe has been recreated and transformed. Through the great event of Christ

422 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 33. 423 Ibid. 424 Ibid. 425 K. Rahner, “Hidden Victory,” Theological Investigations, Vol. VII, trans David Bourke, (New York: Seabury Press, 1974), 157.

121 all creation has been judged.426 However, it is worth to note that Rahner does not follow the futuristic trend of eschatological interpretation for there remains the great day of reckoning. The second coming of Christ, Rahner understood it to be a solid base for man’s future. In understanding the tomorrow of mankind and the universe one need examine the implication of the parousia. Rahner was convinced that this is the event that gives meaning to man and the universe today and tomorrow. At the same time we cannot unlock the mystery of the parousia without understanding the paschal mystery. “Our hope for the future is that Christ has really become a part of the whole material order, the world and the universe [...] he has also become the destiny of the world.”427 His second coming must have an impact to the universe and humanity in its entirety. He is actively present in the world and in the world history and this makes a great difference for he steers it to God’s own purpose. He holds that the future we look for has already begun. It is here with us. He has demonstrated the destiny of man and of the world as a result of His resurrection. Man should realize this responsibility and act towards the parousia. But he must act in collaboration with Christ. Christ’s involvement is based on the fact that the future is absolutely divine and Christ is at the heart of human existence.428 God thus invites man to be a partaker in fashioning the future.

2.2.3.2 Hans Urs Von Balthasar (1905-1988) Balthasar a Swiss Catholic theologian wrote on various theological disciplines. In this scope we will attempt to briefly analyze his theology on the last things from some of his works. According to the theological understanding of Balthasar God’s form of self-revelation is a genuine expression of the infinite being to the finite being. This is simply understandable according to Balthasar because God is a free being that can chose any mode of self-revelation to His creation. He understands that the created order speaks of the creator.429 God has therefore,

426 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 35. 427 Ibid, 38. 428 Rahner, The Foundations of Christian Faith, 433. 429 H. Balthasar, The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, Vol. 1 Seeing The Form, eds J. Fessio and J. Riches trans E. Leiva, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1982), 442-443. Balthasar also notes the centrality of Christ in the Christian Eschatology. Cf. I. Bokwa, Trynitarno-Chrystologicczna Interpretacja Eschatologii w ujeciu Hansa Ursa von Balthasara, (Trinitarian Christological Interpretation of Eschatology in the Views of Hans Urs von Balthasar),Random, Ave 1998.

122 revealed himself naturally to us through his creative work as expressed in the universe. Losel holds that Balthasar pointed explicitly that the person of Jesus Christ through the mystery of Incarnation has made manifest the creator. “Jesus Christ is the form in which God be-comes present in and makes God's self-available to the world.”430 Incarnation has made the onset of eschatological times. For now the creator in a human form is making a journey with the cosmos. On another level Balthasar interprets the course of history as a time in which God is at work yet in this same history “God is awaited.”431 Thus the world and the human history for Balthasar must be understood to have relevance only when seen to be a time of celebrating the divine involvement as well as a time of waiting his coming. This proves Balthazar’s duality of understanding history and eschatology. The past, present and the future are intertwined and are to merge in his final coming which is the goal of history where the time of history will be inserted into eternity which is the time of God. The concept of time in the world history moves towards a certain definite goal.432 Balthasar traced his eschatology from the sacramental theology. He argues that the catechesis on the various sacraments contains eschatological message. All sacraments of the Church are channels of passing on the message that Christ is with us while in turn project us towards His parousia. The sacraments make eschatological promise a reality here on earth. At the center of this teaching he says is the sacrament of the Eucharist. “It is the Eucharist, however, that must reveal the most profound truth about Heaven’s presence on earth.”433 He held convincingly that whenever mass is celebrated there is the arrival and the continuation of the eschatological times. During the Eucharistic celebration, “Christ’s return to the world has already begun.”434 The worshipping community during the Eucharistic celebration can then be rightly called an eschatological community. This community is a glimpse towards the redeemed humanity united in the New Jerusalem with Christ at its center. Balthasar concurs with Benedict XVI that, “every Eucharistic celebration sacramentally accomplishes the eschatological gathering of the people of

430 S. Losel, and M. Dissordan, “Love Divine All Loves Excelling Balthasar’s Negative Theology of Revelation,” The Journal of Religion Vol. 82, no.4 (2002): 595. 431 H. Balthaasar, A Theology of History, (London: Sheed and Ward, 1964), 126. 432 H. Balthasar, A Theological Anthropology, (New York: Sheed and Ward, 1967), 108. 433 H. Balthasar, Theo Dramma: Theological Dramatic Theory, Vol. V, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1994), 416. 434 Ibid., 130.

123 God.”435 The Eucharistic community recalls the gathering of God’s people in the Old Testament and brings the fulfillment of the gathering of God’s people redeemed on the cross by Jesus Christ who is at the center of this gathering. The real presence of Christ in the Eucharist brings heaven on earth and in turn takes earth to heaven. In other words both realms are renewed by being taken to the other level through the efficacious sign of the Eucharist.436 “The aforementioned emphasis on the Eucharist as the presence of heaven on earth does not commit Balthasar to a pure eschatological ‘immanentism.’”437 He is aware that even though the Eucharist brings us to God and God to us, there is still something more to come. There is something more not yet clear which is hidden to be revealed on the parousia. Balthasar thereby awaits and teaches on waiting for the beatific vision which is something more and deeper than what we experience in the sacramental theology. The Sacraments establish strong link between God and His people.438 Supporting his conviction on universal salvation Balthasar believes that even at death there is a possibility for conversion that is making a choice for God. If such an occasion happens then it becomes a salvific moment (Cf. Lk 23:39-43). Balthasar opines that, “It is Christ’s death which determines the eschatological significance of every human death. More precisely, by dying the death of a sinner abandoned by the Father, Christ ‘undergirds’ and ultimately includes every other death within his person.”439 Death is an important event which has been made so through the death of Jesus. Death opens a possibility for the one dying to reach out to Christ and encounter him in a dramatic way which is redemptive. Thus, “The descent of Christ into the darkness of death and the hellishness of sin itself on the Cross transforms the temporality of one’s entire life, not merely that of death (although death is included, nonetheless), into an opportunity for receptivity

435 Benedict XVI, Sacramentum Caritatis, A Post Synondal Apostolic Exhortation on the Eucharist as the Source and Summit of the Church’s Life and Mission, 22 Feb. 2007, no. 31. 436 J. Ciraulo, “Sacramentally Regulated Eschatology in H. Balthasar and Pope Benedict XVI,” Pro Ecclesia: A Journal of Catholic and Evangelical Theology Vol. 24, no. 2 (2015): 225. 437 Ibid. 438 S. Hahn, Covenant and Communion; The Biblical Theology of Pope Benedict XVI, (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2009), 165. 439 N. Healey, The Eschatology of Hans Urs von Balthasar: Being as Communion, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 204.

124 to the grace that brings us into a purifying communion with the Triune God.”440 At the hour of death Christ being boundless through his grace reaches out to man the last hour of his earthly existence offering a chance to be saved. Conversion at death is possible, though conversion after death is not possible,441 for in death one has already made a fundamental option.442 Balthasar agrees that in the event of Jesus on the cross man has been redeemed from damnation. Even though the individual is free to cooperate with Christ towards fulfilling and owning this redemption. But Christ has primarily taken the place of the sinner offering God’s love to mankind. Christ, “achieves redemption for humanity by making the death of the godless his own and taking up God’s wrath against the sinner into the disarming inner-divine communion of love where that wrath is transformed into love.”443 Balthasar believed that hell is being separated from the rest of the community. But for those to be saved they are saved in the community in union with the rest of creation. Balthasar notes that, “The threat of becoming possibly lost is something directed in each case to me in particular.”444 Being damned is a very individualistic affair as a result of failing to be one with the rest of the creation and the creator. To be saved is to be in solidarity with the creator and his creation. Surrey explains this argument of Balthasar and notes that, “While we are saved as members of the whole of redeemed creation, damnation is as individuals who have cut ourselves off from the whole.”445 Redemption requires communion while as to be damned is to be anti- communion. Communion in hell is not possible.

440 J. Brotherton, “The Possibility of Universal Conversion in Death Temporality, Annihilation, and Grace,” Modern Theology, Vol. 32, no.3 (2016): 312. 441 Balthasar, Dare We Hope, 182. 442 Fundamental option understood in ethics as a basic orientation for or against God. It becomes the reason of one’s daily way of living. Cf. Fundamental Option, Motivation and virtue, https://theo.kuleuvein.be/apps/christian- ethics/theory/fo.html (accessed on March 19, 2019). 443 S. Losel, “A Plain Account of Christian Salvation? Balthasar on Sacrifice, Solidarity, and Substitution,” Pro- Ecclesia 13, no. 2 (2004): 151. 444 Balthasar, Dare we Hope, 80. 445 Surrey, “Heaven Attracts and Hell Repels; A Dynamic Interpretation of Balthazar’s Dare we Hope, That all Men be Saved,” 328.

125 2.2.3.3 John Paul II (1920-2005) Cardinal Wotyla from Poland was elected to succeed John Paul I. He became one of the longest serving popes in the history of Roman Papacy.446 He is one of the religious leaders with a worldwide admiration throughout his pontificate. During his audience preparing for the coming of the third millennium he underscored that millennium was a celebration of the first coming of Christ and still a forecast toward his second coming. “We must not forget that for Christians the eschaton, that is, the final event, is to be understood not only as a future goal, but as a reality which has already begun with the historical coming of Christ.”447 He taught that the time of liberation for man is already here with us owing to the fact of Christ’s coming in the world in his first advent. Eschatology for him is not just something that is to come but rather has begun. He held that, “Christian eschatology is a historical process which has already begun and is moving towards its fullness.”448 Eschatology for him is a process which unfolds itself within the course of human history which will reach climax at Christ’s second coming. The world, in which we live in, was created by God as man is. “A Christian knows that with his commitment for the progress of history and with the help of God’s grace he cooperates in the growth of the kingdom, toward the historical and eschatological fulfillment of the plan of divine providence.”449 Man is actively involved in establishing the Kingdom of God towards His second coming.450 The Church and the human history are moving towards the same goal.451 As a cosmic event, it will shake the entire universe unlike his first coming in which he came as an ordinary person in human body (Cf. Mt 26:64). After the Ascension Jesus is moving man to conversion preparing Him for His second coming. “The evangelization of the world involves the profound transformation of the human person under the influence of Christ's grace.”452 He warned against the mere prediction of the day of the parousia insisting that the issue of time and the day of this awaited event is a non-issue for Christians. For him it is about carrying on the mission imposed on the Church by Christ. The Church has a mission to preach the Gospel as the

446 After St peter the Apostle about 34-37 years and Blessed Pius IX 1846- 1878, 31 years while St John Paul II comes third with his papacy of 26 years in the course of the modern Church History. 447 John Paul II, General Audience, Second Coming of Christ at the End of Time, Apr. 22, 1998, no. 1. 448 Ibid., no.2 449 John Paul II, God Father and Creator: A Catechesis on the Creed, Vol. 1, Compiled by Joseph A. Casey, (Boston: Pauline Books and Media, 1996), 288. 450 R. Buttiglione, Karol Wojtyla: The thought of the Man who became Pope John Paul II, trans Paolo Guietti & Francesca Murphy, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997), 366. 451 Cf. E. Schillebeeckx, Church: The Human Story of God, (New York: Cross Road 1990), 154-157. 452 John Paul II, Second Coming of Christ at the end of time, no. 4.

126 history unfolds towards its final goal. The Holy Father upholds that the last times have already begun and we are moving towards its fullness. He should find us at work not looking up for his coming neglecting our sacred duty of preparing the ground for his arrival (Cf. Acts 1:9-11). John Paul II reflecting on Sunday as the day of the Lord outlined the fact that with the resurrection of Christ a new dawn has been ushered in. In fact for him, “the Resurrection of Jesus is the fundamental event upon which Christian faith rest.”453 The day in which Jesus rose is central and significant to human history. It forecasts towards the awaited Lord’s Day in which the universe will be restored to its final glory and be handed over by Christ to its creator. “In effect, Sunday is the day above all other days which summons Christians to remember the salvation which was given to them in baptism and which has made them new in Christ.”454 Hence, the resurrection of Christ has renewed man and through this renewal his hope has been re-installed. We therefore, open our eyes towards the great coming day of the Lord which is highly awaited out of the renewal received on the first day of the week in which our Saviour rose from the dead. There is a clear connection between Easter Sunday and indeed every Sunday and the day of Jesus’ second return in which our final restoration will be made manifest. Thus through Sunday rest we reflect on the resurrection of Christ and our own. We believe in the mystery of Christ and it’s far reaching effects on humanity. His Holiness argues that, “looking towards the last day, which fulfills completely the eschatological symbolism of the Sabbath,”455 such that as we rest from daily work we enter deeply into the mystery of our redemption and savor the sweetness of the redemptive work of Christ and await him in his second coming praying that he will find us ready. The pope holds that with Christ’s ascension into Heaven in His body, His earthly existence in body is over but He is now in heaven, “and he takes redeemed humanity with him.”456 Christ’s presence on the right of his Father in Heaven with his material body points to the reality of the resurrection of our bodies as well as our destiny. Heaven has a place for each

453 John Paul II, Dies Domini, Apostolic Letter on Keeping the Lord’s Day Holy, May 31, 1998, no. 2. 454 Ibid, no. 25. Sunday owing to the resurrection of Christ is the day to encounter the Risen Lord, Cf. John Paul II, Apostolic Letter, Mane Nobiscum Domine, Apostolic Letter for the Year of the Eucharist, Oct. 7, 2004. In these two apostolic letters his Holiness urges Christians to rediscover the meaning behind the day of the Lord (Sunday) especially its link to eschatology. 455 Paul John II, Dies Domini, no. 26. 456 John Paul II, General Audience May 24, 2000, no. 2.

127 one of us and resurrection will be the event that will usher us in to be united with him and the entire body of saints forever. The Holy Father taught that the actions of modern man must be judged and evaluated on the basis of their eschatological relevance not just their temporal contribution to his needs. “This eschatological scene must always be ‘applied’ to man's history; it must always be made the ‘measure’ for human acts as an essential outline for an examination of conscience by each and every one.”457 He exhorted the scientists, technological experts and all other experts in various fields to have recourse to final destiny of man which is salvation brought by Christ the redeemer of man. The Church is called to accompany man in all what he goes through, preparing him for his destiny. She has to join, “On the way to which man, through the death of the body, shares with the whole of visible creation the necessity to which matter is subject.”458 On the same mission of redeeming man by directing him to his final destiny the Church is under the guidance of the Holy Spirit.459 His holiness taught that the Holy Spirit is an agent of salvation in that he is the promise, promised to lead us to the Promised Land. “And this Redemption is, at the same time, constantly carried out in human hearts and minds in the history of the world by the Holy Spirit, who is the ‘other Counselor’.”460 The Spirit is at work in the hearts and minds of all men to renew the world. This renewal restores man to his glory which he lost through sin. The final day will therefore be brought about by the Spirit who is at work in the world. Eschatology for him is directly linked to his concept of pneumatology. John Paul II reflecting on Eucharist taught that through communion the communicant is mystically and physically united with Christ and the Church. He observed a clear connection between Eucharist and eschatology. Towards this he indicated that, “A significant consequence of the eschatological tension inherent in the Eucharist is also the fact that it spurs us on our journey through history and plants a seed of living hope in our daily commitment to the work

457 John Paul II, Redemptor Hominis, Encyclical Letter on the Redeemer of Man, Mar. 4, 1979, no. 16. 458 Ibid, no. 18. 459 The Spirit vivifies the body, the Church as the body of Christ is vivified by the Holy Spirit. Before beginning her public ministry she was to wait for the promise for she is the mystical body of Christ. 460 John Paul II, Dominum et vivificantem, Encyclical Letter On the Holy Spirit in the Life of the Church, May 18, 1986, no. 24.

128 before us.”461 The Eucharist inspires and directs us towards our destiny through our daily engagements. The eternal life is not only a future pledge but it is made a reality today through the sacrament of the Eucharist. This is the teaching of His Holiness when he writes that, “Those who feed on Christ in the Eucharist need not wait until the hereafter to receive eternal life: they already possess it on earth, as the first-fruits of a future fullness which will embrace man in his totality.”462 He explained further that Eucharist brings fulfillment of our eschatological longings. For if the Eucharist gives us life it must be life eternal. Receiving his body indicates the fact that there is life after death and bodies are called to resurrect having been nourished by the body of him who died and rose for our salvation. He explains clearly that, “Eucharist is truly a glimpse of heaven appearing on earth. It is a glorious ray of the heavenly Jerusalem which pierces the clouds of our history and lights up our journey.”463 Through the Eucharist we touch the two worlds the world to come and this temporal world. His Holiness implied the already and not yet concept of the kingdom of God which is accomplished through partaking in the Eucharistic celebration. “The kingdom is already present in the history of man and yet, in a mysterious way, the time from now until the end of history is an occasion for decision for or against God and for or against the truth of man.”464 Man should therefore choose for God and fellow man in his daily endeavors waiting for the climax of God’s Kingdom.

2.2.3.4 Benedict XVI (1927 to date) Joseph Ratzinger a Roman Catholic theologian, who later became Pope Benedict XVI, is well known as one of the greatest Catholic theologians of our times. His works have really shaped and clarified Catholic theology in various disciplines. In this pericope we examine briefly his theology on Catholic eschatology. Since eschatology is understood to refer to life to come then we agree with Benedict that it is, “expressed through images drawn from tradition, intended

461 John Paul II, Ecclesia de Eucharistia, An Encyclical Letter on the Eucharist in its Relationship to the Church, Apr. 17, 2003, no. 20. 462 Ibid, no.18. 463 Ibid, no.19. 464 Buttiglione, Karol Wojtyla; The Thought of the Man who became Pope John Paul II, 197.

129 to point us towards realities that defy description.”465 His Holiness believes that the heart of Jesus’s eschatological message must contain the proclamation role of the Church.466 The time of the Church becomes the time of proclaiming the eschatological message. Ratzinger in his theological reflection on purgatory argues that it is a state of making man complete in order to be totally capable of God.467 Purgatory must be understood in the pursuit of working for final acceptance while for a time bearing the suffering of absence from the beatific vision.468 To be pure means to be one with the others who have also been purified and with he who purifies. It is an eschatological concept related with the whole idea of purification. It is for man’s well-being. For this reason purification should begin not only after death. Already here on earth, trials accepted in faith are a purgatory.469 Our life should be a life of purgation purifying ourselves for God through penance and innocently accepting the sufferings allotted to us by God in faith. Ratzinger notes that Christ is the one who purifies and in him, purification is effected because our encounter with Jesus destroys all that which darkens our lives. “Our encounter with him will become a purifying pain, which will burn away from within us everything that cannot be reconciled with eternity, with the living cycle of Christ’s love.”470 The communitarian relevance on purification is based on the purpose of the eschatology which is to bring all into the perfect union of the mystical body of Christ. Ratzinger clarifies that to encounter Christ is to encounter his whole body. Thus the need to be purified as one draws near to this divine encounter. This is the cosmic dimension of Ratzinger’s eschatology.471 Eschatology drives us to God in union with one another. Additionally in his thought on the universal salvation he argues convincingly that at the end God intends to save the entire universe. This he explains candidly when he writes that, “Creation which was thrown down by Adam and which is being trampled upon by him ever a new and even more

465 Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth: Holy Week: From the Entrance into Jerusalem to the Resurrection, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2011), 26-27. 466 Ibid, 46. 467 Ratzinger, Eschatology, 230. 468 Ibid., 189. 469 Schonborn, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 152-153. 470 J. Ratzinger, God is Near Us, The Eucharist The Heart of Life, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2003), 146. In another work Ratzinger makes a strong contribution in linking the Kingdom of God with repentance. Cf. Ratzinger, Eschatology Death and Eternal Life, 28-31. Connecting the kingdom of God with repentance as Ratzinger has demonstrated is an idea well captured by the Gospel writers. Cf. Mt 4:7 LK 5:32 MK 1:15, and Jn 3:7. This emphasizes that the Kingdom that Jesus was proclaiming is not political but spiritual thus demanding inner change or spiritual growth. 471 Rausch, Eschatology, Liturgy, and Christology, 112.

130 thoroughly, is waiting for the children of God. Where they are, the creation is also renewed.”472 Ratzinger believes that man as the apex of creation paves way for the rest of creation to be renewed. Ratzinger holds that the resurrected body of Jesus is in heaven and this body remains open so that all those who have been incorporated into His body their souls are firmly held in this body which has become a public property for all those who are in him. They are in him now for their souls are ingrained in His risen body awaiting their resurrection.473 Heaven for Ratzinger is a reality which finds a solid base in the paschal mystery of Jesus. He argues that one who has entered into the mystical body of Christ no doubt such a person is in Heaven. He has been united with Him and one is in heaven as much as he is in Christ. Ratzinger personalizes Heaven to be a person.474 And this person is none other than Christ. Consequently, it follows that as we wait the resurrection of our bodies we are already experiencing Heaven in so far as we are in Christ Jesus awaiting the fullness of the heavenly Glory. Heaven is not a reality that will come but is here only that we are awaiting that part of ourselves to be made perfect through resurrection where God will be all in all (Cf. Col 3:11). His Holiness affirms that, “Heaven will only be complete when all the members of the Lord’s Body are gathered in.”475 It is open for people to join it now but not closed until all of us are convinced and helped by God’s grace we work for our way in and join the communion of the saints. Ratzinger teaches that the Kingdom of God is here and is yet to come. He holds that we are in the risen body of Christ already. He is opposed to those who advocate for the futuristic eschatology.476 In fact for Ratzinger the Kingdom of God is personified to be Jesus Christ.477 He observes that the Kingdom of God is not that it will come but it is here and continues to be made manifest. The kingdom of God “does not come chronologically later. It takes its beginning in communion with God here and now and it takes it up within the great expanse of true reality, which is no longer fragmented by the stream of time.”478 Heaven and the life of the resurrected

472 Ratzinger, God Near Us, 148. 473 Ibid. 474 Ratzinger, Eschatology, 214. 475 Ibid, 237. 476 Futuristic eschatology argues that the Kingdom of God will come ours is to pray for its arrival. It was championed by A. Schweitzer (d. 1965), J. Weiss (d. 1914) and M. Werner. Some of the works that have been written on futuristic eschatology includes; M. Werner, The Formation of Christian Dogma, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1965) and J. Weiss, Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971). 477 A. Nichols, The Thought of Pope Benedict XVI; An Introduction to the Theology of Joseph Ratzinger, New Edition, (London: Burn & Oates, 2007), 117. 478 Ratzinger, God Near Us, 143.

131 begin here on earth when we enter into communion with God that is in our own eyes “the unthinkable has happened.”479 Human history is a channel in which the Kingdom of God is being realized progressively. This can be seen in the prayer of Our Father when we pray that “God’s will be done on earth as it is in heaven.” This resemblance means heaven is here with us when we do what is done in heaven simply when we allow his will to reign on our mind, actions and in our daily life. In such a time that we do God’s will Ratzinger concurs with St Paul that when his will is carried out in our lives then we no longer exist but Christ who is in us (Cf. 1Cor. 15:28). So long as Christians remain faithful to Jesus’ words and deeds they need not worry about resurrection. They are foretasting it by being in Christ in whom their souls are well kept in his glorious risen body. Ratzinger reflects deeply on one of the statement of our creed. “We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come.”480 His reflection on the eschatological meaning of this statement gives us a glimpse of his eschatology. Professing that we believe the dead shall resurrect is more than repeating a mere statement for it expresses our conviction of the existence of life beyond the tomb. Hence, we believe its reality when we profess our faith. The physical death is not annihilation of the human person but a transformation to another life in the world to come. Thus death is mysterious in that it combines two opposites, “an evil and a good, an end and a beginning, a destruction of life and a gateway to life.”481 When we profess the creed we are amazingly expressing our eschatological hope of joining the whole multitude of resurrected saints. Resurrection takes the center of any theology worthy to be a Christian theology.482 We portray our belief that there is another form of existence after death which is achievable by man through God’s help. Death as we believe in our Christian faith is a bridge towards the next world where life will be in abundance.483 The community in the liturgy should always be open to the world to come which is beyond here and now for they are a pilgrim people. There is the need to

479 Ratzinger, Eschatology, 64. 480 CCC, no. 997. This is founded on the bodily resurrection of Christ and secondly the love of God on his creation which is destined for renewal. Also CCC, nos. 1042-1050. 481 Schonborn, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 145. 482 Ratzinger, Principles of Catholic Theology, 184. 483 Ratzinger, Eschatology, 86.

132 look forward to the Promised Land.484 This is a common agreement among scholars and the lay faithful that liturgy ought to lead the participants to the heavenly liturgy. This is rightly put by Schroeder who argues convincingly that in the liturgy, “the people are called to go beyond themselves, to transcend the world and enter into the eternal worship, which is centered on the Eucharist.”485 Heaven is the fulfillment of the journey we began at our baptism.486 We became sons and daughters of God. This then made us sharers into the Trinitarian life. Ratzinger argues that heaven is not to be individualized for it is about openness to God and others who are same with us possessed by him as his children. We are thus interlinked with each other constituting the body of Christ. So that Heaven becomes a stranger to isolation. It is the open society of the communion of saints, and in this way it is the fulfillment of all human communions.487 Since heaven does not entertain isolation then one even in this world must be in communion with others and with God. As taught by Jesus we need this communitarian life in the Church and bear witness in all aspects of our earthly existence. This kind of a communion is possible in this world. In the Eucharist understood as a sacrifice, Christ offers us as a gift to His Father while He is a gift of love to us. “Thus he draws us into his life, into the act of eternal love by which he gives himself up to the father, so that we are made over into the Father’s possession with him and that through this very act Christ himself is bestowed upon us... for Christ is both the giver and the gift.”488 He affirms the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. This has far reaching effects of bringing the last times of the world where Christ will offer cosmos to His Father. In the Eucharist, Christ comes down to make us a presentable gift to his father. In other words Eucharist celebrated and communed as a sacrifice brings God near to us and gives us the wings to be in the presence of God. Christ is for us a gift from Heaven and in turn makes us a gift to heaven. Kocik accepting the idea of Ratzinger that our Eucharistic celebration is eschatological goes deeper in this line of thought to propose that the Eucharistic celebration is the meeting point of History with Christ at the center. The past and future “become present in the Eucharist for the Lord who simultaneously

484 J. Ratzinger, The Feast of Faith; Approaches to a Theology of Liturgy, Trans. Graham Harrison, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press,1986) also see his other work entitled, The Spirit of the Liturgy, trans. John Saward, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2000), 74-84. 485 S. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion; Implementing the Second Vatican Council Through Liturgy and Architecture, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1998), 46. 486 Ratzinger, Eschatology, 115. 487 Ibid, 235. 488 Ratzinger, God is Near Us, 119.

133 feeds and assumes into himself is the alpha and omega who transcends time.”489 In other words the Eucharistic celebration takes us to the presence of God and gives us the chance to taste heaven while on earth. Rausch on the interconnectedness of liturgy with the Eucharist explained that in the Eucharist a perfect unity is created. “At the table we become one family. The future that God has in store for us is already breaking into the present.”490 Eucharist does not only unite us with God but unites us with one another making one family that has God as the head. This makes the eschatological times to be something we are already in touch with now. “The bread of the world to come is already given to us today, so that the world to come might begin already in our midst today.”491 But on the other hand as we celebrate the Eucharist we must not forget that it is propelling us into the world to come. It’s a power towards the awaited promise. Ratzinger argues from the scriptural basis and projects his eschatology towards the spiritual renewal of man. This already rhymes well with the theology of the Second Vatican council which advocated for the eschatological hope which is here and yet to come. He understood the sacrament of Eucharist to be the food of a pilgrim people which gives them nourishment necessary in this journey.492 Along this journey they must enter and form a communion with one another and ultimately with the universe as a whole creation under one God.493 The future of man lies with being one with God and with mankind as a whole.494 Ratzinger insists that immortality must be understood as a contributive factor in understanding communality of believers with their God. In his own words he says, “One does not enter an eternity with God which belongs to him alone. The Christian dialogue with God is mediated by other human beings in a history where God speaks with Men.”495 Catholic eschatology well understood helps us to build bridges of genuine friendship as the children of one God based on our faith.

489 Kocik, “Liturgical Renewal and Eschatology,” 22. 490 Rausch, Eschatology, Liturgy and Christology, 140. 491 Benedict XVI, On the Way to Jesus Christ, trans. Michael Miller, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005), 105. 492 Benedict XVI, Sacramentum Caritatis, no. 30. 493 Ratzinger, Eschatology, Death and Eternal Life, 180. 494 Ratzinger, Principles of Catholic Theology, 190. 495 Ratzinger, Eschatology Death and Eternal Life, 159.

134 Conclusion A correct teaching and understanding of Catholic eschatology is helpful in living full and meaningful lives. A greater appreciation of God’s love and His involvement in our lives will draw us closer to Him and to the mystical body of His Beloved Son. This is what we have attempted to do in this chapter. We have examined the doctrine of Catholic Eschatology from the Sacred Scriptures and Sacred Tradition. We have traced logically the relevance of this doctrine not on the last days but its significance to our lives here and now as we look forward to attaining a joyful end of our earthly existence. This has awakened our zeal of service to both God and man as we continue on our pilgrimage towards our ultimate end. The centrality of the message of eschatology in the mission work of the church has been demonstrated so as to bring all the believers to the reality of the final judgment and the destiny of mankind. The eschatological teaching gives meaning to our daily experiences hence there should be no misconception of eschatology as a chronological event that is futuristic. But rather as an event which has been inaugurated here on earth and is being moved by the risen Christ towards its full manifestation. The Catholic eschatology urges believers to live the Gospel ideals. This waiting of the parousia is a journey that is characterized by detachment from the worldly allurements. In dealing with this world we require wisdom like that of the dishonest manager. He had a fore sight of what lied ahead of him and used his wisdom to secure the Kingdom of God and in doing so; he avoided being excluded (Lk 16:1-7). This problem is present in today’s world: there are too many earthly possessions and cares, people trust in themselves while the concern for the Kingdom of God is fading away. Our daily endeavors must point our heads and actions toward the future life. All the preparations necessary for his second coming have been met so any time he can descend as Smith explains, “Jesus Christ, the Son of man can come at any time, for every precondition has been met.”496 We need to remain watchful, faithful and ready to receive Him when he comes. This was the key point of this chapter.

496 Smith, History and Eschatology In Luke-Acts, 901.

135

CHAPTER THREE

TOWARDS AN AGIKUYU THEOLOGY OF THE LAST THINGS

Introduction The Catholic theology of the last things forms an important pillar of Christian faith. Believers find in the eschatological teaching genuine reasons to look forward to the fulfillment of God’s promises. Catholic teaching on eschatology finds a warm welcome in the hearts of believers. But to make this reception a productive enterprise Christians from various cultural backgrounds must be transformed from within and lead a life that directs them towards the future offered by God. In this chapter we will compare the Agikuyu notion of the last things with Catholic eschatology. This will enable us to create a paradigm shift from a defensive position to a humble call and a docility to listen and learn from each other in order to hear the voice of God in our time in reference to the future that God has for us and the universe.497 This comparison seeks to appreciate the positive elements of African eschatological notions while at the same time discarding the negative elements that are not in line with the Gospel. In order to radiate a theological treatise on the last things we base ourselves on a cultural context of the Agikuyu people offering them an opportunity to contribute positively to the theological debate of inculturation. In this chapter we will construct to create an Agikuyu Christian eschatology using some of the African religious categories that are well known and dear to them with an intention to deepen their understanding in the Catholic eschatology. The discovery of the similarities will help the African converts to Christianity to deepen their understanding of their Christian responsibility in the universal Church as we make a pilgrimage to our final end as one people. By constructing Agikuyu eschatology the Agikuyu will openly receive the Catholic teaching on eschatology. It is our concern in this chapter to demonstrate that eschatology has a role to play in

497 Nwaigbo, Mary Mother of the African Church, 51.

136 establishing African ecclesial communities that are full of love and life and that are authentically Christian and African. The eschatological hope supersedes and enlightens our mind to any other concept of hope we might have housed in our imagination. In a nutshell this chapter makes a general study on Catholic and Agikuyu traditional religion exposing their tenets and belief systems with which it establishes the fact of the eschatological destiny of mankind. The belief in the life after death is a common article in many religions and even to some non-religious groups this idea is present in their philosophy.498 After such a comparative theological reflection we will proceed to elucidate certain doctrinal recommendations that will boost Christian teaching on the last things from an African perspective and there after a conclusion will follow.

3.1 Comparative Analysis of the Last Things in the Agikuyu Traditional Religion and the Catholic Eschatology 3.1.1 Similarities 3.1.1.1 Belief in the Supreme Being The First similarity that we need to point out is the belief in the existence of a Supreme Being who is at the center of the last things both from the Catholic and the Agikuyu world view. The Agikuyu notion of the last things is hinged upon the religious fact that Ngai has put in place the natural flow of things in the human history. As such both the origin and the destiny are in his hands. All the laws that were in existence in the Agikuyu nation were understood to be from God. Murage explains this fact when he writes that, “The Agikuyu had formed for themselves a body of beliefs and superstitions which had developed into religious precepts which they regarded as the laws of God.”499 Both Catholics and Agikuyu profess one God.500 The ultimate end of a person is interpreted in reference to his relationship with the Supreme Being. According to the Agikuyu one relates with Ngai in the context of his

498 Cf. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Beliefs and Practices Diverse and Politically Relevant, (Washington DC: Pew Research Centre, 2008), 31-32. 499 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New Edition, 189. 500 In the Agikuyu world view Ngai is one and his home was believed to be in the biggest mountain which is at the heart of the Agikuyu world. It was believed to be a Holy Mountain. Cf. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New Edition, 202. Mount Kerenyaga now known as Mount Kenya was like Mt Sinai of the Biblical people. It was the mountain of their religious history and a central place of Encountering Ngai thus all sacrifices and celebrations were done facing towards it. Catholics are monotheistic worshippers and they do denounce any form of polytheism both in word and deed. Cf. J. Ratzinger, Introduction to Christianity, trans. J. Foster and M. Miller, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1990), 73.

137 community. Every member of their community must follow the moral and social norms for him to relate favorably with Ngai. To be closely linked to Ngai is to be in a harmonious relationship with the unborn, the living and the dead. In the Agikuyu religion the last things helps one and the community to relate and achieve his full realization. This fulfillment is to be an ancestor and a link between his community and God. Everything is related directly to Ngai in the Agikuyu world view even though the principle of mediation is highly present in their traditions. In Catholic eschatology faith directs us to union with God and with His chosen ones, the elect. The Christian God holds the key in unlocking the relevance of the theology of the last things. Reflecting on the last things is simply reflecting on our response to the demands put on our shoulders by God. He is both the creator and the destiny of humanity. In fact He is the eschatos of humanity. Believing in God implies confessing the doctrine of the last things. Both go together and cannot be separated. To attain our end successfully we must have a strong relationship with God since He is our creator, sustainer and end of our being. This explains why Agikuyu people had, “a very deep religious sense of the will of God in all the daily life.”501 To appreciate the reality of God means to have a perfect submission to him. Agikuyu held that God existed from the beginning they called him Githuri, (the old old one) for he is without origin, the oldest being with an everlasting nature.502 The Catholic Christians have a strong belief that God has no origin even though he is the origin of all beings. God must then be viewed as the major player in the story of humanity. To live our lives fully we must engage Him through sacrifices, prayers and all other channels that will keep our religious consciousness alive for his glory. The Agikuyu are at home in the Catholic faith as together they profess Credo in Unum Deum (I believe in one God).

3.1.1.2 Reality of Death The reality of death is a known fact of existence acknowledged by people of all walks of life. Agikuyu strongly believed that, “All people die and it was useless fearing what could not have been avoided.”503 Just like the Christians do believe that death is not the end of human life

501 Murage, Marian Devotion Among the Agikuyu, 47. 502 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 231-242. 503 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New Edition, 151. Since death could not be avoided Agikuyu were expected to be courageous enough so that when it strikes they welcome it. On the other hand those nearing death were taken care of by their families and the community at large so that they may die at peace with the community otherwise it

138 the Agikuyu believes that death is a passing on to another realm of life. The quality of life experienced after death from the Agikuyu worldview is dependent on ones earthly life. Catholics and the Agikuyu are clear in their teachings on death. It is an undeniable fact that everyone is subject to. They both share in their teaching on death that human death is an inevitable human reality. The cause of death from the African worldview Mbiti argues that it was greatly attributed to Magic, sorcery and witchcraft as the common causes of death.504 Death as an inevitable human reality must be planned for and every person and the community at large ought to prepare well for it. Christians are in agreement with the Agikuyu that death brings one to an end of his earthly existence. However, it is explicit from the two backgrounds that the world and the individual are not extinguished through death. The concept of existing post death is well made manifest in the terminologies used and the belief system of both the Agikuyu and the Catholic faith. In other words death is conceived as a transitional phenomenon from this world to another realm of life which supersedes the one at hand. As noted in our first chapter the Agikuyu referred to death using such terms like niarathire(he went), niarahurukire(he has gone to rest) niaretirwo(he was summoned), niarakomire(he is asleep) among such other terms. In all these concepts the implication is that death is a tunnel through which one passes on to another world. The Agikuyu understood that through death one has only changed his place of residence from this material world to the spiritual world. For them when one dies his spirit joins other spirits (Ngoma).505 Ngoma exists with the characteristics of its being prior to death in the life after.506 Ngoma were generally concerned with the welfare of their families and communities in such a way that if one was against the will of their family or community Ngoma could come back to haunt or punish the offender. Interestingly only those who had lived morally upright had an opportunity to have influence on the living members of their community.

was feared that if they not shown love and care they might convoke a curse to their family members Cf. Cagnolo The Agikuyu, New Edition, 152. 504 Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 155. 505 Ngoma was understood by the Agikuyu to be the spirits of the dead whether good or bad. However, when the missionaries were translating the Bible the same term was used in the Christian context to mean the bad spirit, devil/ Satan or even the evil itself. Cf. Mk 5:2 the unclean Spirit is Called Ngoma thuku (bad Spirit) and in Mk 9:17 is called Ngoma itaragia (Bad spirits without speech). It is interesting to note that when the Kikuyu Bible translators used the word Spirit in a good sense the term Ngoma is not used but is used only in reference to evil, just to give an explicit example that when the term Holy Spirit is translated into kikuyu language it’s called Roho Mutheru such that now ngoma has become a derogatory term that depicts Satan and evil or his angels. 506 C. Hobley, Bantu Beliefs and Magic, (London: Frank and Cass Ltd, 1967), 29.

139 Agikuyu kept a memorial of the deceased for they were still part of the living. They were not dead as such. They believed that “The Spirits must not be forgotten, for are they not of the blood kin? If neglected they will be angry and punish their children.”507 This is a clear testimony of their belief in the life after death and the insistence that death does not destroy human life. According to the Agikuyu mourning, burial, and the rites that accompanies it are events of the final rite of passage. Communal participation in this rite is vital. The living comes together in solidarity with the deceased and the bereaved family. They do this in order to escort the deceased to the Spirit world and make sure his ngoma does not come back to retaliate but rests in peace. On the other hand the bereaved family needs to be comforted. This was to help them bear the loss as well as reassure them that the deceased is still within their reach. Out of this consideration the higher the number of people attend the burial the better it is for the bereaved and the deceased. It is out of this concern that the congregation at the funerals provides a worthy platform to proclaim the eschatological message which is not only future oriented but which carries relevance to our life today and guides us towards the heavenly bliss. Above all the coming together at the mourning and burial of a community member demonstrates that death is real. And humanity is joined together in this reality regardless of their religious affiliation. In the Sacred Scriptures sin leads to death. The Catechism of the Catholic Church affirms this by holding that, death is a consequence of sin.508 In the Agikuyu religion this same notion is upheld where death is understood to be as a result of sin. But in Jesus Christ there is a reversal of death as a punishment into a new way of obedience to God. He made it a high point of glorifying God. His death brought salvation to humankind by offering forgiveness of their sins. Through the death of Jesus on the cross death has a positive meaning.509 Baum notes this newness as he explains that, “God reveals himself as the one who creates life out of death.”510 For St Paul death is not a loss but a gain (Cf. Ph 1:21) a gain in that we join another realm of life better than our earthly experience. It is in this perspective that death brings a positive contribution in the life of the believers. For through death we enter more personally and communally in the Trinitarian life of God in which the company of saints awaits us.

507 Hobley, Bantu Beliefs and Magic, 22. 508 CCC, no. 1008. 509 Ibid, nos 1005-1007. 510 G. Baum, Man Becoming: God in Secular Experience, (New York: Herder & Herder Inc., 1970), 97.

140 In the Agikuyu worldview death opens the door to the world of the ancestors. Through death a human person is admitted in the status of sharing in the power of the Supreme Being. This was well expressed by the Agikuyu in their commemorative and liberative death rituals that were elaborative of this fact. By going to the shrines to venerate their ancestors Agikuyu exhibited solemn gestures with a litany of rituals that were very clear on this aspect. In the Old Testament death was entrance to the community of their forefathers (Cf. Jdgs 8:32, 16:31 2Sam 2:37, 17:23). In the New Testament death is held strongly to be entrance to the glorious life of those who believe in the resurrected Christ (Cf. Rom 5:1-12). As entrance to eternal life, death is well expressed through the Paschal Mysteries. This is echoed eloquently in the Catholic funeral liturgy and the accompanying Christian rituals. The tomb in the Agikuyu culture is a sacred place. There were certain taboos that were passed on to safeguard its sanctity. It was a taboo to point a finger towards the tomb. This was a call to respect the deceased for they are still alive and it is prohibited to point a finger to a person of a higher status. Death raised the status of the deceased. The Old Testament also carried a high respect on the tombs of the departed. (Cf. Jer. 34:5, 2Chro. 16:14). The tombs are a sacred manifestation of the presence of the deceased. Agikuyu believe that, “Death causes permanent physical separation but not the end of communication between the living and the dead.”511 The dead among the Agikuyu are firmly believed to have passed on from the material to the immaterial world. But they maintain close contact and communication with the living. They had certain rights and responsibilities. In the same way the saints have a direct contact and communication with the living. Hence, death is the final stage as one enters into the next world. Agikuyu and the Catholic believers conceptualize death as a transitional event. Using the words of Hryniewicz, death “is a transition, or passover, to a new form of existence in the universal community of the new world of the resurrection.”512 As a transition to a new life the deceased follows the model of the Risen Lord. Agikuyu shared the fact that death is a bridge to the spiritual world of the ancestors. In this realm life is nobler than on this planet in that it is under no threat so long as one lived harmoniously with others prior to his death. Both religions are convinced of an existence beyond the tomb. Therefore, even though death is feared

511 S. Mafikiri, Christ as the Mangi: Ideal King of Christian Transformation, Christology from the Chagga Perspective, (Nairobi: CUEA Press, 2010), 77-78. 512 W. Hryniewicz, The Challenge of our Hope; Christian Faith in Dialogue, (Washington DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2007), 13.

141 by many people it is clearly seen that it does not terminate human life. In this we agree with Murphy that, “death is not the final stage. In death, human beings enter into a more open relationship to the totality of the material order.”513 One having lived the earthly life in obedience to Gods will and in solidarity with fellow men need not worry about death since it’s the door to a better life with God.

3.1.1.3 Concept of Life after Death Agikuyu believe strongly that one continues to live in another form after his death. Their religious practice of sacrifices, libation, and prayers emphasizes this fact that the dead are not actually dead. They are involved in various ways by the living members of their community. The Agikuyu believe that when someone dies he comes to an end of his earthly life. But his life continues in the spirit world. Human life is considered sacred and in this respect once conceived in the womb it continues to eternity. Even though there is a general concurrence that death comes in as the final event that closes one’s scene on the world, it opens for him a door to the next world. Life after death is well understood to be in the spiritual world. Pope John Paul II teaches that, “Man is called to a fullness of life which far exceeds the dimensions of his earthly existence, because it consists in sharing the very life of God.”514 Human life is oriented to the Divine life. Agikuyu in their traditional religious view had the notion of immortality which is at the center of their belief in life after death. Human life once conceived continues through to eternity even though the body is dead. Cagnolo notes that, “it is strange to realize that this strong belief in immortality, although denied in their spoken discussions does in fact dominate a great part of their life.”515 The belief in life after death was a key element in their religion prior to the coming of the missionaries in their territory. Agikuyu converts to Christianity today still holds this position that their long dead and ancestors are still alive and do in fact have impact on the living. This explains why down to our days the belief in curses is still a force to reckon with. There is a great influence of the dead on the living members of their community and families. “Deep down in the minds of thousands of men, and women of every level of spiritual or intellectual attainment is the belief, at least the persistent notion, that the deceased still have a part to play,

513 Murphy, New Images of the Last Things, 64. 514 John Paul II, Evangelium Vitae, An Encyclical Letter on the Gospel of Life, Mar. 25, 1995, no. 2. 515 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 140.

142 for better or for worse in the lives of the living.”516 The Agikuyu in their ancient religion held that life continues to eternity and aspired at all times to remain respectful to the dead. They did this by observing their will. To enjoy inner tranquility, peace and a harmonious living with the ancestors Agikuyu feels duty bound to remain respectful and obedient to the deceased. The belief in curses emphasizes the fact of the continuation of life after death. Agikuyu parents had an authority to bless or curse their children even after death. Curses were and are common among the Agikuyu. Parental curses are greatly feared and the children must be respectful and obedient in observing the will of their parents. Agikuyu believes that Muciari ni Ngai yaku ya keri (Parents are second from God). 517 He should thus be obeyed so long as he lives and even long after his death for he remains as such. The belief of afterlife demands that all people demonstrate respect and obedience to their elders and Ngai. At the same time the living must exercise a peaceful co-existence with one another. Within the Christian understanding the fourth commandment urges the children to be obedient and respectful to their parents. It goes even further to give a promise of a long fulfilling life. Thus both Agikuyu and the Catholic faith demonstrate the existence of a life after death which can be either a blessing or a curse. A blessing from the Christian perspectives is having lived obediently to the commandments and a curse to those who disregard the commandments. Religion is the custodian and informer of the best way on how to achieve a joyful life before and after death. Thus both the Catholic faith and the Agikuyu religion are eschatologically oriented. They proclaim the existence of life after death. In the Agikuyu religion the ideas of eschatos creates hope and optimism by instilling in us the concept of life after death. This hope of eternal life from our Christian faith must be extended to the secular society so that we can evade the family, societal and divine curses at all cost. In turn our life must be qualitatively lived in this world so as to have a future that is fulfilling in line with God’s preordained design for humanity. This is the call of Catholic faith to her followers and to all people from all cultural backgrounds.

516 E. Bolaji, African Traditional Religion, A Definition, (London: SCM Press, 1973), 178. 517 Literally it means that in the hierarchy of the important beings in one’s life immediately after Ngai who is the origin and sustainer of human life there comes ones parent. Even if ones parent is dead his will and wish must be kept by his family. Otherwise he will come to punish them by imposing curses upon them and their generation. This strengthens our argument in that after death human reality continues. In the Decalogue the first three commandments are related directly to God while the fourth one is on one’s parent. Parents are thus second from God in hierarchy of importance.

143 In our Catholic faith we profess the communion of saints.518 This theological dimension is a strong link between the living believers and the believers who have passed on before us. In other words the believers in the world believe that there is life after death where the saints are. In turn the Christians look forward to be assimilated in that communion after their departure from this temporal world. The immortality of the soul qualifies in an amazing way the existence of the life after death. Since the two religions agrees and professes the fact that there is something of the human person that exists before and after death then human beings are eternal.519 Agikuyu termed the immortal soul as the element that survives death to join in the spirit world. While as the Christians terms it as the human soul. Since the soul is immortal from creation to eternity then life after death must be given a serious cultural and Christian consideration. This is what is expressed in the entire religious and theological considerations about the life after death. However Christianity goes a note higher than the Agikuyu in that they believe the bodies of the dead shall resurrect and be reunited with their souls to enter into their final destiny together.

3.1.1.4 Community Communal living is paramount to every African community. Among the Agikuyu there is no existence without the community. Communal living in the Agikuyu world view is the channel that qualifies an individual to be human. It touches on all aspects of human life. The unborn, the living and the deceased are all members of the Agikuyu nation. After death the deceased are still considered as active members of the community.520 The community had various taboos that were meant to safeguard human sexuality from abuse. In fact human sexuality was well guarded as the treasure that bided the community and assured its continuation. Among the Agikuyu human life is life only when lived in a community set up. After death they believed that the Ngoma of the dead was to be received in the communion of the ngoma of the recently dead. And as the ngoma

518 The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches that since all the baptized comprises one Body of Christ they are all intertwined together With Christ being the head of this body. This body indeed links together mystically the Church Militant, Penitent, and Triumphant. We are all one Catholic Church which brings the three into one. Cf. CCC, nos 946-948. 519 CCC, no. 1022, the Church teaches that the eternal consequence of ones earthly life is placed upon the immortal soul. 520 Murage, Marian Devotion, 39.

144 advanced in age it was assimilated in the body of the ancestors. They were of the view that life in the two realms that is earthly and spiritual must be a life in and for the community. The Catholic concept of communion is based on the Holy Trinity which is its deepest source. It is an invitation to believers to build strong bonds of communion with one another and with God under the model of the Holy Trinity.521 Our faith urges us to be one in worship, life and share a common hope.522 Christianity urges humanity to open to each other and together proceed to their end as one people. Catholic Church teaches the community ideals that involve standing together in pilgrimage till we meet in the communion of saints. Christians and the traditional Agikuyu firmly hold that man must learn to coexist with fellow man here on earth and in heaven. He is a being of the community of other beings. The fullness of human life is in the human community but will be brought to fruition in the communion of the saints in Heaven. Death is the gateway to the next world in which we enter into communion with all those who had gone before us. That is we join the ancestors and we become tied closely to God. The Catholic teaching on the communion of the saints can be seen as the ancestors par excellence from the Agikuyu cultural context. They are not just nearer to God but they behold his face eternally in the beatific vision. This is the model of community life, living together with one another and with God. Thus well understood the Agikuyu concept of the communion of ancestors ushers prepares and inserts our mind and life into the communion with the saints. We are called as believers to live in communion with one another in this world. Living in such a communion aware of the presence of Christ who is in the midst of his disciples’ leads us to the attainment of the goal of human life.523 In addition the Agikuyu sacrifices and libations which are frequently offered to Ngai and the ancestors build a strong bond of communion between the material and the spiritual world. These bonds create unbreakable union with the entire universe. The communion of the saints professed in the Catholic Church is the union of the Church as seen in the tripartite nature of the Church which culminates in the Eucharistic sacrifice. This is done in our ecclesial communities

521 Cf. R. Severino, The Trinity: The Basis for Community Love and Intimacy with God, rogerseverino.com/the- trinity-the-basis-for-community-love-and-intimacy-with-god (accessed on Nov. 3, 2019). 522 The early Church was bound together into a community of faith where they celebrated the Eucharist as a sacrament of unity and shared their material possession as per the needs of every person (Acts 2:41-47). 523 The Catholic Church teaches us that God created us and calls us to form one family that belongs solely to Him. Cf. CCC, no. 1. The Catholic Church is the earthly home of God’s Children as they celebrate their unity with one another and with God sacramentally looking forward to the perfect unity in the beatific vision.

145 when we meet to thank God as a pilgrim people reenacting his sacrifice on the cross for God’s glory and the salvation of humanity. The liturgical life and celebrations in the Church is always communal. It delineates the communal celebrations among the Agikuyu in all the rites of passage. Individual progress both in the Agikuyu and Catholic view is measured in terms of ones relationship within the community. Catholics are joined through mass into a perfect communion with the entire universe and Christ the lamb who was slain and who is the glue that binds us together in this communion as we look forward to an eternal communion.524 Living the ideal communion of the Agikuyu ancestors finds perfect model and a true unity in the three fold nature of the Church. The members of the Church in heaven are the example of the Agikuyu ancestors. The community expressed their communion in a more explicit manner through sharing a meal together. Every guest was supposed to be treated in the best way possible. A common saying for the Agikuyu was that, mugeni ni rui (a visitor is like a flowing river).525 Opening up to the other was a noble duty that Agikuyu were demanded to carry out religiously. Sharing a meal together was a sign of friendship and love in the community. Enemies do not eat together they were demanded in the Agikuyu world view to get reconciled before they can share a meal. In the rites of passage as well as other social functions meals were prepared in abundance for all the members. This communality through sharing of meals enlightens us more on the communion through partaking of the Eucharistic meal which is an eschatological meal that guides and leads us to the heavenly banquette prepared for the saints and the Angels in Heaven. A meal as understood by the Agikuyu is an expressive sign of the bonds of friendship acceptance and a sense of belonging. In other words those who eat together belong to each other.

524 The Holy Spirit binds us together into the Mystical Body of Christ. Cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church no. 1092. 525 Such sayings imply the need to strengthen the communal bonds both with the community members and the needy be they sojourners who passed through their nation. Agikuyu had a special granary traditionally known as ikumbi ria Ngai (God’s granary) as part of their communal responsibility towards the poor and the sojourners. During harvest time the Agikuyu were supposed to make sure that every family brought in a given portion in this granary. Those without their daily food could go in and get something for their sustenance. This noble practice has been lost today because of individualism, greed and selfishness which has eroded such a positive cultural and Christian value. In other cases the poor could be allowed to just go in any shamba (garden) and pluck something to eat without carrying and nobody would have asked them. Communion among the Agikuyu is such a positive practical and a desired characteristic that ought to be held treasured cherished and be handed over to the generations to come. Christians can use the same notion in deepening the virtue of charity. Being our brothers keepers not destroying them. This is both an individual and a communal responsibility toward the other.

146 The Catholic teaching on the Eucharist as a meal of God’s children takes our memory back to the manna in the wilderness. Though the Eucharist we recall the Passover, and the last supper, showing our commonality in human life as well as our destiny. Christian understanding of communion through sharing a meal finds a true echo in the Agikuyu concept of a meal as communion. Using this perspective the promise of the heavenly banquette becomes a life time desire for all believers. Being in communion with God and all the heavenly hosts finds a warm reception in the Agikuyu mentality in their desire to create more stable peaceful and joyful community. This is possible through the Christian teaching and the practicality of life as demonstrated by Christ and the saints. Listening to the Word of God and actively participating in the Catholic sacramental life help the believers to bond together in their pursuit of building a faith community in line with God’s desire.526 The Catholic faith is a communal property of all the believers. It is well understood and established as relevant in so far as the individuals joins in this community to express their faith practically by proclaiming the good news and professing the eschatological vision of the people of God. Death is a necessary stage for the rebirth into a perfect communion with the rest of humanity and with the Supreme Being in which a community of humanity and divinity is perfectly synchronized together.

3.1.1.5 Close proximity to the Supreme Being The general concept of the last things carries in itself the belief that we come to an end of our earthly life in order to attain the nearness possible to God. This was articulated by St Thomas when he held firmly that God desires to join himself to his saints by joining them in his beatific vision which is the goal of Christian life. Our mind will be enlightened by God so as to empower us to see Him in the beatific vision. The drastic effect of this empowering will be the comprehension of the universe in its totality.527 This means that God desires to unite himself totally to us. This unification gives us the purpose of the theology of the last things. In the Agikuyu traditional religion the dead are closer to Ngai than the living. The dead are the spiritual

526 Cf. CCC no. 1140. 527 T. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Book III, trans. V. Bourke, (New York: Ave Maria Press, Notre Dame: Indiana, 1948).

147 mediators between God and the community.528 This is why the ancestors were understood to have sacred powers from God and had an obligation to execute their powers and authority on their descendants on behalf of God. Similarly, Agikuyu believed that Ngai is not to be disturbed but should be approached through the ancestors who were close and dear to Him. The Christian faith on the other hand maintains that man is called to unite himself to God in an irrevocable way through Christian living and faithful commitment to the course of the new covenant. Pope Benedict XII, while defining the destiny of man after death affirmed that, The souls of all the saints who departed and those who will depart from this world after receiving the Holy baptism of Christ, provided they were not or will not be in need of any purification when they died or when they will die, all these souls already before they take up their bodies again and before the general judgment, have seen and will see the divine essence with an intuitive vision and even face to face the divine essence immediately manifests to them, plainly, clearly, and openly, and in this vision they enjoy or will enjoy the divine essence and have or will have eternal life and rest.529 Catholics have always kept a memory of their deceased through their prayers and sacrifices. In like manner the Agikuyu never forgot their departed members. They remembered them in their prayers, offered sacrifices to them and in fact invited them in their social events. They did all what could please them in order to enjoy their protection. The realization that the dead are closer to God than we are helps us to maintain contact with the dead. To forget the dead is indeed to forget our roots and our destiny. Likewise Gerald has it that, “for some other cultures to lack knowledge of one’s ancestors is to suffer diminishment in one’s personal identity”530 Our ancestors and saints even though dead are the basis on which we stand blessed or cursed. We beseech them to intercede for us and to guide us on our earthly pilgrimage, for we believe they are nearer to our destiny than we are.

528 Agikuyu believed that the living dead were close to them and close to Ngai thus the need to be in good relations with them. They did their best as humanly possible not to offend them so that they in turn can acquire God’s benevolence to their community. Cf. Murage, Marian Devotion, 37. 529 Cf. Henric Denzinger, Compendium of Creeds, Definitions, and Declarations on matters of Faith and Morals, 43rd Edition, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press 2010), no. 1000 also Cf. CCC, no. 1023. 530 G. O’ Collins, Rethinking Fundamental Theology, (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2011), 220-221.

148 3.1.1.6 Notion of Eternity The Agikuyu Ngai and his work are there to stay forever.531 But Ngai himself has no origin though he did his work in a given time but he wants and sustains it eternally. Agikuyu held firmly that history will continue uninterruptedly even though through death one comes to an end of his earthly existence. The Agikuyu concept of time has a twofold implication in that Eternal that has neither beginning nor end and this is in the domain of God alone.532 While as there is the other dimension in which there is a beginning and a future of God’s work. In this implication man who is the greatest manifestation of God’s work has a beginning and a future. Eternity is well captured by the terms of life after death. In the Christian world view whenever eternity is mentioned the thought of the life after brings the notion of resurrection in our minds. According to the Agikuyu life after death leads the deceased into the world of the ancestors which is the playground of the life after death and the final destiny of humankind. Death is the champion and the initiator of the life everlasting in fact a gateway to the new life. Life after death is glorious and transforms human life to perfection. It is lived in communion with God, saints and all the Angelic powers. Death is a necessary guest who comes as the final guest in ones earthly life and escorts him to the life after. It is fair enough then to ask where the dead go since death does not destroy human life? In response to this question both the Catholic and the Agikuyu religious inspirations proposes the divine plan that human life is geared towards eternity. For Catholics heaven or hell is the final destiny of man. This depends on one’s spiritual condition based on how he lived the Gospel ideals without prejudice to God’s mercy. Agikuyu are clear on this matter: either one joined the communion of saints or became a ghost without rest in line with how well he lived the community’s prescribed code of conduct. In other words the Agikuyu worldview and the Catholic faith propose an everlasting destiny of mankind after the earthly mode of existence.

531 The human soul comes directly from God. Out of this conviction the Agikuyu had a strong basis for the eternal state of the human soul. A common saying among the Agikuyu people is that Thi ino ndiri uhuruko (In this world man has no rest). Thus they looked at a time that the human soul will achieve its destiny where it will rest peacefully. Macharia in his article holds that, “Life for the Agikuyu continue even after death, what changes is the state of the body from material and visible body to immaterial and invisible body.” G. Macharia, Life after death Among the Agikuyu people of Kenya, https://www.academia.edu/7319467-life-after-death (accessed on Oct. 31, 2019). These arguments give a clearer explanation on the immortality of the human soul from the Agikuyu point of view. 532 Cf. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New Edition, 204-209.

149 3.1.2 Dissimilarities 3.1.2.1 The Day of the Parousia In the Agikuyu religious heritage the concept of a Messiah who is to come as held in the Jewish and Christian religion is lacking.533 The Catholic central message of the Parousia in the doctrine of the last things is quite a new teaching to the Agikuyu people. In fact the idea of the last judgment and other related notions to the concept of the day of the Lord are new religious ideas brought by the missionaries to the Agikuyu land. The future promised by the African religions was directed towards God understood to have a battalion of intermediaries under him. The Christian concept of the Parousia has to do with the final day of the world history534 while as the Agikuyu believed that once created the world continues uninterruptedly and man dies from this world to continue life in the world of the Spirits. In other words we see that the eschatological hope of the Agikuyu was divinely moved but it was directed towards the communion of the ancestors not the coming to an end of the world through the second coming of Christ. The Catholic eschatological hope is directed towards the second person of the Triune God. This is one of the huge differences between the Agikuyu notion of the last things and the Catholic eschatological dimension. The Catholics eschatological hope “becomes a longing for the return of the Lord.”535 While for the Agikuyu their eschatological hope consists in the longing of being assimilated to the communion of the ancestors. The future of Christians and their religion is future oriented such that all what we are and are called to be is to orient ourselves on the parousic relevance for all our actions and words will be interpreted to be for or against the relevance of this historical and eschatological event. In the Agikuyu worldview death is not an annihilation of human life. This teaching is also held in the Catholic theology on the last things where death is a departure to the next world. However, the Agikuyu notion of life after death is vague incomplete and a threat to the community’s wellbeing. They believed that the dead possesses the power to revenge, punish or

533 The concept of a messiah in both the Jewish and Christian religions is well expressed as the centre of God’s promises and their fulfilment. 534 The Old Testament prophecies foretold the day of the Lord in which God’s wrath on his enemies will be a great punishment. Cf. Joel 1:1-2, Am 5:18-20, Zech 1:14-15. The same testament foresees the same day as the day that will confer untold blessings to the holy ones Cf. Is 4:2-6, Hos 2:18-23, Am 9:11-15. 535 A. Kelly, Eschatology and Hope, (New York: Orbis Books, 2006), 210.

150 bless the living members of their community.536 In other words the dead can be a threat to the living members of their community. The teaching of the Agikuyu on the curses and punishment that can be received from the dead is a manifestation of the dangers that are posed by the dead on the surviving members of their community. For the Catholic faithful death is not a cause of fear for the living members of the community. The dead can only be a blessing to the living through their intercession or they stand in need of our prayers for their purification as they await the parousia. In fact the tripartite nature of the Church exhibits a Christian concern for the living members of the community and the deceased be they in heaven or purgatory. There is the interdependence with none of the group demonstrating anger against the other. The Church triumphant in heaven prays and intercedes for the living and for those in purgatory. The militant prays and offers sacrifices especially mass for all the dead especially the souls in purgatory. The souls in purgatory look forward for the spiritual help of the militant and the triumphant Church who have received the eternal crown. This is why the Church teaches explicitly the doctrine of purgatory since from the day of our last breath to our jubilant entry to heaven there is the need for purification.537 From the Catholic teaching death is a gateway to life everlasting not a gateway to revenge through curses rather to bless and intercede for all to join the eternal bliss. Christ’s event leads us to the motive of a Christian death in that it shows the eternal destiny of the believers. This destiny is about the resurrection of the body, communion with the redeemed and the beatific vision. The Agikuyu religious world view offered libation and sacrifices to the deceased members of their community. This practice is not present in the Catholic eschatological dimension. However, prayers and the sacrifice of Mass are offered to God on behalf of the departed beseeching his benevolence asking him to mercifully forgive and admit the departed into his abode. Among the Agikuyu during the mourning period fire was lit outside the home of the deceased during the nights of the entire mourning period. This symbolized the continuous survival of the departed. The Catholic Christian has a tradition of lighting the Easter candle during the Requiem Mass and the memorials of the dead. This tradition emphasizes the life of the resurrection promised and brought to us through the resurrection of Christ who is

536 Cf. Murage, Marian Devotion, 36-37. 537 Cf. CCC, nos 1030-1031.

151 symbolically presented by the Easter candle. The spirits of the deceased members of the Agikuyu were believed to wonder in the spiritual and temporal realm especially those that were not admitted to the kingdom of their ancestors. These spirits were highly feared for they could come back to torment the living members of the community. In the Catholic world view the concept of the life after death is clear in that there is a deep theological teaching on the three states that the souls of the dead are to join depending on their condition prior to death and God’s mercy. In the purgatory the Church teaches that this is a temporal state for those who die in need of purgation before the day of the Lord. The Catholic Church teaches that the souls allotted to hell are those who face death in mortal sin. That is having made a fundamental option against God. Lastly those who find warm welcome are those who die in friendship with God and having received God’s mercy on the final day they will be together with the Lord eternally. The parousia ought to be proclaimed as a joyful and comforting event to Christian converts from Agikuyu and Africa at large.538

3.1.2.2 Goal of Life Agikuyu held that the goal of life is to become an ancestor and join in their communion eternally in working for their community’s welfare. This is a milestone in understanding the doctrine of the communion of ancestors. However with the Catholic doctrine on eschatology we must ask ourselves, is this the highest or the ultimate goal of human life? To answer this question a theological reflection on the paschal mystery of Christ and its implication on the goal of human life is necessary. In fact Christ’s event gives a noble and higher calling where joining the ancestors becomes a step to a higher goal. The Agikuyu’s desire to join their ancestors after death imposed on them a sacred duty to work more zealously, religiously, respectfully and above all obediently to both the secular539 and the religious precepts within the scope of their community. This African category can be used in urging the Christian converts to bring the zeal and religiosity they employed in their traditional religion in the Catholic faith. Obedience to God and to human society in ways that do not oppose both the natural and the divine law enhances our

538 I. William, “The Final Judgment in African Perspectives,” The African institute for Missiology Vol 62, no.2 (2006): 714. 539 We use the term secular here to connote the concept of the ordinary life even though among the Agikuyu people as is so with many African customs everything was religiously perceived hence it is not easy to distinguish the secular and the religious.

152 social and religious aspirations. It gives a spiritual boost towards attaining the ultimate end of human life. That is, to live with God and his saints eternally after the Parousia. We can now yearn for something more than what our ancestors were waiting. This is Jesus Christ who is more than our ancestors and who will come on the parousia to grant life in its fullness (Jn 10:10). He is the purpose of our life having shown us what it means to be human and where we ought to go after our earthly life.540 Through the event of Christ the entire human person continues to live in the life after death. In the mystical body of Christ we are all incorporated into his body. He is the head and together we make up one body. This is the noble meaning of human life offered by the Catholic theology on the last things. Our daily conduct gives us an orientation to a life that promises more joy for we are not only joining the ancestors from our lineage but the communion of ancestors from every tribe and tongue with the Risen Christ at the Centre (Cf. Rev. 7:9). Hence we were created for God and together with all the redeemed we look forward to the realization of our ultimate goal.

3.1.2.3 Notion of Time In the Agikuyu world view the concept of the last things is closely linked to time, events and seasons. For them time whether past, present or future is concrete and substantive. It is thus defined by Mbiti as “a composition of events which have occurred, those that are taking place now and those which are immediately to occur.”541 Agikuyu understanding of time is based on events and their purpose. Time was considered in reference to seasons, initiation age groups, outbreaks, and natural phenomenon etc. Cagnolo notes that, “Agikuyu divided the day and the night into portions corresponding to the various activities of their pastoral and agricultural life.”542 It is not the mere concept of numbers and their passing. Time is eschatologically relevant. The Catholic theology on the last things projects a day of the Parousia in which Christ will come again to judge the world and go with the elect in the

540 The arrival of Christ in his second coming will usher in the final goal of humanity which is to be with the Lord. Cf. H. Uprichard, “Eschatology in 1Thessalonians,” 69. 541 J. Mbiti, New Testament Eschatology in an African Background. (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 17. 542 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New edition, 205, The Agikuyu computed time quite differently from the modern way. For them all that happened in the past was described to have taken time in the past (tene). This could be fifty Years or centuries ago. The age of a person was calculated in view of his initiation age set since time before initiation was not put into consideration. For more on how Agikuyu dealt with the issue of time Cf. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, New edition, 204-211.

153 kingdom of his father, while the sinful will be damned forever. Agikuyu understood time by its value not just by its reality. In their world view their concept of time looks at the qualitative aspects of the events that gives time meaning. The Christian concept of time is the one of waiting the final event in the fulfillment of God’s promises to his people. However, the Christian notion is wider in that what we are waiting for has already been prefigured in the past and made known by Christ in his public ministry and we eagerly await its climax on the Parousia. Carota points to the relevance of time as a moment of freedom in fact a “time of trial” in which we should act in view of our eternal destiny.543 Thus time from a Christian point of view encompasses the three fold dimension past, present and future. Christians believe that God works his plan of salvation for mankind within time even though he is not bound to our time since He is eternal. Agikuyu affirmed the present in terms of their actions and deeds and interpreted them in view of their traditions which were long held by their forefathers. Time got its relevance in view of their destiny. In other words the Agikuyu calculated time with the important events of their lives. Time is irrelevant if nothing relevant has happened. For example an Agikuyu will not tell you I was born in 1925 but rather he will mention the major event that took place on that year either the age group that was initiated on that year or there was abundant harvest, drought or disease outbreak. This can be used in understanding the Catholic eschatology in terminating the irrelevant questions such as when Christ was born, when was the world created, when is the day of the parousia and instead ask meaningful questions such as why was the world created why was Christ incarnated and born in the human nature, why is Christ coming again? Such eschatological questions impose an obligation to us on how we ought to behave before the parousia. In turn these questions will definitely have a positive influence on the quality of life the Christian converts will lead in their communities hence making Catholic eschatology relevant today and make it a doctrine of the present not just a teaching of the things to come but of the things that makes our lives worthy living. The earthly time as Agikuyu believed and held must be lived qualitatively by being proactive in living the Gospel ideals with fraternal concern.

543 Carota, Traditional Catholic Sense of Time (Life) and no Time (eternal Life), www.traditionalcatholicpriest.com/2014/01/02/traditional.catholic-sense-of-time-life-and-no-time-eternal-life (accessed on Nov. 3, 2019).

154 3.1.2.4. Link of Relationship The eschatological dimension in the Agikuyu religion was meant to be the future of the Agikuyu which is a continuation of the blood ties that exists between the people of the Agikuyu nation. In other words it is a future of the people of the same ancestral origin. Nyamiti points out that the ancestral status of the African ancestors is primarily based on consanguineous ties they have with their living relatives.544 This means that the end times and the final destination of those to reach the life after was understood by the Agikuyu to belong to their kin only. The Agikuyu community as a whole had a strong ties with one another for they believed they will interact even in the life to come. This is well understood that the Agikuyu ancestors are taken to a certain extent to be the source of life for their earthly descendants. Their ancestors had a duty to receive their progeny in the afterlife. Hence, the goal of their life was well elaborated to be their community affair. The Agikuyu religion envisions an eschatology that is properly only to the Agikuyu nation. For in Africa each ethnic group had its own religion which was one and all the members of that group belonged to it by virtue of birth. There was no question of not belonging or even trying to make converts from other ethnic groups. The evangelistic mandate of Christianity, and the very nature of the Christian God, encompasses all ethnic groups on the planet for all time to work for its realization. It is God’s will to unite all things (Cf. Eph 1:10). The Christian message calls people out of earthly kingdoms into the Kingdom of God. The Catholic faith is a mission oriented that carries a divine mandate to make disciples from all over the world (Cf. Mt 28: 16- 20). Therefore, her eschatological vision is broader than that of the Agikuyu traditional religion. By being reborn through faith one becomes an adopted son of God and shares the vision of eternity. The Catholic eschatological dimension goes even further to include the universe. In the Catholic eschatology the future of humanity belongs to those who have a deeper relationship with the Trinity through His Church. This relationship is elaborated by the command of Love of God and neighbor (Cf. Mt 22:36-40). Catholic notion of the last things is not for a particular tribe, culture, nation or any other social group but is universal and open to all humanity. It includes the universe in its totality. Christianity traces the origin of humanity from

544 F. Wanjala, Basics of African Theology: A Cogent Mentor in Charles Nyamiti, (Rome: Litografia leberit Via Aurelia, 2008), 162.

155 God and through our first parents,545 all humanity share the same origin and by implication are called by God to the same destiny. Through the blood kinship that unites together the living on earth, the living dead and the ancestors the people of the same clan among the Agikuyu people can trace their origin from the family of Gikuyu and Mumbi. On the same note through spiritual kinship among the descendants of Adam and the grace of justification through Christ, the Catholics can trace their origin from the same source and form a strong spiritual bond in the mystical body of Christ with all people.546 This directly imposes a supernatural obligation to every member to look forward for the communion in Heaven. It is through this link that we acquired the sin of Adam and in the same manner we merit the fruits of Christ’s liberative works. Therefore, the entire humanity being truly the descendants of Adam are united into one family. The term Catholic itself refers to the idea of being universal hence we are linked through origin and by virtue of our nature are called and nourished to the grace of salvation regardless of our race, ethnicity, sex or any other form of human classification. Through baptism we have shared in the death of Christ and rose again to the joys of eternal life. The graces that Christ earned for us though the mystery of Incarnation as with the other merits he has earned for man are spiritual goods proper to every man who believes in Him. The end of the redeemed man is one for all people. In the Catholic set up the believers are linked to God through faith and the participation in liturgy with the Catholic Church. Observing the command of love establishes and explains in a deeper way our Christian commitment that demonstrates to the world the future which we await. This is to be with the Lord and our bonds are even made stronger. Traditionally understood the Agikuyu Ngai was approached through the ancestors as a medium of reaching to him. Ancestors were charged by Ngai with the responsibility of being channels of his blessings and rebuke to the community depending on their conduct. Ancestors were the link between Ngai and the Agikuyu community and the individual members. In Christianity through Incarnation Christ touches the two realms, that is humanity and divinity. He is the best link to join man and God and God and man. Although the Catholics believe in the communion of the saints, they are not the only dispensers of God’s grace and they do not hinder us from reaching to God but facilitate through their intercessions the efficiency of attaining God’s grace. But in the Agikuyu religious view the ancestors were the link par excellence.

545 Nyamiti, Studies in African Christian Theology, 66. 546 D. Russerl , The Method and Message of Jewish Apocaryptic, (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964), 380.

156

3.1.2.5. Ancestor-hood and Sainthood In the Agikuyu religious world view ancestor-hood is a sacred status that is accorded to the Agikuyu elders who pass on from the earthly existence having fulfilled conditions necessary for this state.547 Of all things one must have lived a good moral family life after which he passed on naturally in old age. The one who had died prematurely could not be assumed into the communion of the ancestors. Others who passed on through tragedies, suicide or put to death as a punishment of their sins could not in any way be incorporated in the548 company of the ancestors. In this case ancestor-hood was not a right of every deceased member of the community rather it was an earned status through one’s life and participation in the full circle of the rites of passage which was climaxed through the burial rites of an elder. It is to such a person that the privileges of being a community ancestor with all the rights and privileges thereof being conferred upon him. The Catholic sainthood is a call of every believer to be in union with God and with other saints on earth and in Heaven. This state of life is the destiny of all people who die in friendship with God having been purified their souls before death or after having undergone purgation in purgatory. This is opposed to the Agikuyu ancestor hood which puts into consideration the age of the deceased thus excluding the innocent little ones who pass on due to various reasons. Those who are killed or martyred violently on account of their faith in Christ from the Agikuyu view are excluded from the communion of the ancestors. Thus the Catholic criterion on sainthood is more open and dynamic than that of the Agikuyu ancestor-hood. Ancestor-hood describes explicitly the belief in life after death. However, it cannot be literally considered to be equal to sainthood. But it can be used as a foundation to understanding sainthood in Catholic faith. This is seen in light of the fact that the sainthood incorporates all those who die as believers regardless of their age or the manner of their death or rather the circumstances surrounding their death. The cult of the ancestors can help us understand fully the place of the dead in the resurrection of Christ, the role of the dead towards the living and vice versa. Of special importance is the tripartite nature of the Church as Chinendu notes, “the cult of

547 Cf. C. Nyamiti, Christ as our Ancestor: Christology From an African Perspectives, (Gweru: Mambo Press, 1984). Also Cf. S. Abiodun, “The Cult of Ancestors in African Traditional Religion,” An Encyclopedia of the Arts Vol. 10, no. 1, (2006):29. 548 Cf. H. Denzinger, Compedium of Creeds, Definitions and Declarations on matters of Faith and Morals, 43rd Edition, (San Francisco Ignatius Press, 2010), no 1000.

157 the ancestors indeed holds an important place in the family and social life. Conceptual understanding of the cult of ancestors helps us to relate the ancestral cult to sainthood.”549 Arguing and being suspicious to African religious cultural elements as demonic is injurious to their identity. It is an abuse to their tradition which is a major contributive factor to what they are today.

3.1.2.6 Mediation Christ is the Mediator between Man and God. This is well proclaimed in the Sacred Scriptures. (Cf. Heb 1:1ff, 8:6. 9:15, 12:24, and 1Tm 2:5). However, in the Catholic Tradition the Christian faith is mediated through other beings even though the chief mediator is Christ Himself.550 Sainthood does not lessen the mediatorial role of Christ. Neither does it render useless our prayer life through which we communicate to God directly. The agents of mediation participate in His Mediatorial role through which we acquire more graces. The mediatorial role of the saints is a divine obligation given to them by God. The Church teaches that “When the witness or saints enter into the joy of their Master, they are put in charge of many things. Their intercession is their most exalted service to God’s plan. We can and should ask them to intercede for us and for the whole world.”551 The Holy ones in Heaven through their intercession are a sure support, and guide to the pilgrim Church as they wait for us when we shall be joined to them in the beatific vision. They do not remove God from his position neither do they make any decision on the pilgrim Church but rather facilitate through their prayers our spiritual progress in order to attain the exulted position they have already achieved in Heaven. Saints are thus graduates of the school of earthly life and can through their intercessions and example help the Christians on earth to come to their graduation successfully and join the Church triumphant.552

549 E. Chinendu, “Cult of the Ancestors and Saints: A Liturgical Evaluation,” Joras, Nigerian Journal of Religion and Society Vol. 8, (2018): 122. 550 The principle of Mediation in the Catholic faith is primarily on Christ since He is hypostatically linked to the Divine and Human nature. He can represent fully the Divine to the Human and human to the divine. Cf Catholic Encyclopedia; mediator (Christ as mediator) www.newadvent.org/cathen/10118a.htm (accessed on Nov. 4, 2019). 551 CCC, no. 2683 also Cf. Mt 25:21. 552 Cf. Hugh, Why do Catholics pray to Saints? http://www.catholicbridge.com/catholics/saints.php (accessed on Dec. 23, 2016).

158 In the Agikuyu religion ancestral spirits and deities are usually the main mediators that communicate with humans on behalf of Ngai. The ancestors are superhuman in that they are higher with a lot of influence on the living members of their community. They are in close proximity to the Supreme Being. In fact they are the chief mediators between their community and Ngai. Their mediation is higher than that exercised by the saints. Ancestors could influence God to curse or to bless and they in turn could come down and punish the errant members of their families. This explains why the Agikuyu were to appease the ancestors more often than they did to the Ngai. They interacted more often with the spirit of their ancestors than they did with Ngai.553 Ngai was a distant being from the community than the ancestors. Hence offering cordial and respectful relationship with the ancestors assured them of a harmonious living with the spirit world. Above all keeping the right relationship with the ancestors was necessary so that they represent the community in the best way possible and speaking positively to Ngai about their entire community. This is in contrast to the Catholic saints whose main purpose is only to intercede and seek God’s mercy on the pilgrim Church. They do not invoke curses on the living. In the Agikuyu culture the spirits of the deceased are not perceived by the living members as the carriers of their petitions to God rather on their own they can decide what is good for their community. This is contrary to the Christian notion of the spirits of the dead in which the saints and the Church are intercessors of the pilgrim Church in which they offer their prayers to God. The power of the saints is to intercede and offer a model of Christian values to the living members of the Christian community.554 They participate in the mediatorial role of Christ since Christ is the only mediator between God and man. However, in the Agikuyu religious view the ancestors are the chief intercessors while in Catholic faith Christ Jesus, God’s own son, takes the “groaning” of the creation to God.

553 When an Agikuyu elder was making a prayer to Ngai he could not forget to mention this phrase. “We wenyenyagia irima na ndugiagiagwo, we githuku, ithe wa andu othe , Wee wombire Gikuyu na Mumbi na karia gothe kari thi kongoyaga.” Basically this means that Ngai is all powerful he shakes mountains, He is the source and father of all people. He created Gikuyu and Mumbi and all that lives on the world. These words captured Ngai’s omnipotence and were the introductory remarks of their petitions. The phrase ndagiagiagwo (he is not to be disturbed) was a humble way of asking him to listen to the petition mercifully. They also used this phrase as a demonstration of their Holy fear towards God. Cf Boniface Murage (ed), Nyeri Ecclesiastical Province Celebration, Golden Jubilee, Catholic Action 1958-2008, (Nyeri: Communications Department, 2008), 19. 554 The Intercession of the Saints, https://www.catholic.com>tract>the-intercession-of-the-saints (accessed on Nov. 4, 2019).

159 3.2 Doctrine of Christian Eschatology in the Light of the Agikuyu Understanding of the Last Things

3.2.1 Death Among the Agikuyu people death is one of the inescapable facts of human life. This explains why in their cultural context they had listed it down as one of the rites of passage in which all people were expected and prepared to pass through. It was the last rite of passage in which one was initiated to afterlife and eternity. Death as a rite of passage was a mark that pointed out that earthly life is not complete. Death as such led the human person to the final destiny of human existence. The Catholic eschatology has shown that through death human life reaches its climax in being ushered in to the life everlasting. The incompleteness of the present moment belongs to the very essence of Christian revelation. The entire dimension of the life after death takes a new direction in Christianity through the person of our Lord Jesus Christ. Thus human death is a stage of life in which the next phase must be well prepared prior to ones death following the example of Christ. In the Catholic theological perspective the resurrection of Jesus is at the center of the doctrine of the last things. His resurrection has ushered in and given the assurance of the universal resurrection of all the dead.555 As is the case with any other stage of life that is deemed important among the Agikuyu people prior preparation to face death in a Christian way is a noble duty for both the individual and the community. This offers an urgent invitation to all the living to consider death not as a threat to their life but as a stage of life that is worth investing in for a fulfilling life thereafter. In order to live a fulfilling life here on earth that guarantees a bright future with the Lord considering death and its implications is necessary in order to receive the eternal merits. Death brings physical separation with the members of the community but it transports the deceased into the next world. This brings into one two moods of joy and sorrow. On one hand the deceased experienced joy by joining his ancestors and in their communion. In the spiritual world, life is better than the life he led in the physical world. Death conferred higher status as compared to the status experienced by those on the material world. Death on the other hand brought sorrow in that the dead were separated from the living members of their community. His

555 C. Shonborn, God Sent His Son, A Contemporary Christology, trans., Henry Taylor, (San Francisco, Ignatius Press 2010), 326.

160 physical absence from the family and the community at large was something that the living members of his community felt sorrow for. Additionally it brought the general fear of the unknown thus bringing grief to both the dying and his relatives. As a rite of passage the Agikuyu people had made it clear to her members that it requires courage which came through prior preparation in one’s lifetime. By understanding death as a mark of maturity the Agikuyu immerses death in the mystery of salvation. And as a reality that awaits the entire humanity then the Agikuyu are part of the beneficiaries of the redemptive works of Christ which are central events in the Catholic eschatology. Today majority of the Agikuyu people are Christians.556 Hence, the Christian concept of death sheds light on the proper understanding of death and its link to the salvation history to them. The merits of Christ extend out to them and guide them to their unification with God at the end of the ages. There is a need to dispel the fear that comes along with death. Human death is a bridge to life everlasting as made explicit through Christ’s own death which has transformed the entire understanding of death. Because the excellence of the life of the redeemed as Agikuyu had understood it proper and prior preparation for death is vital for the attainments of the fullness of human life. One of the ways that the Agikuyu prepared for death was living virtuously by observing the moral code as prescribed by their community. Righteousness consisted in living in accordance to the social norms as it was taught and handed over by the elders to the young generations. In like manner the followers of Christ have been taught by Christ to be righteous under the model of God Himself who does not allow any impurity in his sight. God calls all people to holiness (Cf. Mt 5:48).557 The Agikuyu Ngai like the Christian God was well known to be righteous in himself and in his deeds. Living a life of holiness is the best way to demonstrate our preparedness in facing death without fear. To be conscious of death today must be reinterpreted to be a call to lead a holy life for no one knows the day of his death. But death is sure to come to every human person.558 The reality of our death is dawning on us every day. We have a duty to respond to this reality with clean pure hearts that are made so with virtues both in our words, deeds and

556 Kikuyu Religion and Beliefs, www.bluegecko.org (accessed on Feb. 13, 2019). 557 The Second Vatican Council in an elaborate way underlined that all people are called by God to a life of Holiness. Cf. LG, no. 39-42. 558 Agikuyu believed that upon creation one’s day of living in the world are numbered and his death fixed. Cf. Leaky, The Southern Kikuyu Before 1903, 937.

161 thoughts. Death is an experience that equalizes all people and reminds us in a unique way of our common origin and destiny. Well understood by the people of faith death ought to inspire us to establish strong relationships as we approach it with courage and hope. The Christian approach to death can heighten people’s appreciation of the world around them. Christians should use the world as a stepping stone to heaven. Since death is the gateway to our eternal destiny. In this way the material world will not distract us on our pilgrimage. The Agikuyu and Catholic understanding of death as transition from this world to the next is an eschatologically relevant notion in which death is a step towards our eternal destiny. Death does not destroy or diminish human life but confirms life in its fullness. It is by dying that we receive life in full measure where death has no power to destroy it. Death is now understood as a step to life unending and not as the cessation of human life. This was made clear through the wisdom that was expounded by the notions of death expressed in our chapter one. The notions demonstrated clearly that death leads us on to another realm of existence. Christian understanding of death inserts us to the life of God in communion with other believers through the event of our Lord Jesus Christ. Death is therefore, a gracious moment in which together with other believers we attain perfect unity with them and with God, in the Mystical Body of Christ. Thus from the Christian and the Agikuyu point of view death of a good man must not be feared but should be a cause of admiration and joy. Although biblically death results from our transgressions in the garden of Eden now through Christ’s death those who have repented their sins and follow faithfully his precepts are new creatures and death for them ceases to be punitive but a channel for redemption and the road to the attainment of our eternal destiny. Following the death of Jesus Christ who is the meeting point of God and man we are now seated where He sits on the right hand of his Father. We are in His Body, the Church and we journeying to where he is. Death opens our eyes to yearn for the attainment of our destiny where our joy will be complete. On the other hand our awareness of death as a stage of life informs us the need to live our lives in line with the Christian and social demands looking forward to the attainment of the Heavenly glory. The joy we yearn for here in this world is assured in its fullness in the life to come. Through death we are not only joined with our ancestors as the Agikuyu had taught but we are joined with the whole battalion of humanity led by the perfect man and God where all sorrows and sufferings will be no more. (Cf. Rev. 21:4). Accepting death in the Agikuyu community having lived a fulfilling family religious and

162 social life was highly esteemed. In like manner the Christians must reorient his life towards dying with the Christian hope of resurrection. Death ought to be accepted since it leads us to our eternal home and makes us equal.559 In fact, His Son having trekked the same route of death is a firm foundation of the goodness of death looking at what he gained after he died having lived in full His Father’s will in word and deed. Jesus emerged victorious over death since prior to His death he led a holy obedient faithful life to His Father. Both the Christian and the Agikuyu notion of death have an invitation upon us to see death not as annihilation but rather as a direction towards fulfilled life in which all the promises of the creator are realized in full. Humanity must accept the inevitability of death and prepare for it adequately during their earthly life. The need for preparing to die well and to cope with the sorrow that death brings must be informed by the fact that life continues after death into the life of the resurrection. Preparing to join our ancestors of faith and all those who have lived exemplarily from our cultural background becomes an urgent adventure for all people. God as the source of human life and its sustainer ought to be trusted in that He will take care of our departed brethren as He will usher us into his presence when our death comes. He will unite us with those who passed on before us. Death as understood by the Agikuyu to be a calling, an invitation from the ancestors with Catholic eschatology now is made clear to be a calling from God who is the terminator of human earthly existence.560 As a calling from God it should be responded to in faith and trust thus the need to believe and trust in God before we surrender. Additionally since we do not know the exact day of our death every day must be a day to believe and trust in his promises and witness to his love through our daily conduct. Agikuyu feared death but the death of someone who had lived a lengthy dignified earthly life was highly admired. Such a death was taken to be a sign of God’s blessing and a departure to the next phase of existence in which he was assimilated into the ancestral world. Though this departure was only physical since his spirit was ever and more close to the living watching over them and granting them spiritual guidance, the guarantee offered by the Catholic eschatological dimension dispels fear of loss. This understanding helps us to grasp the Catholic teaching that death leads us to the life everlasting in which God

559 J. Mason, Death and its concepts- the Philosophers Magazine, https://www.philosophersmag.com/opinion/17- death-and-its-concepts (accessed on Nov. 10, 2019). 560 Christians also have the idea of death as a divine call. Cf. M. Champagne, Theology and Meaning of Death in the Catholic Tradition, www.jesuscrucified.net (accessed on Nov. 4, 2019).

163 summons his people to join him in eternal gladness. However, the longevity of life is to be understood qualitatively not based on the number of years but on righteousness. Death stands at the center of this world and the world to come. It is the hinge upon which the earthly life is closed and a new dawn of human existence is ushered in.561 A second door is opened in which man lives in total freedom and perfection. The deceased are not dead but they are living in that they are alive here with us through naming.562 They are not dead from our memory and our interactions with one another. They are only dead in so far as they have physically departed from us. Death as such gives the deceased a new form of existence which is wider than the one he had prior to his physical departure. This is a new way of reframing the theology of death as a continuum in which the dead are alive in our memory as we pray for them. From the Christian point of view we pray that they rest in peace and in turn that they watch over us for they are on a higher platform than we are. This will automatically enhance family cohesion even after the death of the parents or the grandparents. Such quarrels like fighting for inheritance will be solved. Lastly as Kombo notes death is part of the doctrine of the last things. “So death squarely belongs to eschatology and not to other areas of knowledge; and it is continuous and instantaneous, physical and spiritual.”563 No one denies the fact of the physical separation through death but spiritually we are never separated from the deceased but we are more united through spiritual everlasting bonds. We therefore concur with Mbiti as he asserts that death must be viewed as “a separation and not annihilation; the dead person is suddenly cut off from the human society and yet the corporate group clings to him. This is shown through the elaborate funeral rites, the dirges and other ways of keeping in touch with the departed.”564 Death is therefore an event that is a continuum of life that spills over to the spiritual realm. This means that we are dead, we are dying, and we will die. We are dead in the sense that through our first parents and our sins we died from the paradise. We are dying through the fact that every day we are coming closer to our

561 CCC, no. 1010. Christian death has a positive meaning in that through Christ’s death he has brought a radical transformation on the human death. CCC, no. 1007. 562 The Agikuyu gives name to the new born after their grandparents, uncles, and aunties who in turn were named after their grandparents whom very likely were deceased. This process of naming ended up handing over the names of their ancestors to their young ones. Cf. O. Jenkins and S. Turner, The Kikuyu People of Kenya, orvillejenkins.com/profiles/kikuyu/html (accessed on Nov. 8, 2019). 563 J. Kombo, The Past, The Present, and the Future of African Christianity: An Eschatological Vision for African Christianity, https://www.ibr.org>files>pdf>T2komboeschatology (accessed on Sept. 12, 2019). 564 Mbiti, African Religion and Philosophy, 46.

164 tomb for the days of our earthly life is numbered, while as we ought to be aware that we will die on that day when our death will finally catch up with us and worse still we will die eternally if we don’t get reconciled with God and with one another. Accepting death as a reality that awaits each one of us becomes a sign of human and Christian maturity, so that we live in a way that guarantees a good death that confers blessings to us in the life after death. The inevitability of death must be understood in its right perspective. We agree with Rausch who put it that, “it is inevitable that each of us must one day die, no matter how much our culture tries to deny the reality of death.”565 Death unites all people. It is a common anthropological reality to people of faith or of no faith alike they are confronted with it. As we reflect on the last things death comes up spontaneously as the most immediate and empirically certain of last things. As the Wisdom literature of the Old Testament emphasizes, death comes alike to all, rich and poor, wise and foolish. "Who can live and never see death?" (Ps. 89:48). For Christians, however, death is never simply a natural event. Death is a consequence of sin. As Paul says: "The wages of sin is death" (Rom. 6:23). Central to the Christian message of hope is the conviction that death is not final there is another way out from the pains of death. St Paul questions the victory of death because he knows it has no power on the disciples of Christ. "O death, where is thy victory? O death, where is thy sting?" (1 Cor. 15:55). In the Kingdom of God, "death shall be no more" (Rev. 21:4).” Death is not just punitive but salvific in line with the economy of salvation.

3.2.2 Particular Judgment The Christian teaching on the particular judgment argues for the fact that when one is on his last moment of his earthly existence he has already made a choice through the life he has lived in the world. Upon his death, he receives a judgment in which he deserves due to the quality of his earthly life. In view of his earthly life he merits either reward or punishment as he looks forward towards the final judgment which will take place on the day of the Parousia.566 The deceased has no chance of altering his fundamental option. As one breathes his last he has already shown whether he belongs to reward or punishment and that’s where his soul goes to wait for the final judgment. However, the Mother Church as taught by the Holy Spirit does not

565 Rausch, Eschatology, Liturgy and Christology, 103. 566 Cf. CCC, nos. 1021-1022, where the Church holds that when one has died he loses the freedom to either accept or reject God’s offer of salvation. He has already made a choice for God or not.

165 cease to invoke upon the dead the mercy of God so as those who die having not been purified through God’s mercy they might be purified. The Holy Scriptures attests to this by arguing for the mercy of God and the need to pray for the dead. When one dies his soul may find itself in purgatory for purgation, Hell for eternal condemnation or in Heaven for blessedness. Among the Agikuyu people the evaluating the conduct of a person was a reality well understood by the community. When one did well he was congratulated and rewarded but when one broke the social norms he was either punished or warned. Particular judgment was something that happened on the spot. Hence, the Christian teaching on particular judgment was well laid in the Agikuyu traditional religion. In this case then when we think about punishing the evil doers, rewarding the good people or even at times warning offenders of certain crimes our ideas on the particular judgment are made explicit. On the other hand from the Christian point of view the daily conduct of every believer contributes in the determination of his case on his particular judgment. Our daily actions are the determinant factors on our destiny upon our death. The Christian aware of the particular judgment must yearn to lead a faithful life that is in line with the Gospel ideals. So that on his last day he will not be ashamed to breath his last and face his particular judgment. Particular judgment thus exalts the Christians to be conscious of their words and deeds for they are the basis of their judgment. Particular judgment therefore, begins when we act or alter words in favor of God’s commandment or against the divine precepts. In other words we need to see particular judgment as happening in our here and now. They contribute tremendously to the determination of our fate after death. In a nutshell the eschatological notion of the particular judgment must carry with in itself a transformative agenda in our lives.

3.2.3 Purgatory The Catholic teaching on purgatory is one of the controversial teachings among the protestants and evangelicals.567 However, from the Agikuyu religious background the issue of a place of the spirits [Kwa Ngoma] can be well understood to mean the purgatory but only made explicit through the Catholic teaching on eschatology. Among the Agikuyu the concept of divine

567 The Catholic Church in her tradition has seen in the Old Testament the Scriptural passages that alludes to the doctrine of purgatory (Cf. 2 Mac 12:46). In the New Testament the same doctrine finds enough scriptural proof which has even been uplifted by the fact of the Christian tradition and apparitions that has added weight on its reality. (Cf. Mt 5:26, Mt 12:32, Lk 12:59, Rev 21:27). The entire theology of purgatory is based on the need of purification before one can approach the all holy God as was seen by prophet Isaiah during his call Cf. Is 6:1ff.

166 mercy was well grounded in that they believed that Ngai is both merciful and just like held in the Catholic theology. Purgatory finds a strong ground when seen under the banner of God’s mercy to humanity for without his mercy no one would stand. When the Agikuyu were disposing the body of the deceased the many rituals that were done pointed to the fact of beseeching Ngai and the spirits to look favorably on the deceased, to receive his spirit in the world of the ancestors and allow him to enter into the communion of the spiritual world peacefully. The Christian teaching on purgatory expresses God’s unfailing mercy to humanity. At the same time it shows His desire and will that all men might be saved.568 No one should be lost except those who will so. Agikuyu had understood that Ngai having created the world wants man to live happily in a community both in this world and in the world to come. Thus purgatory comes to aid those who die with some debts to clear so that the mercy of God together with the help of other believers through prayers and sacrifices especially the sacrifice at the altar all may attain the heavenly bliss. They remain in purgatory awaiting his mercy. Purgatory as a Christian teaching bolsters hope for salvation since we are provided with a state of purification if we die in a state of sin but still not disregarding Christ’s redemptive role and our participation in the ecclesial teachings and life. Above all the Catholic doctrine on purgatory further emphasizes God’s love to us. The Christian virtue of hope finds a strong basis on the teaching on purgatory. Purgatory and the entire process of purgation are meant to inspire us to hope that although salvation is an assiduous task God desires that we be saved at all cost. God as our merciful and loving Father understands us more than we dare to know. However, we must play our role. Our communality of faith is well demonstrated in the perspectives of the purgation since the tripartite nature of the Church is brought into play. In this dimension the Church in heaven prays and supports the souls in purgation by interceding for their release. On the other hand the Church militant intercedes for those souls in purgation for their salvation as they yearn to join them in Heaven. When the souls in purgatory gets relieve from God through the prayers of the Church militant and triumphant they in turn on arrival in heaven join the saints in being the intercessory body for those in militant and purgative stage of their pilgrimage. Purgatory contributes in the unification of the Church of Christ and directs her to her master as she moves towards the day of final judgment.

568 The Church understands purgatory as the final face of purifying totally the elect. This is contrary to the damnation of the wicked where for them they are destined to hell Cf. CCC, nos 1030-1031.

167 Rightly put then purgatory is a source of hope and assurance of attaining the promises of Christ as far as the salvation of humanity is concerned.

3.2.4 Final Judgment and the Parousia The final day of the world history is the last great salvation event that is remaining since all the other events have taken place. The promises made will be fulfilled when Christ will come again to judge the living and the dead as we profess in the creed. The arrival of Christ during the parousia is what our liturgy directs us to and is what the world awaits. It will be a catastrophic and a universal event visible and relevant to the entire universe. The purpose of Christ’s second coming will be twofold. That is to judge and secondly to offer to His Father the renewed world. For the elect the parousia is a hope instilling event.569 The final judgment will send each person where his conduct deserves. That is either Heaven or Hell. Those destined to heaven will go with Christ and those destined to Hell will be forever lost in the abyss of meaninglessness and suffering. These two events will happen simultaneously as presented by Matthew the evangelist (Cf. Mt 25:31-46). It will be a day of mixed feelings to the humanity. Those who will be found worthy of Him will be full of joy while those damned forever will weep uncontrollably perpetually. On this day purgatory and the old world will be brought to their conclusion. The concept of final judgment provokes a sad feeling but it ought not to be so for the believers. It should reassure our hope because final judgment means that all the injustices that have happened throughout the world history will be settled once and for all. On the other hand before the day of the final judgment we are called upon to settle our unjust acts before he comes to vindicate the oppressed and the victims of our injustices. The reality of Christ coming as a King invites us to apply for being admitted into his Kingdom by simply entering into the Church through Baptism and living fully our baptismal commitment. In African Traditional Religion final judgment was not considered. “Among the Agikuyu as was typical in most indigenous African communities though ones moral misconduct could provoke divine anger and punishment, such punishment was this worldly rather than

569 F. Viljoen, “Mark the Gospel of the Suffering Son of Man, An Encouragement Directed to a Despondent Religious minority in the City of Rome”, School of Biblical Studies and Bible Languages Vol.36, no 3 (2002): 467.

168 delayed and other worldly.”570 Even though in the Agikuyu religious background the idea of final judgment and the parousia are lacking they are not excluded from the final destiny of humanity as programmed by God. It is our task to express and present this eschatological dimension to them in a lively way that will in turn inspire them to holiness and prayerful lives. After the final judgment during the parousia we will be ushered in either to Heaven or Hell. God’s offer of eternal salvation is a free gift that he extends to all people. Each person is required to use his freedom, time and other resources in response to such a noble Gift. Like any other gift that God gives to man he waits humbly for man’s response. He does not want us to act as if we are slaves for through baptism we have been adopted as his sons with our freedom intact thus he needs sons in his kingdom and not slaves. The final judgment is a determination of whether we have used our gifts from God, and freedom to respond positively to his invitation. Those who will have made a choice and followed his invitation will be received warmly in his Kingdom. Consequently those who will have rejected His offer for salvation and denied his invitation for repentance will automatically have used their free will to say no to him and thus they will be cursed forever.

3.2.5 Reward In accordance with the Agikuyu religious wisdom, wathiki ni igai (obedience is a reward).571 Obedience is highly regarded in all human communities. From this wisdom the religious obedience conferred blessings to the one who follows religious prescriptions faithfully. In the Agikuyu religious heritage faithful observance of ancestral religion was highly upheld. It contained in itself a notion of being rewarded. There were temporal rewards in accordance to the good deeds done by the members of the Agikuyu religion. There was also a general expectation of the ultimate reward after ones earthly existence. Agikuyu believed such a reward entailed reception in the body of ancestors where one found a perfect peace and lived in communion with the living and the spiritual world. This eternal reward was directed towards a harmonious living within the spiritual world including the Supreme Being. Those who were religiously right

570 After Life African Concepts, encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and- maps/afterlife-african-concepts, (accessed on Nov. 3, 2019). 571 E. Mugo, Kikuyu People; A Brief Outline of their Customs and Traditions, (Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1982), 9.

169 observed all the social norms because religion was not separable from life itself in the Agikuyu set up. After death it was expected that the deceased in accordance with the quality of life he lived on the world would be admitted into the realm of the ancestors. If not he would be lost forever by being cast out as a wandering Spirit. In light of this being accepted into the communion of the ancestors was itself the ultimate goal of human life in the Agikuyu religious view. In other words to be a human person among the Agikuyu meant to be one with the other both in the material and the spiritual world. This communal aspect was a gracious moment where one was conferred eternal blessings in the communion of the ancestors. It gave them the privileges of having a direct influence on the community members. This influence included either a blessing or a curse. On one hand a blessing in situations of mediating for the living community members and safeguarding the community interests. On the other hand a curse played a role of disciplining the errant members of the community. From the Christian point of view a human person ought to live righteously in obedience to God’s will by observing the commands of love in word and deed. The ultimate end of a human person from the Christian point of view is to join the communion of the saints in the abode of God and live happily in that communion. The Catholic point of view aspires for a supernatural reward which is our eschatological concern.572 The eternal bliss is kept for those who live their earthly lives obediently and faithfully to God. The preparation and orientation of reaching heaven begins here and now. Heaven is the eternal reward that is conferred to the members of the human family who have lived productively in their earthly existence. This entails living in harmony with one another and with the creator. In other words the communal consciousness is paramount as far as eternal reward is concerned. This is made explicit through faithful observance of the set standards.573 This finds recognition from the Agikuyu cultural wisdom who believed that the obedient person must be rewarded. After death the best reward is to enjoy an everlasting life in the presence of the creator together with the other obedient servants of the Living God. This is the eternal longing of every believer.

572 J. Akin, Righteousness and Merit, ewtn.com/Catholicism/library/righteousness-and-merit-1139, (accessed on Nov. 5,, 2019). 573 The New Testament in various passages underlines the reward that will be accorded to the righteous in the life to come. These passages includes, Mt 20:1-16, 5:12, Jn 4:36, 1Cor 3:8, 14, Col 3:24, Rom 3:2-6 among others.

170 The Agikuyu Christians joins the whole body of Christians who do long for heaven as they move daily towards its realization through their virtuous lives. The human person desires happiness. The promise of eternal life promises an answer to our quest for unending happy life. Venturing into the business of widening our horizon in preparation to its achievement becomes an urgent task to every person. The excellence of life in heaven as promised by Christ surpasses the communion of ancestors since it includes communion with God himself. The Christian notion of heaven imposes even greater joy than anything else. The notion of heaven and its excellence must inspire us to live harmoniously with one another. This can be done by taking care of the poor ones of the Lord and at the same time worshipping the one true God in spirit and truth. The reward as upheld by Catholic teaching is well captured in the teaching of the resurrection in which the resurrection of Christ incorporates the entire humanity into the Mystical Body of Christ. Christ though individually understood as one through the mystery of Incarnation is a corporate being who has assimilated humanity in Himself. As such Christ is not only for the living but also for the dead. Through his descent to the realm of the dead as we profess in the Creed he desires to see humanity with Him where He reigns. Agikuyu people referred to those recently dead as the living dead underlying the fact that even though dead they are still alive in the memory of their community. However, with the Risen Christ the dead are not dead for they are in His Mystical Body. And so even in Christian terms the deceased faithful can rightly be called the living dead for they are physically absent from the world but they are alive in the Mystical Body of Christ and in the memory of their brethren. The dead are not dead they are one with the risen Christ awaiting their bodily resurrection. The event of Christ’s resurrection instills hope to both the living and the dead giving a firm assurance of the life everlasting which is a promise to the people of faith. His resurrection is our resurrection in that it assures that we too will resurrect to be with him forever together with all the others who died in Christ. Our reward is therefore resurrection with the purpose of being with the other.574 The other here includes our ancestors whom previously before the coming of Christianity the Agikuyu had believed that they die to be one with their ancestors. But in the Catholic

574 The concept of reward in the Catholic theology need to be understood in its right dimension in that man can only attain this state of perfection worthy to be rewarded primarily because of God’s will to justify him. Secondarily we qualify a reward on account of our cooperation with God in the work of salvation. Cf. CCC, no. 2025.

171 understanding the body of ancestors is wider to include our patriarchs of faith who lived virtuously from all tribes tongues and nations.(Cf. Rev 7:9-17). The Agikuyu ancestors are not mythical beings but they are one with us having led exemplar lives and with the descent of Christ to the dead they are awakened through resurrection to eternal life where they intercede for their descendants that they too may attain eternal salvation. They are united in that they do share in the hope of attaining the everlasting joy with God. The hope of the resurrection as promised and demonstrated physically by Christ’s own resurrection is a shared platform of the dead and the living in which both are united with Christ at the center. In other words it is made present in our now of time even though it is beyond time for it is eternity. Agikuyu do not have the courage to talk about death or even to think of their beloved ones dying for their value of relatives and friends is very high. They have a high regard of human life and its eternity. Thus conceptualizing of death becomes problematic they only accept it as the last result. This explains why they do not write down their wills for dying is not well received. But positively the denial of the reality of death is itself an affirmation of the fact that man was created to have life in its fullness. Though even with Christian the fear of death is explicit. But with the resurrection of Christ and the promise of everlasting life death ceases to be death but an avenue to the reward of eternal life. Hence death is contrary to man’s nature for he is meant for life unending which after the fall is restored through repentance and God’s mercy.

3.2.6 Punishment The phenomenon of punishment in every human society is a well-known fact as far as safeguarding the rights of every member is concerned and for social cohesion in maintaining law and order.575 In ordinary human life those who disobey the set standards of human conduct are punished. In like manner since human life continues after the earthly life there is a need for ultimate punishment to those who stubbornly lead a life of disobedience and those who are unruly in human communities. Among the Agikuyu punishment was administered to all those who broke the set standards of behavior in view of rectifying them so that there can be harmony in the community. Nyawira notes that, “All methods of punishment in the Kikuyu society aimed at making the

575 M. Johnson, Theories of Punishment: 5Ways to Keep Society Together, https://blog.udemy.com/theories-of- punishment (accessed on Nov. 10, 2019).

172 people good and hospitable members of the society.”576 The serious crimes were dealt with by the council of elders while invoking Ngai and the ancestors.577 If one was punished and he resisted the allurements of a good behavior he was considered an outcast. Since the Agikuyu knew so well that to exist is to be one with the other then there was a great fear of being expelled from the community. They did all they could to avoid such a scenario. If an Agikuyu member after warning and punishment refused to abandon his bad behavior the clan would disown him.578 In the Christian set up God as our loving Father has given us the commandments as expressed in the Scriptures. Christ codified the old law into the law of love that touches the two realms of humanity and divinity. Expressing the Love of God and neighbor in one’s life is the only sure way of escaping the divine judgment that expels one from the community of God’s chosen people. Eternal punishment is more devastating than being expelled from the land of the Agikuyu ancestors. The knowledge of punishment of being denied entrance to the communion of ancestors after death from the Agikuyu worldview is a fertile ground in which the doctrine of hell can be explained and taught to the Agikuyu Christians. The concept of punishment as held by various communities directs man to do good so as to avoid punishment. There is the need to have discipline in every human society and those who do not observe the discipline expected in their context invites the one charged with the responsibility of safeguarding the community’s interest to impose punishment. In this case then the Christians must observe the Christian discipline and avoid being punished by God. The community of God’s people has Christ at the center that holds this community in being. A believer looks upon God to take note of his faithfulness in observing the discipline he has prescribed to his followers. An Agikuyu father had the duty of instilling discipline to the members of his family and made sure that his household lives the virtues and values that unites and enhances mutual and respectful living. God as such a father of his universal family takes note of our good conduct and commends the children who do live according to his expectation. The children who disregard his Word attract his wrath. The Christian God more than being a disciplinarian father is also a merciful God. Those who realize their flaws and come back to him

576 M. Nyawira, The Philosophical-Ethical Principles Regarding the Practice of Punishment in Kenya. Thesis Submitted in Nairobi University, (Nairobi: University of Nairobi, 1996), 72. 577 Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, 215. 578 Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 155.

173 he readily pardons and accepts them back in his household (Cf. Lk 15:1-32). The idea of punishment that leads to eternal damnation should not instill fear upon the believers but rather invite them to repentance and reconciliation with God and our brothers in Christ. The fear of being rejected into the communion of ancestors after ones death can offer a good and deeper explanation in understanding the question of being rejected in the presence of God in the life after death.

3.3 Some Doctrinal Recommendations 3.3.1 Building Hope-Filled Communities The concept of a community is evidently very strong in the Agikuyu cultural context. To be a person in the Agikuyu world view is to belong to a given community that owns you and a community in which you exist and have your identity. This was summed up rightly by Mbiti when he noted that, “I am because we are and since we are therefore I am.”579 Members of the Agikuyu community are obligated to live their lives conscious of the primacy of their community and to choose the community before the individual. Fulfilling their community obligations was one of the ways of ascertaining ones existence and relevance. This demonstrated the fact that one is alive and existing as one with the other and in the other sharing origin and destiny. The theology of the last things should awaken in all human communities the need of the other and in so doing build communities that are caring and responsible to the needs of all. The Agikuyu Council of Elders the highest governing body in the Agikuyu nation safeguarded the community interest and guided the individuals to attune themselves with the community demands. They guaranteed the social order and the general welfare of all members. The council ensured that every member respects the social norms and does participate in it according to his status in the society. The council had power and authority that demanded obedience from all members of their community. It is paramount today to have hope-filled communities that respects and obeys the authority. More so the religious authority since we are focusing in building one eschatological family which is divinely powered.

579 Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy, 106.

174 In Agikuyu traditional set up community is at the center stage of human life. In biblical faith God’s gift to man and man’s response to God’s offer is always contextualized in the community.580 The central position of a community in African communities and in the Christian domain is well expressed in both traditions. On this McDonagh points out that, “God addressed himself to mankind as a whole from the very beginning. He spoke to man in community. The individuals to whom he spoke were always the representatives of the wider community with which he wished to initiate or develop this relationship.”581 Gikuyu himself encountered Ngai and made a pact with him.582 A pact which was for all the Agikuyu as his descendants just like it was the case with patriarchs in the Old Testament. Therefore the eschatological message which leads to universal salvation is for all people and the universe at large. This leads us to think about the universal destiny of the entire humanity and not just my personal responsibility but also collective responsibility towards the realization of God’s universal plan for us. Today there is a special urgency of transforming all communities of human persons, families, ecclesial groups as well as political groups into eschatologically oriented communities. They should be inspired by Christian hope with a desire to live harmoniously now as they look forward to existing eternally in Heaven. The Agikuyu concept of a family as “the fundamental basis of its social structure”583 can be used as a seedbed of strengthening familial ties with the whole of humanity. In other words the life of God’s family in Heaven must be practiced in our communities here and now. The Christian family must be the primary eschatological unit where the members of the nuclear family will be open to each other. Living together in their family sharing the joys and sorrows of every member encouraging each other becomes the new way of being eschatologically oriented. Above all the New Testament established through the blood of Christ on the Cross is the glue that unites Christian families into one family of God. The ecclesial life having been felt at the Christian families will thereafter be brought down to the small Christian communities and all other social groups. For the communities of hope to be realized reflecting and living the message of the Gospel as individual Christians and in our faith based communities is very important. One of the

580 God’s promises to Abraham to make him the father of a nation and to bless other nations through Him. 581 E. McDonagh, “Christian Hope,” in Death and Hope, eds Harry J. Cargas and Ann White, (New York: Corpus Books, 1970), 108. 582 Ngai’s initial encounter with Gikuyu was the encounter of a creator and a creature. The Creator outlined his expectation of His creature and its generations. Cf. C. Cagnolo, The Agikuyu, 15-16. 583 Muriuki, A History of the Kikuyu 1500-1900, 110.

175 ways of realizing these communities is by leading lives of forgiveness in which the community members learns to let go the anger that comes when we hurt one another. Asking for forgiveness when we realize our sins is important in order to feel the effects of the redemption brought to us by Christ. As members experience the mercy of God through forgiveness of sins they in turn offer the same to their fellow sojourners as a positive response to God’s unfailing love and concern for humanity. Through forgiveness and reconciliation these communities inspires hope of attaining final redemption as they do what is humanly possible to establish God’s Kingdom here on earth. The foundation of God’s kingdom has been done by Christ and he invites us to contribute to its climax as we wait for his second coming. The small Christian communities are a valuable channel in which the believers during their weekly encounters can reflect on their progress towards their ultimate destiny. Catechetical reflection on their common destiny can strengthen their bonds of Christian brotherhood. Establishing ecclesial communities that are hope filled is an urgent task that must necessarily be established from the Christian families through the small Christian communities to the highest level of human community. This should be based on the realization of our higher calling as put by Megan McKenna; We are called to be disciples of, to change our hearts, and to live alternatives of hope in history, in our communities. This is fundamental to our identities. We are followers of the way, the way of life rather than the way of death, the way of the Spirit in the world. This is what we celebrate in liturgy and in the sacraments, because this is what we practice in our lives.584

In human communities living together, giving moral encouragement, sharing our resources as we look forward to God’s promises as a people of faith is paramount in our endeavors to be truly God’s Children. To live as an eschatological people means to celebrate God’s wonderful works in the course of our salvation history. This is the way of making the brethren of Jesus to be one in faith as we move towards our final destiny. Man actually finds full realization in the community. For the believers to find their actualization the community of faith is important in their adventure. Our founder Jesus Christ is the Man for all people hence for our case remaining open to the other is a duty which we must seek to fulfill religiously and practically.

584 M. McKenna, Rites of Justice; Sacraments and Liturgy as Ethical Imperatives, (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1997), 226.

176 The call of prophet Micah will be realized in the Christian communities in which he urges us to live practical lives as he candidly put it that, “Do justice, love tenderly, and walk humbly with your God.” (Mc 6:8) To live this prophetic exultation requires a support of a faith and hope filled community that is animated by Christian love. Strengthening and offering continued training to the animators of the small Christian communities as well as those of the lay apostolate movements is an important exercise which the pastors of souls should invest in continuously. Coming together as a people to mourn for the dead, console the bereaved family and accompany the vulnerable in their daily life hastens the process of making the Kingdom of God felt here on earth.

3.3.2 Ecumenical and Interreligious Dialogue Jesus Christ desires unity of all his followers following the model of the Holy Trinity (Cf. Jn 19:25-27). God as the originator and the ultimate end of humanity is the Father and sustainer of all people. Human beings regardless of their differences be they religious, political, racial, gender, economical or any other they are essentially one. The theology on the last things emphasizes of our commonality as one human family. Working for the ecumenical and interreligious dialogue means to revive the eschatological hope for the salvation of all.585 Our origin and destiny is a symbol of our unity as one people one family under the common Fatherhood of one God.586 The mission of Christ is centered on the proclamation of the Kingdom of God which is oriented to the glory of God and the salvation of all people. Jesus in his public ministry, “His ways were controversial because he challenged the people to get over their fears and their animosity towards others.”587 The purpose of both ecumenical and interreligious dialogue is a challenge to improve our lives in terms of developing our human relationships. Man must break down the vicious cycle of oppression, violence, injustices, and hatred with a genuine heart of

585 Iwuchukwu points out that after the declaration of Ecclesiam Suam, by Paul VI, The Catholic Church began the task of interreligious dialogue, “with a sense of mission vocation and commitment.” M. Iwuchukwu, “Interreligious Dialogue in a Post-Modern Culture- The Challenges and Development of Inclusive Religious Pluralism Vis-A-Vis Leevinas Philosophy of Being,” Spiritual Horizons, Vol 13, issue 13 (2018): 89. Through this encyclical Paul VI urged Christians to engage followers of other religions in a fruitful dialogue. 586 Cf. W. Kluj, “Translations of Verbal Expressions of Missionary work,” M. Delgado & M. Sievernich eds Mission und Prophetie in Zeiten der Interkulturalitat, St Ottilien : EOS Klostervervelag, 2011: 279-289. 587 J. Pearce, Ecumenical and Inter Faith Dialogue, https://johnpearcecp.wordpress.com/category/ecumenical- interfaith-dialogue (accessed on Nov. 2, 2019).

177 reconciliation. The eschatological orientation calls us to be open to each and focus on that which unites rather than what divides us. The Agikuyu understanding of the last things must open up now to the unification not only with their tribesmen but with all men. Catholic eschatology invites us to consider our fate as a human family. Listening and evaluating our stories from various religious backgrounds makes explicit the urgency for ecumenical and interreligious engagement. The Agikuyu Christians as well as the Christians all over the world must be proponents of human unity in their religions and work assiduously to bring down all what divides humanity. All religions convinced of their common destiny must strive to live in good relationship with all people. And “work together for the good of the world based on mutual trust and collaboration.”588 This will go a long way in making peaceful coexistence in our families, as well as experiencing political stability in our countries. At the international level experiencing mutual concern where countries will respect and help each other especially those that are tormented by wars, poverty and political conflicts is greatly desired. Eschatology of our time from all the religions must again echo the desire of Christ in bringing into perfect unity the entire humanity.589 The Catholic Church has issued a number of documents on both ecumenism and interreligious dialogue which must be implemented from our families and our local Churches.590 Humanity today more than ever must, “understand once and for all that despite diversity of languages, cultures and religions, people are all one family.”591 Both theological and pragmatic approach towards opening up in the pursuit of creating one family should be given priority from all social dimensions of our times.

588 http://ccaprf.wordpress.com/2011/02/05/church-documentsonintereligiousdialogue, (accessed on Nov, 2, 2019). 589 Cf. John Paul II, Encyclical Letter, Ut Unum Sint, That all may be one, May 25, 1995, This encyclical is a worthy text in the ecumenical journey where John Paul II underlined the fact that the ecumenical Spirit of Vatican II is unstoppable and Christians must play their part in its full realization. 590 Of special mention on the Catholics commitment towards ecumenism are the unitatis redintegratio of Vatican II Issued on Nov. 21, 1964 and Ut Unum Sint of John Paul II Issued on May 25, 1995. These and other ecumenical strides made by Catholic Church must be given an eschatological consideration and be made a way of life in our local Churches. Major documents of the Church that are pro interreligious dialogue includes, Ecclesiam suam of Paul VI issued on Aug 6, 1964 Nostra Aetate issued by the Vatican II on, Evangelii Nuntiandi Dec 8, 1975 by John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio by pope John Paul II issued on Dec 7, 1990, and Dominus Iesus of Pope John Paul II Issued on Aug 6, 2000. The universal Church has therefore given direction on how to progress and it remains our task as pastors and theologians to adapt them to our local situations. 591 I. Abbe, “Otherness as a Challenge for the Church in Africa; Towards a theological Hermeneutics of Togetherness,” African Christian Studies, Vol. 31 no. 1 (2015): 23.

178 According to the Agikuyu cultural wisdom blood is thicker than water. This saying urged the community to work for the Agikuyu unity. However, with the coming of Christian faith in the Agikuyu nation the baptism water is thicker than blood. In that those who are related through baptism are more close to one another than those who are biologically related.592 Eschatology as a theological discipline challenges all men to work for human development both materially and spiritually as inspired by faith to reach out to all those who believe in Christ. Together with the followers of other Christian denomination we are invited as the People of God to reach out to the members of other religions. The ecumenical vision of the Second Vatican Council must find fulfillment in our times as we reflect and live the ecumenical message.593 It should be noted that we advocate for unity in diversity not uniformity. The pastors should be close to the vulnerable members of the human society regardless of their religious affiliations so that in their need the vulnerable can experience the warmth of humanity freed from all division. Christian denominations and other religions thus are called in this respect to come up with programmes that will cater for immigrants, refugees, sick, aged and the poor of all kind. Such programmes will give a lively testimony of the eschatological vision we share as a human family. Eschatology is therefore a necessary tool in announcing to the world our common destiny. It is the bridge to reach out to our separated brethren and the followers of other religions, embracing tolerance and peaceful existence towards our final home. The problem of Christian division and religious mistrust is a great challenge in Catholic eschatology. If Agikuyu Christians are going to be truly an eschatological community there is a great need to proclaim it. This requires us to be sensitive to those from outside who do not belong to our tribe, religion, or social ranking. All must be included in the future of mankind redeemed by God. Such a task demands ecumenism and interreligious dialogue for we are all one in origin and destiny. Deep mistrust where the other is feared and rejected hampers the vision of one flock under one shepherd. Entering into dialogue with one another will make Christianity and its proclamation of the eschatological hope a credible project of God. In view of this the

592 The Mission of Jesus is to insert us into the family of the Holy trinity. It includes pulling us from our natural inclination and with his grace put us into the supernatural order. This entails calling us to be part of his eschatological family which he begun in his public ministry. This was evident where he outlined importance of an eschatological family over natural family. Cf. Mt 12:46-50, Mk 3:31-35, and Lk 8:19-21. 593 The second Vatican Council was greatly hailed as an ecumenical council and in its deliberations the spirit of ecumenism was greatly manifested and its climax was the decree on ecumenism, Unitatis Redintegratio

179 Church, “urges her sons and daughters to enter with prudence and charity into discussion and collaboration with members of other religions.”594 We must reject justification of any cause of Christian division or religious separation. Catholic eschatological hope must be understood to be the required therapy in the process of healing Christian division and interreligious quarrels that has been witnessed in the course of human history. This idea urges us to shift from being over-concerned about justice but look the other with eyes of compassion which is more enticing than the eyes of being judgmental. In this endeavour care should be taken so that we might not just talk of brotherhood which is not Christ centered. Remaining true to Christian teaching as we engage in ecumenism and interreligious dialogue is very important otherwise we lose our Christian calling. This is a certain way of defeating the evils of rivalry, unhealthy competition and other faith related struggles that denies us an opportunity of being genuine in our apostolate to all people. There are certain common transcendental values that unite people of world and traditional religions. Such values include; peace, justice, love among others. These values can be channels of grace that propels people of all backgrounds towards a common goal of humanity.595 The ecumenical and religious sensitivity must be included in the formation of small Christian communities, catechetical colleges and seminaries. Instilling to the students and new converts the need of including the other in our Christian hope of the renewed creation is our task today. Christians aware of their destiny must work in building bridges of friendship with all people.

3.3.3 Ongoing Christian Formation For effective formation of believers who in turn become members of the eschatological family alluded to by Christ in the Gospels it is paramount to have well-formed pastoral agents. Pastors must have the integral development of every man at the heart of their pastoral engagement.596 The pastors of souls must embark on the task of continuous catechesis on the Catholic eschatology in the seminaries, catechetical institutes as well as all houses of formation. The Catholic eschatology is a vital ingredient in the task of evangelization. The future pastors must be equipped with the Christian teaching on the last things and boost their spiritual growth

594 NA. no. 2. 595 F. Sullivan, Salvation Outside the Church? (New York: Paulist Press, 1992), 181. 596 Cf. Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, Encyclical Letter On the Development of Peoples, Mar. 26 1967, no. 14.

180 towards Christian perfection. With a well-trained and convinced pastoral team the message of salvation will reach all corners of the world and many will accept the Messiah who through the Paschal mystery desires that all men and women get the message of His kingdom. The Agikuyu attachment to their maternal homes is very evident especially during Christmas and Easter holidays when many Agikuyu in the diaspora return home for family get together. In these gatherings a memorial service of their deceased members can be held in order to reunite themselves with those who went before them. They should be catechized that eschatology is a teaching on how to return back home. As noted earlier the Agikuyu believe that the spirits of the dead do watch over the living members of their community. Thus coming together and celebrating in honor of the departed is both culturally and spiritually fitting. These occasions should be used to reflect on our destiny as a people of faith thus enhancing our family unity, love and mutual concern as a people who share a common origin and destiny. Well-equipped pastors visiting families in such occasions will have an opportunity to remind them of the most important things in human life. Christian families must be taught that the life of eternity begins here so that they live the life of holiness, forgiveness and mutual concern. Religion though directed towards the divine must have a direct agenda on the transformation of the world. In the course of human history religion has always acted as a catalyst of positive change in the society. Due to the centrality of the doctrine of the eschatology in Catholic theology and worship then the notion of last things must inspire and effect transformation in the world today. Social transformation must begin from the Christian family which is the basic cell of the human society. In a society where greed, selfishness, hopelessness, moral decay, corruption, abject poverty, glaring gap between the poor and the rich among other social ills are rampant social change is necessary. The doctrine on the last things must awaken in our society the need to work for one another towards our final home. So that aware of where we are headed to we act consciously of that which is necessary on our Christian pilgrimage. Christians must learn the proper disposition to material possession and its proper use so that they may not engage themselves with wealthy at the expense of their final goal. Forming the believers in the relevance of the eschatos message especially on the inevitability of death and judgment must redirect our attention from our pockets to the hearts and faces of our neighbours.

181 In the Agikuyu worldview we see that, “to be wealthy or rich, means to be surrounded by many people – community. It also means to be healthy and ethically sound.”597 As part of living the eschatological message, converts to Christians are called upon to insert themselves deeply to the needs of their neighbours and to labour more in order to bring social transformation through eradication of poverty as well as discarding social evils. This is a sure way of attaining both, the communion of our community ancestors as well as the Christian saints in heaven. Our material possession must then be used to bring into reality a communion which is totally fulfilling and is present in the world today. Using our resources both material and spiritual to make friends with one another in order to be received in the Heavenly communion (Cf. Lk 16:9), is a lesson that all must learn. In the Agikuyu wisdom andu Nio indo (People are wealth), 598 such that you don’t aspire for things but rather for good human relations which in turn contributes greatly to good life here on earth and gives a solid assurance of a good communitarian life in heaven. Human life lived consciously of the dawning of the parousia becomes a life that accords God his rightful position in our minds and hearts while at the same time respects our neighbours and works with them to better our world as we await the great day of the Lord. Our desires and longing as believers must be the longing of a just, humane, and peaceful society with Christ and his message at the center.

3.3.4 Inculturation as a Necessary Tool of Evangelization Proper understanding of the Catholic eschatological message in the light of the Agikuyu notion of the last things should deepen our faith in Christ. The theology of the last things from the Agikuyu cultural point of view is a better way of deepening our relationship with one another. The good values that were inculcated to the members of the Agikuyu family in view of their understanding of the last things ought to enlighten us today so that we become responsible citizens and Christians here on earth. This is an invitation to lead fulfilling Christian lives. It is important that the church in Africa599 does not discard the cultural heritage of her people but

597 O. Agbiji, “Religion and Social Transformation in Africa, Part 2 The Role of Religion in African Political and Social Development”, New city, Issue no. 86 Feb-May 2019, 6. 598 Andu Nio indo is a very common saying among the Agikuyu people stressing the fact that if one would want to prosper then being in the community is important. Prosperity is thus being one with the other not with things. 599 Total condemnation of the cultural roots of the people will definitely create a crisis. To heal this crisis new converts to Christianity will tend to be having recourse to their cultural roots once in a while. In other words

182 rather reflects on them seriously and picks the positive cultural elements that can enrich her task of evangelization in presenting the Christian mysteries in a way understable to them. Jesus’ preparation for his death and resurrection in his public ministry gives us an example of how we should handle our earthly life in view of our desired destiny. In other words our daily life must contribute positively to the redemptive work of Christ for God’s glory and for our salvation. The use of Agikuyu ancestral veneration as an explanation to the communion of saints inspires the Agikuyu converts to yearn and work for inclusion into the communion of saints. The ancestors as believed in the Agikuyu world view to be the link between Ngai and his creation enlightens us on the use of saints in mediating between us and God. Agikuyu rarely approached Ngai directly. Although they believed he existed and were conscious of his works and attributes that supersede any other being, they believed that he delegated some tasks to certain agents. Some of these agents were the ancestors who were the mediators between him and their community. Agikuyu practices towards their ancestors captures the idea that the ancestors are springs of life, protection, divine favor and blessings. The Agikuyu thus offered libations and sacrifices to the ancestors beseeching them for such benefits. Today there is a need to purify such practices so as the veneration of the ancestors enlightens the Agikuyu Christians of the belief in the communion of saints as we profess it in the creed. This in turn will bring out clearly the fact that the purpose of asking for the intercession of the saints is not to worship them but to lead us to God. The saints are understood rightly as channels to God owing to their close proximity to Him and the fact that they are already in His presence. The saints or the ancestors can in no way replace God. But our communion with the saints is a valuable tool on our pilgrimage to Him while on the other hand the saints having won the earthly battles and now living in his face do long for the time of our union with them in his presence. Longing to be reunited with them in Heaven we are indeed longing to be reunited with our Creator. This is a concept that did not exist in the traditional Agikuyu notion of the last things. The Second Vatican Council promoted local theologies as a method of evangelizing in the new mission lands. With an aim to deepen the understanding of Christian mysteries while remaining true to the Gospel message and open to the promptings of the Holy Spirit.

syncretism will be their way of life. Cf. Kanu Ikechukwu, “Inculturation and the Christian Faith in Africa”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol.2, no. 17 (2012), 243.

183 Inculturation is at an advanced stage in Africa while as a lot needs to be done with careful theological reflection possessing the universality of the Church and her faith. But as we engage in this task care should be taken so that we avoid syncretism. The belief in the life after death among the Agikuyu is so strong even today as seen during the period of mourning and the memory kept of their ancestors as well as the fear exhibited of the living dead. With this foundation a solid ground is ready for the reception of the Catholic eschatology. The Agikuyu attachment to their ancestors is made manifest in their burial rites, mourning and the manner of their burying the dead facing Mount Kerenyaga. All the descendants, relatives and friends of the deceased are required to be present in order to participate in the burial of their kin. Hence, proper understanding of the communion of the saints in the light of the Agikuyu concept of ancestors should be used to confront existential problems of syncretism among the Agikuyu and the Christians in Africa at large.600 In the Catholic teaching veneration of the saints offers an ideal way to show the relationship between the living Agikuyu nation and their ancestors. Genuine and sober relationship between the living Agikuyu people and their ancestors will promote a holistic worship to God all over the world. Since the concept of the Agikuyu ancestors points and exemplifies in a big way the reality of the life after death then it is important that the Church in the Agikuyu land does not discard this notion but borrows the positive elements towards strengthening their understanding of the Catholic eschatology. Other cultural religious elements must be studied with sobriety so as to make the Gospel message acceptable to the Agikuyu Christians and help them live fully their Christian commitment. It is our desire that such an engagement becomes a lifelong process where the universal Church opens her heart to the African Church. Consequently, the Africans remains open to the Christian faith so that anything that opposes the Gospel message is done away with while that which is in line and promotes the Gospel ideals finds a warm welcome. The Church of our times must be awake to the reality of continuing in this trajectory of inculturation. The entire process of inculturation will give Africans a chance to make their contribution in the growth and development of Christian faith while at the same time welcoming whole heartedly the Christian message in their land. We

600 The Church is supportive of inculturation endeavours calling upon the theologians and pastors to root out the elements that cause division and to distinguish between culture and cult. Cf. Benedict XVI, Africae Munus, no. 91. This followed the Ecclesia in Africa which had demonstrated eloquently the urgency of evangelization and inculturation in Africa. Cf. John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa, no. 59.

184 therefore concur with Pope Benedict XVI that, “through profound catechesis and inculturation the Church in Africa needs to help people to discover the fullness of Gospel values.”601

3.3.5 Active Liturgical Participation Due to the centrality of the eschatological dimension in the Catholic faith and the fact that the last things insert us in a perpetual situation, our liturgical celebrations introduce us to the life of heaven. This is where we will live eternally in a perpetual mood of celebrating the face of God.602 The Catholic liturgical and sacramental celebrations are geared towards preparing the participants for eternal life. For this reason the Second Vatican Council called the believers to participate in the liturgy consciously.603 Well understood the Catholic liturgy is eschatological in all ways and gives us a fore taste of our destiny as the people of God. In view of this Christians need to be prepared and guided on how to lead and live the liturgical celebrations with devotion and spiritual genuinity because of its relevance in our Christian journey and destiny. The Catholic lay movements can take upon themselves as their mandate of celebrating the Word of God and the Eucharist as a central activity in their calendar of events. Liturgy and sacramental celebrations gives us a wonderful avenue to encounter God and to be encountered by the divine in a family context. The community at worship in these liturgical gatherings becomes an eschatological family with Christ at the center. This is made manifest by the fact that our liturgy and sacraments are in themselves Christ centered. Our Catholic eschatology leads us to Christ who will in turn take us to His Father. Christ is our eschaton, He is with us and He shall come for us. Among the Catholic Christians all over the world the Mass is central to their faith. In fact during mass the eschatological expressions runs all through. It is for this reason that Cardinal Ratzinger once observed that, “Eucharist is ordered eschatology.”604 Ordered in that from the beginning of Mass to its conclusion it recaptures the event of Christ and connecting the celebrating community to the community in heaven. The Agikuyu people had a serious practical participation in their religious ceremonies. This is the seriousness that ought to be captured by

601 Benedict XVI, Africae Munus, no. 93. 602 Cf. CCC, nos. 1137-1139. 603 SC, no. 14. 604 Ratzinger, The Feast of Faith, 65.

185 Catholics in Mass aware of the presence of Christ605 and its relevance in the pursuit of their final destiny. We celebrate in our liturgy the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ which in turn affirms our own resurrection and glory. Since the Catholic liturgy and sacraments are Christ centered and so is the doctrine of the last things then the two leads humanity to the same end. Celebrating our liturgy and sacraments worthily is the noblest way of preparing for a successful end of our earthly life and a jubilant entry into our final home. Our participation in Catholic liturgy becomes a fore taste of what is awaiting us in Heaven and inspires us to remain focused on the promises of Christ.606 In a nutshell to keep the message of eschatology in our hearts means to partake as often as possible in the liturgy and sacraments. The objective of our liturgical and sacramental life is simply to lead us to Christ. Memorial Masses for the dead is an added advantage to reaffirm our eschatological hope in that we reunite ourselves with our brethren who have gone before us as we beseech God’s mercy for them. Attending burial ceremonies among the Agikuyu people as is the case with the Christians is a communal responsibility.607 With both joy and sorrow embracing the congregation in Christian burials the liturgy which is highly based on the death and resurrection of Christ, challenges us to trust in the promises of Christ. Catechesis on theology of hope to the bereaved and to the congregation in burial ceremonies is very important. The virtue of Christian hope is one of the infused virtues which are given to all Christians. During mourning and burial ceremonies it is desired for the congregation to be catechized on our eschatological hope. From the liturgical and anthropological set up it is edifying to see how the ceremony of funeral can be a new avenue of coming together to profess our faith in the resurrection of the dead. As we eat and drink in the funeral rite an image of the banquet prepared for us in heaven is made live. In these gatherings the meals shared points to the fact that life after death is full of celebrations. Across the tomb or beyond the boundary of death a reunification with the saints and the ancestors is happening hence the need to enjoy a meal

605 SC, no. 7 expressed the various ways in which Christ is present in the Liturgy. 606 Benedict XVI Homily at the Easter Vigil Mass, in St Peters square Rome Mar. 22,, 2008 where he emphasized that Christ who is really present in mass directs our hearts upward. This means then that when we participate in mass our spirits are lifted upwardly towards the realization of our ultimate goal. 607 The Catholic Church in her long lived Tradition exults the Christians to always engage in the spiritual works of mercy. One of the Spiritual works of mercy is to pray for both the living and the dead. Joining both the living and the dead in prayer and entrusting them to God’s care is a noble Christian duty. Cf. USCCB, The Spiritual works of Mercy, www.usccb.org>jubilee-of-mercy (accessed on Nov. 9, 2019).

186 together. Above all these gatherings elucidate the fact that we stand united with the deceased and his bereaved family, relatives and the friends.

3.3.6 Solidarity of Human Family Humanity is one family, created for God and for one another. Saint John Paul II urged the Church in Africa to be more conscious of the need of “interdependence among individuals and nations.”608 The doctrine of the Last Things as expressed in the traditional Agikuyu perception and in the faith of the Catholic Church affirms this truth. It goes further to envision the common destiny of man. Eschatology will really be a human and Christian doctrine by the way it binds us together as a people sharing in origin and destiny. As such we are a people on the way to the same terminal. It is of our concern that along this journey we learn to lean on one another sharing the grievances sorrows and joys of every member of the human race.609 From the Agikuyu world view we are better united than divided. Reflecting on our common destiny we agree with Nwaigbo that we “are linked with the sufferings of the masses, who were made poor through social and political agencies as manifested in the exploitation of the common people, underpayment of wages, denial of justices in the court of laws, wars, terrorism and incessant military coups.”610 These are some challenges that the people of our times are going through. African Christian eschatology may help us understand that we are called to share in the passion of Christ who is suffering in Africa under various images. Standing strong together to defeat the evils that are infringed on our brothers by fellow brethren must be our everyday concern. The instances of hopelessness, despair, betrayal, and mistrust witnessed in our countries invites to reflect deeply on our Christian commitment and calls us to action. The best action here would mean to insert ourselves deeply in the situations of those suffering and walk with them in faith catalyzed by our hope towards the land of the redeemed. As a people of God going back to God offering encouragement of all kinds to those who feel weighed down in this life is our sacred duty which must be undertaken zealously. This is the way to renew our families and society at large for Christ’s second coming. Our theology on the last things understood in light of

608 John Paul II, Ecclesia in Africa, no. 138. 609 Cf. GS, no. 1. 610 Nwaigbo, Mary Mother of the African Church, 141.

187 the Agikuyu notion of the last things must encourage us to stand together with those in want and offer them a shoulder to lean on. Through this way we can reach our eternal destiny by accepting to become consolations to those mourning and bread to the hungry while remaining true to our faith. From our standpoint it is necessary as the people of the eschatos to exhibit Christian courage in times of difficulties. Leading our lives not for our sake but for the sake of Christ and for our brethren is the purest manifestation of our eschatological vision. Standing together goes even deeper to demand at times that we accept to suffer for others and above all to suffer for our faith. Martyrs were so convinced of the excellence of their eschatological faith that they were ready to pay the price for it. In embracing the Christian faith in its totality it is important to involve all people in the task of restructuring our mentalities and policies. This will make us open to the other as we come nearer to the day of the Lord. This in deed compels us to abandon all tendencies of greed, selfishness, and every form of parochialism since our master desires our brotherly concern. In the pursuit of human solidarity we must reconstruct our communities to be communities of love in genuine service. Building a one family of God healed from every kind of division. Pope Paul VI held that human solidarity confers benefits and obligations to every person.611 We must realize these duties and carry them in love. Solidarity of humanity is a vital component towards our eternal destiny. The best example of God-man communion being the mystery of Incarnation in which Christ took our humanity and through the hypostatic union, man and God became so communicably one a mystery beyond our human explanation. In this view then man cannot be so united with God unless he seeks to be reconciled with his fellow men. This is possible when we work for human reconciliation and journey together to the promises of God. Creation of avenues and channels of repentance is urgently required on our pilgrimage of faith. This is the surest way that we suggest towards achieving a community that stands in solidarity with all its members reconciled with one another and with God. Christians and the people of good will should work for reconciliation, justice and peace as we look forward to the fulfillment of God’s kingdom within a horizon of new heavens and new earth. This embraces all people and puts them on the road to our common home. The prayer to “Our Father who is at heaven” directs us to think of offering forgiveness to those who wrong us as we seek

611 Paul VI, Populorum Progressio, no. 17.

188 pardon from the all holy God. Thus it’s a divine command to forgive our brethren as we demonstrate practically our contribution in the realization of God’s kingdom. Solidarity with the bereaved families offering to them Christian consolations and hope is important. Wiping the tears of the sorrowful while encouraging them to hold on to God’s promises is a new way of Christian mourning. These groups can include the specific lay movement that the dead and the bereaved belonged and belong to respectively. The small Christian communities and the local Churches are vital agencies in the provision of spiritual, physical and emotional support. This support will go a long way in manifestation of our unity towards our common destiny. In the great story in Matthew (Mt 25:31-46) Jesus Christ as the judge of humanity basis his judgment on the concern demonstrated or denied to our brethren. The concept of genuine brotherhood is a strong value among the Agikuyu in which all community members were formed to treat their kinsmen cordially and in a very caring manner. In fact they referred to each other as Mundu wa nyumba (my fellow tribesmen)612 This concept combined with Christ’s command of love of the neighbor as you love yourself should be an eye opener to all Christians in their perception towards others. The reality of the impeding final judgment on the day of the Parousia imposes a responsibility to all Christians. The Christians aware of the role of Christ on his second coming must be open to the needs of the vulnerable in our communities. The needs of the other must be considered and priotised where the entire humanity is considered as andu a nyumba (my people). For God is molding all of us to see the reality that we are all his sons and daughters and he remains open to welcoming all of us in his nyumba(residence) where we will live under one roof with him as our Father. It is in line with how we perceive our brethren that our eschatological hope will be realized or lost forever. Being open to all and striving to offer care and concern as much as we can in view of our abilities is our greatest sign of being in solidarity with one another. Human solidarity in a more realistic way should be seen in the care we offer to orphans, windows, widowers and the poor, while maintaining the high regard of the elderly members of the community as a source of wisdom and inspiration to the young and the community at large.

612 Agikuyu when talking to their tribesmen in the presence of other people used the phrase, (Mundu wa nyumba) to emphasize their unity as a people of the same household with Gikuyu and Mumbi as their father and mother respectively.

189 3.3.7 Care for the universe Standing in solidarity with one another, must move us to the next level of standing in solidarity with the rest of creation. His Holiness pope Francis in his encyclical entitled Laudato si called upon the entire members of the human family to reflect on the universe as our common home.613 The universe understood to be our host incorporates the fact that we share the universe with the generations past, present and future. Pope Francis quoting the canticle614 composed by St Francis of Assisi on creation develops it further as he noted that, “this sister now cries out to us because of the harm we have inflicted on her by our irresponsible use and abuse of the goods with which God has endowed her.”615 The Catholics in a special way are obligated to follow the teaching of their shepherd. In this aspect Catholics in their families, small Christian communities, parishes, local Church and at the global level, must initiate a strategy to integrate pope’s message on the ecological concern. The cry of the earth demands both a Christian and human response for God’s Glory and man’s welfare both now and in the world to come. We need to have practical and sustainable policy in order to reduce environmental pollution and degradation and lessen the cry of the mother earth. The sacred writers present the reality of the universality of salvation where the entire creation, not just humanity, is a beneficiary. St Paul depicts the universe yearning and waiting for the final restoration. While as the book of Apocalypse looks to a day that the entire creation will be recreated. The final salvation brought by Christ includes every creature. It is within this dynamic framework that Synder’s perspective is more pertinent as he put it rightly that, “Jesus’ atonement and resurrection is a cosmic-historical act through which all creation is redeemed – potentially and partially now and fully when God’s kingdom comes in fullness.”616 This requires a new way of reflecting on the hope for the universe which is an important trajectory towards the realization of universal eschatological hope which is open to the universe in its entirety.

613 Pope Francis, Laudato si, Encyclical Letter On care for our Common Home, May 24, 2015. 614 Francis of Assisi, Canticle of the creatures, in Early Documents, Vol I, (New York: London Manilla, 1999), 113-114. In this canticle Francis of Assisi demonstrated in an excellent manner how creation is part of God’s work and its benevolence to humanity with which she nurtures humanity with her resources. Pope Francis in the aforesaid encyclical reflects on how we can be grateful to our sister earth by taking care of her and aid her recover from the wounds that we have inflicted on her body. 615 Francis, Laudato si no. 2. 616 H. Synder, “Salvation means creation Healed: Creation Cross Kingdom and Mission,” The Asbury Journal Vol 62, no. 1 (2007): 9.

190 A call to ecologically friendly human practices must be a worthy adventure for our time. The eschatological hope for the universe must be reconsidered as a unity of both the material and the immaterial world coming to perfection under Christ. Ecologists like Wangari Maathai, Wangechi Kiongo617 among others have already demonstrated the natural dangers that are affecting us because of forgetting our responsibility to care for the environment. The mother nature is a divine gift to us and in its own right plays an important role in the sustenance and nourishment of our human species. To disregard its care is to bring ourselves down. Wangari Maathai offers an extra reason why we should be proactive in the care of the universe; Faced with the challenges of climate change, environmental degradation, food shortages, worsening poverty and the global financial down turn, it is ever more important that we double our efforts to protect and rehabilitate the environment, reduce emission of greenhouse gases and provide especially the small hold farmers around the world with sustainable ways of increasing their production and meeting their livelihood needs.618 In fact the ecological malpractice that man has engaged in is already hurting humanity through such devastating effects such as global warming, tsunamis, erratic floods among other ecological related problems. Convinced that creation is a fruit of God’s creative design as captured in the Holy Scriptures, then its care and preservation is a noble duty for the mankind. Wainaina expounds that; The Gikuyu consider the earth as the mother of the community, for the reason that the mother bears her burden for about eight or nine moons while the child is in her womb and then for a short period of suckling. But it is the soil that feeds the child through a life time; and again after death it is the soil that nurses the spirits of the dead for eternity.619 On one hand since nature has an important role to play in the sustenance of human life it’s care becomes the care of humanity. On the other hand creation is included in the great story of salvation. In this view taking care of the creation has an eschatological dimension. Every part of creation waits the great day of redemption where it will be set free from the bondage of decay (Cf. Rom 8:2-11). Agikuyu Christians must join the universal Church in enacting and

617 These are some renown environment conscious Kenyans whose efforts have been acknowledged both locally and internationally on issues to do with environment conservation. 618 W. Maathai, Key Note Address During the Second World Congress of Agroforestry, Aug 24, 2009, Nairobi Kenya, www.greenbelt.org/wangari-maathai/key-speeches-and-articles/2nd-world-congress-of-agroforestry-keynote- address (accessed on Oct., 31, 2019). 619 M. Wainaina, “Land as a Story and the Place of the Story: A Contemporary Kenyan Illustration of Land scape as a Text,” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol.2, no23 (2012): 94.

191 implementing ecological friendly practices that guarantees a clean environment for all creation. Christians of our time must address urgently such ills of environmental pollution, deforestation, emitting of greenhouse gases among other environmental concerns with haste in order to preserve the environment which belongs to God awaiting its fulfillment as humanity awaits its perfection. Our perception towards the universe as something wholly on our hands must change. Since creation belongs to God then it’s our responsibility as the climax of God’s creative work to take care of it. In other words we are its stewards and it is meant to give God glory. Our utilitarianistic approach doubled up by our modern consumeristic appetite of the creation must be controlled. St Paul reminds us explicitly that God has a grand design to place the entire creation under the headship of Christ (Cf. Eph 1:10 and Col 1:2). If eschatology is about restoring everything then the environmental restoration must be reconsidered. In view of this urgency Wangechi calls us to, “Look at what is happening to the climate, to our forests, wet lands, and our degraded lands. One day the earth might no longer be able to sustain us because of our own doing. Do not wait until that day. Wake up and be the change you want to see in the environment around.”620 We the current generation must work in view of handing over to the next generation an environment which is better safer and healthier than we received. We must do all what it takes to participate in our human way in redesigning the world into a better environment that will sustain humanity and on the last day arise with joy to receive the Lord of the universe. In our times more than ever before such endeavors like afforestation, preservation of endangered animal species proper handling of waste must be part of our eschatological concern in word and deed. This calls for intergenerational responsibility which is practiced through planting indigenous trees, proper waste disposal, and use of green energy among other ecological friendly practices. We need to teach the young children on the ways to demonstrate their care for the environment. This can be done by inculcating on them the ecological friendly behaviors. Our inhuman, senseless and selfish practices against nature must cease and be replaced with an environmental theology that captures the good that God saw in his creation (Cf. creation account in Gen. 1 &2). That good must be preserved till the great day of the parousia. Concerted efforts

620 W. Kiongo, Following at the footsteps of Wangari Maathai, https://www.africa.com/following-footsteps- profwangari-maathai (accessed on Oct. 31, 2019).

192 must be put in place to align creation to our eschatological hope. Our human sin disfigures creation this is why according to St Paul it stands groaning awaiting the day of its redemption. It is for this reason that the author of Apocalypse teaches that the final judgment will be about punishing those who destroy the earth (Cf. Rev 11:18). All that which disfigures God’s creation in its entirety must be brought down in the minds and actions of believers (Hos 4:1-3). Christians are then called through the theology of the last things to develop interpersonal relationship with God, neighbor and the environment at large. We must repent for our sins since through human sin the earth has been disfigured. In that together with the creation we share in the incomprehensible miracle of creation which was disfigured by the fall of man. All creation forms an integral part of the story of redemption towards a new creation renewed through Jesus Christ. As we engage in our earthly activities we must remain first conscious of the fact that God owns our environment as its creator and sustainer. It exists for him not for us we are only its custodian. Secondly we need to be mindful of the fact that the environment is for the common good of all hence the need to use it sparingly and to guard it jealously for generations to come until the last day. However, in this pursuit of taking care of creation towards its eschatological destiny and restoration two dangers must be avoided. On one hand even though creation is good and is included in the great story of salvation man must avoid the temptation to divinize creation. Creation with its goodness ought to lead us to praise God but not to replace Him. In human history some cultures had worshipped creation like moon and stars or even the great mountains and water bodies. Such practices must be condemned and on its part we propose that man uses creation as a stepping stone towards God. Secondly we have to avoid the perception that nature is under us totally. It is not mere matter but it is God’s work that must be treasured and preserved honorably hence the need to exercise environmental stewardship of the entire created order. These dangers if avoided Christians will then proceed to a global environmental concern that will be sensitive to the mutual interdependence that must exist between nature and humanity. The care of the environment demands local and global awareness. That’s why both the local and the universal Church must have more practical environmental action filled concerns that will save the environment for the Lord’s return. Proclaiming the good care for creation and its preservation is part of the good news of salvation that must be included in the mission of the Church to the ends of the earth.

193 The Agikuyu community strongly believed in maintaining a harmonious relationship with one another and with the creation. This is seen in the light of the various taboos and prohibitions which were meant to offer respect and maintain social cohesion. Talking of this solidarity with the environment calls for a sober approach in the way of solving conflicts and on how we exploit natural resources cautious of the latter generations as well as the restoration of God’s creation. This was well seen in the rites of passage where the community was involved and owned the candidates together with their experience as well as the environment in which they were initiated in. In turn it was expected that after the rite they will always remember the participants and the environment in which they were initiated in as a holy ground. The place and the people were both combined and understood as an important religious phenomenon which binds the seen and the unseen world. The care of the universe can contribute greatly to the realization of human solidarity for the universe unites us all together as our home and mother. Thus the mission of the Church must include the ecological concern as part of the great plan of God for the universal salvation.

Conclusion Traditional Agikuyu religion could come to understand fully the place of the dead by being immersed in the mystery of the death and the resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Agikuyu life experience can contribute positively to the Christian reflection on the last things. In this chapter we have attempted to theologically show that Agikuyu like any other community knew God even before the arrival of the Christian missionaries. However, the missionaries and Christian faith has made clear the concept of religion. In other words their religiousness prior to Christianity was a natural response to God’s love and presence whom they understood as their source and provider. But today Christians are a people who have been called and sent. They move together in the new community in which people from all over the universe must be seen as a one nyumba (house) of God. The going out from our tribal political religious and racial cocoons is what we have proposed in this chapter so that together we claim our unity in the family of God. This is possible if the Agikuyu as well as all Christians resist fear of the other but open up in faith and charity with the hope of encountering Christ who is in each of us.

194 In this chapter we have made a theological attempt to inculturate and establish the interconnection between the Catholic understanding of eschatology and the Agikuyu notion of the last things. Catholic understanding of the last things has been misunderstood by the adherents of the traditional religion as well as the followers of the Pentecostal, evangelical as well as some protestant Christian denominations. This is seen for example when the Catholic faithful are accused of worshipping the canonized saints and in the same way the veneration of the Agikuyu ancestors has been misunderstood and perceived negatively by the outsiders who lack proper information on the Agikuyu notion of the last things. As a result of this anything connected to the Agikuyu traditional religion was condemned. As this chapter has endeavored to establish by a logical reflective and a theological enterprise there are many good elements from the Agikuyu notion of the last things which can enrich, nourish and deepen the understanding of not only the doctrine of the last things but also other Christian mysteries such as the Eucharist, communion of the saints, Mariology, Incarnation, Trinity among others. To achieve a holistic Christian worship and inner conversion among the Agikuyu Christian faithful there is need to exploit the positive values enshrined in our traditional religions which are dear to the African people. We struggle daily with issues of death, disease, hunger, environmental degradation—all these indicate that ‘we are dying.’ But there is hope, we are not dead yet, we are rising up to a new life in Christ. In this struggle as we believe and hope for the new creation redeemed by Christ the new man, as we say Maranatha (Rev. 22:20).

195

GENERAL CONCLUSION

The purpose of this research was to analyze Catholic eschatology using the Agikuyu category of the last things. The researcher has achieved this purpose by examining the cultural background of the Agikuyu people. He has used the Agikuyu cultural theme of the last things to further the theological reflection on Christian eschatology. In this process he has succeeded in instilling hope to Agikuyu Christians using Christian eschatology in the light of the Agikuyu social cultural data. We have found out in chapter one that the Agikuyu religious beliefs are part of their daily life. Their religion is their life and their life is their religion. They demonstrated a profound fear and respect to the unforeseen powers which represent an indispensable part of their religion. The research has demonstrated that eschatological consciousness has always been part of the Agikuyu religion for there was an absolute belief in the life after death.

It was our expectation that this theological reflection would help us to interpret how Agikuyu Christians can reap more fruits by experiencing anew the doctrine of the last things. This was achieved by exposing the inherent relationship between the Catholic themes on eschatology and the last things in the Agikuyu religion. Specifically, the dissertation had its intention to help the Agikuyu to understand better the truths of Revelation as contained in Catholic eschatology. On one hand we hoped to see to which extent the Catholic eschatology can influence and give life to the Agikuyu notion on the last things, so as to Christianize this particular culture. The Christian message is carried in various human cultural elements since it has no culture of its own. We have used familiar terms from the Agikuyu culture in order to develop an eschatology that touches the soul of the Agikuyu people. This we hope has helped us to answer such questions like how do the Agikuyu Christians appropriate the Catholic teachings of Scripture and Tradition on the last things in the context of their social cultural milieu? How does the Risen Christ help present day Agikuyu Christians to develop a culture of life giving hope and solidarity in their pilgrimage of faith expressing the wonders of God’s love? By addressing such questions we have strengthened and confirmed the Agikuyu Christians in their faith. Consequently inviting those not yet baptized to come and receive rebirth through water and the Spirit, thereby instilling Christian hope of salvation.

196 Several observations can be deduced from this research work.

The study in chapter one found out that the Agikuyu religious heritage has been preserved in a very rich oral and lived experience that depicts expressions of deeply held eschatological notions. This reality is characterized in the rites of passage, beliefs in immortality of the soul, designated abode of the ancestors, and the unending relationship that exists between the living and the living dead. Thus we have argued for an eschatology that is transformative in the social situation of the people and open to greater fulfillment and restoration on the day of the parousia. The fear associated with death must be overcome. The Catholic eschatology in chapter two has shown that not all is lost with death. It has clarified that death is redemptive and the life after death is more fulfilling than life before death. Above all death of a Christian is a gateway to a life everlasting.

By constructing Agikuyu Christian eschatology in chapter three we have deduced that Christ is the proper ancestor of the creation redeemed. Ancestor-hood for the Agikuyu people was the basis of their belief in the life after death. This was well presented in chapter one. Death was to usher the good man to the spiritual world of the ancestors. This belief informed them a kind of life that they were to lead in order to find a warm welcome in the ancestral abode. On the ancestral world the ancestors are the guarantors of the successful existence of their communities. Maintaining a link with their ancestors imposed an obligation to observe the set societal norms in their life. In Christian faith it’s about Christ. He is the guarantor of a fulfilling life to all those who live his teachings. He is the ancestor to Christians and to all people. In chapter three we have seen that Christ is the assurance of entering and experiencing a new form of ancestor-hood which is sainthood in Christian terms. Resurrection is the new way of entering into the divine- hood after death. Agikuyu Christian theology on the last things in chapter three has seen Christ as the proper ancestor. We have advocated for a shift from ancestor-hood to sainthood. It has been argued in this study that Christ goes far beyond the Agikuyu notion on ancestor-hood. The reflection has thus challenged the audience to lead good lives acceptable before man and God as the guarantee to experiencing fullness of life after death. For if Christ Jesus is the first to rise and is the cause of life (Cf.1Cor 15:4), then it’s only in Christ that the Agikuyu ancestors are brought back to life. This is through resurrection by the creative power of God as seen in chapter two.

197 In chapter one we pointed out that the dead were identified as the living dead. This phrase implied that although they are not with us physically they are living in another and higher realm. This belief helped them to accept the inevitability of death. Death led the deceased to a better place in which they acquire sacred status from Ngai to watch over the living. This was a way of coping with the loss of their dear ones. It challenged them to lead good lives in order to achieve this sacred status which was the goal of human life. By joining the living dead they were reunited in a stronger way with the living and the entire body of the living dead.

By analyzing the Catholic eschatology in chapter two, we found out that it is both experiential and Biblical. It has been developed progressively in the course of Church history. The themes central to eschatology are Christ centered. Since no theology can be called Christian without taking into consideration the Person and the Pascal mystery of Christ. The Paschal mystery gave tangible evidence which is both material and spiritual on the reality and excellence of life after death. This surpassed tremendously the Agikuyu concept of life after death which we analyzed in chapter one. Agikuyu in their religion had no belief on the resurrection of the body. But Jesus rose with His body. This was seen as He walked, ate and taught with His disciples (Cf. Lk 24: 13-37, Jn 20:19-20). The eschatological thread runs all through from Genesis to Revelation. Hence reflecting the Scriptures is itself a reflection on eschatology yearning to be with the Risen Lord.

The researcher has seen that eschatology is not only future oriented but has a direct impact in hic et nuc (here and now). Towards this end we have constructed Agikuyu Christian eschatology in chapter three that is relevant to the Christians as we wait the final glory. We have achieved this by comparing and contrasting theologically the Agikuyu notion of the last things and the Catholic eschatology. In chapter one we have shown that Agikuyu had a positive way of explaining and referring to death. Specifically they understood death to be a process towards the abode of the ancestors. Through death one was only transferred to a better place where he enjoyed life in its fullness. But still a negative aspect was noted in that the Agikuyu in certain cases attributed death to negative beliefs. These beliefs includes, magic, witchcraft, and sorcery. This caused fear of death and made them to live in fear. In the Catholic perspective we see that God uses the evil caused by man or the devil to bring about his good purpose for His creation. Agikuyu Christians who still fear these practices ought not to fear again. We cited in chapter two

198 certain examples from the Scriptures such as Joseph (Gen 37:12-36), Susanna (Dn 13) and Christ himself in the Gospels fulfilling the prophesies of the suffering servant in the Old Testament (Is 42:1-4, 49:1-6, 50:4-7, 52:13-53). In constructing Agikuyu Christian eschatology in chapter three we endeavored to instill patience in suffering. We have seen that Catholic eschatology can be an avenue of instilling hope to the Agikuyu Christians. This is the reason that the study has encouraged the Agikuyu Christians not to look back to evil practices that could be a barrier to the realization of their ultimate joy. We have achieved this by synthesizing the Agikuyu and Catholic understanding of death in chapter three. Thus death simply put in this scope is a change of residence from the material to the immaterial world with a glorified body received after the resurrection. Hence, death facilitates the attainment of the goal of human life.

The study has shown that death and its accompanying rites as understood by the Agikuyu was a moment to bring them together. We have used this concept in the third chapter to show that mourning gatherings are congregations of faith and hope. They give Christian consolations, emotional and material support to the family of the deceased. As they eat and drink in the funeral rite an image of the banquette prepared for us in heaven is foreshadowed. In these gatherings the meals shared points to the fact that life after death is full of celebrations. Across the tomb or beyond the boundary of death the reunification with the saints and the ancestors is taking place. Above all these gatherings elucidate the fact that we stand united with the deceased and his bereaved family, relatives and the friends. Anthropologically these gatherings bring people together to witness the fact that in the face of death we are one. They give the mourners a chance to reflect on their pilgrimage as they move towards their destiny. In this process Agikuyu Christians have now to see Heaven as the place of the redeemed to behold the beatific vision.

The findings of the study in chapter one show that curses were meant to make sure that there is social cohesion and a harmonious living. Curses led to death or other forms of suffering to the victims involved. They urged the living to remain united in fulfilling the wishes of the elders and their parents. We have deduced that curses had a positive impact on the society. They were a means of solving family and social conflicts by helping the living to remain conscious of the will of their parents and Ngai. The study has developed this concept further in chapter three to show that the reason behind curses can be applied to mitigate the family and social crisis. A curse from God is to be damned forever. It is worse than the parents or clan curses in the

199 Agikuyu community. We have thus urged Agikuyu Christians to obey God’s will in and out of season to avoid his curse.

The study in chapter three on the subtopic on differences found out that the concept of time from the Agikuyu world view is based on the relevance of the event that happened on a given instance. Time for the Agikuyu is qualitatively measured. If nothing useful happened that time was useless it can’t enter into the annals of the Agikuyu history. Hence the time in between Christ’s first coming and the second coming must be evaluated qualitatively. Engaging in activities that will help us to accord Him a warm welcome in His second coming gives relevance to the time of our earthly life. Our life in the world is the time to participate in that which can contribute to the attainment of our ultimate destiny. This can settle theoretical questions about his second coming. The Agikuyu concept of time invites us to respond to what needs to be done before He comes again. The study has challenged the converts to Christianity to shift the emphasis from speculations about the time of the parousia, the exact place of heaven, hell, the time spent in purgatory and instead to look at ones neighbor see the self and the Imago Dei (God’s image) imprinted on his face. In this holy gaze hold each other and journey towards their ultimate end.

It has been argued in chapter three with reference to the notions missing in the Agikuyu last things that they can be understood from the basis of God’s mercy and love. Although there were allusions to some of these notions in the Agikuyu religious heritage as seen in chapter one they were new in their mental and religious perception. These themes contained in the Catholic eschatology in chapter two are dreadful and frustrate people of little faith. They include final rupture, the pain of fire in hell, the anguish of the souls in purgatory, final judgment and the imagination of the catastrophic end of the world. They leave some believers frustrated. In chapter three while constructing an Agikuyu Christian eschatology we have observed that well understood in the context of Catholic faith they point to God’s love and mercy. God desires all people to attain their ultimate end. We have engaged in a theological reflection of the Catholic eschatology as based on the Sacred Scriptures and the Church’s living Tradition in our second chapter in order to give the correct meaning to these terms. Since we intended to instill hope to the Agikuyu Christians our research has then given genuine reasons to trust and look forward to God’s promises.

200 The research in chapter two has underlined the fact that Christians must reclaim their identity as a people of the way. They must remain conscious of their role as witnesses of the Christian eschatological promise. To accomplish this we have seen in chapter two that they need to be grounded firmly on the Christian mysteries. Jesus Christ’s will give them life in its fullness which is the hope and the aspiration of all people. This is what we have attempted to do in trying to elaborate the Agikuyu Christian eschatology in Chapter three. Since, Christian eschatology is a beacon of hope for all people, then Agikuyu Christians need to embrace Christian hope as their heritage from Christ. This has made us to appreciate the African contribution in explaining, defending and strengthening the Catholic faith among the Agikuyu people. This is through the use of positive cultural elements in chapter three of this work that are not in opposition to Catholic faith. In chapter three we pointed out that pastoral agents and theologians must invest in learning the cultures of the people in their jurisdiction so as to understand their religious heritage and see the best way to plant and water the seed of faith. This has helped us to develop an existential interpretation of Agikuyu experience on the last things in chapter three. There by giving a dynamic relational experience that touches on the origin and destiny of man from a Catholic point of view. In the Agikuyu Christian eschatology in chapter three we have argued that Agikuyu Christian eschatology may help to promote both social stability and creative innovation. This in turn may help to avoid problems associated with syncretism.

The research has demonstrated in chapter three theologically that African Christian eschatology can be an avenue towards fruitful ecumenical and interreligious dialogue. It can be a means of defeating the evils of rivalry, unhealthy competition and other faith related struggles that denies us an opportunity of being genuine in the pursuit of our ultimate end. It can cement and safeguard human solidarity. Catholic eschatological hope must be understood to be the required therapy in the process of healing Christian division and interreligious quarrels that has been witnessed in the course of human history. We have shown that if Agikuyu Christians are to be truly an eschatological community then there is a need to be sensitive to those who do not belong to their tribe, religion, or social ranking. All must be included in the future of mankind redeemed by God. We must break down the vicious cycle of oppression, violence, injustices, and hatred with a genuine heart towards reconciliation. The Agikuyu understanding of the last things must open up now to the unification not only with their tribesmen but with all men. Universal plan of salvation promised by God is about healing both the wounded man and the universe in its

201 entirety. However, as we have established in chapter three the human person must be given first priority and in turn he must take care of the rest of God’s creation. The reflection has shown us that the Catholic eschatology is a sure direction and trustworthy reference for all those pilgrims in route to eternity.

The study has shown that the many similarities that exist between the Agikuyu traditions and the Catholic faith are a clear demonstration that in this culture the ground of the “Seeds of the Word” was well prepared for sowing the Gospel message. The notion of ancestor-hood and Catholic sainthood as an example can be used to demonstrate that saints are the archetype example of ancestors. As in the past the Agikuyu took their ancestors as their models, now Christian saints offer us a better model. Agikuyu traditional religion offers a fertile ground for the teaching, living and expressing the Catholic eschatology. Thus they are invited to transcend the ancestral abode to the abode of God. This will give their culture a beautiful face admirable by their ancestors and Ngai and in turn make them to be truly God’s own children. The research through the comparative approach has noticed that Agikuyu abhors sin and evil. This reflection has challenged them to be obedient to the precepts of God and live genuinely in His body the Church. This is the best way to dispel the fear associated with death and the final judgment.

Finally this study has advanced reasons for African Christian eschatology in chapter three. A theology that may help us understand that we are called to share in the passion of Christ who is suffering in Africa under various images. The instances of hopelessness, despair, betrayal, and mistrust witnessed in our communities invites us to reflect deeply on our Christian destiny and move us to action. In the Agikuyu wisdom, andu Nio indo (People are the real wealth), such that you don’t aspire for things but for good human relations. Human relations contribute to good life here on earth and in heaven. A life lived consciously of the dawning parousia accords God his rightful position in man’s life. At the same time respects our neighbours and works with them to better our world. Our desires and longing as believers must be the longing of a just, humane, and peaceful society with Christ and his message at the center. Then we have shown that there is the need to deepen our knowledge on the lives and cultural orientation of the other people knowing their needs, beliefs and their aspirations before we attempt to address any issue we might have thought to be of importance to them. This invites us to be open and ready to appreciate whatever is good, noble and positive from them.

202 However, since the dissertation is unique and exclusive to the title Catholic eschatology in the light of Agikuyu notion of the last things, there is a lot more to be done. The study cannot claim to have exhausted the subject matter under consideration. It is not exhaustive as far as the aspect of inculturating the Catholic eschatology is concerned. Agikuyu family as a very religious unit and the basic foundation of the Agikuyu community can be further studied in order to establish it as a domestic Church. The family as found in the Agikuyu culture can be a school of life. In this set up the parents must inculcate in their children the themes of eschatology that are hope instilling. A further theological research can be done to make Agikuyu family a basic eschatological unit. The impact of the small Christian Community in strengthening the ecclesial life in the Agikuyu community could be enhanced from Christian families. The pastors and other pastoral agents can use the African Christian eschatology in forming the pastoral animators and leaders of all ecclesial communities. New prayers and songs can be composed in Kikuyu language to explain various themes in Christian eschatology. These prayers and songs can be used in the family and small Christian communities.

The rites of passage in the Agikuyu world view were marks of various stages of development in a human person. The community “owned” the candidates together with their experience as well as the environment in which they were initiated in. In turn it was expected that after the rite they will always remember the participants and the environment in which they were initiated in as a holy ground. The place and the people were both combined and understood as an important religious phenomenon which binds the seen and the unseen world. These rites can be developed further in understanding the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults (RCIA). The Catechetical College and Christ the King Major Seminary which are located in Nyeri the center of Kikuyu land can take up this challenge. In their academic programmes they can develop the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults following the traditional model of the rites of passage. To be a Christian requires spiritual growth in order to reach maturity of being admitted in Heaven. Further theological research can be carried out on how to insert the African Christian eschatology in RCIA as a way of attaining Christian maturity.

Another area that can be developed further is sacrifice. Agikuyu had a well-developed concept and practice of offering sacrifices to Ngai. Sacrifices were part of the Agikuyu life. In the entire system of the rites of passage and various community gatherings there were various

203 sacrifices offered to Ngai. This can be used to deepen the theology of the Eucharist as a sacrifice and an eschatological meal. This aspect deserves a deeper theological and academic consideration. The professors and students in Christ the King Major Seminary situated at the heart of Agikuyu land can develop it further.

In this research we have pointed out that curses was one of the ways to solve family and social conflicts. The living feared offending the spirits of the dead. They did all what was humanly possible to observe their wishes in order to avoid curses. Today due to the fact that the local culture has been diluted we have family conflicts more so in the area of inheritance. We have seen cases where after the demise of the parents the siblings end up in courts of law or even they kill each other for the pursuit of benefiting with the resources of their parents. A deeper research can be done on how the rationale of curses can be strengthened from the Christian point of view in solving human and social conflicts. God as the ancestor and owner of all what there is should be respected and obeyed. People should fear His curse which can befall those who do against His will. This will help to mitigate social conflicts and enhance harmonious living before the parousia.

The local monthly magazine entitled Wathiomo Mukinyu can also be used to give more explanation of the terms that are not well understood as pertaining the Christian mysteries and their interconnectedness. This publication can be an avenue of inculcating the African Christian Eschatology in a language that the Agikuyu people can well understand. Having a continuous platform to catechize people through the print media in their own language can be spiritually edifying. This will create a faith and hope filled communities that are animated by Christian love in the Agikuyu land. Engaging in such forms of activities can give a holistic inculturated Christian message in Africa. This should be developed further touching on various Christian mysteries. It would therefore be a laudable intellectual and theological exercise to continue in such a theological enterprise. Since, the researcher found out that such notions like the parousia, hell, heaven, final judgment and purgatory are lacking it remains the task of theologians to continue in this task of explaining clearly the data of revealed truths on these notions. This research therefore calls for further theological investigation in the African cultures in order to develop African Christian theology.

204 The research has conducted serious study of the Agikuyu notion of the last things. In chapter one we have exposed their understanding of death. The rites that accompanied death and their belief on what followed after death were analytically presented. It has also ascertained the ways in which Agikuyu can appropriate and deepen their understanding on the Catholic eschatology. By ascertaining and discovering all the above, this research will, it is hoped, be of great benefit to the ordinary Christians and to the theologians. It will also be of use to other researchers as it fills the gap that has been there regarding the Agikuyu understanding of the last things in light of Catholic eschatology. It will strengthen the faith of the Agikuyu Christians. It is inviting more to enter into the theological debate of inculturating Christian mysteries in various cultures to enhance evangelization. Through this endeavour we found out that there is the need to further the conversation on local theologies that are both Christian and African and at the same time universally acceptable with a relevance to the history of man in the pursuit of his final destiny. Thus inculturation is one of the ways to do theology and establish a dynamic encounter between human cultures and the Gospel message in Africa and beyond.

205

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Primary Sources

I Church Documents Benedict XVI, Africae Munus, A Post Synondal Apostolic Exhortation, on the Church in Africa in service to Reconciliation, Justice and Peace, Nov. 19, 2011. ______, Homily at the Easter Vigil Mass, in St Peters Square, Rome, Mar. 22, 2008. ______, On the Way to Jesus Christ, trans. Michael Miller, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005. ______, Sacramentum Caritatis, A Post Synondal Apostolic Exhortation on the Eucharist as the Source and Summit of the Church’s Life and Mission, Feb. 22, 2007. ______, Saint Paul The Apostle, (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 2009. ______, Spe Salvi, An Encyclical Letter on Christian Hope, Nov. 30, 2007. ______, On the way to Jesus Christ, trans. Michael Miller. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005. Catechism of the Catholic Church, Vatican City: Roma: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992. Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Dominus Iesus, A Declaration on the Unity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church, Aug. 6, 2000. Denzinger, H. Compendium of Creeds, Definitions, and Declarations on matters of Faith and Morals. 43rd Edition, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2010. ______, The Sources of Catholic Dogma, trans Roy J. Ferrari, London: B. Herder Book Co. 1957. Francis, Laudato si, Encyclical Letter, On care for our common Home, May 24, 2015. John Paul II, Address to the Bishops of Nigeria, Lagos, Feb. 15, 1982. ______, Catechesi Tradendae, Apostolic Exhortation on Evangelization in the Modern World, Oct. 16, 1979. ______, Dies Domini, An Apostolic Letter on Keeping the Lord’s Day Holy, May 31, 1998. ______, Dominum et Vivificantem, Encyclical Letter on the Holy Spirit in the Life of the Church, May 18, 1986.

206 ______, Ecclesia de Eucharistia, An Encyclical Letter on the Eucharist in its Relationship to the Church, Apr. 17, 2003. ______, Ecclesia in Africa, Post Synondal Exhortation on the Church in Africa, Sept. 14, 1995. ______, Evangelium Vitae, An Encyclical Letter on the Gospel of Life, Mar. 25, 1995. ______, General Audience Wednesday Apr. 22, 1998 on the Second Coming of Christ at the End of Time. ______, God Father and Creator, a Catechesis on the Creed Vol 1, Compiled by Joseph A. Casey, Boston: Pauline books and Media 1996, 288. ______, Mane Nobiscum Domine, Apostolic Letter, Stay With us Lord, Oct. 7, 2004. ______, Redemptoris Missio, An Encyclical Letter on the Mission of the Redeemer Dec. 7, 1990. ______, Ut Unum Sint, Encyclical Letter, on Commitment to Ecumenism, May 25, 1995. Paul VI, Africae Terrarum, Message of Pope Paul VI, to the Sacred Hierarchy and all the People of Africa for the Promotion of the Religious, Civil and Social Welfare of their Continent, Oct. 29, 1967. ______, Ecclesiam Suam, An Encyclical Letter On the Church, Aug. 6, 1964. ______, Evangelii Nuntiandi, Apostolic Exhortation, On the Evangelization in the Modern World, Dec. 8, 1975. ______, Homily of Pope Paul VI, on the Eucharistic Celebration at the Conclusion of the Symposium organized by the Bishops of Africa, Kampala (Uganda), July 31, 1969. ______, Populorum Progressio, Encyclical Letter on the Development of Peoples, Mar. 26, 1967. Ratzinger, J. The Spirit of the Liturgy, Translated by John Saward. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2000. ______, Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life trans. Michael Waldstein Washington, DC: The Catholic University Press, 1987. ______, The Feast of Faith; Approaches to a Theology of Liturgy, trans. Graham Harrison, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1986. ______, Principles of Catholic Theology: Building Stones for a Fundamental Theology, trans Mary Frances McCarthy, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1987.

207 ______, Introduction to Christianity. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1990. Second Vatican Council, Dei Verbum, Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation, Nov. 18, 1965. ______, Gaudium et Spes, Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, Dec. 7, 1965. ______, Lumen Gentium, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Nov. 21, 1964. ______, Nostra Aetate, Declaration on the Relation of the Church with Non- Christian Religions, Oct. 28, 1965. ______, Sacrosanctum Concillium, The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Dec. 4, 1963. ______, Unitatis Redintegratio, Decree on Ecumenism, Nov. 21, 1964. Council of Trent, Concerning Original Sin, www.thecounciloftrent.com/chl.htm, (accessed on Jan. 2, 2019). United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, The Spiritual Works of Mercy, www.usccb.org>jubilee-of-mercy (accessed on Nov. 9, 2019).

II African Traditional Religion Abiodun, S. “The Cult of Ancestors in African Traditional Religion.” An Encyclopedia of the Arts Vol. 10, no. 1, (2006): 26-31. Ademola, S. “The Sociological Significance of the Traditional African Concept of Rites of Passage.” Ogboso Journal of Theology (1992): 26-32. Adewale, S. Crime and African Traditional Religion, www.africaspeaks.com.reasoning (accessed on Dec. 13, 2018). African Death Rites, traditioncustoms.com/death-rites/African-death-rites, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018). African Holocast, African Rites of Passage, africanholocast.net/rites-of-passage, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018). African Tradition Religion, https://www.sahistory.org.za>article.af (accessed on Nov. 22, 2018) After Life African Concepts, encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts- and-maps/afterlife-african-concepts, (accessed on Nov. 3, 2019). Agbiji, O. “Religion and Social Transformation in Africa, Part 2 The Role of Religion in African

208 Political and Social Development.” New city, Issue no 86 Feb-May 2019: 6-9. Anicet, M. “African Traditional Religion: A New Struggle for An African Identity,” The Asian Journal of Theology Vol. 29, no. 1 (2015): 88-98. Baara, G. 1000 Kikuyu Proverbs, Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1960. Bakely, T. et al, Funerals in Africa; An Introduction, eds Michael Jindra and Joel Noret London: James Currey, 1994. Barrett, A. Dying and death among the Turkana, Part 1, Eldoret: Gaba Publications, 1987. Best of Kenya, Vol 2, Global Village Encyclopaedia, Nairobi: Global Village Publishers, 2011. Bondi, V. Death and Burial in the African Context: A Case Study On Kenyan Customs And Kenyans Customary Law, https://hitcchcker’sguidetolaw.wordpress.com/2015/06/15/death-and--burial-in-the- african-context-a-case-study-on-kenyan-customs-and kenyans-customary-law (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). Bonsu, N. “African Traditional Religion: An Examination of Terminologies used for Describing the Indigenous Faith of African People, Using an Afrocentric Paradigm.” Journal of Pan African Studies Vol. 9, no. 9 (2016): 108-121. Booth, N. “Tradition and Community in African Religion.” Journal of Religion in Africa Vol 9, no.2 (1978): 81-94. Burton, J. and L. Lewis, “Witchcraft,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/witchcraft (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). Cagnolo, C. The Agikuyu. Nyeri: The Mission Printing School, 1933. ______, The Agikuyu; Their Customs Traditions & Folklore. New Edition, edts, H. Wambugu, J. Mwangi, and P. Muriithi. Nairobi: Wisdom Graphics Place, 2006. Chibago, W. African Political Philosophy, https://www.academia.edu/38266556/african-political -philosophy?email-work-card-title, (accessed on Feb. 12, 2019) Clarke, C. Rites of Passage, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-africa/african-art- intro/a/rites-of-passage, (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018). Ekore, B. “African Cultural Concept of Death and the Idea of Advance Care Directives.” Indian J Palliat Care. 22 no.4 (2016): 369-372. Facts About Africa, https:Africa-facts.org/facts-about-africa/ (accessed on Dec.12, 2018). Finke, J. Traditional Music and Cultures of Kenya,

209 www.bluegecko.org/kenya/tribes/kikuyu/beliefs.htm (accessed on Nov. 16, 2018). Fry, P. Spirits of Protest, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. George, M. Life after Death Among the Agikuyu People of Kenya, https://www.academia.edu/7319467-life-after-death (accessed on Oct. 31, 2019). Gikuyu Center for Cultural Studies, https://www.mukuyu.wordpress.com/2011/03/20/gikuyu- names-for-god (accessed on Feb.10, 2019). Green, R. “Religion and Morality in the African Tradition Setting.” Journal of Religion in Africa 16, no.1 (1983): 1-23. Hobley, C. Bantu Beliefs and Magic. London: Frank and Cass Ltd, 1967. Idowu, E. African Traditional Religion, A Definition. London: SCM Press, 1973. Imasogie, A. “The Nature of Rites of Passage in African Traditional Religion.” Ogbomoso Journal of Theology, (Dec. 7, 1992): 13-17. Imasogie, O. African Traditional Religion. Ibandan: Ibandan University Press, 1982. Iteyo, C. Belief in the Spirits of the Dead in Africa: A Philosophical Interpretation, https:// www.ajol.info/index.php/tp/article/download/46312/32710 (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). Jaja, J. Myths in African Concept of Reality, http://www.academicjournals.org/I JEAPS (accessed on Nov. 22, 2018). Jeff, M. Death and its Concepts,- the Philosophers Magazine, https://www.philosophersmag.com/opinion/17-death-and-its-concepts (accessed on Nov. 10, 2019). Johnson, D. African Ceremonies: Passages, https//artsandculture.goggle.com/exhibit/Africa- ceremonies-passages/QQgfgg2 (accessed on Nov. 25, 2018). Joseph, C. “Jean Price-Mars and Contemporary Scholarship on African Traditional Religion.” Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies Vol. 11, no.5 (2018): 9-47. Kenya Land Problems, http//realtalkwitheric.wordpress.com/2013/04/20/kenyas-landproblems -part/understanding-thekikuyuview/ (accessed on Dec.16, 2018) Kenyatta, J. Facing Mount Kenya. Nairobi: The Heinemann Group of Publishers, 1938. ______, My People of Kikuyu, and the Life of Chief Wang’ombe, Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1966. Kikuyu Facts Information, https://www.encyclopedia.com, (accessed on Dec.2, 2018). Kikuyu Religion and Beliefs, www.bluegecko.org (accessed on Feb. 13, 2019).

210 Kimball, C. When Religion Becomes Evil, Five Warning Signs. New York: Harper Collins, 2009. Leaky, L. The Southern Kikuyu Before 1903. London: Academic Press, 1977. Litvac, O. After Life Beliefs in Africa; Traditional African Perspectives on after Life and Burial, blog.sevenponds.com/cultural-perspectives/African-afterlife (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). Long, C. Creation Myth, https://www.britannica.com>topic>crea (accessed on Nov. 23, 2018). Lugira, A. World Religions; African Traditional Religion 3rd edition, eds Joanne O’Brien and Martin Palmer, New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 2009. Magesa, L. African Religion; The Moral Traditions of Abundant Life, Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1998. Mbangu, A. “African Traditional Religion; A New Struggle for African Identity” The Asian Journal of Theology, 29, no. 1 (2015): 88-98. Mbiti, J. African Religions and Philosophy. Nairobi: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1969. ______. Concepts of God in Africa, London: SPC 1975. Mt Kenya, Primary Facts, www.primaryfacts.com>mount-kenya-facts (accessed on Feb. 6, 2019). Mugo, E. Kikuyu People; A Brief Outline of their Customs and Traditions, Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau, 1982. Mukuha, J. The Integration of Religious Preparation of Traditional Marriage with Special Reference to Kikuyu Community of Kiambu District, Thesis Submitted at C.U.E.A. Nairobi, 1996. Muriuki G. A History of the Kikuyu, 1500-1900. Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1974. ______, A History of the Agikuyu to 1904, London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1969. Mutahi, B. Census: Kenya has 38.6m People, www.nation.co.ke Tuesday 31st Aug. 2010. (accessed on Oct. 28, 2018). Ng’ang’a, W. Kenya’s Ethnic communities, Foundation of the Nation. Nairobi: Gatundu Publishers Limited, 2006. Nyatugah G. “Revisiting Our Indigenous Shrines through Mungiki.” African Affairs 400, (2001): 453-467. Nyawira, M. The Philosophical-Ethical Principles Regarding the Practice of Punishment in

211 Kenya. Thesis Submitted in Nairobi University, Nairobi: University of Nairobi, 1996. Okeke, C. www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/aproaches/charles/okeke/.pdf (accessed on Nov. 27, 2018). Opoku, K. West African Traditional Religion. Lagos: F.E.P, 1978. Oruka. O. Sage Philosophy Indigenous Thinkers and Modern Debate on African Philosophy, Nairobi: Acts Press, 1991. Orville B. and Sam T. The Kikuyu People of Kenya, orvillejenkins.com/profiles/kikuyu/html (accessed on Nov. 8, 2019). Parrinder, G. West African Religion; A Study of Beliefs and Practices of Akan, Ewe, Yoruba, Igbo and Kindrend Peoples. London: The Epworth Press, 1961. Peil, M. Consensus and conflict in African societies; An Introduction to societies. London: Longmann Press, 1977. Pobee, J. “Aspects of African Traditional Religion.” Sociological Analysis 37, no. 1 (1976): 1– 18. Ray, B. African Religions: Symbol, Ritual, and Community. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1976. Rituals and Rites of Passage, https//path.azureedge.net/media/documents/cp-kenya-eetg-3pdf, (accessed on Nov. 26, 2018). Shorter A. Prayer in the Religious Traditions of Africa. London: Oxford Press, 1975. Spijker, G. “The Role of Social Anthropology in the Debate on Funeral Rites in Africa.” Exchange, 34, no. 3, (2005): 156-176. Strijcom, J. “Towards a critique of Indigenous African religion.” Theological Studies 67, no. 1 (2011): 1-4. Scoresby, S. and K. Routledge, With a Prehistoric People The Akikuyu of British East Africa, London: Edward Arrold, 1910. T’ofori-atta, N. “Eight Stages in the Holistic Life Cycle “In the Hood” of Traditional African Religion.” The Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Center Vol. 23, no. 2 (1996): 81–120. Tasie, G. “The Heritage of the Mouth: Oral Sources and the Study of African Traditional Religion.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, Vol. 2, no. 3 (2013): 26- 34. The Education Function of Gikuyu Rites of Passage, erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/…/kuria-

212 The%20education%20function%20%of %2%gikuyu% (accessed on Nov. 26, 2018). The Kikuyu Tribe, www.kenya-information-guide-.com/kikuyu/-tribe.html (accessed on Jan. 31, 2019). Tony, Essays Social Organization of the Kikuyu, tonnyessays.blogspot.com>2011/03>soc..html (accessed on Feb.1 2019). Wachege, P. Curses and Cursing among the Agikuyu: Socio-Cultural Religious Benefits, https://profiles.uonbi.ac.ke/patrickwachege/files/curses-and cursing-among-the- agikuyu.pdf (accessed on Dec. 13, 2018). Wainaina, M. “Land as a Story and the Place of the Story: A Contemporary Kenyan Illustration of Land Scape as a Text.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol.2, no. 23 (2012): 92-99. Wanjohi, G. The Wisdom and Philosophy of the Gikuyu Proverbs, Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1997. Wanyoike, E. Dissertation on Contemporary Perception of Sacred Places, Objects and Personnel (SPOP) Among the Agikuyu Christians of Nyandarua Kenya, Dissertation Submitted to CUEA June 2010, Nairobi. Wilson, M. Rituals of Kinship, Among the Nyakyusa, London: Oxford University Press, 1957. Yntiso, G. "Cultural Contact and Change in Naming Practices among the Aari of Southwest Ethiopia." Journal of African Cultural Studies 22, no. 2 (2010): 183-194.

III African Christian Theology Adamo, D. Christianity and the African Traditional Religions; the Postcolonial Round of Engagement, www.scielo.org.za/pdf/vee/v32n1/24.pdf (accessed on Nov. 27, 2018). Adedeji, A. “African Concept of God, Evil and salvation in African Traditional Religion: Critique from Cultural View Point.” Journal of Global Intelligence & Policy Vol. 5, no. 9 (2012): 45-55. Ademóla, S. Towards a Contextualized Missiological Approach to the Yoruba Religio-Cultural Milieu, Ph.D. diss., Southwestern BaptistTheological Seminary, Fort Worth, Texas, 1992. Battignole, S. Kikuyu Traditional Culture and Christianity, Nairobi: General Printers, 1984. Baur, J. The Catholic Church in Kenya, Nairobi: St Paul Publications Africa, 1990. Chinendu E. “Cult of the Ancestors and Saints: A Liturgical Evaluation.” Joras, Nigerian

213 Journal of Religion and Society Vol. 8, (2018): 121-136. CMS Africa, www.cms-africa.org/media-centre/our- blog-tag/burial-rites-in-africa-and-theplace- of-church.html, (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). David, A. Comparison Between Biblical and African Concept of life after Death, https://www.academia.edu/5116200/comparison-between-biblical-and -african-concept of life after death (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). Bolaji, E. African Traditional Religion, A Definition, (London: SCM Press, 1973), 178. Enyioha, B. “The Pastoral Significance of Traditional Concept of Rites of Passage,” Ogbomoso Journal of Theology (Dec. 7, 1992), 18-25. Isichei, E. A History of Christianity in Africa from Antiquity to the Present, London: The Cromwell Press, 1994. Kombo, J. The Past. The Present, the Future of African Christianity: An Eschatological Vision for African Christianity, https://www.ibr.org>files>pdf>T2komboeschatology (accessed on Sept. 12, 2019). Kuukure, E. The Destiny of Man: Dagaare Beliefs in Dialogue with Christian Eschatology. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1985. Macpherson, R. The Presbyterian Church in Kenya: An Account of the Origins and Growth of the Presbyterian Church in East Africa, Nairobi: PCEA, 1970. Mafikiri, S. Christ as the Mangi: Ideal King of Christian Transformation, Christology from the Chagga Perspective. Nairobi: CUEA Press, 2010. Maimella, S. “Traditional African Anthropology and Christian Theology.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 76, (1991): 4-14. Mbiti, J. New Testament Eschatology in an African Background. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. Mbugua, J. Agikuyu Christian Martyrs: An Exploratory study of the Faith of Selected Agikuyu Christian Martyrs During the Mau Mau Period in Kenya (1952-1960), Thesis Submitted at South African Theological Seminary in Bryanston, Feb. 2011. Murage, B. (ed). Nyeri Ecclesiastical Province Celebration, Golden Jubilee, Catholic Action 1958-2008. Nyeri: Communications Department, 2008. ______, Marian Devotion Among the Agikuyu. Roma: S.T.A. 1995.

Njoroge, L. A Century of Catholic Endeavour; Holy Ghost and Consolata Missionaries in

214 Kenya, Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa, 1999.

Nwaigbo, F. Mary Mother of the African Church; A Theological Inculturation of Mariology. Frankfurt: Peter Lang Press, 2001. Nyamiti, C. Christ as our Ancestor: Christology From An African Perspectives. Gweru: Mambo Press, 1984. ______, Studies in African Christian Theology, Vol. 1. Jesus Christ, the Ancestor of Humankind: Methodological and Trinitarian Foundations. Nairobi: CUEA Publications, 2005. ______, The Scope of African Theology, Kampala: Gaba: Publications, 1973. Oborji, F.A. “In Dialogue with African Traditional Religion: New Horizon”, Mission Studies 19, no. 1 (2002): 13-35. Omona, A. Comparison between Biblical and African Concept of life after Death, https://www.academia.edu/5116200/comparison-between-biblical-and-african-concept of life after death (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). Oosthuizen, G. “Ecumenical Burial Societies in South Africa: Mutual Caring and Support that Transcends Ecclesiastical and Religious Differences,” Missiology Vol.18, no. 4 (1990): 463-472. Sawyerr, H. Creative Evangelism: Towards A New Christian Encounter With Africa, London: Lutterworth Press, 1968. Shorter, A. African culture and the Christian Church: An introduction to social and Pastoral Anthropology, London: Geofrey Chapmann, 1973. Wanjala, F. Basics of African Theology: A Cogent Mentor in Charles Nyamiti. Rome: Litografia Leberit Via Aurelia, 2008.

B. Secondary Sources

Abbe, I. “Otherness as a Challenge for the Church in Africa; Towards a Theological Hermeneutics of Togetherness.” African Christian Studies Vol. 31, no. 1 (2015): 7-24.

Akin, J. Righteousness and Merit, ewtn.com/Catholicism/library/righteousness-and-merit-1139, (accessed on Nov. 5, 2019).

215 ______, The Fathers Know Best; Your essential Guide to the Teachings of the Early Church, California: Catholic Answers Inc., 2010. Aquilina, M. The Fathers of the Church; An Introduction to the First Christian Teachers. Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Inc.1999. Aquinas, T. Summa Contra Gentiles, Book III, trans V. Bourke, New York: Ave Maria Press, 1948. Archdiocese of Nyeri, Strategic Plan 2010-2014, Nyeri: Mathari Printing Press, 2010. Archdiocese of Nyeri, www.adnyeri.org (accessed on Oct. 12, 2018). Augustine, De Civitate Dei, Book III, newadvent.org/fathers/(accessed on Mar 16, 2019). Baloyi, J. Psychology and Psychotherapy Re-defined from the Viewpoint of the African Experience. Un-Published Doctoral Thesis, Pretoria: University of South Africa, 2008. Baloyi, L., & Makobe-Rabothata, M. (2014). The African conception of death: A cultural implication. In L. T. B. Jackson, D. Meiring, F. J. R. Van de Vijver, E. S. Idemoudia, & W. K. Gabrenya Jr. (Eds.), Toward sustainable development through nurturing diversity: Proceedings from the 21st International Congress of the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology. https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/iaccp_papers/119/ (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). Balthasar, H. A Theology of History, London: Sheed and Ward, 1964. ______, A Theological Anthropology. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1967. ______, In the Fullness of Faith: On the Centrality of the Distinctively Catholic, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988. ______, The Glory of the Lord: A Theological Aesthetics, Vol. 1 Seeing The Form, eds Joseph Fessio and John Riches, trans Erasmo Leiva, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1982. ______, Theo Dramma: Theological Dramatic Theory, Vol. V, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1994. Baum, G. Man Becoming God in Secular Experience. New York: Herder & Herder Inc., 1970. Beale, G.K. The Temple and the Church’s Mission. Leicester: Intervarsity Press, 2004. Beasley, G. “Eschatology in the Gospel of Mark.” South West Journal of Theology Vol. 21, no. 1 (1978): 37-53. Beller, J. and C. Kröger. Differential Effects from Aspects of Religion on Female Genital

216 Mutilation/Cutting. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, psyc.apa.org/record/2018- 27804-001 (accessed on Dec. 16, 2018). Bevans, S. and R. Schroeder, Constants in Context; A Theology of Mission for Today, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 2004. Bokwa, I. Trynitarno- Chrystologiczna Interpretacja Eschatologii w Ujeciu Hansa Ursa von Balthasar, Random: Ave, 1998. Boring, E. Revelation Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching. Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989. Brockman, N. & U. Pescantini, A History of the Catholic Church, Nairobi: Paulines Publication Africa, 2010. Brotherton, J. “Hans Urs Von Balthasar, On the Redemptive Descent.” Pro-Ecclesia 22, no.2 (2013): 167-188. ______, “The Possibility of Universal Conversion in Death Temporality, Annihilation, and Grace.” Modern Theology Vol 32, no.3 (2016): 307-324. Buttiglione, R. Karol Wojtyla: The Thought of the Man who became Pope John Paul II. trans. Paolo Guietti & Francesca Murphy, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1997. Carl B. & Robert J. (edts). Biblical and Theological Perspectives on Eschatology. Grand Rapids/Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2002. Carota, Traditional Catholic Sense of Time (Life) and no Time (eternal Life), www.traditionalcatholicpriest.com/2014/01/02/traditional.catholic-sense-of-time-life- and-no-time-eternal-life (accessed on Nov 3, 2019). Catholic Encyclopedia; Mediator (Christ as Mediator), www.newadvent.org/cathen/10118a.htm (accessed on Nov. 12, 2019). Catholic Saints Information, https://www.catholicsaints.info/blessed-irene-stefani.html (accessed on Feb. 10, 2019).

Cayre, F. A. Manual of Patrology and the History of Theology, Paris: Desclee & Co. 1936.

Champagne, M. Theology and Meaning of Death in the Catholic Tradition, www.jesuscrucified.net (accessed on Nov. 4, 2019). Ciraulo, J. “Sacramentally Regulated Eschatology in Hans Urs Von Balthasar and Pope Benedict

217 XVI.” Pro Ecclesia: A Journal of Catholic and Evangelical Theology Vol 24, no. 2 (2015): 216-234. Collins, J. “Apocalyptic Eschatology as the Transcendence of Death.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly Vol 36, no. 1(1974): 21-43. Cooper, B. “Adaptive Eschatological Inference from the Gospel of Matthew.” Journal for the Study of the New Testament 33, no. 1 (2010): 59-80. Cross, F. and E. A. Livingstone, (eds.), The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, Second Revision, New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. Daley, B. “Eschatology in the Early Church Fathers,” ed. Walls, J. The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008:91-109. Daniel Minch, Eschatology and Theology of Hope: The Impact of Gaudium et Spes on the Thought of Edward Schillebeeckx, https://online library.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/heyj12352 (accessed on Nov. 17, 2018). Darr, K. “Ezekiel,” The New Interpreters Bible, Vol. 12, Nashville: Abingdon, 1994. David, H. Fifth Ecumenical Council, https://www.mercyuponall.org/2017/03/23/is-origenism- heresy-on-the -fifth-ecumenical-council-in553/ (accessed on Mar. 22, 2019). Davidson, A. The Theology of the Old Testament. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1904. Domingues, F. Christology and Traditional Religion in Africa, Roma: Pontifical University Gregorian, 1999. Dryness, W. Themes in Old Testament Theology, Illinois: Inter Varsity Press, 1977. Dulles, A. A History of Apologetics. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2005. Eliande Mircea, (ed), Encyclopedia in Religion, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1963. Emandi, S. “Repentance Eschatology, and Prophetic Hope: Repentance in the Book of Isaiah.” Puritan Reformed Journal Vol. 5, no. 2 (2013): 24-45. Encyclopedia of Death and Dying, African Religions, http://www.deathreference.com/ A- Bi/African-Religions.html (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). Encyclopedia of Death and Dying. The African Concept of Death, https:www.reference.com/A- B:/African-Religions..htm (accessed on Nov. 28, 2018). Exegetical Notes: The Wedding Theme in the Gospel of John, exegeticalnotes.blogspot.com>2011/03 (accessed on Mar. 11, 2019).

218 Faraoanu, I. “The Waiting of Parousia- Aspects of Lukan Eschatology Lk 17:20-37.” International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences Vol 57, (2015): 85-93. Felman, A. Explaining HIV and Aids in Medical News Today, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com>arti. (accessed on Dec. 16, 2018.) Ferguson, E. (ed.), Eschatology in Encyclopedia of Early Christianity. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990. Filson, F. Jesus Christ the Risen Lord. New York: Abingdon Press, 1956. Firestone, R. The Impact of Death Shapes our Behavior in our Everyday Lives, https://www.psychologytoday.com (accessed on Mar 11, 2019). Florovosky, G. “O ye dry bones ... Ezekiel XXXVII.” St Vladimirs Seminary Quartery Vol 1, no. 3 (1953): 4-8. ______, “Eschatology in the Patristic Age: An Introduction.” The Greek Orthodox Theological Review Vol. 2, no. 1 (1956): 27-40. Floyd, W.E. Clement of Alexandria's Treatment of the Problem of Evil. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. Fortman, E. J. Everlasting Life after Death. New York: Alba House, 1976. Fox, T. Pentecost in Asia: A New way of Being Church. New York: Orbis Books, 2002. Francis of Assisi. Canticle of the Creatures, in Early Documents, Vol I. New York: London Manilla, 1999. Francis, F. “Eschatology and History in Luke-Acts.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion Vol 37, no. 1 (1969): 49-63. Fundamental Option, Motivation and Virtue, https://theo.kuleuvein.be/apps/christian- ethics/theory/fo.html (accessed on Mar. 19, 2019). Galot, J. Eschatology from the Second Vatican Council to our Days, www.cletus.org/cletus/dati/2002-02/12-999999/02ESING.html, (accessed on Mar. 10, 2019). Geerhardus V. “The Eschatological Aspect of the Pauline Conception of the Spirit,” Biblical & Theological Studies, (1912), 209-259. Goswell, G. “Messianic Expectation in Isaiah 11,” The Westminster Theological Journal 79, no.1 (2017):123-135. Gowan, D. Eschatology in the Old Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1986.

219 Grindheim, S. “Ignorance is Bliss: Altitudinal Aspects of the Judgment According to Works in Matthew 25:31-46.” Novum Testamentum Vol. 50, no. 4 (2008): 313- 331. Hahn, S. Covenant and Communion; The Biblical Theology of Pope Benedict XVI. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2009. ______, The Lamb’s Supper; The Mass as Heaven on Earth. New York: Random House Inc., 1999. Harrisson, J. “Paul Eschatology and the Augustinian Age of Grace.” Tyndale Bullettin Vol. 50, no. 1 (1999): 79-91. Harry, U. “Eschatology in 1Thessalonians.” Journal of Irish Christian Study Centre vol. 2, (1984): 68-72. Healey, N. The Eschatology of Hans Urs von Balthasar: Being as Communion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. Hryniewicz, W. The Challenge of our Hope; Christian Faith in Dialogue. Washington DC: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 2007. http://ccaprf.wordpress.com/2011/02/05/church-documentsonintereligiousdialogue, (accessed on Nov. 2, 2019). Hugh, Why do Catholics pray to Saints,? http://www.catholicbridge.com/catholics/saints.php (accessed on Dec. 23, 2018). Hunter, A. “The Hope of Glory; The Relevance of the Pauline Eschatology.” Interpretation Vol 8, no.2 (1954): 131-134. Igbakua, I. “The Messianic Kingdom Theology in Luke-Acts.” Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies Vol. 6, no. 2 (2016): 55-74. Ikechukwu, K. “Inculturation and the Christian Faith in Africa”, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol.2, no. 17 (2012): 236-244. Irwin, K. Models of the Eucharist. New York: Paulist Press, 2005. Iwuchukwu, M. “Interreligious Dialogue in a Post-Modern Culture- The Challenges and Development of Inclusive Religious Pluralism Vis-A-Vis Leevinas Philosophy of Being.” Spiritual Horizons Vol 13, no. 13 (2018): 86-98. Jeffrey R. and Loan L. “Witchcraft,” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/topic/witchcraft (accessed on Nov. 24, 2018). John & Kathleen, Eschatology in Isaiah. johnandkathreenshow.com/wp-

220 content/uploads/2015/...eschatology-in-isaiah-2doc.html (accessed on Feb. 9, 2019). Johnson, P. A History of Christianity. New York: Athenium, 1976. Kabatha, Z. “The Blessed Virgin Mary as Our Mother; The Lucan Marian Perspective,” Studia Theologica Varsaviensia 57, no. 1 (2019): 73-88. Kanogo, T. African Womanhood in Colonial Kenya 1900-1950, Athens: Ohio University Press, 2005. Kelly, A. Eschatology and Hope. New York: Orbis Books, 2006. Kelly, J. Early Christian Doctrines, New York: Harper & Row, 1960. Kelly, M. Rediscovering Catholicism; Journeying Toward our Spiritual Northstar. Ohio: Beacon Publishing, 2002. Kiongo, W. Following at the footsteps of Wangari Maathai, https://www.africa.com/following-footsteps-profwangari-maathai (accessed on Oct 31, 2019). Kippes, A. “The Immaculate Conception and the Preternatural Gifts.” Marian Studies Vol.5, no. 8 (1954): 186-199. Kluj, W. “Koncepcja Istoty Najwyższej-Boga w Tradycyjnej Religii Afrykańskiej według Johna S. Mbitiego,” Annales Missiologici Posnanienses 12, (2001):59-77. _____, “Studia nad Tradycyjną Religią Afrykańską. Zarys problematyki i sposoby badań,” Collectanea Theologica 69, no. 3 (1999): 181-185. _____, “Translations of Verbal Expressions of Faith as the Prophetic Dimension of Missionary Work,” Mariano D. and M. Sievernich (eds), Mission und Prophetie in Zeiten der Interkulturalitat, St Ottilien: EOS Klosterverlag 2011, 279-289. Kocik, T. “Liturgical Renewal and Eschatology,” Homiletic and Pastoral Review 2003: 22-27. Kung, H. The Church, New York: Sheed & Ward, 1968. Ladd, G. “Consistent or Realized Eschatology in Matthew,” Southwest Journal of Theology Vol. 5, 1962. preachingsource.com>journal>consistent (accessed on Mar. 1, 2019). Ladd, G. Crucial Questions about the Kingdom. Grand Rapids: WMB Eerdmans Pub. Co. 1952. Leesing, R. “Preaching from Isaiah 56-66,” Concordia Journal 39, no. 1 (2013): 46-54. Leusch, C. Eschatology in the Book of Genesis, www.mountainretreat.org.net/eschatology/genesis.eschar.shtml, (accessed on Nov 18, 2018).

221 Losel, S. “A Plain Account of Christian Salvation? Balthasar on Sacrifice, Solidarity, and Substitution.” Pro-Ecclesia 13, no. 2 (2004): 141-171. ______, “Unapocaryptic Theology: History and Eschatology in Balthasars Theo Dramma.” Modern Theology 17, no.2 (2001): 201-225. Losel, S. and Mark D. “Love Divine All Loves Excelling Balthasar’s Negative Theology of Revelation.” The Journal of Religion Vol. 82, no.4 (2002): 586-616. Lowery, M. “The Eschatological Principle in Catholic Social Thought.” Journal of Markets & Morality Vol. 8, no. 2 (2005): 435-453. Maathai, W. Key note Address During the Second World Congress of Agroforestry, Aug 24, 2009, Nairobi Kenya, www.greenbelt.org/wangari-maathai/key-speeches-and- articles/2nd-world-congress-of-agroforestry-keynote-address, (accessed on Oct 31, 2019). Manson, T.W. The Servant Messiah; A Study of the Public Ministry of Jesus. Cambridge: The University Press, 1953. Marmion, D. “Karl Rahner, Vatican II and the Shape of the Church.” Theological Studies, Vol. 78, no.1 (2017): 25-48. Martin, R. The Fulfillment of All Desire: A Guide Book for the Journey to God on the Wisdom of the Saints. Ohio: Emmaus Road Publishing, 2006. Maslow’s Theory, theneyrotypical.com/maslows-basic-needs.html, (accessed on Feb.1, 2019). Mason, J. Death and its concepts- the Philosophers Magazine, https://www.philosophersmag.com/opinion/17-death-and-its-concepts (accessed on Nov. 10, 2019). Mathison, K. “The Promise to Abraham- The Unfolding of Biblical Eschatology,” Ligonier Ministries the Teaching Fellowship of R.C. Sproul, https://www.logonier.org/blog/promise-abraham-unfolding-biblicaleschatology, (accessed on Nov 18, 2018). Matthew J. Theories of Punishment: 5Ways to Keep Society Together, https://blog.udemy.com/theories-of-punishment, (accessed on Nov 10, 2019). Mattison W. Introducing Moral Theology; True Happiness and the Virtues, Grand Rapids Michigan: Brazos Press, 2008. McBrien, R. “Vatican II Themes; The Church as an Eschatological Community,” National

222 Catholic Reporter, https://www.ncronline .org/blog/essays/theology//vatII-themes- Church-eschatology-community, (accessed on Nov. 16, 2018). McBrien, R. Catholicism Completely Revised and Updated. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. McDonagh E. “Christian Hope.” Death and Hope, eds Harry J. Cargas and Ann White, New York: Corpus Books, 1970: 107-120. McKenna, M. Rites of Justice; Sacraments and Liturgy as Ethical Imperatives. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1997. Meeks, W. The Origins of Christian Morality: The First Two Centuries, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Middleton J. (ed.) Myths and Cosmos: Readings in Mythology and Symbolism, New York: The Natural History Press, 1970. Mirus, J. Vatican II on the Church: Eschatological Identity, https://www.catholicculture.org/commentary/otc.cfm?id=610 (accessed on Mar. 10, 2019). Moltman, J. The Church in the Power of the Spirit. New York: Harper & Row, 1977. ______, Theology of Hope; On the Ground and the Implication of Christian Eschatology, New York: Harper, 1965. Mostert, C. “The Kingdom Anticipated: The Church and Eschatology.” International Journal of Systematic Theology Vol 13, no. 1 (2010): 25-37. Muller, G. Catholic Dogmatics; For the Study and Practice of Theology. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 2012. Murphy, M. New Images of the Last Things, Karl Rahner on Death and Life After Death. New York: Paulist Press, 1982. Musurillo, Herbert. (ed), The Acts of the Christian Martyrs. Oxford: Clarendon, 1972. Salisbury, E. Perpetua’s Passion: The Death and Memory of a Young Roman Woman. London: Routledge, 1997. Neuner, J. and J. Dupuis, The Christian Faith in the Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Church, New York: Alba House, 1982. Neville, D. “Moral Vision, and Eschatology in Marks Gospel Coherence or Conflict?” Journal of Biblical Literature Vol 127, no. 2 (2008): 359-384. Nichols, A. The Thought of Pope Benedict XVI: An introduction to the Theology of Joseph

223 Ratzinger. New Edition, London: Burn & Oates, 2007. O’Collins, G. Rethinking Fundamental Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011. O’Donnel, J. St Augustine, Christian Bishop & Theologian, https://www.brittanica.com/biography/saint/Augustine ref 671870 (accessed on Mar. 22, 2019). Oort, Van J. “The End Is Now: Augustine on History and Eschatology.” HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies 68, no 1 (2012): 1-7. Ott, L. Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma, trans. Patrick Lynch, Dublin: Cahill & Co. Ltd, 1958. Pannenberg, W. Theology and the Kingdom of God. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1969. Pearce, J. Ecumenical and Inter Faith Dialogue, https://johnpearcecp.wordpress.com/category/ecumenical-interfaith-dialogue (accessed on Nov. 2, 2019). Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Beliefs and Practices Diverse and Politically Relevant, Washington DC: Pew Research Centre, 2008. Phan, P. Responses to 101 Questions on Death and Eternal Life. New York: Paulist Press, 1997. Pinnock, C. The Structure of Pauline Eschatology. https://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/iles/3-2-pinnock.pdf (accessed on Feb. 24, 2019). Pitre, B. Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Eucharist; Unlocking the Secrets of the Last Supper, New York: Double Day, 2011. Purgatory According to the Church Fathers, catholicbridge.com/catholic/purgatory-church- fathers.php (accessed on Feb. 28, 2019). Quasten, J. Patrology Vol. IV, The Golden Age of Latin Patristic Literature New York: Christian Classics Inc. 1986. ______, Patrology, Vol. 1 The Beginnings of Patristic Literature From the Apostles Creed to Ireneaus. Washington DC: Avemaria Press, 2005. Rahner, K. (ed), Sacramentum Mundi: An Encyclopedia of Theology, Vol III. New York: Seabury Press, 1968. ______, “Hidden Victory,” Theological investigations, Vol. VII, trans. David Bourke. New York: Seabury Press, 1974. 151-158. ______, Foundations of Christian Faith: An Introduction to the Idea of Christianity, trans.

224 William V. Dych, New York: Crossroad, 1987. ______, On the Theology of Death, trans. Charles H. Henkey, New York: Herder and Herder, 1971. Rausch, T. Eschatology, Liturgy and Christology. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2012. McCrum, R. “Every Third Thought; On Life, Death and the End Game,” The Economist, August 19th -25th 2017 Vol 427 No. 9054. economist.com/audioedition, (accessed on Nov. 12, 2019). Roberts, E. The Theology of Tertullian (1924), chapter 11, Eschatology, https://www.tertullian.org>articles>roberts-11 (accessed on Mar. 4, 2019). Roots of Purgatory, https://www.catholic.com/trait/the-roots-of-purgatory (accessed on Feb. 27, 2019). Rotelle, J. (ed.) The confessions; St Augustine, trans. Maria Boulding, New York: City Press, 1997. Rouland, C. “The Eschatology of the New Testament Church,” The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology, ed. Jerry Walls Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, Russerl, D. The Method and Message of Jewish Apocaryptic. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1964. Ryland, R. “O Felix Culpa! O Happy Fault!” The Coming Home Network International, April 3, 2012, https://chnetwork.org>2012/04/03>0-f (accessed on Mar. 12, 2019). Sachs, J. “Current Eschatology: Universal Salvation and the Problem of Hell.” Theological Studies 52, no.2 (1991): 227-254. Sanneh, L. Translating the Message. The Missionary Impact on Culture, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1989. Sawyerr, H. Creative Evangelism: Towards a New Christian Encounter with Africa, London: Lutterworth Press, 1968. Schillebeeckx, E. Church: The Human Story of God, New York: Cross Road, 1990. Schloeder, S. Archtecture in Communion; Implementing the Second Vatican Council Through Liturgy and Architecture. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1998. Schonborn, C. God Sent His Son, A Contemporary Christology. trans., Henry Taylor, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 2010.

225 ______, Living the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Vol. 1, trans. David Kipp, San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1995. Schrock, D. Eschatology from the Start, https://davidschrock.com/2013/07/25/eschatology-from- the -start--genesis-128/ (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). Serafian, M. The Pilgrim: Pope Paul VI, The Council, and the Church in a Time of Decision, New York: Farrar, Straus and Company, 1964. Severino, R. The Trinity: The Basis for Community Love and Intimacy with God, rogerseverino.com/the-trinity-the-basis-for-community-love-and-intimacy-with-god (accessed on Nov. 3, 2019). Shaff, P. History of the Christian Church Vol II. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1910. Sim, D. Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Gospel of Matthew. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Smith, P.A. Rhetoric, and Redaction in Trito Isaiah; The Structure Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 40-66. Leiden: Brill, 1995. Smith, R. “History and Eschatology in Luke-Acts.” Concordia Theological Monthly Vol 29, no.12 (1958): 881-901. Souter, A. Tertullian Concerning The Resurrection of the Flesh, www.tertullian.org>works, (accessed on Mar. 4, 2019). Sullivan, F. Salvation Outside the Church? New York: Paulist Press, 1992. Surrey, C. “Heaven Attracts and Hell Repels: A Dynamic Interpretation of Balthasar’s Dare we Hope, ‘That All Men be Saved.” Pro-Ecclesia 25, no.3 (2016): 321-336. Sven K. Soderlund and N.T. Wright, Romans and the People of God: Essays in Honor of Gordon D. Fee, On the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1999. Synder, H. “Salvation means Creation Healed: Creation, Cross, Kingdom and Mission.” The Asbury Journal Vol 62, no. 1 (2007): 9-47. The Canons and Decrees of the Council of Trent, trans. J. Schroeder, Charlotte, North Carolina: Tan Books, 1978. The Intercession of the Saints, https://www.catholic.com>tract>the-intercession-of-the-saints (accessed on Nov 4, 2019). The New Interpreters Bible, Vol 12, Nashville: Abingdon 1994: 1071-1607. Thiel, J. Icons of Hope; The Last Things in Catholic Imagination, Notre Dame, Indiana:

226 University of Notre Dame Press, 2013. Thomas, G. “African Tradition Religions,” World Mark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices 2006, https://www.enyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts- and- maps/african-traditional-religions (accessed on Nov.17, 2018). Trench, R. Notes on the Parables of our Lord, London: Macmillan, 1877. Van, W. “The Final Judgment in African Perspectives.” The African institute for Missiology Vol 62, no.2 (2006): 703-729. Viljoen, F. “Mark the Gospel of the Suffering Son of Man, An Encouragement Directed to a Despondent Religious Minority in the City of Rome.” School of Biblical Studies & Bible Languages Vol 36, no. 3 (2002): 455-474. Von, G. “The Eschatological Aspect of the Pauline Conception of the Spirit,” Biblical & Theological Studies, (1912): www.biblicaltheology.org (accessed on Feb. 24, 2019). Vos, G. The Pauline Eschatology, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1931. Vries de, P. “The Glory of YHWH in the Old Testament With Special Attention to the Book of Ezekiel.” Tyndale Bulletin 62, no. 1 (2011): 151-154. Vries, S. “Remembrance in Ezekiel: A Study of an Old Testament Theme.” Interpretation 16, no.1 (1962): 58-64. Wale, T. The Orthodox Church, Middlesex UK: Penguin Books, 1963. Waterworth, J. ed., The Council of Trent, The Canons & Decrees of the Sacred Oecumenical Council of Trent, London: Dolman, 1848. Wayne, J. A Study of the Last Things, https://www.christiancourier.com/articles/1470-study-of- the-last-things, (accessed on Jan. 28, 2019). Weigel, G. The Truth of Catholicism: Ten Controversies Explored, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2001. Weiss, J. Jesus’ Proclamation of the Kingdom of God. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1971. Welch, J. “Ezekiel 37:1-14.” Interpretation: A Journal of Bible and Theology Vol 70, no 1 (2016): 78-80. Werner, M. The Formation of Christian Dogma, Boston: Beacon Press, 1965. Wills, J. The Teaching of the Church Fathers. New York: Palm Publishers, 1966. Winter, E. “The Enemy Within: Amba Witchcraft” ed. Middleton, Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa, London: Routledge, 1963 : 277-299.

227 Wood, I. “Paul’s Eschatology.” The Biblical World Vol. 38, no.2 (1911): 79-91. Wright, E. God Who Acts: Biblical Theology as Recital. London: SCM Press, 1952. Wright, N. The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. III. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 2003. Wrobel, M. “Theological Concept of the Fourth Gospel in the Context of Jesus, Glorification Prayer, Jn 17:1-5 in the Person and Challenges.” The Journal of Theology, Education, Canon Law and Social Studies Inspired by John Paul II Vol 7, no. 1 (2017): 223-242. Yarbro, C. “Eschatology in the Book of Revelation.” Ex-Auditu 6, (1990): 63-72. Young, A. The Eschatology of Genesis, With Particular Reference to Chapters 1 & 2, https://www.rts.edu/shared resources/ documents/global/student-young-eschatology-of genesis.pdf, (accessed on Nov. 18, 2018). Zuiddam, B. “Early Church Fathers on Creation Death and Eschatology.” Journal of Creation 28, no. 1 (2014): 60-67.

228