Farmers Market Metrics: Economic, Human, Social, and Ecological

A Review of the Literature

Project Team Youn Hee Jeong, M.S., Graduate Student of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Wisconsin- Madison (UW) Anne Roubal, Ph.D., MPH, Research Scientist, Population Health Sciences – University of Arizona Health Sciences Center Alfonso Morales, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Madison- Wisconsin (UW) Suggested Citation: Jeong, Youn Hee, Anne Roubal, and Alfonso Morales. 2015. Farmers Market Impact Indicators: Economic, Human, Social, and Ecological. University of Wisconsin – Madison, URPL Working Paper, 2015-001

Acknowledgements The University of Wisconsin Project Team appreciates the thoughtful contributions of its members in the development of this literature review. Reviewers included Lauren Suerth, MS (University of Wisconsin – URPL), Jen Cheek, and Sara Padilla, Darlene Wolnik (Farmers Market Coalition), Stacy Miller (Farmers Market Metrics Project Consultant), and Rebecca Jollay.

Funding from the USDA’s Agriculture and Food Research Initiative (grants 2011-68004-30044 and 2014-68006- 21857) supported this study.

Table of Contents

I. Introduction ...... 1

Methods: How We Processed ...... 2

Limitations ...... 2

II. Research into Existing Tools and Methodologies ...... 3

III. Relevant Tools for Research Questions in Farmers Markets Research ...... 5

1. Economic Impacts and Data Collection Tools ...... 5

2. Human Impacts and Data Collection Tools ...... 13

3. Social Impacts and Data Collection Tools ...... 16

4. Ecological Impacts and Data Collection Tools...... 18

5. Integrated approaches to assessing farmers market performance ...... 19

IV. Conclusions: Key Learnings and Implications for Practice ...... 22

References ...... 24

Appendix A. Survey Questions to Measure Impacts of Farmers Markets ...... 29

Appendix B. Glossary of Terms ...... 33

I. Introduction Markets have been the beating hearts of communities for centuries. Morales (2011) outlined this history and summarized the literature on the four types of benefits marketplaces produce: public health, economic well-being, social/political life, and ecological concerns. While a variety of complementary local food and farm marketing enterprises have emerged and grown in recent years (Martinez, 2010), farmers markets remain the most prominent and public forums supporting direct agricultural commerce. Markets are initiated by a variety of grassroots community stakeholders (Friedlander, 1976), and as such, their goals are aligned with the unique issues or assets found in their respective places.

The number of farmers markets in the United States grew to 8,268 in 2014, a 371-percent increase from 1994 (USDA, 2014). Alongside the rapid growth of farmers markets, multiple research reports on their benefits and impacts within communities were and still are being released. Successful farmers markets in communities often make the difference in whether innovative producers can successfully market new crops and varieties, develop viable business models, and employ others in rural areas. Communities use farmers markets as a civic platform to address food access issues, raise awareness about sustainable agriculture, test new policy directions, as well as to explore and expand the “green economy” (Alkon, 2012). This review of the literature responds to a pressing question: how have market organizations and their project partners collected decision-making data on their various activities? To date, markets and their partners have used two broad types of data collection practices: macro-level measurement toolkits and do-it-yourself (DIY) on-the-spot customer or vendor surveys. The DIY surveys quantify the addition of new shoppers, assess their preferences, or collect other demographic characteristics while the toolkits take a more comprehensive approach to impact measurement. This review produces a more nuanced view of these practices by categorizing the different tools, describing the research questions addressed by those tools, discussing the pitfalls and promises associated with the tools, and describing the broader approach associated with each type of tool.

The impact of farmers markets in the United States is a topic that has been explored by multiple and diverse researchers. For this paper, we reviewed a selection of the existing research to understand the current status of data collection and measurement tools available and in use at markets to assess the impact at the community level. The purpose of the current paper is to examine indicators and methods utilized at farmers markets for data collection, as well as to discuss impacts that have been identified through existing research, and to identify what is missing in order for reliable data collection to take place in the market environment. Specifically, we respond to the following questions: 1) What instruments or tools are employed for data collection at farmers markets? 2) What are the research questions markets are seeking to answer? What kinds of research are they accomplishing? 3) What indicators and metrics are being examined? 4) How valid and applicable is the methodology?

Additionally, we address the issue of challenges and barriers to data collection at markets in this review.

Methods: How We Processed The process used to assemble this literature review included: . Review of scholarly articles and other published documents . Review of national websites and a general internet search . Outreach to experts, academics, and practitioners in the field to identify current methodology and projects underway . Categorization of the literature according to specific themes that emerged throughout the process . Collaborative suggestions from internal and external audiences

The list of selected literature on farmers markets and data collection was compiled as part of a new initiative led by the Farmers Market Coalition and the University of Wisconsin – Madison, entitled Indicators for Impact: Farmers Markets as Leaders in Collaborative Food System Data Collection and Analysis. It is intended to inform the process by which a meaningful list of indicators and metrics is developed for the design and implementation of a data collection process to take place over three years. Additionally, this paper will enhance our understanding of the indicators used to collect data common to all markets.

Limitations This examination of the literature attempted to map the methods commonly employed, as well as those less commonly used. However, it is possible that certain articles, reports, surveys, or other resources that may contain relevant information have been overlooked in this review. Additionally, some of the articles highlighted fall into multiple categories or themes.

II. Research into Existing Tools and Methodologies The results of the literature search unique to farmers markets and data collection or evaluation revealed 67 peer-reviewed articles published or otherwise reported between 1999 and 2015. The literature search not directly related to farmers markets yielded 31 articles, books, or relevant materials. The articles describing data collection efforts and methodologies used at venues other than markets and strategies for working with non-market data collection initiatives were also included. We found four types of research tools, including surveys (farmer/producer/vendor/shopper), interviews (qualitative), multivariate analysis (OLS/Logistic/multiple regression, generalized estimating equations modeling), and model analysis (IMPLAN/I-O MODEL). A total of 98 peer-reviewed articles and agency or organization reports were selected for this review of the literature. In order to identify and analyze relevant scholarly and non-scholarly or popular literature, we employed the following process:  Participating in regular conference calls of the Indictors for Impact project team (UW and FMC), we selected relevant reports that frame current conditions, efforts, and gaps in research and/or measurement of the impacts of farmers markets on communities.  We conducted a search on leading practitioner websites and mined existing reports found to be relevant in terms of measuring benefits/impacts of farmers markets (e.g. Market Umbrella, Project for Public Spaces, Farmers Market Coalition, Vancity Community Foundation).  The search engines Web of Science and Google Scholar were utilized using terms such as ‘farmers markets, ‘direct farm marketing’, ‘public markets’, ‘local food systems’, ‘impacts’, ‘measurement’, ‘assessment’, ‘indicator’, and ‘outcomes.’  Primary criteria for selecting literature included whether the research explored or measured impacts or benefits of farmers markets in terms of social, economic, and ecological capital, or contained survey instruments designed to collect quantitative or descriptive data from farmers market participants. From the selected literature, a list of frequently mentioned impacts and tools were categorized according to work the Farmers Market Coalition (FMC) did in 2011 with community-level coordinators of CDC’s Communities Putting Prevention to Work (CPPW). Together they crafted a draft set of indicators for measuring farmers market activities and outcomes. They engaged a community-level process that sorted the indicators into four types of capital:  Economic (ex. producer sales, related sales to restaurants, number of new food businesses, creation of jobs on farm and in host community, sales at neighboring businesses, financial or in- kind investments by sponsoring organizations.)  Human (ex. shoppers learning new recipes, trying new vegetables, producers learning new languages to communicate better with shoppers, or community partners learning about market shopper behavior and preferences.)  Social (ex. instances of civic engagement, volunteer hours, nonprofits conducting education at market, producers donating food to social service agencies.)

 Ecological (ex. acres in production or preserved, distance from harvest to final consumers, crop diversity, water conservation, nutrient management, humane livestock practices, and certified and non-certified sustainability practices.)

While there is a common understanding that farmers markets serve many different audiences in a variety of ways, the leaders of the FMC work in 2011 felt that the sector has relied too long on assumptions or case studies, and identified a need to apply greater discipline to the collection of accurate information and analysis of these diverse impacts. Another general review of the literature on marketplaces by Morales (2011) also identified four, similarly categorized types of market benefits.

Table 1. Key Indicators and Tools for Impacts of Farmers Markets Presented in Selected Empirical Studies Impacts Indicators Tools/Measurement Methods Economic Impacts on the local and/or regional economy Tools for data collection: (multiplier effect): Total annual sales, Jobs Farmer/Producer/Shopper Survey created, and leveraged dollars Price and quality comparison survey Impacts on neighboring businesses Observation Market expansion and fostering entrepreneurship Interviews Change/difference in food affordability SEED Rapid Market Assessment

Measurement Methods: I-O Model/ IMPLAN/ RIMS II Survey data analysis Multivariate analysis (OLS, Logistic regression) Human More consumption of fresh produce Tools for data collection: Change in availability of fresh produce (fruits and Survey vegetables) Observation Satisfaction with access to fresh produce Interview compared to local stores FEED Change in family food consumption behavior Change in cooking, eating habits Measurement Methods: Change in market visitors’ food knowledge Quantitative & qualitative analysis The relationship between the presence of the Generalized estimating equations modeling farmers market with these changes Stepwise multiple regression analysis Social Consumers’ motivation and primary reason for Tools for data collection: attending farmers markets Survey, NEED Consumer social interaction and influences on vendors Measurement Methods: Diversity in public space Survey data analysis Contribution to community building and social Multiple regression analysis ties Ecological Farmers’ willingness to reduce chemical inputs Tools for data collection: Survey Reducing food miles/shopper miles and food waste Measurement Methods: Encouraging environmentally sound farming Survey data analysis practices Multiple regression analysis

Table One presents key impacts and tools discussed in the selected studies on outputs and impacts of farmers markets. A total of 30 empirical studies that discuss or measure impacts with unique methods

and data are included. We also reviewed scholarly literature review papers but did not include them in the table, as this table shows only literature with its own data, methodology, and applicable metrics.

III. Relevant Tools for Research Questions in Farmers Markets Research

In this section, we examine four types of impacts1 and the tools used for measurement, including how and what they measured, and also identify which indicators or metrics are used to determine whether those impacts were realized.

Economic Impacts and Data Collection Tools The expansion of farmers markets suggests that farmers have benefited from increased opportunities to sell their products directly to consumers (Brown et al., 2007; Henneberry, 2009). Furthermore, it implies that consumers are purchasing an increasing portion of their food from local sources, enjoying better prices and easier access (Kunkel, Luccia, & Moore, 2003; Larsen & Gilliland, 2009; Suarez-Balcazar et al., 2006). Farmers markets have been found to have positive impacts on local economies in terms of job creation, increased revenue and income, and business incubation. Citing a study by Tulane’s A.B. Freeman School of Business, a green paper published by Market Umbrella (1999) suggests that a farmers market is an efficient tool for economic development of participating agricultural enterprises, as well as the downtown area and the rural communities from which vendors travel. In order to estimate the economic contribution of farmers markets, several studies utilized the regional modeling system such as Impact Analysis for Planning input-output (I-O) model and Regional Input Modeling System (RIMS). A study by the Union of Concerned Scientists explained the logic of measuring the economic multiplier effects of the farmers market as follows.

“The value of goods and services sold by a business, or the direct effect of a market, is just one component of a given market’s economic impacts. Each business represented must also purchase inputs to produce and market its goods, and these collective expenditures are the indirect effects of a market. Direct and indirect effects lead to increases in labor and capital income in households. This results in additional expenditures by households, which are the induced effects of a particular market. The economic multiplier of a market is a measure of the increase in economic activity that occurs as a consequence of direct market sales (p.16)2.”

To undertake such an analysis, farmers market researchers administered surveys of farmers markets within a specified region (like a state), and then they relied on model parameters to

1 For the definition of metric, indicator, and impact, see Appendix B. Glossary of terms. 2 For more information, read market-forces-report.pdf text version. (July 22, 2015). Retrieved from http://www.readbag.com/ucsusa-assets-documents-food-and-agriculture-market-force 5

determine the economic impacts of the farmers markets on other industries for which primary data had not been collected.

Table 2. Indicators for Economic Impacts of farmers markets (Multiplier Effect) Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Otto and Consumer interview: interview by trained Total sales for market season Varner enumerator during three points of the market The economic impact of the total statewide (2005) season Vendor survey: copies of paper surveys distributed by managers once at the end of the 2004 market season IMPLAN Input-Output Model Henneberry Survey of randomly chosen 21 farmers markets Market Profile: Total farmers market gross et al. (2009) in Oklahoma, in 2012 sales, number of people employed by farmers Market manager mail survey markets, the annual average of farmers market Customer and vendor in-person surveys producers/vendors’ household income, and total Additional personal interviews farmers market visitors’ expenditures in other IMPLAN Input-Output Model sectors IMPLAN: Three estimates calculated: Impacts on the total value of economic transactions (gross sales), the overall level of personal income, and the number of Jobs (the number of full-time-equivalent positions in the economy). Total impacts were categorized into direct, indirect, and induced effects. Econsult Vendor /Manager survey The direct, indirect, and induced expenditures Corporation Regional Input-Output Modeling System sum to the total economic output (2007) (RIMS) A matrix of impact multipliers specific to each market, vendor, and local economy type Hughes et al. Vendor survey of 34 Farmers Markets across The value of direct sales by local producers (The (2008) West Virginia in 2005 midpoint of each of 21 categories of a range was IMPLAN-based I-O model used to provide an estimate of sales per respondent) Number of jobs (FTE) Gross impacts on industry output Gross state product Net economic impact (The effect of direct revenue losses (opportunity cost)) City of Survey of sales estimate by product type, Total sales volume Portland fees/sales from prepared food vendors, and Sales growth (2008) vendor fees. Distribution of sales (% of dollar volume) by Farmer/Producer Interviews product type (e.g. vegetables 32%; fruit 13.8%) Market Manager Interviews Employment Development of a Site-Evaluation Tool Employee compensation IMPLAN Vendor fees collected GIS mapping of current farmers market Spaces (sq. ft. and aisle width) locations, primary trade areas for the markets, Percentage of vendors by product type and farmers serving Portland area markets Number of blocks from local business community Total sales Total Number of vendors on opening day; Highest Number of vendors; Average Number of vendors Vendor waiting list (Yes/No)

Number of adult customers on average day (high and low estimate requested) Several qualitative metrics included also Market SEED methodology: The market’s total combined economic impact: Umbrella Survey, The Regional Input-Output Modeling Total immediate economic benefit to vendors, (2012) System II multiplier nearby businesses, and the local community and BEA RIMS II multiplier or comparable multiplier. Market impact on vendors with multiplier (Average gross receipts, Average gross receipts per market sq. ft., Projected gross annual receipts) Local area impact with multiplier (Average gross receipts, Projected gross annual receipts at businesses near the market, Projected annual state & municipal sales tax revenue) Project tax revenue (the sales taxes nearby businesses pay to local and state authorities from the purchases made by market shoppers) Sadler, Clark, Customer surveys (N=895) Consumer characteristics (gender, age, and Gilliland SPSS analysis Frequency of visits, distance from market, mode (2013) Spatial analysis in GIS of transportation) A modified economic impact multiplier Products purchased (Econsult Corporation (2007) methodology) Reasons for coming The socioeconomic distress index How heard about market Time spent at market Money spent at market Spatial distribution of customers by level of urbanization and presence of above-average neighborhood socioeconomic distress Kernel density of customers weighted by dollars spent

Table Two identifies how these studies administered surveys of farmers markets and used acquired estimates for calculating the economic impact of farmers markets by using IMPLAN or RIMS. Otto and Varner (2005), Henneberry et al. (2009), Hughes et al. (2008), and City of Portland (2008) used IMPLAN and survey data to evaluate economic impact of farmers market, while Econsult Corporation (2007) and Sadler et al. (2013) used RIMS and survey data. Otto and Varner (2005) estimated the sales, income, and job multipliers of Iowa farmers markets using the IMPLAN Input-Output (I-O) model. The multiplier effect for gross sales and personal income was 1.58 and 1.47 respectively. The multiplier effect for jobs was 1.45. Similarly, multipliers associated with farmers markets in Oklahoma have been estimated to be 1.41 (employment), 1.66 (personal income), and 1.78 (gross sales) (Henneberry et al. 2009). Market Umbrella designed the Sticky Economy Evaluation Device (SEED), a tool to measure a public market’s impact on the local economy. Customer-intercept surveys, head-count tabulations, and the Bureau of Economic Analysis’ RIMS II economic multiplier are used for collecting data and estimating economic impacts (Market Umbrella, 2012).

On the other hand, Hughes et al. (2008) pointed out that these approaches did not consider the opportunity cost of money spent at farmers markets. They examined the net impact of farmers markets on the West Virginia economy, using an IMPLAN-based input-output model. Gross impacts were 119 jobs and $2.389 million in output, including $1.48 million in gross state product. When the effect of direct revenue losses, referred to as the opportunity cost, was included, the impact was reduced to 82 jobs, $1.075 million in output, and $0.653 million in gross state product (2008, 253). This study identified that displaced economic activity by farmers markets within the local community reduced the positive economic impacts of localization, although estimated net benefits were still positive. Portland’s analysis of its farmers markets also took into account the substitution effect.

“Assuming that all goods sold at a traditional grocery store are imported to the region (to simplify the analysis), IMPLAN estimates that nearly three-quarters of the direct impact leaks outside the region with the estimated $11.2 million in spending at farmers’ markets equivalent to approximately $3.4 million in economic impact in a traditional grocery market, because of the household margins associated with retail sectors.”

Martinez et al. (2010) pointed out that it is not clear how estimates of net economic benefits would be affected if the costs of public investments were accounted for in the empirical studies of economic impact of local food markets. For instance, the Farmers Market Promotion Program has provided public financing to support farmers markets for several years since 2006, and local governments often either directly operate local markets or provide resources to support their operation. These costs have not been explained in existing research on the economic impacts of farmers markets (2010, 45). The recent USDA (2015) report contends that it is hard to draw conclusions about the local economic impact of local food systems because the existing literature has narrow geographic and market scope, making comparing studies complicated. This study notes that data necessary to conduct the economic impact analysis are costly to obtain, and there is no standard way of accounting for the opportunity cost. The authors conclude that many questions surrounding the economic impact of local foods remain unanswered and could be addressed by future research. The existence of farmers markets may also spur consumer spending at other businesses in a community. People who come to a market also spend money with nearby merchants. This is one of the direct economic benefits of farmers markets acclaimed by community leaders and market organizers. Lev et al. (2003) and Bubinas (2009, 2011) found that many farmers market shoppers who traveled to downtown areas specifically to patronize the market also spent additional money at neighboring businesses. Bubinas calculated the direct economic benefit of a farmers market to downtown and neighboring business storeowners and vendors in two farmers markets in Kenosha and Waukesha, WI. Lev et al. (2003) estimated spillover sales generated by farmers market shoppers who also make purchases at neighboring businesses in Oregon farmers market during 1998-2003.

Table 3. Indicators for Economic Impacts of farmers markets on neighboring business Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Bubinas Questionnaire survey (Vendors, customers, and Percentage of market customers who visit the (2011) downtown storeowners) downtown area Semi-structured interview with vendors and Direct economic benefit of farmers market to storeowners downtown storeowners and vendors; number of customers spending money, percentage of customers spending money, and average amount spent Indirect economic benefit: utilize FM for advertising and earning revenue, a nurturing venue for local entrepreneurs, and create additional employees on market days Lev et al. Customer survey: To estimate spillover sales Percent of shoppers who visit downtown (2003) generated by farmers market shoppers who also specifically for farmers market purchase at neighboring businesses Percent of people who also shopped outside market Estimated total spent outside market and Estimated total spent inside market Spending ratio (outside/inside market) Ostrom and A survey of market managers to 169 farmers The total annual market sales, Average farmer Donovan market locations in Washington State in 2010. vendor sales compared to past five years, Impact (2013) Among them, 127 farmers market participated of accepting credit/debit cards, Vendor business in the survey. incubation, Total number of farmers market Follow-up phone interviews were conducted in employees by status, Average employee at 2011. farmers markets, Farmers market manager compensation, Types of farmers market manager positions, Farmers market manager experience (years managing) Ohio The Rapid Market Assessment model: A dot Percent of shoppers and shopping frequency at University survey and brief questionnaire neighboring businesses or restaurants (2013) Percent of shoppers who visit downtown specifically for farmers market

Ostrom and Donovan (2013) conducted a survey of farmers market managers and documented the current capacity of Washington state farmers markets to generate income for farmers, improve the environment, and provide assets to communities. This study also assessed their long-term sustainability by analyzing survey results. The methods used include participatory research, collecting existing data, Rapid Market Assessment, market manager survey, farm vendor survey, case study communities, and focus groups. Using these data collection methods, Ostrom and Donovan assessed the impacts of farmers markets. Ohio University (2013) conducted a dot survey for shoppers at the Athens Farmers Market and found that the vast majority of queried shoppers reported that their primary reason for coming to East State Street was to shop at the market. Over half of these shoppers reported that they often or always shop at other businesses or restaurants when they come to the market.

Market Expansion for Farmers and Fostering Entrepreneurial Activity Farmers markets may facilitate entrepreneurial activity within the local economy by improving business skills and opportunities. Feenstra et al. (2003) examined the role of farmers markets in creating and sustaining new businesses. In this study, the capacities of farmers market vendors, which are associated with entrepreneurial outcomes, were examined. In particular, this study explores how vendors’ business activities and capacities are associated with different sizes of enterprises by conducting a mail survey of up to 400 vendors from 20 markets in each state in 1999. They concluded that farmers markets helped medium- and large-scale enterprises to expand or complemented existing, well-established businesses. For small vendors, farmers markets appeared to operate as a relatively low-risk incubator for new businesses and a nurturing primary venue for part- time enterprises. Using the same data from a 1999 mail survey of farmers market vendors, Hinrichs et al. (2004) examined the role of social learning in vendor innovation. Social learning through engagement with customers contributed to more innovative marketing by vendors while social learning through engagement with customers and fellow vendors increased the likelihood of vendors diversifying to additional markets beyond the farmers market. Brown and Miller (2008) suggested that farmers markets allow farmers to expand their business and increase market sales and household income by reviewing research conducted on farmers markets since 2000.

Table 4. Indicators for Market Expansion and Fostering Entrepreneurial Activity through Farmers Markets Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Feenstra et al. Survey analysis Vendor’s entrepreneurial activities and skills (2003) Mail survey of farmers market vendors of New gained through the farmers market experience York, Iowa, and California in 1999 Activity: added new product category, expanded existing product lines, begun additional processing, developed mailing list of farmers market customers, and made new business contacts Skills: Customer relations improved, business self-confidence improved, merchandizing skills improved, pricing skills improved, cooperating with business people Hinrichs et Multivariate analysis: Ordinary least squares Dependent variables: Intensity of innovative al. (2004) regression, Logistic regression marketing practices3, Expansion beyond this The same survey conducted by Feenstra et al. farmers market4

3 The questions asked whether, since selling at the farmers market, vendors had (1) ‘‘added new categories of products (like a fruit vendor who added baked goods, or a vegetable vendor who added handcrafted birdfeeders);’’ (2) ‘‘expanded existing product lines (like a vegetable vendor who added a new variety of pepper or a potter who added a new kind of vase);’’ (3) ‘‘begun additional processing to add value to one or more products;’’ (4) ‘‘developed a mailing list of your regular farmers market customers;’’ (5) ‘‘provided opportunities for farmers market customers to visit your farm;’’ and (6) ‘‘made new business contacts through the market, e.g., with restaurants, stores.’’ A summated measure of scores for the six individual practices provided one dependent variable, intensity of innovative marketing practices (p.42). 4 This study asked a fixed-choice question: ‘‘How do you think selling at the X market (i.e., the market through which the vendor was surveyed) has affected sales of your products in other outlets?’’ and created a dichotomous variable where ‘‘increased sales in other outlets’’ was the reference category (p.42). 10

(2013) Explanatory variables: Regional community context, social learning at farmers markets, Individual characteristics, Enterprise characteristics

Improving food affordability Studies found mixed results on the relationship between the presence of a farmers market and its likelihood of improving food affordability. Several studies found that farmers markets in food deserts had more affordable and quality produce (Park et al., 2011; Suarez-Balcazar, 2006) than neighborhood corner stores and supermarkets. When market basket price comparisons are made, farmers market prices are often found to be more affordable. For instance, using comparing the average price of a healthy food basket between average supermarket and low-income neighborhood, Larsen and Gilliland (2009) showed that farmers markets provided enough competition to lower supermarket prices on produce. On the other hand, Lucan et al. (2015) argue that it is not evident that farmers markets contribute positively to an urban food environment in terms of accessibility and price. They investigate 26 farmers markets in Bronx County, NY, to compare farmers markets’ accessibility as well as produce variety, quality, and price to that of nearby stores. This study concludes that farmers markets’ lower accessibility, restricted variety, and higher cost, might provide little net benefit to food environments in the urban community although farmers markets might increase access to local and organic produce. Additionally, nationwide a trend has emerged to provide incentives to Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly food stamps) recipients at farmers markets. This serves to both stimulate local economies by drawing SNAP recipients to spend their benefits at farmers markets and to increase access to healthy, local foods for people with limited incomes (Zandi 2008; Bartlett et al 2013). In many communities where a high density of SNAP recipients reside, few healthy food retail options exist that are accessible in terms of cost and physical proximity (White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity 2010). According to one study, SNAP recipients report that they find more variety and better-quality fruits and vegetables at the farmers markets than in other stores (Karakus et al., 2014). In terms of prices, most shoppers believed that the prices of fresh fruits and vegetables at farmers markets were lower or at least the same as in other stores. This study also found that financial incentives were very important for drawing SNAP recipients to farmers markets and that they shopped more often at farmers markets because of these incentives. Furthermore, SNAP recipients reported that their household members ate more fresh fruits and vegetables as a benefit of the incentives. SNAP benefits are primarily utilized by program participants at farmers markets through Electronic Benefits Transfer (EBT), wherein dollars are deducted from the customers’ EBT cards using a United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)-authorized point of sale machine. The dollars are then issued in the form of a market SNAP currency, namely tokens or paper scrip. However, some farmers markets lack the necessary equipment for electronic processing and instead collect SNAP transaction information on paper receipts and process these manually over the phone. In order to offer market incentive programs, the administering organization raises a reserve of

supporting funds to provide a ‘match’ to withdrawn SNAP benefits up to a certain dollar amount, typically between $5 and $30 dollars. Consumers spend their SNAP benefits and these bonus funds on eligible foods and plants, with some programs restricting the use of bonuses to only fresh fruits and vegetables. To offer SNAP-based incentives, a market must request a waiver from the USDA given that the program provides different treatment to SNAP recipients than other customers. The primary hurdle in implementing bonus incentives is securing sustaining funds for both the matching dollars and the staff hours required to administer these programs. Incentive programs have a positive economic impact on farmers market sales. A study lead by Lydia Oberholtzer evaluating just over 100 farmers market incentive programs in their second year of implementation found an average increase of 134% in SNAP sales between years one and two. The usage of incentives also increased by 61% between years one and two (Oberholtzer 2012). Additional studies that look at the difference in SNAP spending before and after the introduction of incentive programs show impressive increases, ranging between 117%, 179%, and 328% at different markets (Bodonyi and Gilroy 2011; New York City Department of Health and Hygiene 2010). Regionally, several Midwestern states are on the forefront of incentive program implementation, with Minnesota and Michigan working with partners to implement initiatives at farmers markets statewide (Blue Cross Blue Shield 2014; Fair Food Network 2014), and Citywide initiatives in Wisconsin (Dundore and Morales 2015). Analyses of prices at farmers markets and nearby grocery stores are limited and have focused on specific geographic areas. However, by using a nationwide survey of 2006 Nielsen Homescan panel data, ERS (Economic Research Service, USDA) conducted price comparisons of DTC (Direct to Consumer) outlets including farmers markets and retail stores nationally. For some product and location combinations, DTC food prices were higher than retail store prices (USDA, 2015). However, this study finds that selected produce prices at DTC outlets are generally lower, on average, than prices at retail stores in all seasons.

Table 5. Indicators for Food Affordability Improvement of Farmers Markets: Price data comparison, Survey, and Interview Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Suarez- Survey (Consumer survey by interviewer, Spending patterns at farmers market (Spending, Balcazar farmers survey by interviewer) and use of senior discount coupon, farmers (2006) market coupon, and a Link card) Satisfaction with access to fresh fruits and vegetables compared to local stores (price, location, quality, variety, cleanliness, availability of organic produce, overall satisfaction with access) Larsen and Price data comparison Comparison of the average price of a healthy Gilliland ‘Before and after’ approach to assessing food food basket (ONFB) between average (2009) price and availability (data for 2005 and 2008) supermarket and low-income neighborhood Informa Two survey comparison: two shopper surveys of Comparing qualities of markets & supermarkets, Market 2010 and 2012 (386 farmers market shoppers, including value, convenience, and price Research representing 58 different markets, surveyed in (2012) Ontario, Canada)

Community Cluster evaluation for 31 sample sites of the Characteristics of farmers markets offering Science healthy food incentive programs (SNAP) SNAP incentives (2013) The data collected by the individual projects or Change in SNAP recipients food purchasing organizations that participate in the evaluation behaviors as a result of incentive. Market sites profile/Monthly transaction Effect of incentive programs on local farmers reporting forms (e.g. revenues, jobs) and the local economies Consumer Survey Cost implications of implementing the healthy Vendor Survey food incentive programs Market Manager Survey Essential strategies & components of Program manager semi-structured interviews & “effective” healthy incentive program survey Factors & conditions that can affect implementation Lucan et al A Cross-sectional assessment by field Food-source accessibility: how far stores were (2015) investigators of all FMs in Bronx County, NY, from FMs along street-network walking routes and of the nearest store(s) selling produce within Food-item variety: Food variety including best – a half-mile walking distance to compare FM selling items, specific tailored-items, or accessibility as well as produce variety, quality, promotion items and price. Produce quality: freshness (the number of days Investigator observation since harvest), purity/naturalness (organic) Interview Produce price: price comparison Data analysis

Table Five presents methodology and indicators that measure food affordability in the existing literature. In order to evaluate the increased food affordability of farmers market, several studies carried comparison of the price and quality of the products of farmers markets and supermarkets. This comparison data is also used to evaluate the health impact of farmers market (see also table six). Some organization related to agriculture offer price data of fruit and vegetables in farmers markets to support agriculture. For instance, Center for crop diversification of University of Kentucky offers weekly price report of fruit and vegetable from a selection of farmers markets in Kentucky, Illinois, and Tennessee in order to meet demand for crop diversification information for farmers5.

Human Impacts and Data Collection Tools For the purpose of the project informed by this paper, we define human capital or practices as those that improve the capacity, skills, and motivation of individuals to make healthy or healthier choices. Accordingly, human impact is presented as changes in behavior and not as an impact to physical health. However, in this review we identified a number of articles that suggest that farmers markets provide broad, sustainable health outcomes by improving access to fresher food. The health impacts most commonly cited and discussed in the research included improved food access and security, increased fruit and vegetable consumption, and healthy cooking and eating practices. Placing farmers markets in ‘food deserts’ has been identified as a strategy for healthy eating by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC, 2013). By exploring the location of farmers markets across the U.S., Roubal (2015) identified that a higher percentage of farmers markets census

5 For more information, read Price Reports of Center for Crop Diversification of University of Kentucky. (Nov. 21, 2014). Retrieved from http://www.uky.edu/Ag/CCD/price.html 13

tracks were food deserts and suggest that farmers markets have the potential to reduce food insecurity through location. She found that in Wisconsin seasonal summer markets improved access, transforming food “deserts” into places of accessible food. Additionally, incentive programs at farmers markets increase the ability of low-income individuals to purchase fresh produce. Through the CDC’s Communities Putting Prevention to Work initiative during 2010-2012, more than one million Americans in 14 communities were able to use SNAP, EBT and/or WIC to purchase foods from local farmers markets and other healthy food retailers. Farmers markets have been found to provide residents with significantly higher access to fresh fruits and vegetables (Larsen & Gilliland 2009, Park et al. 2011, Suarez-Balcazar, 2006). Furthermore, neighborhoods with farmers markets had higher fruit and vegetable consumption rates among people of color (Park et al., 2011). This was particularly true in low-income markets where WIC funds or EBT were available (McCormack et al. 2010; Krokowski, 2014). Evidence also suggests that healthy eating habits are associated with participation in the Senior Farmers Market Nutrition Program (Kunkel et al., 2003). According to Ruelas et al. (2012), access to alternative sources of fresh produce, such as farmers markets, might help to mitigate the impact of healthy food disparities by both lowering the cost of produce in the food deserts and improving healthy food choices (555). The ability of farmers markets to accept SNAP EBT cards will be critical if low-income populations are to be reached. Recent results from the Washington State Farmers Market Technology Improvement Pilot Program indicate that such technology increased the use of Basic Food Dollars at Washington State farmers markets by over 300% (Bollen et al., 2010. 9). The newly awarded FINIP grants are seeking to increase consumption of fruits and vegetables among SNAP consumers. There is a significant evaluation component to these grants; the larger class of grants is required to conduct program evaluations.6 This demonstrates the national interest in further research on this area. Key metrics to measure human impacts of farmers markets from the existing studies are presented in Table Six. These metrics measure changes in behavior including purchasing, cooking and eating habits. For instance, Market Umbrella (2012) used the FEED tool to measure individual human capital at the Crescent City Farmers Market in terms of shoppers’ food knowledge. The logic behind this tool is that measuring market-goers’ food knowledge offers strong indicators of the market’s role as a place for improving shoppers’ relationship to the food they eat and the way they interact with their food environments.

Table 6. Indicators for Health Impacts of Farmers Markets: Survey and Interview Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Park et al. A mixed-methods convergence study: The relationship between ‘the presence of a (2011) qualitative interviews (28 women) and farmers market’ with ‘consumption of more quantitative analysis between dietary intake data total serving per day of fruit, vegetables, and and neighborhood access to specific types of juice,’ and ‘consumption of more servings per retail food outlets (345 women) day of meat’

6 See the program guidelines and awards at http://nifa.usda.gov/program/food-insecurity-nutrition-incentive-fini-grant- program 14

Kunkel et al. A random sample survey of 1,500 participants Comparison of the quality of the fruits and (2003) of SFMNP and a similar survey of a random vegetables at the farmers market to the grocery sample of 102 farmers. store More intakes of fruits and vegetables Buying fresh fruit or vegetable that had never tried before Learning a new way to cook fresh fruits and vegetables Ruelas et al. Two years of evaluation from customer survey Satisfaction with the market and the type and (2012) (2007, 2009) in two farmers market in low- quality of produce offered (5-point Likert income urban communities in Los Angeles. (415 Scales) customers from East LA and 1374 customers Changes in Family food consumption behavior, from South LA) food insecurity physical activity and utilization of WIC and SFMNP checks Estimated annual income and household size CDC (2013) Presenting Indicator of fruits and vegetables Availability of Healthier food retail in consumption communities: Number of farmers markets per 100,000 state residents Percentage of farmers markets that accept SNAP benefits Percentage of farmers markets that accept WIC FMNP coupons Informa See also Table Five Impact on cooking, recipes, and sharing Market Eating seasonally (including adaptation in Research winter) (2012) Comparing product qualities at markets & supermarkets Impact on eating and cooking Impact on children’s eating Impacts on food waste Frequency of product purchasing at markets Market FEED tool: use of surveys and visual cues to Changes in market visitors’ food knowledge, Umbrella measure shoppers’ food knowledge, shopping shopping behavior, and the role of shopping (2012) behaviors, and familiarity with fresh produce experience at the farmers market in those changes Chapman- Price comparison: Prices were collected Comparison of fruit and vegetable cost at Novakofski biweekly from grocery stores and Farmers commercial grocery stores and farmers markets and Wheeler market vendors. Participants were recruited The relationship between fruit and vegetable (2014) from Special Supplemental Nutrition Program survey items and intake for Women, Infants, and Children clinic to complete a survey of Fruits and Vegetable intake, psychosocial variables, and Farmers Market usage. Stepwise multiple regression analysis

Chapman-Novakofski and Wheeler’s 2014 study on cost comparisons between supermarkets and farmers markets and the relationship to fruit and vegetable intake showed that farmers market vouchers (FMNP) facilitated purchasing more vegetables than a family might otherwise be able to afford, especially when farmers market produce was more expensive than grocery stores. The FMNP also motivated more WIC participants to go to the markets. This study found that, despite higher costs, farmers markets were often used, and farmers markets users had a better vegetable intake pattern.

The State Indicator Report on Fruits and Vegetables (CDC, 2013) provides environmental and policy indicators of support for fruits & vegetables consumption. As a proxy to measure the availability of healthier food retail in communities, the report uses some metrics relating to farmers market policies: Number of farmers markets per 100,000 state residents; Percentage of farmers markets that accept SNAP benefits (new); and Percentage of farmers markets that accept WIC Farmers Market Nutrition Program coupons.

“Creating greater access to quality and affordable fruits and vegetables (F&V) nationwide is an important step to increase F&V consumption. When state leaders, health professionals, food retail owners, farmers, education staff, and community members work together, more Americans can live healthier lives...Farmers markets are a mechanism for purchasing foods from local farms and can augment access to F&V from typical retail stores or provide a retail venue for F&V in areas lacking such stores. The number of farmers markets per 100,000 state residents provides a broad estimate of the availability of F&V from farmers markets adjusted for variation in state population. Farmers markets that accept nutrition assistance program benefits, such as Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) Farmers Market Nutrition Program (FMNP) coupons, and WIC Cash Value Vouchers (CVV), improve access to F&V for individuals and families with lower incomes.”

3. Social Impacts and Data Collection Tools Farmers markets are directly connected to social capital and community building. Social interactions through farmers markets can foster strong relationships between consumers and vendors, as well as promote a sense of local identity (Hunt, 2007). Farmers markets are recognized as places for gathering and fostering community. However, a number of articles discussed barriers (limitations) of markets to reach diverse populations or communities of color. These include lack of affordability, limited or no culturally appropriate food and space, and other barriers that may limit inclusivity of low-income and residents of color among the farmers market customer base (Golden, 2013; Fisher, 1999; Suarez-Balcazar, 2006).

Table 7. Indicators for Social Impacts of Farmers Markets: Survey and Multiple regression analysis Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Hunt (2007) A survey of 216 shoppers and 65 farmers and 16 Consumer interactions and influences on other vendors at eight farmers markets in Maine farmers market vendors (2 weeks in August 2004) Social interactions as important explanatory Multiple regression analysis on the dependent variables on consumer spending such as the variables of farmer household income and market being a family event, having fun at the consumer spending to identify significant market, and talking g with vendors. influences on these variables Market NEED methodology: measuring the social ties Time spent at the market Umbrella among and between shoppers, vendors, and Shopper’s primary reason beyond shopping (2012) neighbors using intercept surveys with a sample (The time of) remaining at the market after of Shoppers, vendors, and neighbors on one or finishing shopping more market days. The relationship with vendors (where you are

most likely to purchase) The origin of shoppers (Neighborhood or outside from the neighborhood) The non-economic community benefits from the market: meeting new people, new business opportunities, supporting the market, supporting the neighborhood. The degree of sense of community The level of trust between vendors and shoppers Neighbor’s perception of benefit on neighborhood Ostrom and See Table Three. Primary motivation for starting farmers market, Donovan Importance of and serving for low-income (2013) community members, Impact of accepting EBT on farmers market sales, Estimated pounds of produce donated annually to food banks, soup kitchens and shelters by farmers markets, Perceived economic mix of shoppers, Perceived racial/ethnic mix of shoppers, Volunteer service at farmers markets (average volunteer hours/ Total volunteer hours) Diversity in public space: Number of visits to the market per month, Time spent at the market per visit, Months during which respondents attend the market, Days respondents attend the market, Purchasing practices Informa Second of two customer studies of the Greenbelt Sharing more meals with friends and loved ones Market Farmers Market Network in Ontario, Canada; Experiencing a friendly atmosphere at markets Research survey of 386 farmers market shoppers that is absent at supermarkets (2012) (representing 58 different markets) surveyed in Learning about food production at markets Ontario, Canada in January-February 2012, Patrons bringing children to markets primarily focused on health impacts as reported by respondents. Mathews Surveys, observations and interviews of both Consumers’ motivations to attend the markets (2013) market customers and vendors were conducted Consumers’ value about shopping at the markets at six tailgate markets in Western North The way how consumers select vendors/items Carolina to study how the interactions that Interaction between a vendor and a consumer: people have at tailgate markets influence The average time spent at the stand by a purchasing behavior. During spring and summer consumer before making a final decision, 2012, a total of 348 surveys from 6 different Shopping alone or with a group? Who carried markets were collected. the conversation? Familiarity in the interaction. The main type and topics of conversation. The impact of interaction with another customer or vendor on purchase.

Market Umbrella (2012) developed the Neighborhood Exchange Evaluation Device (NEED) to analyze social transactions in farmers markets, piloting it in New Orleans and Los Angeles farmers markets. In this report, Market Umbrella measured the social ties in the Crescent City Farmers Market by using NEED methodology. Market Umbrella evaluated how often farmers markets facilitate social trust among and between shoppers, vendors, and neighbors. For NEED analysis, trained research teams conduct intercept surveys with a representative sample of customers on

representative market days and compile quantitative and qualitative questions about their experiences at the market. Indicators and data used for NEED analysis are presented in Table Seven. NEED indicators have the capability to tell us a great deal about the market and its ability to create and enhance social capital. Interpreting these indicators may help researchers deduce the market’s role in facilitating both social transactions and market transactions with social components. Market Umbrella suggested that the level of trust between vendors and shoppers could be quantified, and reveal opportunities for creating and improving bonding and bridging for farmers market participants and neighbors. Leah G. Mathews of the University of North Carolina-Asheville conducted research on how the interactions that people have at tailgate markets influence purchasing behavior. To measure the characteristics of interactions taking place at the markets, he conducted surveys, observations, and interview of both market customers and vendors at six tailgate markets in Western North Carolina. This study shows that consumers and vendors value tailgate markets both for the social atmosphere and interactions, and direct exchange of information.

Ecological Impacts and Data Collection Tools Limited research exists addressing the environmental or ecological impacts of local food systems. Existing research reports claim that local food systems can reduce fossil fuel energy use, pollution, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by reducing ‘food miles,’ or the transport distances for food (Martinez et al. 2010). However, there is little literature that examines the specific contributions of farmers markets to environmental capital. It appears that the real and perceived difficulties in attributing community-based activities (such as those at farmers markets) to ecological capital (produced by complex, large-scale factors) serves as a barrier to research on the potential relationships. A growing number of farmers market host compost and/or recycling collection and education, aiming to reduce the community’s landfill footprint.7 Unfortunately, data on the precise quantities of food scraps and recyclables diverted from the traditional waste stream through farmers markets is not readily available. Evidence suggests, however, that consumer interactions through farmers markets are significant and have positive influences on vendors’ willingness to reduce chemical inputs to meet customer demands. In turn, this may suggest that customer interaction has the potential to affect the environmental quality (Hunt 2007).

Table 8. Indicators for Ecological Impacts of Farmers Markets and Farms: Survey and Interview Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators Hunt (2007) A survey of 216 shoppers and 65 farmers and 16 Applying fewer chemicals and using the

7 See for instance Suerth and Morales (2014). Also, consider these webpages: Some possible references, either for in-text citation or a new row in the table http://columbiafarmersmarket.org/composting-at-the-farmers-market/; http://www.grownyc.org/compost; http://www.portlandfarmersmarket.org/index.php/programs-and-services/evergreen/, and http://www.cambridgewinterfarmersmarket.com/food-scrap-collectioncomposting.html. 18

other vendors at eight farmers markets in Maine environment as a selling point to meet consumer (2 weeks in August 2004) demand Multiple regression analysis Informa Second in a series of customer studies of the Food Waste Market Greenbelt Farmers Market Network in Ontario, Research Canada; (2012) Survey of 386 farmers market shoppers (representing 58 different markets) surveyed in Ontario, Canada in January-February 2012, primarily focused on health impacts as reported by respondents. Ostrom & See Table Three. Environmentally-friendly means of getting to Donovan farmers markets, Recycling and composting at (2013) farmers market

Table Eight presents articles, which explore methods and indicators measuring ecological impacts of farmers markets and farms. Hunt (2007) examined the influence of consumer social interaction at the farmers market using survey data and statistical analysis. The result suggested that customer feedback has a role in changing environmental quality by influencing farmer production practices. Applying fewer chemicals and using the environment as a selling point were associated with farmers changing their products to meet consumer demand. In his analysis, a third of farmers (32%) who practiced low chemical applications reported that they also changed their products to meet consumer demand, and about a quarter of farmers (27%) who used the environment as a selling point had changed products to meet consumer needs. Informa Market Research (2012) suggested that farmers markets have significant environmental benefits. Shoppers appreciated that markets were environmentally friendly, with producers often using a low or no packaging market approach. Also, shoppers reported that knowing the origin of market produce motivated them to waste less market produce, and its overall freshness also led to less food waste. Ostrom & Donovan (2013) provided additional indicators to measure environmental impact of farmers markets such as environmentally friendly means of shopper transportation, and recycling and composting at farmers markets, and the number of acres being used for agricultural production by market vendors.

5. Integrated approaches to assessing farmers market performance Recently, a variety of researchers and organizations tried to address the need for data and appropriate measures related to farmers market performance and organizational characteristics (Morales 2011; Ostrom and Donovan, 2013; Mckenzie, Jewel E, 2012, Vancity Community Foundation, 2013; Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture/Iowa State University Extension and Outreach, 2013; Market Umbrella, 2012). Table Nine illustrates a shared measurement system of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture and a toolkit for measurement by Vancity Community Foundation. The Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture (2013) produced a document that outlines how to implement a measurement system for collecting economic data to tell the story of the Regional Food Systems Working Group’s impact in Iowa; This document was prepared for coordinators of

seventeen Regional Food Groups working in 88 counties in Iowa. Inspired by the article “Collective Impact” in the Stanford Innovation Social Review, they applied the idea of shared measurement systems to 17 geographically distinct regional food groups comprising the RFSWG collaborative. This ongoing project provides a list of change indicators focused on economic outcomes and tools for collecting data. Using farmer surveys, institutional surveys, and coordinator instructions, they attempt to address change of the outcomes from farmers markets.

Table 9. Toolkits for Measuring Impacts of Farmers Markets Authors Method and Data Metrics/Indicators The Leopold A shared measurement system for collecting Local food sales by farmers markets; Center for economic data to tell the story of the Regional Local food purchases by institutions; Sustainable Food Systems Working Group’s impact in Iowa Jobs created and expanded Agriculture Three tools—Farmer survey, Institutional Leveraged dollars; Stories of noteworthy and Regional survey, and Coordinator instructions—are used business partnerships and arrangements that Food System to facilitate data collection. result in increased commerce. Working Group of Iowa (2013) Lev et al. Tools for Rapid Market Assessments: The Two quantitative analysis: (1998, 2008) combining of the two quantitative methods and Attendance counts (adults only) a qualitative method Dot surveys A qualitative analysis: Constructive Comments and Observation (CCO) Ohio An assessment of the Athens Farmers Market Traffic Counts by placing traffic tubes at University and its impact on the community. The Rapid parking lot entrances (2013) Market Assessment is used. Attendance Counts by using a Modified Rapid Market Assessment Customer Engagement by a dot poster survey and questionnaire Financial Information from vendors by AFM market managers Vancity Develop and provide a Toolkit that measures Local Economic Impact: Community and communicates market impact. The toolkit How does the market contribute to small Foundation consists of three parts: Surveys, a data file, and business incubation and local economic growth? (2013) snapshot templates. Primary data are to be How does the market complement, or compete collected from the survey of customers, vendors, with, local business? What are the market’s market management, and external stakeholder. direct economic effects? How does the market develop the social economy? Community Building: How is the market a community hub? What kinds of relationships does the market develop between participants? Does it contribute to civic engagement and building resilient communities? Food Security and Ecosystem Health: How does the market encourage sustainable and responsible agricultural practices? Does the market contribute to protecting biodiversity? How does the market promote local land cultivation and stable food production? Market Operations:

What is the state of the market’s operational strength, community engagement, and financial sustainability? How does the market compare to other markets in the province, and to past years of operation? In 2013, Ohio University’s Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs conducted an assessment of the Athens Farmers Market and its impact on the community at the request of the Athens Farmers Market and a member of the Athens City Council. To measure market performance and impact, the study used the Rapid Market Assessment model including customer counts, vehicle counts, customer engagement and a collection of financial information from vendors. Based on the assessment, researchers conclude that Athens Farmers Market is a robust market with significant impact on the community. The study provides the detail of data collection efforts and the methods while the assessment focuses on economic impact. Oregon State University’s Rapid Market Assessment model is an example of a simple but efficient method of data collection. Larry Lev and Garry Stephenson developed and adapted this technique for use in farmers markets assessment in their two studies (1998, 1999) and published the update and revision of the original version in 2008. The technique described in table nine shows the updated version (2008). They designed three simple, low-cost methods to help farmers markets make effective changes and improvements based on reliable information. This method consists of attendance counts, dot surveys and a qualitative method called Constructive Comments and Observations. All three methods can make efficient use of time and money, which are generally in short supply. The Vancity Community Foundation and the British Columbia Association of Farmers Markets (2013) collaborated on the development of a Farmers Market Impact Toolkit designed to give market managers the tools to collect, analyze, and communicate the benefit that their farmers markets bring to their communities. The toolkit contains three sections: 1) Surveys of customers, vendors, market management, and external market stakeholders; 2) A data file to collect and interpret survey data; and 3) Snapshot reporting templates to help create documents that easily present survey results. The toolkit measures market impact across four related outcomes: Local Economic Impact, Community Building, Food Security and Ecosystem Health, and Market Operations. After conducting a pilot test among 20 farmers markets located throughout British Columbia, Canada, the Vancity Community Foundation discovered several challenges associated with data collection. Two significant issues they identified include, (1) the capacity of market managers to collect critical information with limited resources, and (2) the difficulty of sharing key information provided by vendors with stakeholders and others. This latter issue was found to depend on the level of trust vendors have with the market or with the people they seek out for information. The authors of this study argue that the bottleneck in data collection from farmers markets is due less to a market manager’s skills or experience than due to volunteer turnover, vendor time, and vendor willingness to participate in data collection efforts. This suggests that the challenge is management-related rather than skill-related, implying that the importance of manager relationship to vendors and to volunteer teams. Further, the methods, tools, and training should be simple and

continually reinforced to enhance vendor willingness to participate in consistent and effective data collection.

IV. Conclusions: Key Learnings and Implications for Practice This review of the literature found that studies of farmers markets present the benefits of farmers markets in relation to social, economic, human, and ecological aspects. To collect data and measure these aspects, virtually all these studies utilized surveys. However, the surveys were implemented at single markets, or by state entities, and little is known at the national level beyond the effort to enumerate the number of markets. Few of these studies address issues of data collection methods and indicators at farmers markets (Diane Eggert (2009); Corry Bregendahl (2013); McCarthy (2010)). Additionally, a limited number of universally applicable toolkits or manuals on data collection exist (Market Umbrella (2012); Vancity Community Foundation (2013)), none of which is commonly used around the country. Comprehensive and longitudinal studies with consistent metrics are needed to have a fuller appreciation of markets’ contributions to social, economic, human, and ecological capitals. Such data would enable and make more useful regional economic analyses. The collection of data pertaining to farmers markets is recognized as important by researchers and market practitioners. Currently, regular data collection is taking place at a limited selection of markets across the 8,000+ active markets in the United States. Given the limited capacity and resources available to many markets, it might be quite difficult to ensure that data collection is done efficiently and effectively. The results of this literature review show that a number of different methods to collect data for measuring the performance of farmers market and its impact on the community already exist. These include surveys, interviews and focus groups, observation, comparison, and mapping. Among them, survey techniques are presently the core data collection strategy for measuring the impacts of farmers markets. In existing research on farmers markets, survey data on the impacts of farmers markets have been analyzed by various methods such as IMPLAN and RIMS that are based on survey data that estimates sales. Multivariate regression analysis also utilizes survey data of sample farmers markets. Additionally, survey data provides important measures of social, economic, and human impacts of farmers markets. Surveys most frequently measure total sales, number of visitors and vendors, number of employed individuals, time/money spent at markets/neighboring businesses, motivations and satisfaction levels, price and quality of products, etc. Meaningful impact indicators based on this data can help market organizations and their project partners collect and use data they need to inform decision-making and annual planning. Therefore, the design and implementation of surveys must be carefully considered as a critical part of the assessment process. For instance, Bubinas (2009) conducted vendor surveys during market hours and asked vendors to fill out the survey when possible during the day and then she collected the surveys at the end of the day. Vendors who were too busy to complete the survey on site were given a stamped University addressed envelope in which to return the survey. This approach can raise the response rate of vendor surveys. However, we are not aware of systematic research about the efficacy of this approach.

Financial incentives are another approach to enhancing participation in research. Sometimes researchers use financial incentives such farmers market gift certificates that they raffle off to respondents to encourage shopper participation in surveys. Researchers should also understand that vendors may have different, non-financial motivations for participating in data collection activities. From her survey of vendors, Bubinas showed that vendors derive significant personal satisfaction from vending, which they see as performing a service for the community. Therefore, to facilitate vendors’ active participation in data collection, it is important to share with them how their market is performing this service and that the ultimate goals of data collection will benefit their field. Showing vendors that their market cares about this work and how data collection will improve the market and its contribution will enhance vendor participation in the data collection. Even when the methods used are sound and the collection process efficient, the tedious and time- consuming nature of data entry may serve as an additional bottleneck in the process. Online forms, excel templates with built-in formulas, and even mobile applications allowing surveyors to enter data into a portal site could prove useful in increasing the efficiency and accuracy of data entry. However, we have no clear understanding of the differences, if any, between paper surveys/verbal questionnaires and the online application of the same. Thus, we need experimentation with computer/phone or other technologically assisted data collection. If possible, we need comparisons between such technologically assisted data collection and the paper or other modes of data collection. It is possible that for many questions, both formats will be required, at least at present. However, no matter which data collection instruments are selected it is important remain sensitive to the respondent’s needs and interest and to maximize their trust in the collection process. In this regard, we need to consider how the capacity for data collection varies across farmers markets. Markets need support to identify and implement data collection tools, and they need access to technical assistance sensitive to their context. Well-tailored training materials and exercises from which markets may learn are becoming available, but access to information is still limited or unavailable. In addition to providing effective tools and strategies, it is important to consider the management structure, staffing, and evaluation timeline for implementing data collection efforts. There is a need for clear, tailored, and useful tools and training for measurement and evaluation of farmers markets in order to identify their impact on social, ecological, economic, and human capital and enable more constructive discussion on how such impacts can be maximized for wider community benefit.

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Market Umbrella. (2012). FEED: Measuring the Human Impact of a Public Market: Individual Human Capital Impact Study. The Crescent City Farmers Market: Marketumbrella.org. Market Umbrella. (2012). NEED: Measuring the Social Impact of a Public Market: Social Capital Impact Study: The Crescent City Farmers Market. New Orleans, LA: Marketumbrella.org. Market Umbrella. (2012). SEED: Sticky Economic Evaluation Device: Measuring the Financial Impact of a Public Market. The Crescent City Farmers Market: Marketumbrella.org. Martinez, S., et al. (2010). Local Food Systems: Concepts, Impacts, and Issues (Vol. 97): U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Mathews, L. G. (October 2013). The Talk at Tailgate Markets: Results Summary: University of North Carolina Asheville. McCarthy, R. (2010). Evaluating the Social, Financial and Human Capital Impacts of Farmers Markets: Market Umbrella. McKenzie, J. E. (2012). Farmers Markets in Rockingham and Strafford Counties in New Hampshire: An Analysis of Market Manager and Cosumer Trends, Preferences, and Characteristics: University of New Hampshire. Morales, A. (2011). “Marketplaces: Prospects for Social, Economic, and Political Development.” Journal of Planning Literature, 26 (1), 3-17. New York City Department of Health and Hygiene. (2010). Farmers’ markets initiatives: Promoting fresh fruits and vegetables in underserved communities 2010 report. http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/cdp/cdp-farmers-marketreport.pdf Oberholtzer, L., et al. (2012). Linking farmers, healthy foods, and underserved consumers: Exploring the impact of nutrition incentive programs on farmers and farmers’ markets. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development. 63-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2012.024.002 Ostrom, M and C. Donovan. (2013). Summary Report: Farmers Markets and the Experiences of Market Managers in Washington State: Washington State University Small Farms Program. Park, Y., Quinn, J., Florez, K., Jacobson, J., Neckerman, K., & Rundle, A. (2011). Hispanic immigrant women’s perspective on healthy foods and the New York City retail food environment: A mixed- method study. Social Science & Medicine, 73(1), 13-21. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.04.012 Roubal, M. Anne. (2015). The Food Environment and Health: Roles Fast Food and Fast Causal Restaurants and Farmers’ Markets can Play. University of Wisconsin-Madison. Dissertation

Ruelas et al. (2012). “The Role of Farmers’ Markets in Two Low Income, Urban Communities.” Journal of Community Health 37, no. 3: 554-62. Sadler, R., Clark, M., & Gilliland, J. (2013). “An Economic Impact Comparative Analysis of Farmers’ Markets in Michigan and Ontario.” Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 61-81. doi: 10.5304/jafscd.2013.033.009 Suarez-Balcazar, Y., Martinez, L. I., Cox, J., & Jayraj, A. (2006). “African Americans’ Views on Access to Healthy Foods: What a Farmers’ Market Provides.” Journal of Extension, 44(2). Suerth, Lauren and Alfonso Morales. (2014). “Composting.” Zoning Practice. 31(9): 1-8. Swenson, Dave. (2009). Investigating the Potential Economic Impact of Local Food for Southeast Iowa. Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture. Ohio University. (2013). Assessing the Impact of the Athens Farmers Market: Ohio University’s Voinovich School of Leadership and Public Affairs. USDA, A. M. S. (2014). National Count of Farmers Market Directory Listing Graph: 1994-2014 Retrieved October 10, 2014 Vancity Community Foundation and British Columbia Association of Farmers’ Markets. (2013). Farmers’ Market Impact Toolkit User’s Guide. White House Task Force on Childhood Obesity. (2010). Solving the problem of childhood obesity within a generation: White House task force on childhood obesity report to the President. http://www.letsmove.gov/sites/letsmove.gov/files/TaskForce_on_Childhood_Obesity_May2010 _FullReport.pdf Zandi, Mark. (2008). Assessing the macroeconomic impact of fiscal stimulus 2008. Moody’s Economy.com. West Chester, PA. https://www.economy.com/mark-zandi/documents/Stimulus- Impact-2008.pdf

Appendix A. Survey Questions to Measure Impacts of Farmers Markets

Table A1. Survey Questions for Economic Impact Authors Survey questions Otto and Average consumer visit times per season Varner Average consumer spending dollars per market visit (2005) Average vendor dollar sales Average vendor market attendance Hughes et al. A range for the value of sales at markets (21 categories) (2008) Bubinas Does coming to the FM make it more likely that you will do other things in the downtown area? (2011) Hinrichs et Social learning through engagement with customers: created by summing and averaging responses al. (2004) regarding benefit for the vendor at the surveyed farmers market from 1) direct feedback from customers, and 2) opportunities to educate customers about products and services Social learning through engagement with other vendors: created by summing and averaging responses regarding benefit for the vendor at the surveyed farmers market from 1) encouragement and social support, and 2) business ideas and information from other vendors City of Farmer/Producer survey (For more information, see Portland https://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/236582) (2008) Where is your farm located? (General location, distance to Portland) How many acres do you farm (Approx. acreage)? a. General info – how long have you farmed? b. Expansion/growth plans this year or in the near future? What crops do you currently grow? Are you planning to add new crops or expand into value-added processing and marketing? Yes/No If yes, explain. What market channels do you use to sell your crops? How many weeks do you sell in the market(s)? Would you like a longer season? (Explain) What is the minimum sales volume (in dollars) that you need each day to stay involved in the farmers market? $__ per day Do you plan to add more farmers markets or pursue expanded space at your current market? Yes/No. Why or why not? If yes have you decided which farmer markets to add, why have you chosen them? How do you staff your farmers market stands? (Is that a challenge for you?) How many staff per day? Are you considering expanding your marketing program with other (non-farmers markets) direct- market channels? Yes/No Which direct market channel(s)? How much of your production is currently sold at farmers markets versus other market channels? (Percentages and approximate volume in pounds of production) What distance do you think is the farthest you would travel to sell at a farmers market? What are the two most significant actions managers of farmers markets can do to increase your success in selling there?

Market Manager Survey (For more information, see http://www.portlandoregon.gov/bps/article/236583) Suarez- How much money do you spent at the farmers market today? Balcazar Rate your satisfaction with the farmers market as well as access to food in the community in general (2006) (a five-point Likert scale from “Very satisfied” to “very dissatisfied”) Community Consumer Survey: Science Is this your first time ever using SNAP at this farmers market? (2013) Is the (incentive program name) one of the reasons you are visiting today? Outside of this farmers market, how easy or difficult is it to buy quality fresh fruits and vegetables in

your neighborhood? (Very easy – Very difficult) Compared to other places you shop, the price of fruits & veg at this market are… (Much lower- Much higher & Not sure) Would you say that because of this program, the amount of fruits & veg in general that you buy has … (increased, stayed the same, decreased, not sure) Because of this program, are you buying about the same, some different, or many different kinds of fruits & vegetables? Market Days open for business each year Umbrella State + municipal state tax rate (2012) Total number of surveyed shoppers, Average number of shoppers, Estimated annual market attendance, Average dollars spent at the market, Percentage of shoppers who spend at nearby businesses, Average dollars spent at nearby businesses, Average vendor stall space (sq./ft.), Average number of vendors, Average vendor gross receipts per market, Market visitation Ostrom and Compared with the past five years, would you say your average farmer vendor sales in 2009 were Donovan lower, the same, or higher? (2013) How has accepting credit/debit affected market sales? (Decrease, No increase, Small, Moderate, or Large increase in sales) Within the past three years, have market vendors developed or expanded their business beyond the farmers market?

Table A2. Survey Questions for Human Impact Authors Survey Questions Park et al. Servings per day of fruit, vegetables and fruit juice, Servings of meat products per week (2011) Kunkel et al. When you were at the farmers market, did you buy extra fruits and vegetables with; Food Stamps, (2003) Both cash and Food Stamps, Cash, Did not buy extra foods. Did having the coupons to spend at the farmers market change the way you eat? How would you rate the quality of the fruits and vegetables at the farmers market compared to the grocery store? Will you eat more fresh fruits and vegetables all year round because of this program? Did you learn a new way to prepare or cook fresh fruits or vegetables? Did you buy fresh fruit or vegetable that you had never tried before? Ruelas et al. Because of this market I now: Eat more fruits and vegetables, Eat more organic food, Eat food that is (2012) fresher (less packaged food), Eat less fast food, Eat more foods that are traditional for my culture/family background, Eat new kinds of food, Spend less money on food, Am better able to provide food for my family and myself, Feel better about were my food comes from, A more physically active. Informa In the last year, did you buy the following items regularly, occasionally, or never? (List provided, Market pg. 28) Research As far as you can tell, has shopping at farmers markets resulted in any ongoing changes? (List (2012) provided) Agree/disagree with statements about supermarkets vs. farmers market (Many questions include a series of statements about their habits and perceptions to which respondents are asked to rate their level of agreement). Market Have you been introduced to new food at the market? Umbrella Has shopping at the market influenced the way you shop elsewhere? (2012)

Table A3. Survey Questions for Social Impact Authors Survey Questions Hunt (2007) Consumer income, shopping frequency, enjoying the market, talking with vendors about seasonal products, being a family event, attitude toward freshness Consumers’ interest in: connecting their purchase with helping farmers, improving the rural economy, supporting their communities and supporting agricultural open spaces. Informa In comparing shopping at farmers’ markets and shopping at supermarkets, are farmers markets Market Better, The same or Not as Good as supermarkets in terms of... (p. 39) Research Here is a list of factors for comparing fresh produce you buy at farmers’ markets and fresh produce (2012) you buy at supermarkets. Do you think that the produce you buy at the market/markets is Better, The same or Not as good as in terms of ... than what you buy at supermarkets? (p. 37) Ostrom and In what ways does your farmers market benefit the community? (Bringing fresh, healthy local, Donovan organic, quality food/produce into the community, creating a community gathering place and (2013) enhance a sense of community, supporting farmers by providing direct sales to farmers and other vendors.) How has accepting EBT affected market sales? (No increase, Small, or Large increase in sales) Purchasing practices (“do you ask vendors questions other than ‘how much’?”) Market Shopper survey: What else do you like about the market besides shopping? (Supporting locals, Umbrella meeting people, and soaking up atmosphere) Once finished shopping, do you find yourself hanging (2012) out at the market? Several vendors at the market are selling the same quality tomatoes. Where are you most likely to purchase your tomatoes? Vendor survey: What is it about the market you like? (People, money, supporting market, etc.), What kinds of benefits besides sales do you get from this market? On a scale of 1 to 5, to what degree do you feel a sense of community when you come to the market? Do you let any customers purchase on credit? Neighbor survey: Do you know about the local farmers markets? Has the market benefitted this neighborhood?

Table A4. Survey Questions for Ecological Impact Authors Survey Questions Hunt (2007) Have you changed your products to meet consumer demands? (Low chemical applications, using the environment as a selling point) The acres of land for producing Informa Agree, Disagree, Don’t Know: Market I think that I have less packaging waste when I shop at farmers’ markets. Research I think that buying locally grown food at farmers’ markets means that we try harder not to waste it. (2012) Ostrom and In what ways does your farmers market help the environment? ; Reducing food miles, shopper Donovan miles, fuel consumption and pollution, Encouraging environmentally sound and organic farming (2013) practices among farmers’, Educating the public and modeling sustainable practices, especially around waste reduction and recycling.

Table A5. Survey Questions in the toolkits for measuring Impacts of Farmers Markets Authors Survey Questions Vancity How much have you spent, or might you spend, at the farmers market today? Community Was the farmers market your primary reason for coming out/to this area of town today? Foundation Do you plan on doing additional shopping or eating while in this area of town today? (2013) If Yes: How much do you anticipate spending?

If Yes: Would you have visited these businesses today if you had not come to the farmers market? How is this farmers market a community hub? Please indicate the extent to which you agree/disagree with the following statements about this market8. Please choose the top three ways in which participation in this farmers market adds value to your farm/business9. Please indicate which of the following you produce and indicate how many varieties of each you produce: vegetable, fruit, meat/poultry/fish, dairy/eggs, and others What was your total farm revenue ($) in 2011? How much (%) of that was from farming product sales? Of your total farm income from product sales, how much is exported or sold out of your local community? How much of your total farm income came from direct sales through the following local sales channels (% of total farm income or $): All farmers markets, This farmers market, CSA shares, Restaurant direct sales, Farm gate sales, Local retail, Other local sales. Have any former or current vendors at the market gone on to start their own businesses that operate outside of the market? The Leopold Within what geographic radius from your farm do you sell the majority of your food? _ Estimated Center for radius in miles Sustainable What were your total local food sales between January 1, 2012 and December 31, 2012? Total local Agriculture food sales $______and Regional What were your total local food purchases in the past year? What were your institution’s total food Food System purchases last year? Working How many people are employed in this position? Write in the number of new jobs that were created Group of on the farm in 2012, Is this job filled year round? Is the job full-time? Iowa Dollars leveraged to support the work (grants, donations, etc.) (2013) Stories of noteworthy business partnerships and arrangements that resulted in increased commerce Ohio Dot survey questions: University How often do you shop at this market? (2013) How often do you shop at other businesses or restaurants when you come to this market? What did you (or will you) buy today? What is your PRIMARY reason for coming to East State Street today? Brief questionnaire questions: How many people are in your household? Are you a student? Where do you live? How much did you (or will you) spend at the market today? (5) How did you travel to the market? How old are you?

8 The statements about the market: The farmers’ market provides access to good quality, fresh food; The farmers’ market provides opportunities to learn about how farm products are produced; The farmers’ market provides valuable connections to other community activities (e.g. community service, local politics, neighborhood events); Shopping at the farmers’ market builds trusting relationships between vendors and customers; The farmers’ market is a social hub/good place to socialize; Buying at the farmers’ market has a positive impact on the local economy; Buying at the farmers’ market supports sustainable agricultural practices; The farmers’ market feels welcoming to all people; I can reliably find what I am looking for at the farmers’ market; The farmers’ market is a destination for good entertainment; The farmers’ market is a good use of public space; The farmers’ market is a good, family friendly place to bring children. 9 Sales Volume/Income, Branding/Marketing/Image, Building customer relationships, Meeting other vendors, Building distribution networks, Product testing/Market insights, Access to new customers, Other. 32

Appendix B. Glossary of Terms

Impact Impacts are the broader changes that occur within the community related to its economic status, individual and community health, and/or natural environment as a result of program outcomes. Impacts also define which group(s) are affected—vendors, shoppers, neighboring businesses, project partners, etc. In many cases, impacts will be experienced by more than one group.

Indicator An indicator compares a metric with a baseline or expected result, providing information on the state of, or change in, the people, places, or systems that are being measured. It provides evidence that a certain condition exists, or that certain results have (or have not) been achieved, enabling decision-makers to measure progress toward the achievement of intended goals, outputs, or outcomes.

Methodology Methodology refers to the research strategy that defines how data is collected and analyzed.  Quantitative data collection methods are used for that which can be precisely measured like counting shoppers or numbers of SNAP sales per day and may include paper or video interviews, online surveys, pre-and post-tests, clinical measurements, observation checklists, or review of existing records.  Qualitative methods capture characteristics of what is being observed such as a market neighbor’s perception of the market, personal experience of vendors. They may include paper or video interviews, dot surveys, focus groups, open-ended survey questions, case studies, field notes, and review of meeting minutes or news articles.

Metric A metric compares two or more specific units of measurement, often expressed as {Number of X} per {Unit of time or space}. In a market context, a metric might be expressed as “Total producer sales per year” or “Total shopper visits per day.” Metrics might also be represented as percentages, increases, or decreases; when two or more metrics are compared (for example “Total producer sales this year” and “Total producer sales last year”), they are interpreted as indicators of change in producer income.

Outcome An outcome is the short-term and intermediate change that occurs in learners, visitors, program participants, etc., as a result of the activity, program or experience. Examples include acquisition of skills or knowledge, a change in behavior or policy, or overall improvement to social, environmental, economic, or civic conditions. When distinguishing between outputs and outcomes, it is helpful to think of outcomes as the difference your outputs made in the community, which may take a year or more to effectively measure.

Output An output is the accomplishment of an activity or creation of a product, which can be described or quantified. Examples of outputs might include a publication created, a workshop hosted, the number of participants in an activity, or establishment of a new partnership.