Unemiseentourisme

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Unemiseentourisme École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales Ecole doctorale de l’EHESS Laboratoire d’anthropologie des institutions et organisations sociales Doctorat Discipline : Antrhopologie sociale et ethnologie GUYADER FRÉDÉRIQUE Stratégies politiques et identitaires d’une mise en tourisme L’exemple de Lijiang (Yunnan, Chine) Thèse dirigée par: Irène Bellier Date de soutenance : le 17 décembre 2020 Rapporteurs 1 Isabelle Charleux, CNRS 2 Saskia Cousin, Université Paris Diderot Jury 1 Irène Bellier, CNRS 2 Isabelle Charleux, CNRS 3 Saskia Cousin, Université Paris Diderot 4 Isabelle Thireau, EHESS 5 Benjamin Taunay, Université d’Angers 6 Gilles Guiheux, Université Paris Diderot — 2 — R EMERCIEMENTS J’ai une pensée émue pour Flora Blanchon, sans qui cette aventure humaine et intellectuelle n’aurait pas eu lieu. Son soutien et sa bienveillance n’ont eu d’égal que la richesse de nos échanges. Je tiens à exprimer ma gratitude à Irène Bellier pour avoir accepté de m’encadrer dans cette étude. Je la remercie pour son implication et son soutien tout au long de ces années. Mille mercis à toutes les personnes qui m’ont aidée et accueillie à Lijiang, à Shuhe, dans les villages de Baoshan, au Centre de Recherche sur la Culture Dongba de Lijiang (丽江东巴文化研 究所 Lijiang Dongba Wenhua Yanjiusuo) et qui ont eu la gentillesse de m’accorder du temps et de participer à des entretiens. Je suis également reconnaissante envers Stefano Zamblera, pour le partage d’informations, pour son travail précieux sur la culture Dongba, l’histoire et la langue des Naxi. J’adresse mes sincères remerciements à tous les chercheurs et spécialistes, trop nombreux pour les citer, qui ont pris le temps d’échanger avec moi et ainsi faire avancer mon analyse. — 3 — R ÉSUMÉ ET MOTS CLÉS Résumé Située à 2400 m d’altitude, au Nord-Ouest de la province orientale du Yunnan, la ville de Lijiang se trouve à la limite du plateau tibétain. À la suite du tremblement de terre de 1996 et à l'inscription de la partie ancienne de Lijiang au Patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO, le tourisme ethnique s’est construit autour de Lijiang, « la ville où vivent les Naxi ». Cette appellation désignait à l’époque une réalité démographique. Majoritaires en 1990, les Naxi représentent en 2012, 19,33% de la population lijiangaise. Le développement de l'industrie touristique et ses profits potentiels ont occasionné au fil des années une forte migration de personnes issues d'autres groupes minoritaires et de nombreux Han, désormais majoritaires à Lijiang. La politique d'ouverture initiée par la Chine à partir de 1980 a favorisé l'émergence d'un tourisme culturel et l'inscription de la vieille ville de Lijiang au patrimoine mondial de l’Unesco en 1996 a accéléré la mise en place d'une politique culturelle et la fréquentation touristique exponentielle jusqu’à aujourd’hui. Parallèlement à ses mesures, la réaffirmation d’un état chinois multinational dans les années 1980, avec la création des minorités qui a induit un rapport de domination avec les Han. Cela a favorisé l'ancrage d'une vision hiérarchisée des populations annexées au cours des siècles au sein de représentations communément partagées. Ces dernières sont également présentes dans les discours officiels et les différentes mises en scène de la culture locale. Dans le cadre de sa mise en scène, la culture naxi a peu à peu été remaniée, remodelée à la fois par les acteurs nationaux et locaux. La question centrale de la gouvernance concerne entre autres les enjeux économiques et culturels (qui bénéficient des recettes du tourisme ? Est-ce les populations locales ou des investisseurs nationaux, étrangers ? qui sont les acteurs de la préservation des ressources culturelles ?). En séjournant à Lijiang et ses alentours, j'ai observé différents niveaux de mise en tourisme : Lijiang, épicentre du tourisme, Shuhe, l'un de ses villages connexes, et dans la région de Baoshan, économiquement pauvre et sans développement touristique majeur. L’étude comparative sur ces trois sites connaissant un développement touristique différent avait pour but d'appréhender le rôle structurant du tourisme sur la culture naxi. Extraites d'éléments de la culture des Naxi, leurs mises en scène cherchent à moderniser cette culture et le tourisme apparaît comme le principal vecteur pour y arriver. Ces faits constituent un élément hiérarchisant partagé par les Naxi, car la distinction ruralité/urbanité devient l’écho d’une dualité « arriéré » /moderne. Lijiang étant l’épicentre de la modernisation, plus on s’en éloigne, et plus la qualification « arriérée » apparaît. La spectacularisation de la culture des Naxi montre également une logique qui intègre les valeurs internationales (Unesco, Icomos) et résume la culture locale à — 4 — des pratiques publiques éloignées de la sphère privée. La mise en scène de Lijiang qui associe préservation et marchandisation est créée par le gouvernement national et les Naxi. Ces derniers, qui vivent essentiellement de l'industrie touristique et de ses retombées économiques, sont également les acteurs de la métamorphose identitaire. Ils œuvrent pour faire connaître à travers le monde leur ville et leur culture. Cette mise en lumière leur octroie une marge de manœuvre relative dans la mise en place de mesures pour protéger leur culture. Plus concrètement, cela leur permet d’acquérir le soutien de la reconnaissance internationale dans leurs négociations avec les instances gouvernementales et, en même temps, de s’enorgueillir d’une culture officiellement préservée tout en étant au service de l’industrie. Mots clés : Anthropologie, Naxi, Chine, tourisme, identité, peuples autochtones, politiques culturelles — 5 — A BSTRACT A N D K EYWORDS Abstract Located at an altitude of 2,400 m, in the northwest of the eastern province of Yunnan, Lijiang is on the border of the Tibetan plateau. Following the 1996 earthquake and the listing of the old part of Lijiang as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, ethnic tourism was built around Lijiang, "the city where the Naxi live". At the time, this name designated an ethnic reality. The Naxi were in the majority in 1990, but by 2012 they represented 19.33% of the Lijiang population. The development of the tourism industry and its potential profits has led over the years to a strong migration of people from other minority groups and many Han people, who are now the majority in Lijiang. The policy of openness initiated by China in 1980 has encouraged the emergence of cultural tourism and the inscription of the old city of Lijiang on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1996 has accelerated the implementation of a cultural policy and the exponential tourist attendance until today. Parallel to these measures, the reaffirmation of a multinational Chinese state in the 1980s, with the creation of minorities, led to a relationship of domination with the Han. This has favored the anchoring of a hierarchical vision of the populations annexed over the centuries within commonly shared representations. These representations are also present in official speeches and in various stages of local culture. As part of its staging, the Naxi culture was gradually reshaped by both national and local actors. The central question of governance concerns, among other things, economic and cultural issues (who benefits from tourism revenue? Is it the local populations or national or foreign investors? Who are the actors in the preservation of cultural resources?). While staying in Lijiang and its surroundings, I observed different levels of tourism development: Lijiang, the epicenter of tourism, Shuhe, one of its related villages, and in the region of Baoshan, economically poor and without major tourism development. The comparative study of these three sites with different tourism development was aimed at understanding the structuring role of tourism on the Naxi culture. Extracted from elements of the Naxi culture, their staging seeks to modernize this culture and tourism appears to be the main vector to achieve this. These facts constitute a hierarchical element shared by the Naxi, because the rural/urban distinction becomes the echo of a "backward" / modern duality. As Lijiang is the epicenter of modernization, the further one goes from it, the more the qualification "backward" appears. The spectacularization of the Naxi culture also shows a logic that integrates international values (Unesco, Icomos) and sums up local culture to public practices far from the private sphere. Lijiang’s staging, which combines preservation and commodification, is created by the national government and the Naxi. The Naxi, who live essentially from the tourist industry and its economic spin-offs, are also the actors of the identity metamorphosis. They work to make their city and their culture known throughout the world. This exposure gives them relative leeway in the implemention of measures to protect their culture. More concretely, it allows them to gain the support of international recognition in their negotiations with — 6 — government authorities and, at the same time, to take pride in an officially preserved culture while serving the industry. Keywords Anthropology, Naxi, China, tourism, indigenous people, identity, cultural politics. — 7 — T ABLE DES MATIÈRE S REMERCIEMENTS 3 RÉSUMÉ EN FRANÇAIS 4 RÉSUMÉ EN ANGLAIS 6 INTRODUCTION 11 1. ÉLÉMENTS HISTORIQUES ET PRÉCISIONS TERMINOLOGIQUES DU CONCEPT DE MINZU 14 A. L'INTRODUCTION DU CONCEPT DE MINZU DANS LA CHINE CONTEMPORAINE 14 B. L'EFFICACITÉ D'UN CONCEPT 15 C. L'ETHNICITÉ EN CHINE 16 2. LA RÉGION DE LIJIANG 21 A. LA NOTION DE CULTURE DONGBA CONTEMPORAINE 23 B. POLITIQUES CULTURELLES ET MISE EN TOURISME LOCALE 28 3. PROCESSUS DE CATÉGORISATION ET TOURISME « MINORITAIRE » 32 4. UNE APPROCHE COMPARATIVE DES LIEUX D'ANALYSE 36 A. LIJIANG ET SHUHE : LES ANALOGIES DE LA POLITIQUE CULTURELLE 37 B. LA RÉGION DE BAOSHAN COMME POINT FOCAL DE L'APPARITION DU DÉVELOPPEMENT TOURISTIQUE 44 5. ÉVOLUTION ET RÉAJUSTEMENT DE LA RELATION D’ENQUÊTE 46 A.
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