AMATEURISM AND THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT: THE STAKES OF A DEFINITION OF AMATEURISM UNDER THE LIGHT OF THE CASE OF KARL SCHRANZ -1972 WINTER GAMES SAPPORO, JAPAN

by Guy-Lionel Loew*

Karl Schranz on his return to ; The banner says welcome to the "greatest skiier of all time!" In numerous works and reports on the Olympic Eastern European countries, or of Avery Games, one comes across problems recurring BRUNDAGE, there is no event or individual which throughout the Games' history. Each problem comes to mind as clearly as in the cases seems to be linked to an individual or to a mentioned above. This is even more the case 2 symbolic event, which captures the essence of with Karl SCHRANZ. However, as he writes in his this issue. Exemplary are the disqualification of autobiography: the Canadian sprinter Ben JOHNSON for using "I received in Vienna, approximately 16 years doping products in 1988, the 1980 and 1984 after my bitter exclusion from Sapporo, on the boycotts that followed the exacerbation of occasion of an IOC conference, my gold international political tensions and the scandal of medal from the hands of the Spanish IOC Salt Lake City illustrating the risks of corruption president Juan Antonio Samaranch in the within the Movement related as they are to the form of the participant medal of 1972. importance of economic issues among others. Samaranch admitted in his presentation the Then there is amateurism. No other problem has error and explained that I was responsible for been so recurring during the Olympic Games and the fact that today in most kinds of sport, the this since 1894 at the time of the initial Congress best [athletes] are at the start of the Olympic in La Sorbonne of Paris.1 For although one can Games. think of Jim THORPE, of the State amateurs of the This was my 'Olympic Victor' ".3

* We address our thanks to the members of the Olympic Studies Centre of the Olympic Museum of Lausanne for their reception and their assistance throughout our research. We also want to thank Geoff ARDELL (Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand) for his precious help. 1 GLADER, Eugene A., Amateurism and Athletics, New York 1978, 224 p.; MAYER, Otto, A travers les anneaux olympiques, Geneva 1960, 331 p. 2 Close to the beginning of the Olympic Games of Sapporo, the Austrian skier Karl SCHRANZ, the best skier in that era, was not allowed to participate. The IOC judged he was not in accordance with the eligibility rule because of professionalism. Many thousands of persons acclaimed him at his arrival in Vienna and protested against what they saw as an injustice, arguing that no athlete was amateur in 1972. 3 SCHRANZ, Karl (Aufgezeichnet von Stefan KONIG und Gerhard ZIMMER), Mein "Olympiasieg", Munich 2002, p. 196.

24 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 In this, this event constitutes a split in the history around his project. Thus, he wrote in 1909: of the Olympic Movement.4 It was the result of "I felt that the British would vote for the years of conflicts where each camp tried to restoration of the Olympic Games only on the legitimise its thinking and to discredit that of its condition that the participants answered the adversaries, in particular while trying to assign to definition of amateurism." 9 5 its position a moral or ethical base. In the same way, the links cultivated with Ancient For as much, can one think that it is possible to 10 distinguish between a moral and an amoral Greece ensured the support of intellectuals. thought, which would delimit the acceptable Here stands the ambiguity. Apparently central to definitions of the concept of amateurism, while Olympism, amateurism seems in fact to have allowing treating them on a hierarchical basis? been a tool at the disposal of Baron Pierre de A short history makes it possible to show the COUBERTIN for furthering his goals. Additionally, importance of amateurism within the Olympic the concept of amateurism itself is difficult to Movement. Not easily definable, the members of define and points of disagreement are more the International Olympic Committee (IOC) numerous than the consensuses. As Lincoln regularly tried, however, to put it into a regulation. ALLISON wrote: "with amateurism the tension at There is a lot at stake when dealing with such a the core is between the criteria of payment and 11 definition.6 Although constituting, by regulation, a the idea of loving or liking an activity". Thus the competition between individuals, the Olympic debate has consisted in pushing back or Games became in fact the arena for reinforcing the limits between what is and what is confrontation of various nations, especially in the not authorized for an amateur athlete. In order to 7 times of international tension like the cold war. have a more precise idea of amateurism, let us To legislate on amateurism then is to accept or to look to one of the numerous writings of Avery refuse certain types of Olympic preparations; it BRUNDAGE (President of the IOC from 1952 to thus indirectly supports or disadvantages certain 1972) on the subject: states or political systems. "Today the name 'amateur' is probably used The case of Karl SCHRANZ allows an illustration more often incorrectly than correctly. It is of these issues by accentuating them. It also often used as a synonym for beginner, tyro, makes it possible to show that moral and ethics neophyte or someone who is inexpert, values were objects of struggles between the instead of to describe one who does things various protagonists. because he loves to do them. [...] Amateurism has nothing to do with age, Links between amateurism and the experience, wealth, social standing, or ability Olympic Movement and the develop- An amateur can be old or young, he can be rich or poor, he can be a beginner or a ment of the issue before Sapporo veteran, he can be uneducated or a doctor of If Pierre de COUBERTIN gave so much philosophy, he can be a dub or a champion, importance to amateurism, it was with the aim of 8 as long as he does what he is doing for the 12 valorising the pedagogic functions of sport. The pleasure that he obtains from it and not for bonds woven between Olympism and any material rewards, direct or indirect." amateurism indeed seem to have arisen from its connections to the idea of education, but also A new debate around this topic began after the from COUBERTIN'S will to gather the most people Olympic Games of in 1964. It

4 SCHANTZ, Otto, "La presidence de (1952-1972)", in: GAFNER, Raymond (red.), Un siecle du Comite International Olympique. L'ldee - Les Presidents - L'CEuvre, vol. II, Lausanne 1995, pp. 77-200. 5 RIORDAN, James, "Sport in Capitalist and Socialist Countries: A Western Perspective", in: DUNNING, Eric G. / MAGUIRE, Joseph A. PEARTON, Robert E. (eds.), The Sports Process. A Comparative and Developmental Approach, Leeds 1993, pp. 245-264. 6 PIVATO, Stefano, Les enjeux du sport, Paris 1994, 157 p. 7 DELACROIX, Xavier, "Un olympisme a usages politiques", in: Esprit, n° special, Avril 1987, pp. 231-239; DURRY, Jean, "Les Jeux Olympiques. Chance de comprehension internationale ou terrain d'affrontement ?", in: Relations Internationales, (1984)38, pp. 213-225. 8 MULLER, Norbert (red.), Pierre de Coubertin. Textes choisis. vol. II. Olympisme, Zurich / Hildesheim / New York 1995. 9 L'Equipe (1.04.1971), p. 6. 10 SCHANTZ, Otto, "Sport und Leibesubungen als Erziehungsmittel bei Pierre de Coubertin", in: Stadion. International Journal for the History of Sport 27(2001), pp. 111-119. 11 ALLISON, Lincoln, Amateurism in Sport. An Analysis and a Defence, London / Portland, Or. 2001, p. 9. 12 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "The Fumbled Ball", in: The Phi Delta Kappan, 33(1952)7, pp. 351-354, find in The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 245 (Reel 142).

JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 25 developed until the Games of Sapporo eight years later. The Meeting of the Executive Commission held in Madrid from the October 5 to October 8 1965 led to the creation of a sub- Commission charged with examining the situation of amateurism, which was outstanding as had showed a true sense of urgency for resolving this problem. Parallel to that, a sub-Commission called "Eligibility sub-Commission no. 2" worked on the topic "amateurism and eligibility". With this measure, the I.O.C. truly assumed responsibility for the problem. A new regulation came into effect on April 5, 1971. Until this, any participant had been required to have conformed to the old rules. These two are distinguished particularly on one point: henceforth, any photography of an athlete Example of bearing the name of a product, whatever it was, depreciation of the would be regarded as sufficient proof for the victories disqualification of this athlete. No more distinction of the other would be made between the one paid for these camp18 photographs and the others as before.

What is at stake when dealing with By imposing a definition of amateurism, the IOC amateurism? intervened in these battles of prestige by In 1952 the debate had taken a new dimension delimiting a country's means of preparation and with the introduction of the Soviet Union in the by introducing a moral and ethical dimension. 13 Olympic Games of Helsinki. The international To gain was not enough any more, it should tensions between the East and the West also be shown that their athletes respect the countries were thus reflected into the Olympic Olympic values even when the adversaries did Games,14 each side sought to used the Games not.16 Thus, for the Eastern European countries, as a mean of showing the superiority of his it was simply impossible to have professional political system. athletes. Since the private sector did not exist, "Once we decided to take part in foreign there could not be bonds with advertisers or competitions, we were forced to guarantee commercial industries. The athletes of the west victory, otherwise the "free" bourgeois press were described like mercantile machines which would fling mud at the whole nation as well as seemingly went against the Olympic spirit and our athletes. That actually did happen. To gain its educational aims. Conversely, people of the permission to go to international tournaments West viewed athletes of the East as being State I had to send a special note to Stalin amateurs who were granted many guaranteeing victory"15 advantages.17

13 MACALOON, John J., "Are Olympics Athletes Professionals? Cultural Categories and Social Control in U.S. Sport", in: STAUDOHAR, Paul D. / MANGAN, James A., The Business of Professional Sports, Urbana / Chicago 1991, p. 264-297. 14 GUTTMANN, Allen, "The Cold War and the Olympics", in: International Journal [Canadian Institute of International Affairs, Toronto] 43(1988), pp. 554-568. 15 ROMANOV, N.N., "Trudnye dorogi k Olimpu", in: Fizkul'tura i sport 1987, p. 57. Quoted in PEPPARD, Victor / RIORDAN, James, Playing Politics: Soviet Sport Diplomacy to 1992, London 1993, p. 63. 16 AMAR, Mariane, "Le sport francais dans la guerre froide", in: Relations internationales, (1984)38, pp. 227-244; LANFRANCHI, Pierre, "Entre initiative privee et question nationale. Genese et evolution des politiques sportives en Europe (Grande-Bretagne, Allemagne, , Italie)", in: Politix, Sport et politique, 13(2000)50, pp. 29-48. 17 OSTERHOUDT, R. G., "Capitalist and Socialist Interpretations of Modern Amateurism: An Essay on the Fundamental Difference", in: SEGRAVE, Jeffrey / CHU, Donald (eds.), Olympism, Champaign, III. 1981, pp. 42-47. 18 Quoted in Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung (22.06.1972), p. 10. The text tells: "The Sporthilfe [sports aid foundation] is worth gold: support it now for Munich!'; "He can laugh. Because he gets well prepared to the start. He trains intensively for many years for Munich 72. With money, coach, food supplies. And he does not need to ask his boss if he gets a half day free. In other countries everything is regulated by the State. We prefer the free citizens' initiative. Therefore Sporthilfe. We help. Fast, without bureaucracy and effectively. We do not want to buy victories: but to assure equal chances for our athletes. Whether more nor less. Your donation provides our athletes with a fair chance to win gold in Munich." (we want to thank Thomas A. ZAWADZKI for his contribution in this translation)

26 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 For a country like the German Democratic Republic (GDR), these issues were of primary importance. Its object was to dissociate itself from the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in order to ensure its international recognition. "The class struggle in sport has reached such an extent that there exists in principle no difference to the military level. [...] For us the meaning is: there can be no more connections, no more contacts with persons of the F.R.G. and other capitalistic countries."19

For the IOC, and especially for its President Avery BRUNDAGE, there were other stakes that were no less fundamental. First, from a symbolic point of view, the members of the IOC estimated that the Olympic Winter Games of were a joke of which they were the victims. As 68th IOC Brundage explained, "We have not yet recovered Session Warsaw: from the way we were betrayed by the F.I.S. at Avery Grenoble"20. To fail again in the application of the Brundage rules would have constituted a real humiliation. Hugh Weir, President of the Eligibility For BRUNDAGE, the maintenance of amateurism Commission, wrote to Avery BRUNDAGE: within the Olympic Movement was more "In my opinion there can be no compromise. important than saving the face of the IOC. As life There must be no weakening and we must philosophy, amateurism represented for him not be fooled again by F.I.S. as we were at everything that was positive.23 The moment it Grenoble. I repeat that all they want is to get ceased to be diffused, he felt, especially through over Sapporo safely and then await a few education, then would begin the decline. months quietly until Avery Brundage vacates "At the height of their power in intellect and the throne" 21 culture, they were also at the height of their They were particularly disappointed by the athletic glory - and no other civilization lasted reversal of the situation sometime before the as long as the Greek. beginning of the events with the presence of the Surely this should indicate that as long as manufacturers' names on : high ideals, of devotion to clean amateur "It is not the marks on skis that are our sport, of the exercise of sportsmanship are primary concern but the illegitimate payments preserved, so long will a civilization last. made "under the table" to skiers. Since this is While these ideals were maintained, the usually impossible to prove our only recourse Olympic Games prospered, and Greece was to eliminate the advertising. prospered. The International Federation said that this When the Greeks became so commercially would be done at Grenoble last year and the inclined they could not even play for fun and day before the competition notified us that it not for pay, the Greek empire fell and was would not, much to our consternation and supplanted by the Roman"24 amazement".22

19 STAADT, Jochen, "Die SED und die Olympischen Spiele 1972", in: SCHROEDER, Klaus (ed.), Geschichte und Transformation des SED-Staates. Beitrage und Analysen, Berlin 1994, p. 220. 20 BRUNDAGE, Avery to Bjorn KJELLSTROM (April 9, 1968). Quoted in Folder "Federation Internationale de Ski", archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum. 21 WEIR, Hugh to Avery BRUNDAGE (January 4, 1972). Quoted in The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 98 (Reel 53). 22 BRUNDAGE, Avery to Mr. LILLYWHITE (February 17, 1968). Quoted in The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 175 (Reel 101). 23 GUTTMANN, Allen, The Games Must Go On. Avery Brundage and the Olympic Movement, New York 1984, 318 p. 24 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "Civilization may be saved by athletics" (1942), in: The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 244 (Reel 141).

JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 27 Lastly, the issues were also commercial and Committee, there would be no Olympic connected to nationalistic concerns. Since Alpine Games. [...] Since the Games rest on this skiing was expensive in terms of materials, in solid foundation of interest in amateur sport travelling expenses, and time, the skiers could by thousands of unpaid workers and engage themselves in it only thanks to the competitors and their contribution of time and economic support of the manufacturers and the energy it is not right that others be permitted governments. Their interests were complemen- to profit there from, either personally tary. By hawking an image of "winter sport", politically or commercially." "which allows [the French government] to launch "The Olympic Movement has been accepted the stations, to attract French and foreign on all five continents because of its purity, its customers, to position French producers against honesty and its freedom from political intrigue their international competitors in France and and dollar signs [...]. It is the task of the abroad'25, the skiers attracted the State's aid International Olympic Committee to protect which subsidized the creation of the ski stations this idealistic enterprise and it relies on the as well as the aid of the skis producers. The support of those who believe in the principles skiing events became international battles where of fair play and good sportsmanship the great alpine nations like France, Austria, and embodied in the amateur code, in its efforts to awaited the victories with the aim of oppose political or commercial interference, imposing themselve as the dominant and legiti- and to prevent the Games from being used by mate nation from a cultural point of view. Thus, individuals, organisations or nations for thanks to its results, the Federation Francaise de ulteriors purposes."28 Ski was declared a public utility on October 29, 197026 by the French government. However, for L'Equipe: Lastly, this debate was introduced into other L'Equipe: "It goes without saying that a spheres, as for example into the mass media for fortunate athlete can devote all his time to which the presence of the best skiers during the preparation [...] This disposition is thus Olympic Games has always been more discriminatory with regard to those who are profitable.27 not millionaires."29 "That [the fact of earning money] is normal The use of ethical values as a weapon because his [of the athlete] social origin is for legitimisation generally modest [...] and because his Throughout the period of debate around the passage in the sporting life will give him the exclusion of the Austrian skier Karl SCHRANZ, the opportunity [...] to create a situation with a French daily newspaper L'Equipe, focused on future."30 sport, was opposed to the IOC. A reconsideration 31 of these writings makes it possible to show just By using the terminology of Howard BECKER , it how difficult it is to determine where ethic values can be said that the same act, the fact of earning start and stop. The two positions imposed norms money by a sporting practice, is regarded either which classified the visions as acceptable or not as a deviating act, or like a normal act according from a morally point of view. According to Avery to the group which judges it. In the Olympic BRUNDAGE: Movement, the dominant norm is that imposed by AB: "If it were not for the gratuitous service the regulations of the IOC. Consequently, in given by thousands of members of the accordance with the results of Howard BECKER, International Federations, the National the daily newspaper UEquipe developed a whole Olympic Committees, the National Fede- ideology in order to show the accuracy of its rations, and the International Olympic analyses and to show how the IOC was

25 Dl RUZZA, F. / GERBIER, B., Ski en crise. Le cirque blanc: du profit... à la compétition, Grenoble 1977, p. 9. 26 ARNAUD, Pierre / TERRET, Thierry, "Le ski, Roi des sports d'hiver", in; THIERRY, TERRET (red.), Histoire des sports, Paris 1996, pp. 159-202. 27 See for example: BERTRAND, Claude-Jean, "Sports et médias aux Etats-Unis", in: Esprit, n° special, Avril 1987, pp. 213- 229; BOURDIEU, Pierre, Sur la télévision, suivi de L'emprise du journalisme, Paris 1996, 95 p.; POCIELLO, Christian, Les cultures sportives. Pratiques, représentations et mythes sportifs, Paris 21997 [1995], 287 p. 28 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "Olympic principles" (1942), in: The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 244 (Reel 141). 29 L'Equipe (8-9.01.1972), p. 7. 30 L'Equipe (24.01.1972), p. 7 31 BECKER, Howard S., Outsiders, Paris 1985 [1963], 252 p.

28 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 mistaken. It refused any legitimacy to the IOC In parallel, they both tried to link their discourses and its members on the topic. What is particularly to them of scientists. They seemed apparently important here is that this debate was developed qualified, objective and uninvolved. and exposed by the media whose interests were AB: "One of the highest honors that could be affected if the best athletes were not allowed to won when the great Hellenic civilization was in compete because of their professional status. flower was that of Olympic victor. Gradually, Consequently, if the IOC imposed its standard however, abuses and excesses developed within the Movement, it was the opposite of the [...] Over the energetic protests of the great public place where the mass media imposed philosophers and thinkers of that era a special theirs. The IOC thus developed an ideology in class of men who did nothing but compete order to justify its position. The qualitative was developed. [...] The Games degenerated, analyses of the speeches32 reveal identical lost their purity and high idealism, and were processes on both sides. finally abolished."37 As Pierre BOURDIEU held, the power of words is more in the power of who says them and in the L'Equipe: "It is the moment [...] to make a institution which authorizes him to say them than serious analysis of a situation on which must in the words themselves33. The two sides indeed be called to deliver their opinion the modern tried to bind their speeches to those whose status humanists, the sociologists and the 38 and/or fame granted by extension a strong economists." legitimacy. Thus, one of the central concerns was In the centre of this fight were the recent to show how its position arose directly from that modifications of social realities. Again, of the renovator of the Games, Baron Pierre de interpretations diverged: COUBERTIN. The Baron lends itself particularly well AB: "It is said that "conditions have changed". to this with his vague writings34: What is meant by this? Sociologists seem to AB: "One can be sure that he [Pierre de agree that man has more leisure and more Coubertin] did not revive the Games as a money than even before" 39 commercial enterprise for profit, nor to entertain the public. He would have been L'Equipe: "We deplore [...] that amateurism [...] horrified [...] to find the Games converted into dies. But it seems difficult to reconsider this a stepping-stone to a career as a paid athletic 40 35 evolution." performer."

L'Equipe: "[Brundage defends] an amateurism Another means of imposing their vision as XlXth century whose Coubertin, in his time, legitimate is to devalue the other; the simplest had envisaged an evolution parallel with that way is to devalue their authors. Thus, the two of the social evolution."36 symbolic persons of this debate (Avery BRUNDAGE and Karl SCHRANZ) were attacked.

32 On the files of the Olympic Museum of Lausanne and the writings of L'Equipe from January to Mars 1972. See ALBERT, Pierre, "Comment étudier un journal ?", in: Nathalie, TOUSSAINT (red.), La presse quotidienne, Paris 1976, N°178, octobre-décembre, notice 6.; BOURDIEU, Pierre, Langage et pouvoir symbolique, Paris 2001 [1982], 432 p. ; BOURDIEU, Pierre / CHAMBOREDON, Jean-Claude / PASSERON, Jean-Claude, Le métier de sociologue, Paris 1973 [1968], 357 p.; DUONG, Van-Quang, Principes d'analyse rhétorique de la presse écrite contemporaine, Thèse de Doctorat, Lille 3, non publiée, Lille 1990, 840 f.; GRAWITZ, Madeleine, Méthodes des sciences sociales, Paris 2001 [1974], 920 p. ; KAYSER, Jacques, Le quotidien français, Paris 1963, XI1-171 p.; MAINGUENEAU, Dominique, L'analyse du Discours. Introduction aux lectures de l'archive, Paris 1991, 268 p.; MAINGUENEAU, Dominique, Analyser les textes de communication, Paris 1998, 211 p.; SEMPRINI, Andrea, Analyser la communication. Comment analyser les images, les médias, la publicité, Paris 1996, 270 p. 33 BOURDIEU, Langage, pp. 18-19. 34 MÜLLER, Coubertin; SCHANTZ, Otto, "A Short History of the Olympic Ideals", Lecture at the International Olympic Academy 12th Postgraduate Seminar, Olympia, Greece 2004. 35 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "Circular letter March, 20 1961, réf. No 161", Quoted in Folder "Brundage", archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum. 36 L'Equipe (05.01.1972), p. 1. 37 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "The Olympic Games and the Question of Broken Time" (1947), in: The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 244 (Reel 141). 38 L'Equipe (24.01.1972), p. 7. 39 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "The Olympic Games and the Question of Broken Time" (1947). 40 L'Equipe (6.01.1972), p. 2.

JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 29 AB: "There was never anything more comic in There is a lot at stake when dealing with the Austria, the country of comic opera, than the issue of amateurism. From the point of view of ridiculous reception of the young man who the countries which participated at the Games, had been violating for a dozen years all the goal was to remain in the norm, or at least to amateur and Olympic sport principles by make it believe, while explaining their failures by making his living as an undignified human the presence of adversaries having exceeded it. advertisement for skis."41 For Avery BRUNDAGE and certain members of the IOC, the maintenance of amateurism conditioned L'Equipe made fun of the age (84) of the the maintenance of every positive thing in the President of the IOC, trying to show as obvious Olympic Movement. But at the same time, this the fact he had an outdated vision of society. amateurism seemed to endanger the common By strongly stigmatizing these people, the two interests of skiers, manufacturers, tourism and sides removed any legitimacy to them. They the media. discredited their beliefs without actually criticising Both sides developed their own ideological 42 their speeches. It would have been possible to explanation supposed to show how their point of obtain the same results by comparing the view was the only acceptable one, which took speeches of the Eastern European countries with into account the perceived social reality of the those of the countries of the West43, the first 44 time and therefore was the only one that taking support on the Marxism-Leninism , the answered a moral or ethical ideal. Consequently, 45 second on the basis of the liberalism . to find a consensus about the concept of Consequently one better understands why the amateurism was much more difficult than it problem of amateurism was never solved. With appears. For a true consensus would imply that such a vague concept, lying at the centre of these disparate groups, with their opposing important issues and considering the number of interests and cultures, had agreed on a whole countries and cultures involved in the Olympic range of subjects. Movement, to find a consensus on the subject, each camp being placed, of course, on what he felt to be the morally right, was impossible.

Conclusion 1972, with the disqualification of Karl SCHRANZ and with the end of the mandate of Avery BRUNDAGE, seems to constitute a rupture in the history of the Olympic Movement. The debate around amateurism declined in importance from this moment.

41 BRUNDAGE, Avery to Karl PIEGEL (March 29, 1972). in: The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 181 (Reel 104). 42 GOFFMAN, Erving, Stigmate. Les usages sociaux des handicaps, Paris 1975 [1963], 178 p. 43 CARR, G. A., "The Involvement of Politics in the Sporting Relationships of East and West Germany, 1945-1972", in: Journal of Sport History 7(1980)1, pp. 40-51; HOLZWEIßIG, Gunter, Sport und Politik in der DDR, Berlin 1988, 152 p.; KRÜGER, Arnd, "The Olympic spirit of the modern world has given us a symbol of world war'. Sport and National Representation at the Eve of World War I", in: ARNAUD, Pierre,/ WAHL, Alfred (red.), Sport et relations Internationales. Actes du colloque de Metz-Verdun, 23-24-25 Septembre 1993, Metz 1994, pp. 47-64.; RIORDAN, James, "Sport in Capitalist and Socialist Countries: A Western Perspective", 1993. 45 RIORDAN, James, "Marx, Lenin and Physical Culture", in: Journal of Sport History 2(1976), pp. 152-161. 46 BERTRAND, Claude-Jean, "Sports et medias aux Etats-Unis", 1987.

30 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1