AMATEURISM AND THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT: THE STAKES OF A DEFINITION OF AMATEURISM UNDER THE LIGHT OF THE CASE OF KARL SCHRANZ -1972 WINTER GAMES SAPPORO, JAPAN by Guy-Lionel Loew* Karl Schranz on his return to Austria; The banner says welcome to the "greatest skiier of all time!" In numerous works and reports on the Olympic Eastern European countries, or of Avery Games, one comes across problems recurring BRUNDAGE, there is no event or individual which throughout the Games' history. Each problem comes to mind as clearly as in the cases seems to be linked to an individual or to a mentioned above. This is even more the case 2 symbolic event, which captures the essence of with Karl SCHRANZ. However, as he writes in his this issue. Exemplary are the disqualification of autobiography: the Canadian sprinter Ben JOHNSON for using "I received in Vienna, approximately 16 years doping products in 1988, the 1980 and 1984 after my bitter exclusion from Sapporo, on the boycotts that followed the exacerbation of occasion of an IOC conference, my gold international political tensions and the scandal of medal from the hands of the Spanish IOC Salt Lake City illustrating the risks of corruption president Juan Antonio Samaranch in the within the Movement related as they are to the form of the participant medal of 1972. importance of economic issues among others. Samaranch admitted in his presentation the Then there is amateurism. No other problem has error and explained that I was responsible for been so recurring during the Olympic Games and the fact that today in most kinds of sport, the this since 1894 at the time of the initial Congress best [athletes] are at the start of the Olympic in La Sorbonne of Paris.1 For although one can Games. think of Jim THORPE, of the State amateurs of the This was my 'Olympic Victor' ".3 * We address our thanks to the members of the Olympic Studies Centre of the Olympic Museum of Lausanne for their reception and their assistance throughout our research. We also want to thank Geoff ARDELL (Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand) for his precious help. 1 GLADER, Eugene A., Amateurism and Athletics, New York 1978, 224 p.; MAYER, Otto, A travers les anneaux olympiques, Geneva 1960, 331 p. 2 Close to the beginning of the Olympic Games of Sapporo, the Austrian skier Karl SCHRANZ, the best skier in that era, was not allowed to participate. The IOC judged he was not in accordance with the eligibility rule because of professionalism. Many thousands of persons acclaimed him at his arrival in Vienna and protested against what they saw as an injustice, arguing that no athlete was amateur in 1972. 3 SCHRANZ, Karl (Aufgezeichnet von Stefan KONIG und Gerhard ZIMMER), Mein "Olympiasieg", Munich 2002, p. 196. 24 JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 In this, this event constitutes a split in the history around his project. Thus, he wrote in 1909: of the Olympic Movement.4 It was the result of "I felt that the British would vote for the years of conflicts where each camp tried to restoration of the Olympic Games only on the legitimise its thinking and to discredit that of its condition that the participants answered the adversaries, in particular while trying to assign to definition of amateurism." 9 5 its position a moral or ethical base. In the same way, the links cultivated with Ancient For as much, can one think that it is possible to 10 distinguish between a moral and an amoral Greece ensured the support of intellectuals. thought, which would delimit the acceptable Here stands the ambiguity. Apparently central to definitions of the concept of amateurism, while Olympism, amateurism seems in fact to have allowing treating them on a hierarchical basis? been a tool at the disposal of Baron Pierre de A short history makes it possible to show the COUBERTIN for furthering his goals. Additionally, importance of amateurism within the Olympic the concept of amateurism itself is difficult to Movement. Not easily definable, the members of define and points of disagreement are more the International Olympic Committee (IOC) numerous than the consensuses. As Lincoln regularly tried, however, to put it into a regulation. ALLISON wrote: "with amateurism the tension at There is a lot at stake when dealing with such a the core is between the criteria of payment and 11 definition.6 Although constituting, by regulation, a the idea of loving or liking an activity". Thus the competition between individuals, the Olympic debate has consisted in pushing back or Games became in fact the arena for reinforcing the limits between what is and what is confrontation of various nations, especially in the not authorized for an amateur athlete. In order to 7 times of international tension like the cold war. have a more precise idea of amateurism, let us To legislate on amateurism then is to accept or to look to one of the numerous writings of Avery refuse certain types of Olympic preparations; it BRUNDAGE (President of the IOC from 1952 to thus indirectly supports or disadvantages certain 1972) on the subject: states or political systems. "Today the name 'amateur' is probably used The case of Karl SCHRANZ allows an illustration more often incorrectly than correctly. It is of these issues by accentuating them. It also often used as a synonym for beginner, tyro, makes it possible to show that moral and ethics neophyte or someone who is inexpert, values were objects of struggles between the instead of to describe one who does things various protagonists. because he loves to do them. [...] Amateurism has nothing to do with age, Links between amateurism and the experience, wealth, social standing, or ability Olympic Movement and the develop- An amateur can be old or young, he can be rich or poor, he can be a beginner or a ment of the issue before Sapporo veteran, he can be uneducated or a doctor of If Pierre de COUBERTIN gave so much philosophy, he can be a dub or a champion, importance to amateurism, it was with the aim of 8 as long as he does what he is doing for the 12 valorising the pedagogic functions of sport. The pleasure that he obtains from it and not for bonds woven between Olympism and any material rewards, direct or indirect." amateurism indeed seem to have arisen from its connections to the idea of education, but also A new debate around this topic began after the from COUBERTIN'S will to gather the most people Olympic Games of Innsbruck in 1964. It 4 SCHANTZ, Otto, "La presidence de Avery Brundage (1952-1972)", in: GAFNER, Raymond (red.), Un siecle du Comite International Olympique. L'ldee - Les Presidents - L'CEuvre, vol. II, Lausanne 1995, pp. 77-200. 5 RIORDAN, James, "Sport in Capitalist and Socialist Countries: A Western Perspective", in: DUNNING, Eric G. / MAGUIRE, Joseph A. PEARTON, Robert E. (eds.), The Sports Process. A Comparative and Developmental Approach, Leeds 1993, pp. 245-264. 6 PIVATO, Stefano, Les enjeux du sport, Paris 1994, 157 p. 7 DELACROIX, Xavier, "Un olympisme a usages politiques", in: Esprit, n° special, Avril 1987, pp. 231-239; DURRY, Jean, "Les Jeux Olympiques. Chance de comprehension internationale ou terrain d'affrontement ?", in: Relations Internationales, (1984)38, pp. 213-225. 8 MULLER, Norbert (red.), Pierre de Coubertin. Textes choisis. vol. II. Olympisme, Zurich / Hildesheim / New York 1995. 9 L'Equipe (1.04.1971), p. 6. 10 SCHANTZ, Otto, "Sport und Leibesubungen als Erziehungsmittel bei Pierre de Coubertin", in: Stadion. International Journal for the History of Sport 27(2001), pp. 111-119. 11 ALLISON, Lincoln, Amateurism in Sport. An Analysis and a Defence, London / Portland, Or. 2001, p. 9. 12 BRUNDAGE, Avery, "The Fumbled Ball", in: The Phi Delta Kappan, 33(1952)7, pp. 351-354, find in The Avery Brundage Collection, archives of the Olympic Studies Centre, Lausanne, Olympic Museum, Box 245 (Reel 142). JOURNAL OF OLYMPIC HISTORY 13(January 2005)1 25 developed until the Games of Sapporo eight years later. The Meeting of the Executive Commission held in Madrid from the October 5 to October 8 1965 led to the creation of a sub- Commission charged with examining the situation of amateurism, which was outstanding as had showed a true sense of urgency for resolving this problem. Parallel to that, a sub-Commission called "Eligibility sub-Commission no. 2" worked on the topic "amateurism and eligibility". With this measure, the I.O.C. truly assumed responsibility for the problem. A new regulation came into effect on April 5, 1971. Until this, any participant had been required to have conformed to the old rules. These two are distinguished particularly on one point: henceforth, any photography of an athlete Example of bearing the name of a product, whatever it was, depreciation of the would be regarded as sufficient proof for the victories disqualification of this athlete. No more distinction of the other would be made between the one paid for these camp18 photographs and the others as before. What is at stake when dealing with By imposing a definition of amateurism, the IOC amateurism? intervened in these battles of prestige by In 1952 the debate had taken a new dimension delimiting a country's means of preparation and with the introduction of the Soviet Union in the by introducing a moral and ethical dimension. 13 Olympic Games of Helsinki. The international To gain was not enough any more, it should tensions between the East and the West also be shown that their athletes respect the countries were thus reflected into the Olympic Olympic values even when the adversaries did Games,14 each side sought to used the Games not.16 Thus, for the Eastern European countries, as a mean of showing the superiority of his it was simply impossible to have professional political system.