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12. the Black Sea Basin and ICZM

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12. the Black Sea Basin and ICZM 12.TheBlackSeaBasinandICZM Environmentalsetting The Black Sea41 is one of the most remarkable regional seas in the world, being almost completelyseparatedfromtherestoftheworld'soceansandembodyinganabyssalbasinwith maximum depth of 2300 m adjoining a very wide continental shelf area. Its waters are permanentlystratifiedundertheinfluenceoffreshwatersuppliedbylargerivers(Fig.1)andthe inflowofMediterraneanwaterthroughtheBosphorusandDardanellesStraits. Figure62:TheCatchmentAreaoftheBlackSea(source:http://envirogrids.net) TheBlackSeaisconsideredtobeafantasticlaboratorynaturallyhostingoxic,hypoxicandanoxic water masses permanently existing due to strong vertical stratification. While strong vertical stratificationsupportsisopycnaldistributionofvariousbiogeochemicalspecies,thewiderange ofredoxconditionssupportsspecificprocessesrenderingtheBlackSeaauniqueplacetostudy ,QWURGXFWRU\SUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKH%ODFN6HD%DVLQLVWLJKWO\IROORZLQJWKHUHIHUHQFH7%ò7$. 428 theEarthSystemresponsestoclimatechangesandanthropogenicforcing.Sincealargepartof thebasin(i.e.approx.deeperthan100m)isanoxic,lifeformsintheBlackSeadisplaylimited diversity and almost all pelagic and benthic fauna and flora dwell in the shallower upper oxic waterlayers. Besidesitsnaturalpeculiaritiesanddisadvantages42,thelongͲtermandintensiveanthropogenic pressuresexertedonthesystemaggravatedthethreatstotheBlackSeaecosystemrelatedto climate change43. Large amounts of various pollutants (oil, trace metals, nutrients, pesticides, etc.) have been discharged from coastal sources to the nearshore waters since the 1960’s. Excessivenutrientsareconsideredtobethemostpersistentinnegativeeffectscomparingtoall other pollutants. Their input via rivers, agricultural drainage waters, and insufficiently treated municipal/industrialwastewatershasincreasedmanyͲfoldoverthelastfewdecades,supporting progressive cultural eutrophication. The latter has led to radical changes in the Black Sea ecosystem since the 1960s and especially after 1970s when critically important key habitats disappeared from the large shelf areas. It has been scientifically and politically accepted that eutrophicationhascausedamajortransboundaryimpactonwaterquality,biologicaldiversity, bioͲresourcesabundance,adverselyaffectingallsectorsrelyingonmarineservices. Figure63:TypicalsummerbioͲopticalremotesensing "colour"oftheBlackSea(seemoreonthisinBarale andJaquet,2006) Itwasalsorecognisedthatotheranthropogenicforceslikeoverfishingandtheuseofdestructive fishingtechniques,coastalzonemismanagementandtheintroductionofinvasivespecies(most notablythectenophorejellyMnemiopsisleidyi)simultaneouslyoccurredfurtherdamagingthe functioningofthisecosystemthroughtrophiccascades. 6LQFH%ODFN6HDLVYLUWXDOO\LVRODWHGLWVUHVLOLHQFHWRFKDQJHLVZHDN7KHSUHVHQFHRIDSHUPDQHQW DQR[LF]RQHLVDQDGGLWLRQDOULVNIDFWRU &OLPDWLFFKDQJHVDUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKLQFUHDVHGIUHTXHQF\LQIORRGVQRUWKERXQGPRYHPHQWRIVSHFLHV VHDOHYHOULVHHWF 429 SomerecoverystartedbymidͲ90sduetolessextensiveuseoffertilizersforeconomicreasons. Consequently, anthropogenicallyͲinduced hypoxic conditions at the sea shelf somewhat decreased and biodiversity in benthic flora and fauna increased. The appearance and establishment of the predator of Mnemiopsis (Beroe ovata) was seen to improve certain ecosystemparameters. Morethan300riverscontributeinflowtotheBlackandAzovSeas.ThenorthͲwesternBlackSea receivesthedischargeofthelargestriversintheBlackSeadrainageareaͲtheDanubeRiverwith ameanwaterdischargeofabout200km3/yrandtheUkrainianriversDniepr,SouthernBugand Dniestrcontributingwithabout65km3/yr. The influence of the Danube River and its large Delta is predominant regarding the sedimentation on the northͲwestern Black Sea shelf area, and not only. The Delta impact on hydrographicprocesses,transportofspeciesandthegenepoolformation,chemicalcontentof waterandsediment,migrationsoffishpopulationsandbirds,etc.,opensarangeofscientific challenges. Fromthisperspective,theexistenceoftheDanubeDelta–theEurope’slargestdeltaicsystem– furtherincreasesthespecialcharacteristicsoftheBlackSea. Impactsofclimaticvariabilityand/orclimatechangeareclearlyindicatedbythearrivalofmore MediterraneanspeciesandestablishmentofnewnichesintheBlackSea,phenologicalchanges inbiota,directcorrelationsbetweenseawatertemperaturechangesandabundance/biomassof species(planktontofish)aswellasvariationsinthedissolvedoxygencontentofupperwater columnlayers. Governancearrangements TheBucharestConventionanditsProtocolstogetherwiththeirimplementationplan,SAP(2009), constitutetheregionallegal/policyframeworkfortheprotectionoftheBlackSeaenvironment. The Black Sea Commission (BSC) is made up of one member from each of the six Black Sea nationalgovernments.SixregionalactivitycentresandsixthematicadvisorygroupsoftheBSC contributetotheregionalimplementationscheme. At a regional level, the four priority transboundary problems for the Black Sea ecosystem, reͲconfirmedbyBlackSeaTransboundaryDiagnosticAnalysis(TDA,2008)andbytheStrategic ActionPlanfortheEnvironmentalProtectionandRehabilitationoftheBlackSea(SAP,2009),are (1) eutrophication/nutrient enrichment, (2) changes in marine living resources, (3) chemical pollution (including oil), (4) biodiversity/habitat changes, including alien species introduction. TheBSSAP(2009)definedthecomprehensivesetofEcosystemQualityObjectives(EcoQOs)to managethesefourtransboundaryenvironmentalissues(SAP,2009.SeealsoBox2inTÜB7TAK, 2011). TheCausalChainAnalysesintheBlackSeaTDA(2008)foundthatfourtransͲboundaryproblems cannotbedealtwithindividually.Itisstatedthat"improvementsinmanagementofoneproblem will have knockͲon effects for other problems, and addressing individual causes is likely to 430 improve the situation with regard to at least two, if not more, of the four environmental problems". Clear, coherent scientific understanding of coastal (land and water) margins and efficientmanagementofhumanactivitiesintheseareasarevitallyimportantforachievingall fourSAP(2009)EcoQOs. Inparticular,throughsigningtheBSͲSAP(2009)countriesconfirmed(Article3.1)toadheretothe following governance and management approaches: (i) Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM);(ii)TheEcosystemApproach;and(iii)IntegratedRiverBasinManagement(IRBM). ThegeographicalscopeforthebasinisdefinedbytheBucharestConventionanditsProtocolsas the marine and coastal waters of the Black Sea proper. However, in terms of linkage to the Mediterranean,theTurkishStraitsSystemaswellastheAzovSeaandtheKerchStraitcanalso beconsideredinthecontextofthemarineandcoastalgovernancesuchasICZM. ICZMisalsoaimedtointegratecoastalgovernanceissueswiththeeventswithinthecatchment basinsofriversdrainingintothesea(Fig.1).Hence,theBlackSeawithitswatersheds(catchment area),beingoneoftheLargeMarineEcosystems(LME)oftheworldwithecologydissimilarfrom thatoftheadjacentseasandocean,hastobeconsideredinthiscontexteither. ThecombinedapplicationofICZMandIRBMwasaffirmedasalegallybindinggeneralobligation in the updated Protocol on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Black Sea from LandͲBased Sources and Activities (LBSA, 2009), which is urging countries (Article 4f) "to endeavourapplyingtheintegratedmanagementofcoastalzonesandwatersheds". Another Protocol, relevant for ICZM is the Black Sea Biodiversity and Landscape Conservation ProtocoltotheConventionontheProtectionoftheBlackSeaAgainstPollution(BLC,2002).At leasttwoitsarticlesaredirectlyrelevanttotheissueofICZM.UnderitsArticle3,theProtocol applies to coastal zone, which have to be designated by each Contracting Party, including wetlands.Importantly,theContractingPartieshavealsocommittedthemselves"toencourage introductionofintersectoralinteractiononregionalandnationallevelsthroughtheintroduction oftheprinciplesanddevelopmentoflegalinstrumentofintegratedcoastalzonemanagement seeking the ways for sustainable use of natural resources and promotion of environmentally friendlyhumanactivitiesinthecoastalzone"(Article7). The regional Black Sea institutional framework for the protection of the marine environment involvestworegionalorganizations:primarilytheCommissionontheProtectionoftheBlackSea AgainstPollution(BlackSeaCommission,BSC),establisheddejurein199244throughArticle17of theBucharestConventionandsupportedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentalProgramme,and theOrganizationoftheBlackSeaEconomicCooperation(BSEC),alsoestablishedin1992.The BlackSeaCommission(http://www.blackseaͲcommission.org)wasestablishedexclusivelyforthe protectionoftheBlackSeamarineenvironmentandiscomposedoftheBlackSeacoastalstates, whileBSEC,asaregionaleconomiccooperationforum,includesevenstatesnotfallingwithinthe %6&3HUPDQHQW6HFUHWDULDWEHFDPHRSHUDWLRQDOLQ2FWREHU 431 ecologicallimitsoftheBlackSeaCatchment.BSCandBSEChavegrantedeachothertheobserver status. InstitutionallytheBlackSeaCommission(BSC)istheintergovernmentalorganizationresponsible fortheimplementationoftheConventionfortheProtectionoftheBlackSeaAgainstPollution (Bucharest Convention), its four Protocols and Strategic Action Plan, aiming at preserving the Black Sea ecosystem as a valuable natural endowment of the region, while ensuring the protectionofitsmarineandcoastallivingresourcesasaconditionforsustainabledevelopment oftheBlackSeacoastalstates,wellͲbeing,health,andsecurityoftheirpopulation. ThePermanentSecretariatoftheBSCstartedfunctioningin2000.Oneofitssubsidiarybodiesis theICZMAdvisoryGroup,whichactivelysupportstheICZMactivitiesoftheBSC.Thegroupis responsiblefortheannualICZMreportoftheBSC,submittingalsoregularlydataonthestateof thecoastanddevelopmentofICZMintheBlackSeastates.Theannuallyreporteddatacovers developmentofpolicy/legislation,projectsanddifferentICZMindicatorsinthefieldsandsectors
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