ChineseChinese PlantationPlantation WorkerWorkerss andand SocialSocial ConflictConflict inin PeruPeru inin thethe late NineteentNineteenthh Century*Century*
MICHAEMICHAELL J.J.GONZALE GONZALESS
AAss ththee worlworldd capitalistcapitalist systemsystem developeddeveloped duringduring ththee nineteentnineteenthh centurycentury non-slavnon-slavee labourlabour becambecamee a commoditycommodity thathatt circulatedcirculated aroundaround ththee globeglobe andand contributedcontributed ttoo capitalcapital accumulationaccumulation inin metropolitametropolitann centres.centres. TheThe besbestt examplesexamples araree ththee emigrationemigration ooff millionmillionss ofof AsiaAsiann indenturedindentured servantsservants anandd EuropeaEuropeann labourerslabourers ttoo areasareas ofof EuropeaEuropeann colonisation.colonisation. AsianAsianss replacedreplaced emancipatedemancipated AfricaAfricann slavesslaves onon plantationplantationss inin ththee CaribbeanCaribbean andand SouthSouth AmericaAmerica,, supplementedsupplemented a decliningdeclining slaveslave populatiopopulationn inin Cuba,Cuba, builtbuilt railwayrailwayss inin California,California, workeworkedd inin mineminess inin SouthSouth AfricaAfrica,, labouredlaboured oonn sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantationss inin MauritiusMauritius andand Fiji,Fiji, andand servedserved onon plantationsplantations inin southeastsoutheast AsiaAsia.. ItaliaItaliann immigrantsimmigrants alsoalso replacereplacedd AfricaAfricann slavesslaves onon coffeecoffee estatesestates inin Brazil,Brazil , workedworked withwith SpaniardsSpaniards inin thethe seasonalseasonal wheatwheat harvestharvest inin ArgentinaArgentina,, and,and, alongalong witwithh otherother EuropeansEuropeans,, enteredentered ththee growinggrowing labourlabour markemarkett inin ththee UniteUnitedd States.States. FroFromm ththee perspectivperspectivee ofof capital,capital, thesthesee workerworkerss werweree a cheapcheap alternativealternative toto local local wagewage labourlabour and,and, asas foreignersforeigners withouwithoutt ththee rightrightss ofof citizens,citizens, thetheyy couldcould bbee subjectedsubjected ttoo harsheharsherr methodsmethods 1 ofof socialsocial control. 1 * ResearchResearch forfor thisthis articlearticle waswas fundedfunded byby aa FordFord FoundationFoundation FellowshipFellowship inin 1974-51974-5 andand bbyy a FulbrighFulbrightt FellowshiFellowshipp iinn autumnautumn 1987.1987. 1I woulwouldd liklikee ttoo thanthankk ththee staffsstaffs ofof ththee ArchivArchivoo deldel FuerFueroo AgrariAgrarioo andand ththee ArchivArchivoo GeneraGenerall ddee lala Naci6n Nacion forfo rgranting granting meme accessaccess ttoo plantatioplantationn recordsrecords,, andand anonymousanonymous refereerefereess forfor theitheirr usefuusefull comments.comments. AnAn earlierearlier versioversionn ofof thithiss papepaperr wawass presentepresentedd atat ththee InternationaInternationall CongressCongress ooff AmericanistsAmericanists,, AmsterdamAmsterdam,, JulyJuly,, 19881988.. 1 1 AmongAmong thethe manymany studiesstudies onon thisthis subjectsubject are:are: ShulaShula MarksMarks andand PeterPeter RichardsonRichardson (eds.),(eds.), International Labour Migration: Historical Perspectives (London,(London, 1984);1984); HughHugh Tinker,Tinker, AA New System of Slavery: The Export of Indian Labour Overseas, 18jo-192018)0—1920 (London, (London 1974);, 1974) ; ManueManuell MorenMorenoo FraginalsFraginals,, FranFrankk MoyMoyaa PonPonss andand StanleyStanley LL.. EngermaEngermann (eds.),(eds.), Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-Speaking Caribbean in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore,(Baltimore, 1985);1985); PetePeterr RichardsonRichardson,, Chinese Mine Labour in the Transvaal (London,(London, 1982);1982); WatWattt Stewart,Stewart, Chinese BondageBondage in in Peru Peru (Durham, (Durham ,1951); 1951) Walter; Walte rRodney, Rodney ,A A History History of the GltyaneseGuyanese Working People, 1881-190J1881-190; (Baltimore,(Baltimore, 1981981) I);; LucLucyy MM.. Cohen,Cohen, Chinese inin the Post-Civil War SouthSOllth (Baton(Baton RougeRouge,, 1984);1984); ThomaThomass HH.. HollowayHolloway,, Immigrants on thethe Land: Coffee and Society in Saosao Paulo, 1886-19}41886-19)4 (Chapel(Chapel HillHill,, 1980);1980); andand JameJamess Scobie,Scobie, Revolution on the PampaPompa (Austin,(Austin, 1964).1964). MichaeMichaell JJ.. GonzalesGonzales iiss AssociatAssociatee ProfessoProfessorr ofof HistorHistoryy atat NortherNorthernn IllinoiIllinoiss UniversityUniversity andand DirectoDirectorr ofof ththee CenterCenter forfor LatinoLatino andand LatinLatin AmericanAmerican Studies.Studies .
J. Lai.Lol. Amer.Am.,. Stud.Slud. 11,21, 385-42385-4244 PrintedPrinled inin Greol Great Brilaln Britain 3°5
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 383866 Michael ].j. GonzalesGon^aks
N 1
a 100 200 300 miles ~ ____~ ______-LI ______~I
a 100 200 300 400 km , I I ! I
MapMap I.1. Peru.Peru.
InIn thethe casecase ofof Peru,Peru, approximatelyapproximately 100,000100,000 ChineseChinese indenturedindentured servantsservants enteredentered thethe countrycountry betweenbetween 18471847 an
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in PerIJPeru 383877 economyeconomy inin thethe 1870S1870s andand 1880s.1880s. TheThe crisiscrisis waswas causedcaused byby fallingfalling guanoguano revenues,revenues, mismanagementmismanagement ofof publicpublic revenues,revenues, thethe worldwideworldwide crisiscrisis ofof 1873,1873, andand thethe collapsecollapse ofof financial institutions.institutions. CrisisCrisis subsequentlysubsequently turnedturned toto catastrophecatastrophe withwith Peru'sPeru's militarymilitary defeatdefeat andand occupationoccupation byby ChileChile duringduring thethe WarWar ofof thethe PacificPacific (1879-83).2(1879-83).2 ThisThis articlearticle concernsconcerns thethe historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese plantationplantation workersworkers duringduring thithiss perioperiodd ooff crisiscrisis.. ItIt focusefocusess oonn labourlabour recruitmentrecruitment andand controcontroll bbyy plantersplanters whowho attemptedattempted toto maintainmaintain productionproduction underunder extremelyextremely difficultdifficult conditions.conditions. ItIt providesprovides a moremore comprehensivecomprehensive analysisanalysis thanthan mymy earlierearlier workwork onon ChineseChinese workersworkers onon thethe sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantation Cayalti3Cayalti3 bbyy incorporatingincorporating additionaladditional primaryprimary andand secondary sources.sources. EspeciallyEspecially importantimportant areare thethe recordsrecords ofof thethe cottoncotton plantationplantation Palto,Palto, locatedlocated nearnear Pisco,Pisco, andand thethe 14o-page140-page reportreport writtenwritten byby a specialspecial commissioncommission appointedappointed inin 18871887 toto studystudy thethe conditioncondition ofof ChineseChinese labourerslabourers onon coastalcoastal plantationsplantations.. ByBy providingproviding detaileddetailed analysisanalysis ofof labourlabour conditionsconditions inin thethe CondorCondor andand SanaSana ValleysValleys thethe articlearticle alsoalso makesmakes a contributioncontribution toto regionalregional history.history. PeruvianPeruvian plantersplanters hadhad neitherneither thethe capitalcapital nornor thethe inclinationinclination toto replacereplace ChineseChinese workersworkers withwith locallocal wagewage labourers.labourers. Instead,Instead, theythey soughtsought toto recontractrecontract ChineseChinese labourerslabourers underunder termsterms similarsimilar toto contractscontracts ooff indentureshipindentureship andand toto limitlimit theirtheir mobilitymobility throughthrough debtdebt peonagepeonage andand corporalcorporal punishment.punishment. ThisThis workedworked forfor severalseveral years,years, butbut graduallygradually a majoritymajority ofof ChineseChinese completedcompleted theirtheir contractscontracts andand becamebecame wagewage labourers.labourers. SomeSome ofof themthem continuedcontinued toto workwork onon plantationsplantations onon a dailydaily basisbasis asas soso- calledcalled chinos libres,libres, while whil e othersother s migratedmigrated intointo theth e cities.cities . DuringDuring theth e ChileanChilean invasioninvasion manymany ChineseChinese fled fromfrom thethe plantations,plantations, onlyonly toto returnreturn asas membersmembers ofof workwork gangsgangs organisedorganised byby ChineseChinese contractors.contractors. TheseThese recruitersrecruiters suppliedsupplied thethe majoritymajority ofof workersworkers toto largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantationsplantations intointo thethe 1890S.1890s. PlantersPlanters continuedcontinued toto subjectsubject ChineseChinese workersworkers toto a harshharsh systemsystem ofof socialsocial controlcontrol,, regardlessregardless ofof theitheirr contractualcontractual status.status. TheThe ChineseChinese resistedresisted totaltotal dominationdomination throughthrough a varietyvariety ofof violentviolent andand non-violentnon-violent tacticstactics similarsimilar toto thosethose employedemployed byby AfricanAfrican slavesslaves andand indenturedindentured servantsservants elsewhere.4 ResistanceResistance waswas relativelyrelatively moremore effectiveeffective
2 2 Stewart,Stewart, Chinese Bondage; Bondage; Cecilia CeciliMendez,a Mendez 'La , otra'La historiaotra histori del a guano:del guano Peru: Peru 1840-1879',1840-1879', Revista Andina, Andina, ano an5,o num.5, num I .(Ier 1 (lesemestrer semestr 1987),e 1987) pp., pp7-46;. 7-46 Carlos; Carlo s Camprubi,Camprubi, Historia de los bancos en en el el Perri Peru (1360-1379), {1860-1879),vo\. vol. I1 (Lima, (Lima , 1957),1957) , pp.pp . 169-211;169-211 ; ErnestoErnesto YepesYepes deldel Castillo,Castillo, Perri,Peru, 1320-1920:1820-1920: Un siglosigh de desarrollodesarrollo capitalista capitalista (Lima, (Lima ,1972), 1972) , p.p. 131131.. 3 3 Plantation AgriC/lltlireAgriculture and Social Control in Northern Pem,Peru, 137J-19}}187J-19)) (Austin,(Austin, 1985),1985), chs.chs. 5 andand 6;6; 'Economic'Economic Crisis,Crisis, ChineseChinese WorkersWorkers andand thethe PeruvianPeruvian SugarSugar PlantersPlanters 1875-1900:1875-1900: A CaseCase StudyStudy ofof LabourLabour andand thethe NationalNational Elite',Elite', inin BillBill AlbertAlbert andand AdrianAdrian GravesGraves (eds.),(eds.), Crisis and Change inin the the International International Sligar Sugar EconomyEconomy !S60-1914 1860-1914 (Edinburgh, (Edinburgh , 191984)84),, pp.pp. 181-99·181-99. 4 4 ForFor thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates seesee EugeneEugene D.D. Genovese,Genovese, Roll, Jordall,Jordan, RollRoll (New (New York, York , 1976).1976) . AlsoAlso seesee Rodney,Rodney, G~aneseGuyanese Working People.
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 388388 Michael J. GonzalesGon^ales onon smallsmall cottoncotton estatesestates thanthan onon largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantations,plantations, asas thethe latterlatter hadhad largelarge staffsstaffs andand ChineseChinese contractorscontractors whowho enforcedenforced greatergreater vigilance.vigilance. WithinWithin thethe confinesconfines ofof plantations,plantations, thethe ChineseChinese couldcould steal,steal, runrun away,away, fakefake illness,illness, strike,strike, oror otherwiseotherwise slowslow oror disruptdisrupt productionproduction schedules.schedules. AllAll ooff thesethese actsacts ofof defiancedefiance infuriatedinfuriated plantersplanters and,and, onon occasion,occasion, resultedresulted iinn concessionsconcessions toto workers.workers. ResistanceResistance alsoalso tooktook onon violentviolent forms,forms, includingincluding murdermurder andand rebellion,rebellion, whichwhich werewere significantsignificant actsacts ofof vengeancevengeance andand sometimessometimes disrupteddisrupted locallocal plantationplantation economies.economies. However,However, thesethese actionsactions usuallyusually resultedresulted inin onlyonly minorminor oror temporarytemporary victoriesvictories asas plantersplanters hadhad thethe supportsupport ofof publicpublic officials,officials, thethe army,army, andand virtuallyvirtually allall non-Chinese.non-Chinese. ResistanceResistance waswas alsoalso underminedundermined byby economiceconomic competitioncompetition andand ethnicethnic differencesdifferences amongamong ChineseChinese andand blackblack workers,workers, andand byby thethe emergenceemergence ooff ChineseChinese contractorscontractors whowho exploitedexploited theirtheir countrymencountrymen andand undercutundercut ethnicethnic solidarity.solidarity. OnOn a moremore generalgeneral level,level, thisthis paperpaper contributescontributes toto thethe debatedebate overover thethe initialinitial transitiontransition toto wagewage labourlabour byby documentingdocumenting thethe relativerelative effectivenesseffectiveness ofof debtdebt peonagepeonage andand extra-economicextra-economic coercioncoercion asas wellwell asas thethe significancesignificance ooff ethnicethnic rivalriesrivalries andand classclass conflict.conflict. However,However, I alsoalso seekseek toto definedefine thethe limitslimits ofof socialsocial controlcontrol byby analysinganalysing workers'workers' resistanceresistance andand thethe emergenceemergence ooff labourlabour marketsmarkets inin coastalcoastal valleysvalleys whichwhich plantersplanters failedfailed toto manipulatemanipulate toto theirtheir satisfaction.satisfaction. TheseThese developments,developments, coupledcoupled withwith thethe fallingfalling propro- ductivityductivity ofof thethe ageingageing ChineseChinese population,population, necessitatednecessitated thethe switchswitch toto PeruvianPeruvian labourlabour andand thethe eventualeventual softeningsoftening ofof traditionaltraditional methodsmethods ooff socialsocial control.control. TheThe historicalhistorical significancesignificance ofof ChineseChinese labourerslabourers shouldshould alsoalso bebe seenseen iinn thethe contextcontext ofof classclass formationformation andand survival.survival. WithoutWithout ChineseChinese workers,workers, PeruvianPeruvian plantersplanters couldcould nevernever havehave survivedsurvived thethe crisiscrisis ofof thethe 1870S1870s andand 1880s1880s andand emergedemerged asas wealthywealthy businessmenbusinessmen andand politicalpolitical leadersleaders inin thethe 189os.1890s. AndAnd withoutwithout ChineseChinese labourers,labourers, ChineseChinese labourlabour contractors,contractors, opiumopium traders,traders, andand othersothers couldcould nevernever havehave accumulatedaccumulated capitalcapital duringduring thisthis periodperiod ofof crisiscrisis andand emergedemerged asas membersmembers ofof thethe petitepetite bourgeoisie.bourgeoisie.
Development of the Cotton and Sugar Industries, J820-101820-70 TheThe historyhistory ofof ChineseChinese workersworkers shouldshould bebe placedplaced inin thethe contextcontext ofof thethe developmentdevelopment ofof thethe sugarsugar andand cottoncotton industriesindustries wherewhere mostmost ofof themthem toiled.toiled. SinceSince thethe colonialcolonial period,period, sugarsugar hashas beenbeen cultivatedcultivated primarilyprimarily inin thethe centralcentral andand northernnorthern coastalcoastal regions,regions, andand cottoncotton inin PiuraPiura onon thethe farfar northernnorthern coastcoast andand inin thethe Sur Chico region region south south of of Lima. Lima.5 5The The principal principa l
5 5 FrederickFrederick P.P. Bowser,Bowser, The African Slave inin Colonial Peril,Peru, 1}24-1640i;24—1640 (Stanford,(Stanford, 1974);1974); SusanSusan E.E. Ramirez,Ramirez, Provincial Patriarchs: Land TenllreTenure and and the the Economics Economics of of Power Power in in Colonial Colonial PerilPeru (Albuquerque,(Albuquerque, 1986);1986); NicholasNicholas P.P. Cushner,Cushner, LordsLards of the Land (Albany,(Albany, NewNew York,York, 1980);1980); W.W. S.S. Bell,Bell, An Em!)'Essay on the Peruvian Cotton Industry, IS2}-1920i82j-i<)20 (Liverpool,(Liverpool, 1985),198;), pp.8-pp. 8-131 3·.
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 38389 impetusimpetus forfor thethe expansionexpansion ofof plantationplantation agricultureagriculture inin thethe nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury camecame fromfrom thethe guanoguano boomboom whichwhich injectedinjected millionsmillions ofof pesospesos intointo thethe saggingsagging exportexport economy.economy. TheThe chiefchief beneficiariesbeneficiaries ofof thethe boomboom werewere BritishBritish merchants,merchants, whowho signedsigned consignmentconsignment contractscontracts withwith thethe state,state, anandd thethe PeruvianPeruvian government.government. NeverthelessNevertheless,, PeruvianPeruvian merchantsmerchants alsoalso benefitedbenefited asas businessbusiness associatesassociates ofof BritishBritish traderstraders andand importersimporters ofof luxuryluxury goods,goods, andand sugarsugar andand cottoncotton plantersplanters profitedprofited fromfrom governmentgovernment 6 programmesprogrammes designeddesigned toto helphelp theirtheir industries. DuringDuring thethe 1840S1840s andand 1851850 oss thethe PeruvianPeruvian statestate directlydirectly oror indirectlyindirectly aidedaided plantersplanters byby consolidatingconsolidating thethe internalinternal debt,debt, indemnifyingindemnifying slaveslave- holdersholders afterafter thethe abolitionabolition ofof slavery,slavery, andand payingpaying premiumspremiums toto plantersplanters foforr importingimporting non-slavenon-slave labourerslabourers intointo thethe country.country. TheThe consolidationconsolidation ofof thethe internalinternal debtdebt benefitedbenefited manymany PeruviansPeruvians withwith politicalpolitical connections.connections. SinceSince independence,independence, thethe PeruvianPeruvian statestate hadhad amassedamassed a hugehuge internalinternal debt,debt, andand duringduring thethe administrationadministration ofof JoseJose EcheniqueEchenique (1851-4)(1851—4) thethe decisiondecision waswas mademade toto repayrepay itit inin cashcash andand bonds.bonds. AsAs AlfonsoAlfonso QuirozQuiroz hashas shown,shown, thethe principalprincipal beneficiariesbeneficiaries ofof consolidationconsolidation werewere ththee bigbig merchantmerchant houseshouses whowho purchasedpurchased largelarge blocksblocks ofof vales de de consolidacion consolidation at at belowbelow marketmarket value,value, andand subsequentlysubsequently soldsold themthem forfor substantialsubstantial gain.gain. ManyMany ofof thesethese merchantsmerchants werewere importantimportant creditorscreditors ofof coastalcoastal plantersplanters anandd somesome planters,planters, asas bondholders,bondholders, receivedreceived compensationcompensation directlydirectly fromfrom ththee 7 government. 7 BothBoth cottoncotton andand sugarsugar plantersplanters benefitedbenefited enormouslyenormously fromfrom ththee conjunctureconjuncture ofof increasedincreased capitalcapital andand favourablefavourable pricesprices forfor theirtheir productsproducts onon thethe worldworld market.market. TheThe priceprice forfor sugarsugar onon thethe LondonLondon marketmarket remainedremained goodgood untiluntil thethe 1880s,1880s, andand demanddemand forfor cottoncotton increasedincreased significantlysignificantly asas a resultresult ofof fallingfalling productionproduction duringduring thethe USUS CivilCivil WarWar (1861-5).(1861-5). SugarSugar plantersplanters investedinvested inin millmill modernisation8 andand cottoncotton producersproducers greatlygreatly expandedexpanded acreage,acreage, especiallyespecially inin thethe SurSur ChicoChico region.9 TheThe outlookoutlook foforr cottoncotton appearedappeared soso goodgood thatthat JuanJuan NorbertoNorberto Casanova,Casanova, whowho hadhad studiedstudied
6 6 JonathanJonathan V. Levin,Levin, The Export Economies (Cambridge, (Cambridge ,Mass., Mass. ,1960); i960) ;Heraclio Heracli oBonilla, Bonilla , GllanoyGuano j burgllesiaburguesia en en el el Peru Peru (Lima, (Lima , 1974);1974) ;W. W .M. M .Mathew, Mathew , TheThe House House of of Gibbs Gibbs and and the the PerllvianPeruvian Gllano Guano Monopoly Monopoly (London, (London 1981)., 1981) Some. Som ofe theof th earlye earl consignmenty consignmen contractst contract weres wer e grantedgranted toto Peruvians.Peruvians. TheThe PeruvianPeruvian governmentgovernment departeddeparted fromfrom thethe consignmentconsignment systemsystem inin 1869,1869, whenwhen itit signedsigned anan agreementagreement withwith DreyfusDreyfus BrothersBrothers & Co.Co. ofof ParisParis toto sellsell twotwo millionmillion tonstons ofof guanoguano inin EuropeEurope (see(see Levin,Levin, pp.pp. 98—99)98-99)'. 7 7 AlfonsoAlfonso W.W. Quiroz,Quiroz, Laha delldadeuda defralldada,'dejraudada: consolidacion consolidation de de rSJoy ISJOJ dominiodominio economico economho en elen Peru el Peru (Lima,(Lima, 1987).1987). 8 Bell,Bell, PemvianPeruvian Cotton Cotton Indllstry, Industry, pp. pp 16-31;. 16-3 1Antonio; Antoni oRaimondi, Raimondi EI, El Pertl Peru (Lima, (Lima 1965),, 1965) vol., vol . I,i, p.p. 323;323; GeorgeGeorge R.R. Fitz-RoyFitz-Roy Cole,Cole, The PerllviansPeruvians at at Home Home (London, (London , 1884),1884) ,p. p . 129;129 ; Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture,Agricllltllre, p.p. 5454.. 9 9 Bell,Bell, PerllVianPeruvian Cotton Industry, pp.pp. 11-12;11-12; JuanJuan RolfRolf Engelsen,Engelsen, 'Social'Social AspectsAspects ofof AgriculturalAgricultural ExpansionExpansion inin CoastalCoastal Peru,Peru, 1825-1878',1825-1878', unpublishedunpublished Ph.Ph.D D.. dissertation,dissertation, U.C.L.A.U.C.L.A. (1977),(1977), pp.pp. 96-104;96-104; 195-228.195-228.
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 39 0 Michael ].J. ConsolesGonzales ththee cottoncotton industryindustry inin ththee UniteUnitedd States,States, arguedargued thathatt PeruPeru hahadd allall thethe 10 necessarnecessaryy ingredientsingredients ttoo developdevelop a cottoncotton textiltextilee industry.industry. 10 TheThe chiefchief impedimentimpediment ttoo continuingcontinuing growthgrowth forfor botbothh cottoncotton andand sugar,sugar, howeverhowever,, wawass labourlabour shortages.shortages. SinceSince ththee sixteenthsixteenth century,century, ththee sugarsugar industry,industry, inin particularparticular,, hahadd reliereliedd onon AfricaAfricann slaveslave labour.labour. However,However, thethe slaveslave populatiopopulationn ofof PeruPeru declineddeclined significantlysignificantly duringduring ththee latelate eighteentheighteenth andand nineteentnineteenthh centuriescenturies asas a resulresultt ofof ththee warwarss forfor independence,independence, GreatGreat Britain'sBritain's severingsevering ofof ththee slaveslave tradtradee ttoo PeruPeru inin 1810,1810, andand ththee failurefailure ofof slaveslave familiesfamilies ttoo reproducreproducee inin largelarge numbersnumbers.. BetweenBetween 17921792 andand 18541854 thethe numbenumberr ofof slavesslaves fellfell fromfrom 40,33740,337 ttoo 25,505.25,50j,un InIn 18391839 CongressCongress addressedaddressed ththee probleproblemm ofof labourlabour shortagesshortages bbyy passingpassing anan immigrationimmigration lawlaw subsidisingsubsidising ththee importationimportation ofof contractcontract labourers.labourers. TheThe legislationlegislation authorisedauthorised paymenpaymentt ofof 3030 pesopesoss peperr immigrantimmigrant toto anyoneanyone importingimporting atat leastleast fifty workerworkerss betweebetweenn thethe agesages ofof 1010 andand 40.40. BetweenBetween an ! J 18391839 andd 18^5 j I somsomee 450,004 j 0,0000 pesopesoss werweree paipaidd ououtt undeunderr thithiss programmeprogramme.. PlantersPlanters alsoalso benefitebenefitedd financiallyfinancially fromfrom ththee abolitionabolition ofof slaveryslavery inin 1854,1854, aass thetheyy receivereceivedd 300300 pesopesoss forfor eacheach slaveslave oror liberto 1212 freed.freed. ThisThis sum,sum, whichwhich exceededexceeded thethe marketmarket valuevalue ofof mosmostt slaves, generatedgenerated betweebetweenn 7,000,0007,000,000 andand 7,650,0007,650,000 pesopesoss inin additionaladditional capital.capital. TheseThese moniesmonies,, addedadded ttoo thosethose alreadyalready inin hanhandd fromfrom ththee consolidationconsolidation ofof ththee internalinternal debt,debt, allowedallowed planterplanterss toto establishestablish contactscontacts witwithh merchantsmerchants onon ththee PortuguesePortuguese colonycolony ooff MacaoMacao andand arrangearrange forfor ththee systematicsystematic importationimportation ofof ChineseChinese indenturedindentured servants. 1313 ChinaChina hahadd suddenlysuddenly emergedemerged asas anan importantimportant labourlabour sourcesource forfor thethe WestWest asas a resulresultt ofof a seriesseries ofof domesticdomestic tragedies,tragedies, culminatingculminating inin thethe TaipingTaiping RebellionRebellion inin whichwhich perhapperhapss asas manymany asas 3030 millionmillion peoplpeoplee lostlost theirtheir liveslives andand millionsmillions moremore becambecamee refugeesrefugees.. ThisThis situationsituation wawass thenthen exploitedexploited bbyy ChineseChinese warlordswarlords,, locallocal labourlabour contractorscontractors andand PortuguesePortuguese merchantmerchantss ttoo funnelfunnel ththee desperatedesperate intointo labourlabour marketmarketss abroad.abroad. TheThe soso- calledcalled cooliecoolie tradtradee lastedlasted forfor nearlnearlyy thirtthirtyy yearsyears,, fromfrom 18471847 ttoo :1874,^74) an
TableTable I.1. Chinese emigration to PeruPeru
No.No. embarkedembarked No.No. deaddead duringduring % ofof totaltotal No.No. disembarkedisembarkedd YearYear atat MacaMacaoo voyagevoyage embarkedembarked atat CallaCallaoo
1818550 — — — — 1860i860 15,00015,000 2,0002,000 13-3313-33 13,00013,000 1860i860 2,0072,007 594594 29.29.6600 1,413',413 18611861 1,8601,860 442200 22.5 8 1,440 18621862 1,71,72266 771188 41.6041.60 1,0081,008 1863 2,32,30011 673673 29.29.2255 1,6281,628 1864 7,0107,010 600600 8.58.;66 6,4106>4io 186; 5 4,7944,794 254254 5035.30 4,54O0 18661866 6,5436,543 61 4 9.38 5,95,9*29 1867 2,4002,400 216216 9.9.0000 2,2,18184 18681868 4,7324,732 446666 9.9.8855 4,2664,266 1869 3,0063,006 7575 2.5 0 2,9311 1818770 7,9177,9'7 373373 4.711 7,5447,544 18187711 12,526 74174i 5.922 11,711,78855 1818772 14,514,50055 1,1141,114 7.7.6688 13,39I3.39I1 18187733 7.37,30033 732732 10.0210.02 6,57i1 18187744 3.9393,939 114114 2.892.89 3,3,828255 TotalTotal 97,52997,5 29 9,79,7°04 9.911 87,87,828255 Source: J.J. B.B. H.H. Martinet,Martinet, L'Uagricultureagriculture au Perou.Pe'rou. Resume du memoire pre'senteprisenti auau Congris Congre's IllternationalInternational de I'agricullureVagriculture (Paris,(Paris, 1878),1878), p.p. 3232..
thethe recruitmentrecruitment andand shipmentshipment ofof indenturedindentured servants,servants, butbut chaoticchaotic politicalpolitical conditionsconditions hadhad preventedprevented itit fromfrom takingtaking decisivedecisive action.action. ByBy thethe I1870s 870S,, thethe governmentgovernment waswas stablestable enoughenough toto beginbegin executingexecuting labourlabour contractorscontractors andand enforcingenforcing a blockadeblockade ofof Macao.Macao. TheThe BritishBritish government,government, whichwhich hahadd extensiveextensive interestsinterests inin China,China, incorporatedincorporated thethe cooliecoolie tradetrade intointo itsits longlong campaigncampaign toto halthalt thethe slaveslave tradetrade toto thethe West.West. LondonLondon forbadeforbade merchantsmerchants inin HongHong KongKong toto participateparticipate inin thethe trade,trade, instructedinstructed thethe RoyalRoyal NavyNavy toto seizeseize cooliecoolie shipsships onon thethe highhigh seas,seas, andand pressuredpressured Portugal,Portugal, a traditionaltraditional ally,ally, toto closeclose downdown MacaoMacao asas thethe principalprincipal wayway station.station. WhenWhen LisbonLisbon finally agreedagreed toto thethe lastlast demand,demand, itit becamebecame impossibleimpossible toto continuecontinue shippingshipping indenturedindentured servantsservants abroad.1I55 BritishBritish effortsefforts toto endend thethe cooliecoolie trade,trade, however,however, shouldshould notnot bebe attributedattributed toto humanitarianhumanitarian objectionsobjections toto indenturedindentured servitude.servitude. BritishBritish merchantsmerchants werewere simultaneouslysimultaneously transportingtransporting hundredshundreds ofof thousandsthousands ofof IndianIndian indenturedindentured servantsservants toto BritishBritish coloniescolonies inin thethe Caribbean,Caribbean, SouthSouth America,America, 16 SouthSouth Africa,Africa, andand elsewhere/elsewhere, 6 andand theythey laterlater shippedshipped somesome 63,00063,000 ChineseChinese 17 indenturedindentured servantsservants toto SouthSouth AfricaAfrica betweenbetween 19041904 andand 1907.171907. WhenWhen
15 15 Ibid., pp.pp. 307-10;307-10; 324-324-66, 331;331; RobertRobert L.L. Irick,lrick, Ch'ing PoliryPolicy toward the Coolie Trade,Trade, [847-[878iStf-rfyS (Taipei,(Taipei, 1982);1982); Stewart,Stewart, Chinese Bondage, bondage, chs. chs 6 .and 6 an 7.d 7. 16 16 Tinker,Tinker, A New System ofof Slavery. Slavery. 17 17 PeterPeter Richardson,Richardson, 'Coolies,'Coolies, Peasants,Peasants, andand Proletarians:Proletarians: TheThe OriginsOrigins ofof Chinese IndenturedIndentured LabourLabour inin SouthSouth Africa,Africa, 1904-1907',1904-1907', inin MarksMarks andand RichardsonRichardson (eds.)(cds.),, International Labour Migration, pp.pp. 167-86.167-86.
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 392 Michael J. Gon^a/esGonzales BritishBritish economiceconomic interestsinterests werewere directlydirectly served,served, thethe policypolicy waswas toto encourageencourage wholesalewholesale exploitationexploitation ofof indenturedindentured labour.labour.
Coercion, thethe State State andand the the Transition Transition to to WageWage Labour Labour TheThe endend toto thethe cooliecoolie tradetrade causedcaused severesevere labourlabour shortagesshortages inin thethe PeruvianPeruvian sugarsugar andand cottoncotton industries.industries. PlantersPlanters alsoalso sufferedsuffered fromfrom thethe disappearancedisappearance 18 ofof credit,credit, lowerlower pricesprices forfor theirtheir products,products, andand thethe ChileanChilean invasion.invasion. IS ManyMany ofof themthem diddid notnot survivesurvive asas thethe ChileansChileans putput theirtheir estatesestates toto thethe torchtorch oror theythey werewere forcedforced toto sellsell outout afterafter sufferingsuffering recurringrecurring losses.losses. ThoseThose plantersplanters whowho diddid survivesurvive signedsigned onon formerformer ChineseChinese indenturedindentured servantsservants aass contractedcontracted andand wagewage labourers.labourers. ThisThis waswas thethe onlyonly short-termshort-term solutionsolution toto labourlabour shortagesshortages becausebecause plantersplanters failedfailed toto importimport moremore indenturedindentured labourerslabourers andand theythey hadhad neitherneither thethe capitalcapital nornor thethe desiredesire toto switchswitch overover toto PeruvianPeruvian wagewage labour.labour. ThereThere waswas a greatgreat dealdeal ofof officialofficial andand extra-officialextra-official coercioncoercion involvedinvolved iinn keepingkeeping thethe ChineseChinese onon thethe plantations.plantations. TheThe PeruvianPeruvian governmentgovernment wawass sympatheticsympathetic toto thethe interestsinterests ofof plantersplanters andand itit helpedhelped themthem limitlimit thethe physicalphysical mobilitymobility ofof thethe Chinese.Chinese. ForFor example,example, legislationlegislation waswas passedpassed thatthat requiredrequired allall ChineseChinese toto carrycarry a letterletter fromfrom theirtheir employeremployer statingstating thatthat theythey hadhad completedcompleted theirtheir workwork contracts. 1199 AllAll ChineseChinese werewere alsoalso requiredrequired toto registerregister withwith locallocal authoritiesauthorities andand toto purchasepurchase a 'boleto de de su su ocupacirfn' ocupacidn' for for 2020 2 paperpaper soles. IfIf a ChineseChinese labourerlabourer leftleft anan estateestate beforebefore hishis workwork contractcontract wawass completed,completed, plantersplanters couldcould countcount onon locallocal officials,officials, suchsuch asas subprefects,subprefects, governors,governors, andand police,police, toto helphelp themthem hunthunt downdown thethe offenders.offenders. ItIt waswas alsoalso commonplacecommonplace forfor planters,planters, withwith thethe approvalapproval ofof locallocal authorities,authorities, toto punishpunish runawaysrunaways andand toto forceforce themthem toto workwork longerlonger toto repayrepay thethe costscosts ooff 21 theirtheir apprehension. 21 ByBy comparison,comparison, inin CubaCuba thethe statestate apparentlyapparently enforcedenforced eveneven stricterstricter
18 18 Camprubi,Camprubi, HistoriaHis/oria de de los los bancos, bancos, vol. volI, pp.. i, pp169-211. 169-211 ; Yepes; Yepe dels Castillo,del Castillo Peru,, Perti, [320-[920, 1820-1920, p.p. 131;131; andand NoelNoel Deerr,Deerr, The History ofof Sugar, Sugar, vol. vol .2 2(New (New York, York ,1949), 1949) p., p.53 531 I. . 18 19 ThisThis isis discusseddiscussed inin FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto SenoresSenores Aspl1lagaAspfllaga Hermanos,Hermanos, 2727 MaMayy 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, ArchivoArchivo deldel FueroFuero Agrario,Agrario, Lima.Lima. MuchMuch ofof thethe informationinformation forfor thisthis paperpaper comescomes fromfrom thethe Aspl1lagaAspfllaga family'sfamily's privateprivate correspondence,correspondence, whichwhich isis nownow housedhoused inin thethe ArchivoArchivo deldel FueroFuero AgrarioAgrario inin Lima.Lima. TheThe namesnames ofof thethe principalprincipal correspondentscorrespondents areare referredreferred toto inin thethe notesnotes byby theirtheir initials,initials, exceptexcept inin thosethose casescases wherewhere theythey simplysimply signedsigned thethe titletitle ofof thethe familyfamily firm, Aspt1lagaAspfllaga Hermanos.Hermanos. TheThe followingfollowing iiss a listlist ofof allall correspondentscorrespondents andand titlestitles thatthat areare abbreviated:abbreviated: AnteroAntero Aspl1lagaAspfllaga BarreraBarrera AABAAB lsmaelIsmael Aspl1lagaAspfllaga BarreraBarrera 1AlABB RamonRamon Aspt1lagaAspfllaga BarreraBarrera RABRAB Aspl1lagaAspfllaga HermanosHermanos AHAH BaldomeroBaldomero Aspt1lagaAspfllaga BarreraBarrera BABBAB ArchivoArchivo deldel FueroFuero AgrarioAgrario AFA 20 20 'Expediente'Expediente sobresobre elel reclamoreclamo formulado porpor variosvarios asiaticosasiaticos dede lala provincia',provincia', lea,lea, 4 Apr.Apr. 1884,1884, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional,Nacional, Lima,Lima, 011457;D11457; 'Expediente'Expediente relativorelativo sobresobre elel reclamoreclamo formuladoformulado porpor lala detenciondetencion dede variosvarios asiaticosasiaticos enen loslos pueblospueblos dede Supe,Supe, ChancayChancay yy Barranca',Barranca', Supe,Supe, 2626 MayMay 1886,1886, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional,Nacional, Lima,Lima, D5534055 34.. 21 21 SeeSee below,below, sectionsection onon planterplanter control.control. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese PlanlalionPlantation Workers alldand Social COllflictConflict in PerilPeru 393393 controlscontrols overover non-indenturednon-indentured Chinese.Chinese. ManyMany werewere confinedconfined inin municipalmunicipal depositosdepdsitos centrales, centrales, similar simila tor prisons,to prisons which, whic preventedh prevente themd the fromm fro mfreely freel y sellingselling theirtheir labour.labour. TheseThese depotsdepots alsoalso servedserved asas contractingcontracting agenciesagencies 22 whichwhich hiredhired outout ChineseChinese toto plantersplanters underunder a systemsystem ofof rigidrigid control. 22 PeruvianPeruvian officialsofficials werewere generallygenerally unconcernedunconcerned withwith thethe livingliving anandd workingworking conditionsconditions ofof thethe ChineseChinese onon coastalcoastal plantations.plantations. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, accordingaccording toto thethe termsterms ofof thethe TreatyTreaty ofof TienTien TsingTsing thatthat endedended thethe cooliecoolie tradetrade toto Peru,Peru, thethe ImperialImperial ChineseChinese governmentgovernment hadhad thethe rightright toto inspectinspect conditionsconditions ofof ChineseChinese subjectssubjects inin Peru.Peru. InIn 18871887 a specialspecial ChineseChinese CommissionCommission waswas formedformed composedcomposed ofof ChineseChinese andand PeruvianPeruvian officialsofficials whowho touredtoured severalseveral coastalcoastal plantations.plantations. TheThe Commissioners'Commissioners' reportreport makesmakes clearclear thatthat theythey werewere onlyonly concernedconcerned withwith grossgross injustices,injustices, suchsuch asas corporalcorporal punishment,punishment, illegalillegal imprisonmentimprisonment inin plantationplantation jailsjails,, contractcontract violations,violations, andand wageswages thatthat fellfell belowbelow thethe subsistencesubsistence level.level. WorkingWorking inin concertconcert withwith locallocal officials,officials, CommissionersCommissioners werewere empoweredempowered toto find solutionssolutions toto thesethese problems.problems. However,However, therethere isis nono mentionmention thatthat violators,violators, nono mattermatter howhow 23 grievousgrievous theirtheir offence,offence, werewere everever prosecuted. 23 TheThe situationsituation ofof contractedcontracted workersworkers resembledresembled thatthat ofof 'classic''classic' debtdebt peons.peons. ByBy definition,definition, thethe lengthlength ofof theirtheir workwork contractcontract waswas determineddetermined bbyy thethe amountamount ofof theirtheir debt.debt. Thus,Thus, ifif theythey werewere advancedadvanced thethe equivalentequivalent ooff oneone year'syear's wage,wage, thenthen theirtheir workwork contractcontract ranran forfor oneone year.year. IfIf theythey receivedreceived additionaladditional loansloans duringduring thethe year,year, additionaladditional timetime waswas addedadded toto theirtheir contract.contract. WorkWork missedmissed becausebecause ofof illnessillness oror anyany otherother causecause waswas alsoalso addedadded ontoonto theirtheir contracts.contracts. WhileWhile underunder contract,contract, ChineseChinese werewere notnot permittedpermitted toto leaveleave estatesestates withoutwithout thethe specialspecial permissionpermission ofof planters.planters. SomeSome estates,estates, liklikee thethe largelarge cottoncotton andand winewine plantationplantation OcucajeOcucaje inin thethe Icalea Valley,Valley, keptkept meticulousmeticulous accountsaccounts ofof timetime completedcompleted andand owed,owed, includingincluding notationsnotations ooff absences.absences. TheThe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission waswas pleasedpleased withwith suchsuch estatesestates andand 24 expressedexpressed nono concernconcern overover limitedlimited workerworker mobilitymobility andand freedom.freedom. 24 SuchSuch estatesestates were,were, however,however, exceptionalexceptional cases.cases. MoreMore commonly,commonly, contractedcontracted workersworkers complainedcomplained aboutabout a varietyvariety ofof abuses,abuses, especiallyespecially unauthorisedunauthorised extensionsextensions ofof theirtheir contracts.contracts. WheneverWhenever thisthis waswas definitivelydefinitively collaboratedcollaborated byby estateestate records,records, contractedcontracted workersworkers werewere freed.freed. SeveralSeveral workersworkers receivedreceived theirtheir freedomfreedom inin thisthis fashion,fashion, includingincluding eleveneleven fromfrom
22 22 RebeccaRebecca J.J. Scott,Scott, Slave Emancipation in Cllba:Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1360-13991860-1899 (Princeton,(Princeton, 1985),1985), p.p. 100.100. 23 23 'Expediente'Expediente sobresobre lala averiguacionaveriguacion practicadapracticada porpor lala comisioncomision china,china, asesoradaasesorada porpor funcionariosfuncionarios deldel gobierno,gobierno, respectorespecto a lala situacionsituation dede sussus connacionalesconnacionales queque prestanprestan sussus serviciosservicios enen laslas haciendas',haciendas', Lima,Lima, 9 December,December, 1887,1887, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional,Nacional, Lima,Lima, D11416.D11416. HereinafterHereinafter citedcited asas ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 24 24 'Olicio'Oficio deldel PrefectoPrefecto deldel DepartamentoDepartamento dede LimaLima alal DirectorDirector dede GobiernoGobierno remitiendoleremitiendole loslos cuadroscuadros y laslas aetasactas dede loslos acuerdosacuerdos realizadosrealizados porpor lala comisioncomision encargadaencargada dede visitarvisitar loslos fundosfundos dondedonde existenexisten asiaticosasiaticos contratados',contratados', lea,lea, I1 5j JuneJune 1888,1888, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional,Nacional, Lima,Lima, D5347Dj347..
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TableTable 22... Chinese population distribution in coastal Peru,Peru, 1876 NumberNumber TotalTotal ofof Popu-Popu- RegionRegion ProvinceProvince ChineseChinese lationlation FPercentage'ercen
FarFar NorthernNorthern PiuraPiura 7474 135,135,616155 0.0010.0 LambayequeLambayeque 4,4,080877 86,7388 4·74-7 NortherNorthernn LibertaLibertadd 8,818,8166 147.336 6.6.00 CentralCentral AncashAncash 13,97513.975 28284,854,830 1.41.4 LimaLima 24,290 225,800225,800 10.810.8 South-CentralSouth-Central lcalea 5,0225,022 60,25560,255 8·38.3 TotalTotal estimatedestimated popu-popu- 446,266,264 9494°0,,574 5 74 4·94.9 lationlation inin coastalcoastal PeruPeru TotalTotal estimatedestimated popu-popu- 551,181,1866 2,699,1062,699,106 1.91.9 lationlation inin PeruPeru
Source: Peru, Peru ,Direcci6n Direction ded eEstadistlca, Estadi'stica , CensoCenso General General [876, rfyi, VII, vnApendix,, Apendix p. , 6.p . 6.
TableTable 3·3. Partial cenSllScensus of Chinese plantation workers inIn several coastalcoastal provinces, 1887ISS7
ContractedContracted WageWage ProvinceProvince labourerslabourers SharecroppersSharecroppers labourers·labourers" TotalTotal
ChancayChancay 25*5 470° 1,9i,9'177 2,42,41122 SantaSanta 1515 255*55 864 1,1341,154 ChiclayoChiclayo 133•33 0 1,235',235 1,31,36688 PacasmayoPacasmayo 8282 0 663663 745745 TrujIlloTrujillo 252*5* 0 748 1,OOOb1,000 CaneteCariete 0 0 550000 550000' d d lealea Ijd1 j 0 1,206" 1,2211,221 TotalTotal 522" 7255 7,1337,133 8>38,38 800 0 a TheThe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission diddid not generallygenerally differentiatedifferentiate betweenbetween wagewage labourerslabourers providedprovided byby ChineseChinese contractorscontractors andand wagewage labourerslabourers hiredhired directlydirectly byby thethe estates.estates. 6 b ThisThis figure grosslygrossly underestimatesunderestimates thethe numbernumber ofof ChineseChinese workersworkers inin TrujilloTrujillo province,province, becausbecausee ththee CommissioCommissionn dididd nonott visivisitt severaseverall larglargee estatesestates,, includinincludingg CasCasaa Grande,Grande, Cartavio,Cartavio, andand Roma.Roma. c C ThisThis figure onlyonly Includesincludes ChineseChinese onon thethe plant\ltionsplantations SantaSanta Barbara,Barbara, LaLa Huaca,Huaca, andand LLaa Quebrada.Quebrada. d d ContractedContracted workersworkers areare under-enumeratedunder-enumerated andand wagewage labourerslabourers areare over-enumeratedover-enumerated becausebecause 400400 wagewage andand contractedcontracted workersworkers werewere groupedgrouped togethertogether byby thethe CommissionCommission andand areare representedrepresented herehere asas wagewage labourers.labourers. TheThe vastvast majoritymajority ofof thesethese 400400 workers,workers, basedbased oonn datadata fromfrom thethe CommissionCommission reportreport andand plantationplantation records,records, werewere inin allall probabilityprobability wagewage labourers.labourers. Source: Chinese Chinese Commission Commission Report,Report , 1887,1887 ,B.N. B.N . LurificoLurifico inin thethe JequetepequeJequetepeque ValleyValley andand sixsix fromfrom LaLa PuentePuente inin thethe SantaSanta Valley.Valley. MoreMore frequently,frequently, however,however, plantationplantation recordsrecords werewere incompleteincomplete oror inin suchsuch disarraydisarray thatthat thethe CommissionCommission couldcould notnot reachreach a resolution.resolution. TheThe twotwo mostmost importantimportant casescases ofof thisthis typetype involvedinvolved thethe ChicamaChicama ValleyValley estatesestates ofof FacalaFacala andand Tulape. 2255 25 25 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict inin PeruPeril 393955
TablTablee 44·. Plantations with thethe largest number of Chinese workers, 1887IS8J ContracteContractedd WagWagee ProvincProvincee EstatEstatee OwneOwnerr CroCropp labourerlabourerss labourerlabourerss TotaTotall Trujillo — Trujillo TulapTulapee LarcLarcoo HnosHnos.. SugaSugarr 700700* ChiclayChiclayoo PatapPatapoo JosJosee RamoRamoss SugaSugarr 78 52j222 606000 PacamayPacamayoo LurificLurificoo LuisLuisaa GonzaleGonzaless SugaSugarr 8822 414188 50JOO0 VdaVda.. ddee DreyfuDreyfuss CanetCaiietee SantSantaa BarbaraBarbara,, SwaynSwaynee SugaSugarr — 505000 50JOO0 LLaa HuacaHuaca,, LLaa QuebradQuebradaa ChancaChancayy SaSann NicolaNicolass TestamentariTestamentariaa SugaSugarr — ;5 0000 505000 ddee DD.. LaoLaoss ChancaChancayy HuaytHuaytoo CanevarCanevaroo yy SugaSugarr 25 227575 303000 CiaCia.. SantSantaa SaSann JacintJacintoo SwaynSwaynee SugaSugarr — 303000 303000 SantSantaa LLaa PuentPuentee TT.. DerteanDerteanoo SugaSugarr 15 2855 303000 Jcleaa CaucatCaucatoo — SugaSugarr — 303000 303000 ChiclayChiclayoo CayaltCayaltfi AspfllagAsp11lagaa SugaSugarr — 303000 303000 Source:SOllrce: ChineseChinese Commission Commission Report,Report , 1887,1887 ,B.N. B.N . * ForFor thethe plantationplantation Tulape,Tulape, thethe CommissionersCommissioners groupedgrouped togethertogether contractedcontracted andand wagwagee labourerslabourers..
FacalFacahia wawass owneownedd bbyy ththee PfliickePAuckerr y MadalengoitiMadalengoitiaa familyfamily.. IItt employedemployed oveoverr 13J 300 contractecontractedd labourerslabourers,, ththee seconsecondd largeslargestt numbenumberr founfoundd bbyy ththee CommissionCommission.. ThThee ChinesChinesee claimeclaimedd thathatt theitheirr contractcontractss hahadd expireexpiredd anandd thatthat PfliickePAuckerr hahadd forceforcedd themthem toto remainremain onon thethe plantation.plantation. TheThe CommissionCommission discovereddiscovered thatthat thethe onlyonly standardstandard contractscontracts onon filefile werewere thethe originaloriginal contractscontracts ofof indentureship,indentureship, andand thatthat contractcontract extensionsextensions werewere onlyonly documenteddocumented byby receiptsreceipts forfor advances.advances. TheThe CommissionCommission consideredconsidered thisthis a highlyhighly irregularirregular bookkeepingbookkeeping procedureprocedure thatthat leftleft thethe ChineseChinese vulnerablevulnerable toto fraudulentfraudulent practices.practices. Nevertheless,Nevertheless, therethere waswas nono absoluteabsolute proofproof thatthat thethe ChineseChinese werewere tellingtelling thethe truthtruth andand thethe CommissionCommission waswas forcedforced toto leaveleave thethe disputedispute unresolvedunresolved pendingpending furtherfurther instructionsinstructions fromfrom thethe centralcentral government. 26OR government. The plantation Tulape, owned by Larco Hermanos, presented a The plantation Tulape, owned by Larco Hermanos, presented a different problem. This estate numbered some 700 Chinese labourers, both different problem. This estate numbered some 700 Chinese labourers, both contracted and free. The plantation records were kept in meticulous order contracted and free. The plantation records were kept in meticulous order and each contract extension was verified by a signature. The Chinese and each contract extension was verified by a signature. The Chinese claimed, however, that their signatures had been forged. A majority of the claimed, however, that their signatures had been forged. A majority of the Commissioners sided with Larco, but Mr Chen Fun chose to believe his Commissioners sided with Larco, but Mr Chen Fun chose to believe his countrymen. At that juncture, the Commission decided to suspend its countrymen. At that juncture, the Commission decided to suspend its inspection tour because a majority of the estates in the Chicama Valley inspection tour because a majority of the estates in the Chicama Valley presented similar problems. 27 presented similar problems.27 2626 Ibid. 27" Ibid.Ibid.
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 396 Michael J.]. Gon^alesGonzales ContradictoryContradictory evidenceevidence waswas onlyonly oneone reasonreason whywhy thethe CommissionCommission failedfailed toto resolveresolve thesethese andand otherother disputes.disputes. CommissionersCommissioners werewere dependentdependent onon locallocal authorities,authorities, especiallyespecially subprefects,subprefects, forfor enforcementenforcement ofof theirtheir statutorystatutory authority.authority. LocalLocal officialsofficials werewere generallygenerally reluctantreluctant toto taketake ananyy actionaction againstagainst ththee interestsinterests ooff plantersplanters whwhoo werewere,, perhapsperhaps withoutwithout exception,exception, thethe mostmost importantimportant membersmembers ofof thethe locallocal elite.elite. Moreover,Moreover, plantersplanters frequentlyfrequently advisedadvised thethe centralcentral governmentgovernment regardingregarding thethe appointmentappointment ofof locallocal officialsofficials andand sometimessometimes eveneven heldheld locallocal officeoffice 28 themselves. 28 CommissionersCommissioners alsoalso heardheard a numbernumber ofof complaintscomplaints fromfrom contractedcontracted workersworkers regardingregarding lowlow wages.wages. TheThe CommissionCommission waswas chargedcharged withwith assuringassuring thatthat thethe ChineseChinese earnedearned a livingliving wagewage andand onon severalseveral estatesestates itit forcedforced plantersplanters toto increaseincrease wages.wages. ForFor example,example, onon thethe LaLa PuentePuente estateestate ownedowned byby TorcuatoTorcuato DerteanoDerteano dailydaily wageswages werewere increasedincreased toto 2 paperpaper solessoles,, 29 oror anan increaseincrease ofof 7575 %.29%. ByBy 18871887 thethe majoritymajority ofof ChineseChinese workersworkers onon plantationsplantations werewere eithereither freefree wagewage labourerslabourers (chinos{chinos fibres) libres) or owager wag labourerse labourer controlleds controlle byd bChinesey Chines e labourlabour contractors.contractors. TheThe Commission'sCommission's reportreport showsshows thatthat ChineseChinese contractorscontractors suppliedsupplied thethe majoritymajority ofof workersworkers toto thethe largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantations,plantations, andand thatthat chinos fibres libres were wer founde foun din ismallern smalle numbersr number ons o bothn bot h largelarge andand smallsmall estates.estates. OnOn severalseveral estates,estates, chinos fibres libres complained complaine dthat tha t theythey werewere owedowed backback wageswages byby planters.planters. ForFor example,example, LucasLucas Ansejo,Ansejo, a ChineseChinese hacendado in ithen th Huaurae Huaur Valley,a Valley owed, owe 25d 2workers5 worker ons o hisn hi estates estat Sane Sa n YsidroYsidro 7,0007,000 paperpaper soles.soles. ThisThis representedrepresented aboutabout 7070 days'days' wages.wages. AnsejoAnsejo alsoalso owedowed 100100 workersworkers onon hishis plantationplantation AndahuasiAndahuasi betweenbetween 3,0003,000 andand 4,0004,000 paperpaper soles.soles. TheThe mostmost notablenotable case,case, however,however, involvedinvolved thethe Galp6nGalpon estateestate inin thethe SupeSupe ValleyValley wherewhere thethe owner,owner, AlejandroAlejandro Zuloaga,Zuloaga, admittedadmitted owingowing hishis 4545 ChineseChinese workersworkers 47,00047,000 paperpaper soles!soles! ThisThis enormousenormous sumsum hahadd accumulatedaccumulated sincesince thethe war,war, ZuloagaZuloaga explained,explained, becausebecause financial difficultiesdifficulties arisingarising fromfrom thethe conflictconflict hadhad preventedprevented himhim fromfrom ml.!etingmeeting hishis payroll.payroll. IInn recentrecent years,years, hishis estateestate hadhad turnedturned a profitprofit andand hehe hadhad repaidrepaid hishis labourerslabourers betweenbetween 4,0004,000 andand 5,0005,000 paperpaper soles.soles. TheseThese episodesepisodes suggestsuggest that,that, despitedespite theirtheir freefree status,status, chinos fibres libres had ha limitedd limite mobility.d mobility It. isIt difficultis difficul tot timagineo imagin e wagewage labourerslabourers remainingremaining onon estatesestates wherewhere theythey werewere notnot paid,paid, andand oneone suspectssuspects thatthat ZuloagaZuloaga andand AnsejoAnsejo employedemployed coercioncoercion toto preventprevent themthem fromfrom leaving.leaving. OnOn thethe otherother hand,hand, itit isis alsoalso possiblepossible thatthat workersworkers werewere reluctantreluctant toto leaveleave becausebecause plantersplanters ownedowned themthem soso muchmuch money.money. FromFrom thethe hacendados' perspective, perspective this, thi swould woul dhave hav econstituted constitute da amore mor eattractive attractiv e modelmodel ofof debtdebt peonage,peonage, especiallyespecially inin a countrycountry wherewhere itit wouldwould havehave beebeenn extremelyextremely difficultdifficult forfor foreignforeign workersworkers toto recoverrecover backback wageswages throughthrough a lawsuit.3300
28 29 30 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid.Ibid. 30 Ibid.Ibid.
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TablTablee 55.. DailyDailY wages received byIry Chinese plantationplantation workers inin iSSj1887 {in(in soles)sales)
EstatEstatee ContracteContractedd workersworkers FreFreee workersworkers DifferencDifferencee (%)(%)
HuaytHuaytoo 3.3303 )3 paperpaper,, 1.I.)5 lIbb ricricee 8—18-122 paperpaper,, 1.I.)5 lIbb ricricee 58.4-72.2)8.4-72.25) LLaa PuentPuentee 2.66-3.32.66-3033 3 papepaperr 50—6)0-600 silvesilverr centavoscentavos P? PatapPitapoo 13.313.333 silvesilverr centavos,centavos, 4400 silvesilverr centavos,centavos, 66.766·7)5 2 lIbb ricerice,, 1I lIbb meatmeat 2 lIbb ricerice,, 1I lIbb meatmeat PomalcPomalcaa y 2.82.888 paperpaper,, 1.I.)5 lIbb 7 paperpaper,, 1.I.)5 lIbb ricerice,, 58.8)8.866 ColiuColludd ricerice,, 1I lIbb meatmeat 1lib lb meatmeat LurificLurificoo 25-42)-422 silvesilverr centavoscentavos,, 7700 silvesilverr centavos,centavos, 40.00—64.240.00-64.299 1.I.)5 lIbb ricerice,, 1I lIbb meameatt 1.I.)5 lIbb ricricee GalindGalindoo 6 silvesilverr centavos,centavos, 35—63)-600 silvesi Iver r cencentavos ta vos,, 82.86—90.082.86-9°·000 1.I.)5 lIbb ricricee 1.I.); lIbb ricricee BarrazBarrazaa 2.31—3.02.31-3.011 paper,paper, 8 paperpaper,, I1 Iblb rice"rice" 62.38—71.162.3 8-71. I 33 2 lIbb ricricee LaredLaredoo 16.616.600 silvesilverr centavoscentavos,, 8 paperpaper,, I.j1.5 Iblb rice"rice" 51.8j 1.822 2 lIbb ricricee FacalFacalaa 1.17-2.5I. 17-2.) 0 paperpaper,, 2 lIbb 8 paper,paper, I.)1.5 Iblb ricerice"" 68.75-85.368·7)-8).388 nee rice SausaSlUIsall 2.)0 paper, I.) Ib rice, 7 paper,paper, I.j1.5 Iblb rice"rice" 64.22; 2.50 paper, 1.5 lb rice, 64· j 1lib lb meatmeat 0" WagWagee differencedifference doesdoes nonott Includeinclude ththee varyinvaryingg amountsamounts ofof rationrationss becausbecausee ththee pricpricee ofof ricricee anandd meameatt iiss unknown.unknown. Source: ChinesChinesee CommissioCommissionn ReportReport,, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N.
The Palto and CayaltiCqyaltz' Estates TheseThese episodesepisodes highlighthighlight thethe importanceimportance ofof coercioncoercion inin thethe transitiontransition toto wagewage labourlabour asas wellwell asas thethe ineffectivenessineffectiveness ofof thethe statestate inin improvingimproving ththee plighplightt ofof thethe Chinese.Chinese. PlantationPlantation recordsrecords allowallow uuss toto presenpresentt a moremore systematicsystematic andand balancebalancedd analysisanalysis ofof thethe transitiontransition fromfrom contractedcontracted toto wagwagee labour.labour. DespiteDespite thethe existenceexistence ofof coercioncoercion andand debtdebt peonagepeonage,, chinos libres libres earnedearned substantiallysubstantially higherhigher wageswages thanthan contractedcontracted workersworkers andand sometimessometimes benefitebenefitedd fromfrom limitedlimited wagewage labourlabour marketsmarkets inin coastalcoastal valleys.valleys. PlantersPlanters attemptedattempted toto controlcontrol labourlabour marketsmarkets andand toto limitlimit workerworker mobility,mobility, butbut theythey werewere notnot alwaysalways successful.successful. ThereThere werweree alsoalso significantsignificant differencesdifferences iinn patternspatterns ofof labourlabour recruitmentrecruitment andand controlcontrol dependingdepending onon thethe sizesize andand managementmanagement ofof individualindividual estates.estates. TheThe followingfollowing discussiondiscussion willwill focusfocus onon thethe PaltoPalto plantation,plantation, a mediummedium- sizedsized (385(385 hectares)hectares) cottoncotton estateestate nearnear Pisco,Pisco, andand thethe Cayalti' plantation,plantation, a largelarge (3(31,00 I ,0000 hectares)hectares) sugarcanesugarcane estateestate nearnear Sana.Sana. ThisThis perspectiveperspective willwill provideprovide a close-upclose-up looklook atat thethe transitiontransition toto wagewage labourlabour underunder twotwo representativerepresentative systemssystems ofof production.production. BothBoth PaltoPalto andand Cayalt!Cayalti werewere ownedowned byby thethe AspillagaAspi'llaga family,family, formerformer merchantsmerchants whowho hadhad mademade thethe transitiontransition toto plantationplantation agricultureagriculture inin thethe latelate 1851850s os.. Cayalt!Cayalti waswas theirtheir majormajor investmentinvestment andand thethe keykey toto thethe familyfamily
http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 398 MichaelMichael]. ]. Gon^alesGonzales fortunefortune forfor threethree generations.generations. Palto,Palto, likelike mostmost cottoncotton estates,estates, waswas smallersmaller andand lessless profitableprofitable duringduring thethe nineteenthnineteenth century.century. BothBoth estatesestates reliereliedd almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively onon ChineseChinese indenturedindentured servantsservants afterafter thethe abolitionabolition ooff blackblack slavery.3lslavery.31 InIn 18751875 PaltoPalto hadhad 147147 contractedcontracted ChineseChinese labourerslabourers whowho periodicallyperiodically receivedreceived cashcash advancesadvances whichwhich theythey discounteddiscounted withwith theirtheir labour.labour. TheThe ChineseChinese werewere givengiven a dailydaily tasktask (tarea){tared) which which counted counted as a sa aday's day' swage. wage .If If a workerworker diddid notnot completecomplete hishis assignment,assignment, thenthen hehe waswas notnot creditedcredited withwith a fullfull day'sday's wage. 3232 WithWith thethe endend ofof thethe cooliecoolie tradetrade itit becamebecame increasinglyincreasingly difficultdifficult andand expensiveexpensive toto maintainmaintain thethe sizesize ofof thethe workforce.workforce. ByBy 18771877 thethe numbernumber ooff ChineseChinese hadhad decreaseddecreased toto 121,121, andand twotwo yearsyears laterlater itit waswas downdown toto 87.!l!l87.'''' ToTo holdhold ontoonto thesethese workers,workers, thethe estateestate administratoradministrator routinelyroutinely advancedadvanced themthem smallsmall sumssums ofof money,money, frequentlyfrequently onon thethe eveeve ofof ChineseChinese NeNeww YearYear whenwhen therethere waswas pressurepressure fromfrom thethe ChineseChinese communitycommunity toto contributecontribute toto thethe celebrations.celebrations. AsAs thethe administratoradministrator putput it,it, ''...thei ... theirr countrymencountrymen obligateobligate 14 themthem toto pay,pay, andand theythey cancan onlyonly complycomply byby takingtaking outout a contractcontract...'.' ... '.!l4 BookkeepingBookkeeping atat PaltoPalto waswas notnot alwaysalways preciseprecise andand thethe ChineseChinese sometimessometimes hadhad toto demanddemand theirtheir freedomfreedom uponupon thethe expirationexpiration ofof theirtheir contracts.contracts. ForFor example,example, inin SeptemberSeptember ofof 18771877 fivefive ChineseChinese refusedrefused toto workwork becausebecause theirtheir contractscontracts hadhad expired.expired. TheThe administratoradministrator checkedchecked hishis recordsrecords andand discovereddiscovered thatthat fourfour hadhad indeedindeed completedcompleted theirtheir time,time, andand theythey werewere givengiven theirtheir lettersletters ofof freedom.freedom. TheThe recordsrecords onon thethe fifth were,were, however,however, unclearunclear andand hehe waswas forcedforced toto remainremain forfor anotheranother twotwo months.3355 LaterLater thatthat yearyear iitt waswas discovereddiscovered thatthat a ChineseChinese hadhad beenbeen forcedforced toto workwork forfor a yearyear beyondbeyond thethe expirationexpiration ofof hishis contract.contract. HeHe waswas freedfreed butbut apparentlyapparently withoutwithout additionaladditional compensation.3(31il AsAs thethe sizesize ofof thethe workforceworkforce continuedcontinued toto decline,decline, managersmanagers werewere forcedforced toto hirehire wagewage labourers.labourers. ThisThis meantmeant hiringhiring eithereither freefree ChineseChinese oror locallocal peasants,peasants, whowho werewere mostlymostly black.black. ManagementManagement waswas notnot pleasedpleased withwith eithereither typetype ofof workerworker becausebecause theythey workedworked fewerfewer hourshours andand demandeddemanded higherhigher wageswages thanthan contractedcontracted workers.workers. TheThe AspillagasAspi'llagas alsoalso feltfelt cheatedcheated becausebecause wagewage labourerslabourers wouldwould notnot alwaysalways workwork forfor longlong periodsperiods ofof timetime.. TheThe estateestate administratoradministrator registeredregistered thethe followingfollowing complaintcomplaint inin 18791879::
3131 OnOn thethe AspI1lagaAspfllaga familyfamily seesee Gonzales,Gonzales, PlantationPlan/a/ion Agriculture,Agriml/llre, pp.pp. 29-33.29-33. 3232 PlanillaPlanilla dede TrabajadoresTrabajadores Chinos,Chinos, HaciendaHacienda PalPalto to,, Aug.Aug. 187j-Dec.1875-Dec. 1878,1878, AFA.AFA. 33 33 FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH , 3131 JulyJuly 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez yy AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 1414 NovNov.. 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 3434 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 2626 NovNov.. 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 3535 FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez cespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 2828 Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 3636 FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 4 Dec.Dec. 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Cayalti,Cayalti', AFA.AFA.
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ThisThis weeweekk thertheree havhavee beebeenn fivefive chinos fibres libres and an dfour fou peonesr peones criol/os criollos [blacks]; [blacks] of ; of ththee criollos,criol/os, I Ihad ha dto t oexpel expe ltwo tw obecause becaus etheir thei rwork wor kwas wa svery ver ybad, bad ,[and] [and ]of o fthe th efive five chinos libreslibres two tw o refusedrefused tot o acceptaccep t today'stoday' s assignment,assignment , allegingallegin g thattha t it it waswa s totooo largelarge...... SuchSuch scoundrelsscoundrels areare ththee chinos fibres libres and an dthe th peonese peones criol/os. criollos. It is Inott is not possiblpossiblee ttoo givgivee thethemm a smallersmaller assignmentassignment thathann ththee oneone givegivenn ttoo contractedcontracted Chinese. 3377
TheThe outbreakoutbreak ofof ththee WaWarr ofof ththee PacifiPacificc iinn 18791879 an 37 37 JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa ttoo AHAH,, 2211 NovNov.. 1879,1879, PaltPal too t too LimaLima,, AFAAFA.. 38 38 AAHH ttoo RABRAB,, 3131 AugAug.. 1880,1880, LimLimaa ttoo PaltoPalto,, AFAAFA;; AAHH ttoo RABRAB,, 7 Sept.Sept. 1880,1880, LimLimaa toto PaltoPalto,, AFAAFA.. 39 39 JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa ttoo AHAH,, 7 FebFeb.. 1881,1881, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa ttoo AHAH,, 9 MarcMarchh 1881,1881, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; IAlABB ttoo AHAH,, 2211 MarcMarchh 1882,1882, PaltPaltoo ttoo Lima,Lima, AFAAFA;; PlanillPlanillaa NoNo.. 7878 dede pagopagoss a loloss trabajadorestrabajadores,, 1616 JulJulyy 1882,1882, ManueManuell JJ.. Brihuego,Brihuego, administratoradministrator,, AFA.AFA. 40 40 HumbertHumbertoo RodrigueRodriguezz PastorPastor,, 'Biografias'Biografias ddee ChinosChinos Culies',Culies', Kimtur,Klmlllr, nono.. 6,6, July-Aug.,July-Aug., 19198787,, pppp.. 11-17·11-17. 4411 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission ReportReport,, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N.,, andand belowbelow.. AlthougAlthoughh wwee knoknoww littlelittle aboutabout themthem,, ChineseChinese contractorscontractors alsoalso existedexisted iinn Cuba.Cuba. 'Chinese'Chinese workerworkerss whwhoo hahadd servedserved out theitheirr termsterms,, oror hahadd escapedescaped fromfrom theitheirr mastersmasters,, werweree oftenoften groupedgrouped togethetogetherr intointo cuadrillasmadril/as by b yentrepreneurs, entrepreneurs ,themselves themselve sChinese, Chinese and, an dhired hire dout', out' ,Scott, Scott ,p. p 99.. 99 . http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 400400 Michael J. J. Gonzales Gon^ales TableTable 6.6. Evolution of the Chinese workworkforce force onon the the plantationplantation Palto}Pal to, l879-1879-1882T882 ContractedContracted FreeFree DateDate ChineseChinese ChineseChinese PeruvianPeruvian TotalTot: MayMay 18718799 9494 0 0 9494 Nov.Nov. 18718799 8787 5 4 96 MayMay 18818811 2929 3757 0 6767 JulyJuly 18818822 2 36 0 38 Source: Jose Jose Perez Pere zy y Albela Albel ato to Senores Senore sAspillaga Aspfllaga Hnos.,Hnos. ,9 9May Ma y1879, 1879 ,Palto-Lima, Palto-Lima ,AFA; AFA ; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto SenoresSenores Aspt1lagaAspfllaga Hnos.,Hnos., 7 Nov.Nov. 1879,1879, Palto-Lima,Palto-Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto SenoresSenores Aspt1lagaAspfllaga Hnos.,Hnos., 1414 Nov.Nov. 1879,1879, Palto-Lima,Palto-Lima, AFA;AFA; PlanPlanill iliaa No.No. 1818 Iia loslos trabajadorestrabajadores dede lala Ha.Ha. Palto,Palto, 2727 MayMay 1881,1881, ManuelManuel J.J. Brihuego,Brihuego, Admor.,Admor., AFA;AFA; PlanillaPlanilla No.No. 7878 dede pagospagos a loslos trabajadores,trabajadores, 1616 JulyJuly 1882,1882, ManuelManuel J.J. Brihuego,Brihuego, Admor.,Admor., AFA.AFA. contractorscontractors hadhad alreadyalready takentaken locallocal ChineseChinese toto thethe nearbynearby ChinchaChincha Valley.42Valley.42 ThroughoutThroughout 18821882 andand 18831883 PaltoPalto hadhad equalequal difficultydifficulty hiringhiring nonnon- contractedcontracted labourers.labourers. ManagersManagers blamedblamed thethe problemproblem onon thethe inherentinherent lazinesslaziness ofof workersworkers asas wellwell asas politicalpolitical andand socialsocial unrest.unrest. ThereThere waswas a greatgreat dealdeal ofof banditrybanditry andand lootinglooting byby bothboth PeruviansPeruvians andand ChileansChileans inin thethe region.region. However,However, planters'planters' frustrationsfrustrations alsoalso stemmedstemmed fromfrom havinghaving toto contendcontend withwith a locallocal wagewage labourlabour market.market. ForFor thethe first time,time, therethere waswas seriousserious competitioncompetition amongamong growergrowerss forfor labourers andand thethe AspillagaAspfllagass criticisedcriticised bothboth plantersplanters andand workersworkers for thethe resultingresulting difficulties:difficulties: HereHere I havehave foundfound thatthat therethere isis a profoundprofound shortageshortage ofof labourers,labourers, [and][and] addingadding toto thethe disorderdisorder amongamong thethe peonspeons isis DonDon JulioJulio EliasElias ofof thethe estateestate Urrutia,Urrutia, raisinraisingg andand loweringlowering wageswages accordingaccording toto hishis ownown ideasideas andand whim.whim. EachEach weekweek wewe havhavee moremore oror lessless 4040 menmen -—very ver yfew few to t oattend atten dto t oeverything everything...... There Ther eare ar eonly onl ya afew few chinos libres libres and an thed thgreate grea majorityt majorit ofy themof the arem armeree mer bagse bag ofs boneof bon (tInOSe {unos buenos buenos hl/esos).43huesos)}3 TheThe AspillagasAspillagas werewere upsetupset becausebecause chinos fibres libres sold sol theird thei labourr labou tor ttheo th e highesthighest bidderbidder andand sometimessometimes refusedrefused toto workwork asas hardhard asas contractedcontracted workers.workers. ForFor example,example, PaltoPalto hadhad difficultydifficulty hiringhiring workersworkers duringduring locallocal grapegrape harvestsharvests whenwhen wageswages werewere atat a premiumpremium onon winewine estates.estates. EvenEven thoughthough thethe AspfllagasAspillagas understoodunderstood thethe economicseconomics ofof thethe situation,situation, theythey preferredpreferred toto blameblame labourlabour shortagesshortages onon socialsocial unrestunrest andand lazylazy labourers.labourers. ThisThis waswas a moremore convenientconvenient explanationexplanation thatthat betrayedbetrayed theirtheir prejudicesprejudices aass 42 42 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 8 Sept.Sept. 1881,1881, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 1212 Sept.Sept. 1881881 I,, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 1818 AprilApril 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; ManuelManuel JJ.. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.Co.,, 1010 ApriAprill 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 43 43 lAB1AB toto AH,AH, 2424 JulyJuly 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese PlantationPlantatioll Workers alldand Social COIlf/ictConflict illin PeruPeril 401401 wellwell asas theirtheir frustrationfrustration overover failurefailure toto controlcontrol thethe locallocal labourlabour market.market. 'Although'Although therethere areare manymany idleidle people,people, labourerslabourers areare veryvery scarcescarce herehere.. Currently,Currently, becausebecause ofof thethe grapegrape harvestharvest inin PiscoPisco theythey paypay 1010 solessoles a dayday.. M HereHere thethe currentcurrent wagewage isis 3 soles a atarea tarea...\ ... '.44 FourFou r monthsmonth s later,later ,Ismael Ismae l AspillagaAspillaga BarreraBarrera added:added: 'The'The peoplepeople herehere havehave soso fewfew necessitiesnecessities andand araree >45 soso lazylazy thatthat theythey onlyonly workwork enoughenough toto havehave enoughenough toto eat. ,45 ByBy 1883,1883, managementmanagement waswas forcedforced toto raiseraise wageswages periodicallyperiodically toto matchmatch thosethose paidpaid onon neighbouringneighbouring estates.estates. HigherHigher wageswages almostalmost alwaysalways resultedresulted inin moremore workers. 4646 Nevertheless,Nevertheless, managementmanagement stillstill soughtsought waysways ooff underminingundermining thethe locallocal labourlabour market.market. ForFor example,example, inin OctoberOctober ofof 18831883 thethe estateestate administratoradministrator attemptedattempted toto lowerlower wageswages toto offsetoffset thethe riserise inin thethe valuevalue ofof paperpaper currency.currency. However,However, hehe bitterlybitterly lamentedlamented thethe lacklack ofof localocall 47 politicalpolitical musclemuscle toto enforceenforce suchsuch a measure.47 ThisThis waswas clearlyclearly a seriousserious problemproblem iinn ththee PiscPiscoo regioregionn whicwhichh hahadd beebeenn devastatedevastatedd bbyy ththee ChileaChileann invasioninvasion andand continuedcontinued toto bebe plaguedplagued byby bandits,bandits, politicalpolitical chiefschiefs iinn 48 49 commandcommand ofof privateprivate armiesarmies (montolleros),48(montoneros), and an incompetentd incompeten localt loca officials.l officials.49 UnableUnable toto relyrely onon publicpublic authorityauthority toto holdhold downdown wages,wages, plantersplanters struckstruck 50 anan agreementagreement amongamong themselves. 50 ThisThis arrangementarrangement brokebroke downdown almostalmost immediately,immediately, however,however, becausebecause somesome plantersplanters werewere willingwilling toto papayy competitivecompetitive wages,wages, whilewhile otherother growers,growers, suchsuch asas thethe Aspillagas,Aspfllagas, hahadd seriousserious financialfinancial problemsproblems andand soughtsought toto reducereduce theirtheir labourlabour bills.bills. TheThe AspillagasAspfllagas alsoalso placedplaced thethe futurefuture ofof theirtheir largelarge sugarsugar estateestate CayaltiCayalti aboveabove 51 thatthat ofof Palto.51 TheThe followingfollowing commentscomments fromfrom Palto'sPalto's administrationadministration capturecapture thethe essenceessence ofof thethe problem:problem: Wages.Wages. ThisThis haciendahacienda continuescontinues toto complycomply withwith thethe agreementagreement contractedcontracted amonamongg thethe hacendados of theof thvalley,e valley however, howeve therer ther aree artwoe tw ofo themof the whom wh haveo hav brokene broke it n it [those[those from]from] MenciaMencia andand Urrutia.5522 InIn thethe threethree yearsyears thatthat I havehave runrun thisthis estateestate therethere hashas notnot beenbeen a yearyear whenwhen somesome haciendahacienda inin thethe valleyvalley hashas notnot disrupteddisrupted establishedestablished wages.wages. InIn SanSan JacintoJacinto therethere isis a hacendado from from AyacuchoAyacucho who who is i sburning burning and and ploughing ploughing underunde rgrape grap evines vine s inin orderorder toto plantplant rice.rice. HeHe payspays shovelshovelme menn 1212 solessoles a dayday andand itit isis toto bebe expectedexpected 53 thatthat whenwhen I needneed dayday labourerslabourers I willwill havehave toto paypay thethe same. 53 44 44 AHAH toto AH,AH, 2121 Mar.Mar. 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 46 45 lABIAB toto AH,AH, 2424 JulyJuly 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 46 46 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 2121 Jan.Jan. 1883,1883, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 6 Feb.Feb. 1883,1883, PalPalt too toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 47 47 ManuelManuel BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 1010 Oct.Oct. 1883,1883, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 48 48 RolandoRolando PacPacha hass Castillo,Castillo, 'lmpacto'Impacto dede lala GuerraGuerra deldel PacificoPacifico enen laslas haciendashaciendas dede lea,lea, Chincha,Chincha, PiscoPisco y Canete',Cafiete', inin WilsonWilson ReateguiReategui etet al.al. (eds.),(eds.), La Guerra del del Pacifico Pacifico (Lima, (Lima , 1979),1979), vol.vol. I,i, pp.pp. 197-221.197-221. 49 49 Ibid; lABIAB toto AH,AH, 1212 MayMay 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 5060 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 2020 Jan.Jan. 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 51 51 OnOn thethe AspI1lagas'Aspfllagas' financialfinancial problemsproblems seesee Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, p.p. 30.30 . 5262 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., II11 Feb.Feb. 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 63 53 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 9 Jan.Jan. 1884,1884, PalPalt too toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 440022 Michael J. J. Gonzales Gon^ales .....Wit , Withh respectrespect toto thethe cottoncotton harvest,harvest, oneone stillstill cannotcannot declaredeclare a victory.victory. I paipaidd themthem Ii solsol perper arroba [harvested]; [harvested] ;but bu tthe th enext nex tweek wee kno n oone on eharvested. harvested .Working Working peoplepeople inin thisthis valleyvalley areare inin thethe mostmost completecomplete statestate ofof insubordination.insubordination. ThisThis isis thethe resultresult ofof thethe absurdabsurd wageswages thatthat TI havehave beenbeen payingpaying [in[in comparisoncomparison to]to] Urrutia,Urrutia, Mencia,Mencia, andand SanSan Jacinto.Jacinto. WhyWhy shouldshould theythey comecome herehere andand earnearn 6 salessoles whenwhen thetheyy 54 cancan earnearn 12\z elsewhereelsewhere forfor thethe samesame workwork? ?54 ThroughoutThroughout thethe remainderremainder ofof thethe 1880s1880s PaltoPalto hadhad a corecore ofof approximatelyapproximately 3030 ChineseChinese workers.workers. DuringDuring thethe cottoncotton harvest,harvest, however,however, 20-4020—40 additionaladditional ChineseChinese andand PeruvianPeruvian workersworkers werewere alwaysalways hired.hired. AmongAmong thesethese seasonalseasonal workersworkers therethere werewere usuallyusually severalseveral PeruvianPeruvian womenwomen whowho earnedearned thethe samesame wagewage asas menmen andand workedworked jusjustt asas hard.hard. ForFor example,example, inin 18821882 thethe averageaverage weeklyweekly pickpick perper workerworker waswas 411.53411.53 pounds.pounds. TheThe fourfour womenwomen harvestersharvesters pickedpicked thethe followingfollowing amounts:amounts: 717717 pounds,pounds, 474474 pounds,pounds, 410410 pounds,pounds, andand 226226 pounds.pounds. OutOut ofof 3030 cottoncotton harvesters,harvesters, 717717 poundspounds waswas thethe mostmost picked,picked, andand five ChineseChinese malesmales harvestedharvested lessless thanthan 226226 pounds. 5555 InIn orderorder toto find seasonalseasonal labour,labour, however,however, thethe estateestate hadhad toto paypay competitivecompetitive wages.wages. FailureFailure toto dodo soso eveneven causedcaused labourlabour unrestunrest onon thethe estateestate onon twotwo occasions.occasions. InIn 18851885 cottoncotton harvestersharvesters stoppedstopped workwork andand demandeddemanded anan increaseincrease inin wageswages toto offsetoffset thethe devaluationdevaluation inin paperpaper currency.currency. TheThe administratoradministrator agreedagreed toto increaseincrease wageswages fromfrom S.S./1.5 / I. 50 paperpaper perper arroba toto S.jS./2.0 2.000 perper arroba.arroba}*56 ThreeThree yearsyears later,later, ginnersginners andand packerspackers complainedcomplained thatthat theirtheir counterpartscounterparts onon neighbouringneighbouring estatesestates receivedreceived 1010 silversilver centavoscentavos a dayday more.more. OnceOnce again,again, thethe managermanager consentedconsented andand increasedincreased ginners'ginners' wageswages fromfrom 40-5040-50 silversilver centavoscentavos a day,day, andand packers'packers' wageswages fromfrom 30-4030-40 57 silversilver centavoscentavos a day. 57 BothBoth ofof thesethese incidentsincidents occurredoccurred duringduring thethe harvestharvest whenwhen managementmanagement mostmost fearedfeared a shutdown.shutdown. InIn 1892,1892, thethe AspillagasAspi'llagas lecturedlectured theirtheir managermanager onon a variationvariation ofof thethe labourlabour theorytheory ofof value:value: AsAs a generalgeneral rulerule itit suitssuits ourour interestsinterests toto havehave peonspeons whowho workwork hardhard forfor thethe lowestlowest possiblepossible salarysalary...... becausebecause itit isis clearclear thatthat thethe lessless thatthat isis spent,spent, notnot alteringaltering production,production, thethe moremore profitprofit willwill accrue,accrue, thatthat isis thethe pragmaticpragmatic goalgoal ofof alalll businesses,businesses, wellwell directeddirected andand administered.administered. InIn thisthis sensesense proceedproceed becausebecause iitt 58 conformsconforms withwith ourour interests. 58 TheThe results,results, however,however, werewere notnot forthcoming.forthcoming. InIn 18931893 PaltoPalto hadhad onlyonly 5533 54 54 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresScfiores PrevostPrcvost & Co.,Co., 2 Nov.Nov. 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, APAFA A.. 55 55 HaciendaHacienda Palto,Palto, PlanPlanill iliaa No.No. 6060 dede pagospagos a loslos trabajadores,trabajadorcs, 1212 MayMay 1882,1882, ManuelManuel JJ.. Brihuego,Brihuego, administrator,administrator, AFA.AFA. 66 56 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto AH,AH, 1515 Feb.Feb. 1885,188;, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 57 57 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto AH,AH, 2 MayMay 1888,1888, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 68 58 AHAH toto JoseJose Velarde,Velarde, 1717 Feb.Feb. 1892,1892, LimaLima toto Palto,Palto, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 404033 workers,59workers,59 andand 9 ofof thethe 3838 harvestersharvesters pickepickedd lessless thanthan 100100 poundpoundss ooff cottoncotton a week.6600 ByBy thisthis date,date, manymany ChineseChinese workersworkers werewere oldold anandd exhaustedexhausted fromfrom yearsyears ofof plantatioplantationn labour.labour. RatherRather thanthan papayy competitivecompetitive wageswages thatthat mightmight attractattract younger,younger, moremore productivproductivee workers,workers, ththee Aspt1lagasAspfllagas andand otherother cottoncotton growersgrowers chosechose toto eliminateeliminate wagewage labourlabour inin thethe mid-mid-1890I 890Ss inin favourfavour ofof cottoncotton tenantry.tenantry. ThisThis reducedreduced theirtheir labourlabour billsbills,, circumventedcircumvented locallocal labourlabour markets,markets, andand transferredtransferred muchmuch ofof thethe riskrisk ooff productioproductionn ontoonto thethe blacblackk peasantry.peasantry. TheThe transitiontransition fromfrom contractedcontracted toto wagewage labourlabour inin thethe Aspt1lagas'Aspfllagas' largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantatioplantationn CayaltiCayaltf followedfollowed a somewhatsomewhat differentdifferent course.course. Cayalti'sCayalti" s workforceworkforce numberednumbered 445445 inin 18771877 (see(se eTable Table 7)7 )and, and ,despite despite thethe endend toto thethe cooliecoolie trade,trade, thethe AspillagasAspfllagas attemptedattempted toto avoidavoid anyany significantsignificant reduction.reduction. TheyThey werewere initiallyinitially successfulsuccessful atat recontractingrecontracting manymany ofof theirtheir ChineseChinese workersworkers andand atat contractingcontracting newnew recruits.recruits. ToTo attractattract newnew workers,workers, however,however, theythey hadhad toto advanceadvance themthem thethe equivalentequivalent ofof halfhalf a year'syear's salary,salary, oror aboutabout 2525 papepaperr soles.soles. TheseThese workersworkers werewere requiredrequired toto remainremain onon ththee 61 estateestate untiuntill theirtheir debtsdebts hadhad beebeenn paid.61 TheThe AspillagasAspfllagas alsoalso hiredhired severalseveral ChineseChinese wagewage labourers,labourers, bubutt diddid soso reluctantlyreluctantly becausbecausee chinos fibreslibres demandeddemanded higherhigher wages.wages. ForFor example,example, inin 18761876 a librefibre earnedearned 7070 silversilver centavoscentavos peperr dayday plupluss meals,meals, oror thethe equivalentequivalent ofof severalseveral months'months' wageswages 62 forfor a contractedcontracted worker.62 AsAs noted,noted, duringduring thethe ChileanChilean invasioninvasion largelarge numbersnumbers ofof ChineseChinese fledfled fromfrom plantationplantationss intointo nearbynearby citiescities andand townstowns wherewhere theythey werewere mobilisedmobilised intointo workwork gangsgangs bbyy ChineseChinese contractors.contractors. AnAn indicationindication ofof howhow thisthis wawass donedone comescomes fromfrom a representativerepresentative ofof thethe ChineseChinese communitycommunity inin Lima,Lima, ChengCheng IsaoIsao JJuu, , whowho accusedaccused tenten ChineseChinese contractorscontractors ofof 'kidnapping''kidnapping' betweebetweenn 3,0003,000 andand 4,0004,000 ChineseChinese duringduring 188 1I andand 18821882 andand bringinbringingg themthem toto thethe plantationsplantations.. DuringDuring 18831883 andand 1884,1884, hehe claimed,claimed, manymany moremore ChineseChinese werewere forcedforced toto workwork onon plantationplantationss toto recoverrecover debtsdebts owedowed toto contractors.6363 50 a9 PlanillaPlanilla NoNo.6. 63 36 dede loslos pagopagoss deldel 3 alal 9 dede abril,abril, 1893,1893, 9 AprilApril 1893,1893, NestoNestorr V.V. Cerdefia;Cerdena; PlanillaPlanilla deldel pagpagoo deldel recoiorecojo dede algod6nalgodon EgiptoEgipto dede lala haciendahacienda PaltoPalto a treintatreinta centavoscentavos lala arroba;arroba; PlanillaPlanilla deldel pagpagoo deldel recoiorecojo dede algod6nalgodon dede MetaficeMetafice dede lala haciendahacienda PaltoPalto a treintatreinta centavoscentavos lala arroba,arroba, AFAFA A.. 60 60 PlanillaPlanilla NoNo.6. 63 36 dede loslos pagopagoss deldel 3 alal 9 dede abril,abril, 1893,1893, 9 AprilApril 1893,1893, NestoNestorr V.V. Cerdefia;Cerdena; PlanPlanill iliaa deldel pagpagoo deldel recoiorecojo dede algod6nalgodon EgiptoEgipto dede lala haCIendahacienda PaltoPalto a treintatreinta centavoscentavos lala arroba;arroba; PlanPlanill iliaa deldel pagpagoo deldel recojrecoioo dede algodonalgodon dede MetaficeMetafice dede lala haCIendahacienda PaltoPalto a treintatreinta centavoscentavos lala arroba,arroba, AFAFA A.. 81 61 RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 2424 Dec.Dec. 1875,1875, Caya!tftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayaltiCayaltf' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1414 NovNov.. 1881,1881, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 DecDec.. 1877,1877, CayaltCayaltii ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH ttoo AH,AH, 2828 Aug.Aug. 1885,I88J, CayaltiCayalti ttoo LimaLima,, AFA.AFA. 62 62 AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 63 63 InIn HeraclioHeraclio Bonilla,Bonilla, 'The'The WarWar ofof thethe PacificPacific andand thethe NationaNationall andand ColonialColonial ProblemProblem iinn Peru',Peru', Past and Present, no.no . 818 1(Nov. (Nov . 1978),1978) ,p. p . 110.no . http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 o ~ ~ '" ...... <., l;;- ~ ~ <;-. f June 8 no. 1 44 5 45 1 44 5 44 4 445 45 445 444 dated worker s workers Tota l no . Total letter force total 1. 6 1.6 8. 4 8. 3 8-4 8,3 4- 7 4·7 tota l % % unsigned wor k forc e work AFA; 8 7 7 2 1 3 8 3 7 21 3 37 No. No . 1881, Peruvian s Peruvians 1877-82 Sept. 1877-82 2 27 total 9. 2 9. — 14. 4 16. 0 14·4 16.0 tota l % % Chines e Chinese AH, Ccryalti, Cayaltt, to at at 8 3 8 3 6 3 6 5 65 63 — No. No . AH fibres libres force AFA; 8 0 6 . total work 0 — work force tota l 84. 0 84. 85. 6 85. 90. 8 9 % % Chines e Chinese 1879, the the of of Oct. 14 2 — 37 5 375 37 5 34 * 375 34 AH, contracted Chines e Chinese contracte d to Composition No. No . Composition AH 7. 7 . AFA; force -4 total Tabl e Table 8 tota l 95- 3 91. 6 98. 4 91. 7 9 95-3 91.6 91.7 % % 1877, wor k forc e work Sept. no. 3 7 8 II 1 0 42 4 41 3 43 8 40 7 424 4 43 4 Chines e Chinese Tota l no . Total AH, to AH 77 79 AFA. AFA . 187 7 187 9 188 1 188 2 18 18 1881 1882 Septembe r Septembe r September September Octobe r Jun e Dat e Date June October Sources: A H t o AH , 1 Sept . 1877 AFA ; 4 Oct 1879 2 7 1881 unsigne d lette r date 8 Jun e Sources: 1882 , 1882, http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 4040j5 TableTable 8.8. Composition of the workworkforce force at Cayalti, 188J-90ii8j—po ChineseChinese TotalTotal FreeFree % ooff contractedcontracted ttoo % ooff % ooff no.no. ooff DateDate ChineseChinese totaltotal contractorscontractors totaltotal PeruviansPeruvians totaltotal workersworkers SeptemberSeptember 178 31.631.6 202202 335. j.88 184 332.2.6 56j 64 188 ;5 MarchMarch 78 14·314.3 21 5 39·439-4 25 2 446.6.22 545545 18881888 NovemberNovember 3656 1.01.0 302302 59.059.0 224224 40.040.0 560,60 1818990 SOllms:Sources: AHAH toto AH,AH, 2255 Sept.Sept. 1886,1886, AFA;AFA; AAHH toto AH,AH, 2233 Mar.Mar. 18881888,, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 Nov.Nov. 1890,1890, AFA.AFA. ChineseChinese contractorscontractors first appearedappeared atat CayaltiCayalti inin 1884.1884. TheyThey signedsigned contractscontracts withwith thethe AspillagasAspillagas thatthat stipulatedstipulated workingworking andand livingliving conditionsconditions forfor theirtheir workersworkers andand securedsecured substantialsubstantial benefitsbenefits forfor themselves.themselves. WorkersWorkers hadhad toto labourlabour IO!io| hourshours a dayday forfor 5 daysdays a weekweek andand contractorscontractors hadhad ttoo postpost a bondbond worthworth thethe valuevalue ofof allall farmfarm toolstools issuedissued byby thethe estate.estate. IInn return,return, recruitersrecruiters receivedreceived twotwo substantialsubstantial rewards:rewards: theythey werewere allowedallowed ttoo operateoperate storesstores onon thethe plantation,plantation, andand theythey receivedreceived workers'workers' wages.wages. ThThee AspillagasAspillagas alsoalso agreedagreed toto provideprovide illill workersworkers withwith medicalmedical carecare andand ttoo 64 advanceadvance contractorscontractors moneymoney toto find moremore labourers. 64 SuchSuch contractscontracts guaranteedguaranteed thethe Aspillagas,Aspillagas, andand otherother sugarsugar planters,planters, stablestable workwork forcesforces duringduring a periodperiod ofof politicalpolitical andand socialsocial instability.instability. PlantersPlanters werewere unconcernedunconcerned withwith possiblepossible abusesabuses thatthat contractorscontractors mightmight inflictinflict onon workers,workers, suchsuch asas embezzlingembezzling wages,wages, asas longlong asas productionproduction levelslevels werewere maintained.maintained. AsAs timetime wentwent on,on, however,however, plantersplanters grewgrew concernedconcerned overover fallingfalling workerworker productivity.productivity. ThisThis waswas a reflectionreflection ofof advancingadvancing ageage andand thethe wearwear andand teartear ofof plantationplantation labour.labour. InIn 189 1I thethe AspillagasAspillagas characterisedcharacterised 50%50% ofof 65 theirtheir ChineseChinese workersworkers asas 'old'old andand tiredtired men'. 65 OnlyOnly 300300 ofof 420420 workersworkers regularlyregularly workedworked andand absenteeismabsenteeism becamebecame soso bad,bad, especiallyespecially onon Mondays,Mondays, thatthat millingmilling sometimessometimes hadhad toto bebe halted.halted. TheThe followingfollowing yearyear BaldomeroBaldomero AspillagaAspillaga BarreraBarrera threatenedthreatened toto shutshut downdown contractors'contractors' storesstores unlessunless absenteeismabsenteeism ratesrates werewere reduced.reduced. WhenWhen thisthis failedfailed toto bringbring results,results, ththee Aspt1lagasAspillagas orderedordered mayordomosmayordomos toto drivedrive thethe ChineseChinese intointo thethe fields withwith 66 clubsclubs andand whips.66whips. CompoundingCompounding thethe problemproblem ofof absenteeismabsenteeism waswas thethe inabilityinability ofof ththee ChineseChinese toto dodo heavyheavy labour.labour. ByBy thethe endend ofof thethe decadedecade onlyonly thethe strongeststrongest 84 64 ForFor example,example, contractcontract dateddated Oct.Oct. 1884,1884, CayaltiCayalti Archive,Archive, AFAFA A.. 65 65 AHAH toto AH,AH, 9 JuneJune 1891,1891, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 66 66 AHAH toto AH,AH, I1 Nov.Nov. 1892,1892, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 440066 MichaelMichael]. ]. Gon^alesGonzales couldcould completecomplete a meagremeagre halfhalf tarea(area inin theth e field,67field,67 andand theth e AspfllagasAspi'llaga s begabegann toto expelexpel thethe ChineseChinese fromfrom Cayalti. 6688 AAss ththee ChinesChinesee werewere drivedrivenn frofromm CayaltCayaltff andand otherother largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantationss theythey werewere replacedreplaced withwith PeruvianPeruvian wagewage labourerslabourers recruitedrecruited fromfrom thethe highlands.6699 AsAs inin thethe casecase ofof Palco,Palto, thethe AspillagasAspi'llagas foundfound iitt impossibleimpossible toto dominatedominate coastalcoastal labourlabour markets,markets, despitedespite Cayaltf'sCayaltfs hugehuge sizsizee andand thethe family'sfamily's considerableconsiderable politicapoliticall clout.clout. LocalLocal peasantpeasantss maymay havehave lostlost theirtheir landland andand economiceconomic independenceindependence bubutt theythey stillstill resistedresisted totaltotal dominationdomination bbyy individualindividual plantationsplantations.. Instead,Instead, theythey attemptedattempted toto sellsell theirtheir labourlabour toto thethe highesthighest biddebidderr andand toto avoidavoid thethe traptrap ofof debtdebt peonagepeonage.. InIn thisthis fashionfashion theythey maintainedmaintained a degreedegree ofof physicaphysicall andand economiceconomic freedomfreedom anandd frustratedfrustrated locallocal plantersplanters,, asas seenseen iinn thisthis letterletter fromfrom thethe Aspi'llagaAspfllagass writtenwritten inin 18891889:: ThoseThose fromfrom thethe coast,coast, oror %ambos,zambos, are arscarce.e scarce The. Th Sat'ieros,e Saneros if ,you if yo couldu coul roundd roun upd up oneone hundredhundred oror soso ofof them,them, couldcould notnot bbee acclimatisedacclimatised inin anyany mannermanner whatsocvcr,whatsoever, becausbecausee thethe majoritymajority ofof themthem areare lazylazy menmen whowho gogo aroundaround lookinglooking forfor a neneww patron everyevery week,week , thatthat isis toto saysay lookinglooking forfor wherewhere theythey cancan dodo less.less . AtA t present,present , withwith thethe ricerice harvest,harvest, thethe workwork forceforce onon thethe largelarge [sugar][sugar] estatesestates alwaysalways diminishesdiminishes becausbecausee ofof thethe attractionattraction thatthat thisthis workwork hashas forfor them,them, bubutt happilyhappily thisthis 70 isis alreadyalready passing. 70 Planter Control and Worker ResistanceResistance TheThe systemsystem ofof socialsocial controlcontrol imposedimposed onon ChineseChinese workersworkers bbyy plantersplanters constitutedconstituted anan essentialessential elementelement ofof thethe systemsystem ofof productionproduction.. TheThe abilityability ofof planterplanterss toto useuse extra-economicextra-economic methodsmethods ofof coercion,coercion, suchsuch asas corporalcorporal punishmentpunishment,, debtdebt peonagepeonage,, andand drugs,drugs, helphelpss toto explainexplain theirtheir successsuccess aatt retaininretainingg ChineseChinese workerworkerss afterafter thethe abolitionabolition ofof indenturedindentured servitude.servitude. IItt is,is, however,however, alsoalso importantimportant toto recogniserecognise thatthat thethe ChineseChinese resistedresisted limitationslimitations onon theirtheir freedomfreedom andand mobility.mobility. FormsForms ofof resistanceresistance resembleresemble thosethose foundfound onon plantationplantationss duringduring thethe perioperiodd ofof AfricanAfrican slavery,slavery, anandd includeinclude non-violentnon-violent tactics,tactics, suchsuch asas avoidingavoiding workwork bbyy feigningfeigning illnessillness,, stealingstealing fromfrom plantersplanters,, andand runningrunning away,away, asas wellwell asas violentviolent tactics,tactics, suchsuch asas suicide,suicide, murdermurder andand rebellion.rebellion. SuchSuch behavioubehaviourr cutcut intointo plantersplanters'' profitsprofits andand hastenedhastened thethe transitiontransition ofof PeruvianPeruvian wagewage labourlabour andand tenantry.tenantry. 67 67 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 Oct.Oct. 1889,1889, CayalttCayaltf toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1515 Feb.Feb . 1890,1890, CayalttCayaltY ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 JuneJune 1893,1893, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 NovNov.. 18971897,, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 68 68 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1616 NovNov.. 1895,1895, CayalttCayalti't too Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AI-!,AH, 8 MarchMarch 1897,1897, CayalttCayalti't too Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AI-!AH toto AI-!,AH, 2424 Jan.Jan. 1899,1899, CayalttCayalti toto LIma,Lima, AFA.AFA. 68 69 MichaelMichael JJ.. Gonzales,Gonzales, 'Capitalist'Capitalist AgricultureAgriculture andand LabourLabour ContractingContracting inin NorthernNorthern Peru,Peru, 1880-1905',1880-190;', Journal of Latin American Studies, vol.vol. 12,12, parpartt II11 (Nov.(Nov. 1980)1980),, PP·29pp. 291-3151-3 1 5·. 70 70 AHAH toto AH,AH, 5 JuneJune 1899,1899, CayalttCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chi1leseChinese PlantationPlalltatioll [PorkersWorkers alldand Social COllflictConflict illin PeruPeril 407407 StandardStandard equipmentequipment onon PeruvianPeruvian plantationsplantations inin thethe 1870S1870s andand 1880s1880s includedincluded jailsjails,, shackles,shackles, stocks,stocks, chains,chains, bullwhips,bullwhips, clubs,clubs, andand firearms.firearms. TheseThese instrumentsinstruments werewere regularlyregularly usedused byby plantersplanters andand mayordomosmayordomos toto inflictinflict punishment forfor offencesoffences andand asas symbolssymbols ofof repressionrepression andand authority.authority. ThThee PeruvianPeruvian statestate alloweallowedd plantersplanters ttoo administeradminister corporalcorporal punishment onon theirtheir estatesestates andand seeminglyseemingly tooktook nono interestinterest inin thethe civilcivil andand humanhuman rightsrights ofof thethe Chinese,Chinese, exceptexcept superficiallysuperficially duringduring thethe visitvisit ofof thethe ChineseChinese Commission.Commission. ItIt shouldshould alsoalso bebe stressedstressed thatthat thisthis waswas a periodperiod ofof politicalpolitical andand socialsocial chaoschaos whenwhen publicpublic authorityauthority waswas especiallyespecially unreliableunreliable andand sometimessometimes non-existent.non-existent. UnderUnder thesethese circumstances,circumstances, plantersplanters gainedgained eveneven greatergreater controlcontrol overover workers.workers. TheThe ChineseChinese werewere routinelyroutinely punishedpunished forfor offencesoffences thatthat threatenedthreatened thethe establishedestablished socialsocial hierarchyhierarchy andand systemsystem ofof production.production. SuchSuch transgressionstransgressions includedincluded insolentinsolent behaviourbehaviour (e.g.(e.g. talkingtalking backback oror questioningquestioning a workwork assignment),assignment), fakingfaking illness,illness, runningrunning away,away, fighting, thefttheft andand murder.murder. OnOn thethe south-centralsouth-central coastcoast therethere alsoalso existedexisted considerableconsiderable animosityanimosity betweenbetween thethe ChineseChinese andand blackblack communities.communities. BothBoth groupgroupss werewere marginalisedmarginalised membersmembers ofof coastalcoastal societysociety whowho competedcompeted forfor jobjobss inin agricultureagriculture anandd trade.trade. Moreover,Moreover, blacksblacks sometimessometimes workedworked asas foremenforemen onon estatesestates anandd gainedgained thethe reputationreputation ofof beingbeing harshharsh taskmasters.taskmasters. ViolentViolent confrontationsconfrontations betweenbetween ChineseChinese andand blacksblacks periodicallyperiodically eruptederupted onon plantationsplantations andand causedcaused gravegrave concernconcern amongamong planters.planters. TheThe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission foundfound severalseveral ChineseChinese workingworking inin shacklesshackles onon thethe plantationsplantations Tulape,Tulape, Huayto,Huayto, Barraza,Barraza, Pampa,Pampa, Facahi,Facala, ChongosChongos andand Laredo.Laredo. InIn somesome cases,cases, thethe chainschains hadhad beenbeen removedremoved shortlyshortly beforebefore thethe CommissionCommission arrived,arrived, butbut thisthis ruseruse diddid notnot preventprevent workersworkers fromfrom complainingcomplaining toto Commissioners.Commissioners. MostMost ofof thesethese estatesestates werewere largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantationsplantations andand manymany ofof themthem werewere locatedlocated inin thethe ChicamaChicama Valley,Valley, wherewhere labourlabour conditionsconditions werewere especiallyespecially oppressiveoppressive atat thatthat time.time. ManyMany shackledshackled workersworkers werewere beingbeing punishedpunished forfor runningrunning awayaway andand somesome plantersplanters werewere reluctantreluctant toto freefree themthem forfor fearfear thatthat theythey wouldwould immediatelyimmediately escape.escape. OnOn thethe plantationplantation Chongos,Chongos, ownedowned byby JuanJuan JoseJose Pinillos,Pinillos, workersworkers complainedcomplained thatthat theythey werewere chainedchained forfor thethe slightestslightest offence,offence, andand thethe CommissionCommission foundfound oneone ChineseChinese whowho hadhad beenbeen shackledshackled andand imprisonedimprisoned forfor sisixx 71 months. 71 ShackledShackled workersworkers werewere freedfreed byby thethe CommissionCommission butbut theythey maymay havehave beenbeen reshackledreshackled asas soonsoon asas thethe CommissionersCommissioners departed.departed. ThisThis problemproblem iiss underscoredunderscored byby thethe reluctancereluctance ofof locallocal officialsofficials toto challengechallenge planters,planters, whowho sometimessometimes occupiedoccupied locallocal officesoffices themselves.themselves. ForFor example,example, thethe ownerowner ooff 71 71 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N . http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 4080 8 Michael J. Gon^alesGonzales HuaytoHuayto,, OctaviOctavioo CanevaroCanevaro,, doubledoubledd asas ComisariComisarioo Rural.Rural. CanevaroCanevaro explainedexplained thatthat hehe hadhad notnot shackledshackled hishis workersworkers inin hishis capacitycapacity asas 'patron''patron' butbut inin hishis capacitycapacity asas a publicpublic official.official. WhenWhen thethe CommissionCommission refusedrefused ttoo acceptaccept thisthis explanation,explanation, CanevaroCanevaro simplysimply saidsaid thatthat hehe wouldwould notnot dodo iitt again. 7722 DuringDuring thisthis periodperiod workersworkers werewere routinelyroutinely shackledshackled atat PaltoPalto forfor unrulyunruly behaviourbehaviour oror runningrunning away.away. Frequently,Frequently, offendingoffending ChineseChinese werewere firstfirst placedplaced inin stocksstocks andand thenthen forcedforced toto workwork inin chains.chains. OnOn oneone occasionoccasion aa shackledshackled workerworker namednamed SilvestreSilvestre managedmanaged toto escapeescape whilewhile chained,chained, bubutt waswas capturecapturedd notnot fafarr frofromm ththee estate.7373 JailsJails werewere alsoalso typicallytypically foundfound onon coastalcoastal estates.estates. AtAt Palto,Palto, ChineseChinese werewere imprisonedimprisoned forfor malingering,malingering, talkingtalking back,back, oror minorminor crimes,crimes, whilewhile aatt CayaltiCayalti jailinjailingg moremore commonlycommonly occurredoccurred forfor mistakesmistakes onon thethe job.7744 EmilioEmilio EscobarEscobar y Bedoya,Bedoya, thethe headhead ofof thethe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission andand a planterplanter himself,himself, referredreferred toto prisonsprisons asas anan 'old'old custom'custom' onon PeruvianPeruvian estatesestates thatthat couldcould notnot bebe abolishedabolished untiluntil betterbetter disciplineddisciplined workersworkers werewere found.7755 HiHiss attitudeattitude helpshelps toto explainexplain whywhy thethe CommissionCommission hadhad soso littlelittle long-termlong-term impactimpact onon workingworking andand livingliving conditionsconditions onon plantations.plantations. InIn fact,fact, jailjailss remaineremainedd fixturesfixtures oonn coastacoastall estatesestates lonlongg afterafter thethe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission hadhad beenbeen disbanded.disbanded. InIn 1893,1893 , officialsofficials discovereddiscovered anan extremeextreme casecase ooff workerworker abuseabuse onon thethe LaLa VinitaVinita estateestate inin thethe ChicamaChicama Valley.Valley. TheThe owner,owner, JesusJesus GardaGarcia y Garda,Garcia, hadhad imprisonedimprisoned oneone ChineseChinese forfor fifteen yearsyears anandd threethree othersothers forfor ninenine years.years. GardaGarcia arguedargued hehe waswas freefree toto disciplinediscipline hishis ownown workersworkers andand hehe wouldwould notnot releaserelease themthem fromfrom jailjail.. FormalFormal chargescharges werewere broughtbrought againstagainst him,him, butbut thethe outcomeoutcome ofof thethe casecase isis unknown.7766 InIn additionaddition toto puttingputting workersworkers inin jailjailss oror chains,chains, plantersplanters subjectedsubjected themthem toto whippingswhippings andand beatings.beatings. InIn 18771877 thethe AspillagasAspillagas instructedinstructed theirtheir administratoradministrator atat PaltoPalto toto whipwhip workersworkers for'for 'grav gravee cases'cases',, suchsuch asas 'lack'lack ooff 7272 Ibid.Ibid. 73 73 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, I1 Nov.Nov. 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 9 Aug.Aug. 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 3030 Oct.Oct. 18771877,, PaltoPalto toto Cayaltf,Cayalti, AFA;AFA; E.E. AugustoAugusto toto GeraldoGeraldo Perez,Perez, 1212 MarchMarch 1876,1876, PaltoPalto toto Cayaltf,Cayalti, AFA;AFA; FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 2121 JulyJuly 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, II11 Oct.Oct. 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 74 a to to 74 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, II11 AprilApril 1879,1879, PaltoP ' to LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 3030 Oct.Oct. 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 9 JulyJuly 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 1616 JulyJuly 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JosJosee PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 2828 MarchMarch 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1919 Nov.Nov. 1878,1878, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2525 Nov.Nov. 1878,1878, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1010 Oct.Oct. 1888.1888. CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 Nov.Nov. 1888,1888, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 78 75 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 76 76 Informe, ChineseChinese consulconsul TenTen Ayan,Ayan , subprefectsubprefect ofof TrujilloTrujillo LizardoLizardo Lavalle,Lavalle, interpreterinterpreter P.P. A.A. Ponky,Ponky, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional;Nacional; JesusJesus GardaGarci'a y GardaGarcia toto elel ministroministro dede gobierno,gobierno, 2211 Aug.Aug. 1893,1893, BibliotecaBiblioteca Nacional.Nacional. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social COllfllCtConflict illin Pert!Peru 409409 respect',respect', 'running'running away',away', oror 'fighting'.77'fighting'.77 ForFor runningrunning away,away, thethe ChineseChinese 7878 werewere warnedwarned thatthat theythey couldcould receivereceive 100100 lashes. AtAt Cayalti,Cayalti", thethe ChineseChinese werewere routinelroutinelyy lashedlashed oorr beatenbeaten forfor failurefailure toto work,work, runningrunning awayaway,, oror seriousserious crimes.crimes. OnceOnce thethe AspillagasAspillagas orderedordered a suspectedsuspected murderermurderer lashedlashed 7799 150150 times,times, a beatingbeating thatthat couldcould havehave resultedresulted inin hishis death. TheThe AspillagasAspillagas werewere notnot thethe onlyonly plantersplanters toto useuse thethe lash.lash. OnOn thethe estateestate JagueyJaguey ownedowned byby LuisLuis Albrecht,Albrecht, thethe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission wawass approachedapproached byby a workerworker namednamed LanquenLanquen whowho hadhad beenbeen 'atrociously''atrociously' whippedwhipped andand horriblyhorribly scarred.scarred. TheThe commissionerscommissioners werewere appalledappalled andand gotgot thethe estateestate managermanager toto indemnifyindemnify LanquenLanquen 4040 paperpaper solessoles andand toto releaserelease himhim fromfrom thethe estate.estate. OnOn thethe estateestate HuaytoHuayto ownedowned byby OctavioOctavio Canevaro,Canevaro, thethe CommissionCommission alsoalso discovereddiscovered a casecase ofof mutilation.mutilation. TheThe estateestate doctordoctor hahadd slicedsliced offoff thethe earear ofof a ChineseChinese forfor reasonsreasons ofof 'personal'personal vengeance'.vengeance'. Canevaro,Canevaro, whowho earlierearlier hadhad punishedpunished severalseveral ChineseChinese inin hishis capacitycapacity aass RuralRural Commissioner,Commissioner, hadhad notnot disciplineddisciplined thethe doctor.doctor. TheThe latterlatter fled thethe estateestate whenwhen thethe CommissionersCommissioners arrivedarrived andand hishis casecase waswas leftleft inin thethe handshands 80 ofof thethe subprefect.subprefect.80. ViolenceViolence sometimessometimes eruptederupted amongamong thethe ChineseChinese themselves.themselves. ThisThis isis notnot surprisingsurprising consideringconsidering theirtheir difficultdifficult livingliving andand workingworking conditions.conditions. AfterAfter workwork waswas completed,completed, thethe ChineseChinese werewere lockedlocked intointo dormitoriesdormitories (galpones){galpones) similarsimilar toto thosethose usedused toto sheltershelter blackblack slaves.slaves. InIn galpones,ga/pones, the th eChinese Chines e gambled,gambled, smokedsmoked opium,opium, andand somesome ofof themthem engagedengaged inin homosexualhomosexual activities.activities. ContractorsContractors alsoalso ranran storesstores inin thethe dormitoriesdormitories andand soldsold food,food, 81 liquor,liquor, andand drugsdrugs onon credit.credit. TheyThey alsoalso lentlent money.81money. InIn DecemberDecember 18791879 a ChinesChinesee foremaforemann aatt PaltPaltoo namenamedd AchaAchann wawass murderedmurdered iinn a galpon. TheThe estate estate administrator, administrator , Perez,Perez ,was wa salerted alerted ofof the the crimecrime andand wentwent toto investigate.investigate. NoNo oneone co-operatedco-operated withwith him,him, butbut hehe soonsoon discovereddiscovered thethe badlybadly mutilatedmutilated body.body. HeHe leftleft thethe dormitorydormitory andand returnedreturned withwith a revolverrevolver andand severalseveral staffstaff members.members. A rollroll callcall determineddetermined thatthat twotwo Chinese,Chinese, EliasElias andand Finloy,Finloy, werewere missingmissing andand searchsearch partiesparties werewere organisedorganised toto capturecapture them.8282 TheThe AspillagasAspillagas werewere especiallyespecially concernedconcerned withwith determiningdetermining thethe causecause ooff thethe murder.murder. TheyThey assumedassumed thatthat itit waswas relatedrelated toto personalpersonal animositiesanimosities 77 77 'Orden'Orden interiorinterior dede lala HaciendaHacienda dede Palto',Palto', 1212 MarchMarch 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. FragmentFragment ofof document.document. 78 78 AABAAB toto AH,AH, 3030 AprtlApril 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. ForFor examplesexamples ofof whippingswhippings atat Palto,Palto, see:see: E.E. AugustoAugusto toto AH,AH, 7 MarchMarch 1876,1876, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 1919 JuneJune 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, II11 Oct.Oct . 1878,1878 , PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 79 79 AHAH toto AH,AH, 3131 JulyJuly 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 Nov.Nov. 1892,1892, CayaltfCayalti't too Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 80 80 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N . 81 81 Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, pp.pp . 97-103.97—103 . 82 82 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 1212 Dec.Dec. 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 411 0o Michael J. GonzalesGon^aks arisingarising fromfrom gamblinggambling oror homosexualhomosexual activities,activities, butbut theythey alsoalso fearedfeared thatthat iitt arosarosee frofromm workeworkerr abuseabuse.. ExcessivExcessivee abuseabuse couldcould leadlead ttoo furthefurtherr violenceviolence andand disruptdisrupt production.production. TheyThey instructedinstructed PerezPerez toto questionquestion thethe suspectssuspects andand thenthen toto deliverdeliver themthem toto publicpublic authorities. 8383 WhenWhen EliasEli'as andand FinlayFinloy werewere capturedcaptured theythey werewere severelyseverely beaten,beaten, torturedtortured withwith knives,knives, chainedchained andand thrownthrown intointo thethe estateestate jailjail.. TheyThey 'confessed''confessed' toto thethe managermanager thatthat theythey hadhad beenbeen paidpaid S./200S./200 byby fellowfellow workersworkers toto murdermurder thethe hatedhated foreman,foreman, andand theythey namednamed ninenine ChineseChinese whowho hadhad contributedcontributed toto theirtheir fee.fee. PerezPerez refusedrefused toto believebelieve thatthat therethere wawass 84 anyany motivemotive forfor thethe murdermurder beyondbeyond moralmoral depravity, 84 butbut ChineseChinese onon ManriqueManrique revealedrevealed thatthat AchanAchan waswas murderedmurdered becausebecause hehe forcedforced workersworkers toto buybuy goodsgoods fromfrom himhim andand becausebecause hehe harassedharassed themthem inin theirtheir work.8855 InIn thethe endend,, publipublicc authoritieauthoritiess alloweallowedd ththee Aspi'llagaAspillagass ttoo deciddecidee Hh'as'Elias'ss andand Finloy'sFinloy's fates.fates. TheyThey chosechose toto havehave themthem whipped,whipped, chainedchained andand jailedjailed.. AfterAfter theirtheir release,release, theythey wouldwould bebe forcedforced toto dodo difficultdifficult andand unpleasantunpleasant workwork whilewhile shackled.shackled. TheThe AspillagasAspi'llagas preferredpreferred thisthis toto a publicpublic trial,trial, whichwhich mightmight bebe embarrassing,embarrassing, andand toto privateprivate execution,execution, whichwhich seemedseemed justifiedjustified butbut harsh.886* ThisThis wayway EliasEli'as andand FinloyFinloy wouldwould alsoalso continuecontinue toto produceproduce cottoncotton withoutwithout remuneration,remuneration, presumablypresumably forfor thethe restrest ofof theirtheir liveslives.. Interestingly,Interestingly, PerezPerez alsoalso confiscatedconfiscated threethree horseshorses ownedowned byby thethe twotwo killerskillers.. ThisThis furtherfurther benefitedbenefited thethe estateestate andand alsoalso showsshows thatthat EliasEli'as andand FinloyFinloy werewere betterbetter offoff thanthan thethe averageaverage workerworker andand maymay havehave engagedengaged inin pettypetty tradetrade inin competitioncompetition withwith thethe murderedmurdered foreman.foreman.8877 SeveralSeveral murdersmurders alsoalso occurredoccurred onon thethe Aspillagas'Aspi'llagas' sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantation Cayalti.Cayalti. InIn 18761876 a ChineseChinese workerworker nearlynearly decapitateddecapitated a ChineseChinese foremanforeman afterafter hishis workwork assignmentassignment hadhad beenbeen increased.increased. AnteroAntero AspillagaAspi'llaga Barrera,Barrera, whowho waswas onon thethe estateestate atat thethe time,time, orderedordered mayordomosmayordomos toto capturecapture anandd executeexecute thethe manman immediately.immediately. HeHe explainedexplained thatthat 'there'there isis nono otherother recourserecourse soso thatthat hehe mightmight serveserve asas anan exampleexample toto thesethese maliciousmalicious 88 labourerslabourers'. '.88 TheThe AspillagasAspi'llagas describeddescribed thethe foremanforeman asas a 'good'good andand loyaloyall 89 servant'servant' andand werewere convincedconvinced thatthat thethe murderermurderer hadhad actedacted alone. !l AfterAfter eighteeneighteen daysdays thethe manman waswas capturedcaptured andand experiencedexperienced thethe Aspi'llagasAspillagas'' privateprivate systemsystem ofof justicejustice:: 83 83 AHAH toto JoseJose PerezPerez y Albela,Albela, 1010 Dec.Dec. 1879,1879, LimaLima toto Palto,Palto, AFA.AFA. 84 84 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 1919 Dec.Dec. 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 85 85 AHAH ttoo JoseJose PerePerezz y AlbelaAlbela,, 2Z)5 DecDec.. 1879,1879, LimLimaa ttoo Palto,Palto, AFA.AFA. 86 86 AHAH toto JoseJose PerezPerez y Albela,Albela, 1515 Dec.Dec. 1879,1879, LimaLima toto Palto,Palto, AFA.AFA. 87 87 JoseJose PerezPerez y Albela,Albela, toto AH,AH, 1919 Dec.Dec. 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 88 88 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1414 Aug.Aug. 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 89 89 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 Aug.Aug. 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in PerilPeru 414111 TheThe assassinassassin AijinAijin restsrests inin peacepeace inin thethe samesame sitesite wherewhere AunAun [the[the foremanlforeman] iiss buried.buried. ThanksThanks toto GodGod thatthat thethe maliciousmalicious personperson diddid notnot escapeescape but,but, almostalmost iinn a providentialprovidential manner,manner, waswas apprehended.apprehended. WeWe areare closelyclosely watchingwatching thingsthings andand wewe 90 havehave inin custodycustody thethe ChineseChinese whowho gavegave sheltershelter toto thethe assassin,assassin, thethe muleteermuleteer Alan.90 A yearyear later,later, quarrellingquarrelling betweenbetween twotwo ChineseChinese workersworkers overover a debtdebt resultedresulted inin murder.murder. TheThe creditorcreditor hadhad earlierearlier beatenbeaten thethe debtordebtor andand ththee latterlatter retaliatedretaliated byby clubbingclubbing thethe lenderlender toto death.death. TheThe murderermurderer fled fromfrom thethe estateestate butbut waswas quicklyquickly capturedcaptured byby mayordomos.mayordomos. ThisThis time,time, ththee AspillagasAspfllagas orderedordered thatthat thethe manman receivereceive 150150 lashes,lashes, insteadinstead ofof beingbeing shot.shot. ThThee mildermilder punishmentpunishment cancan bbee attributedattributed toto ththee differencedifference inin ththee victimsvictims'' 91 statusstatus withinwithin thethe plantationplantation hierarchy.91hierarchy. ThereThere werewere atat leastleast fivefive additionaladditional murdersmurders onon CayaltiCayalti involvinginvolving Chinese,Chinese, includingincluding oneone wherewhere thethe victimvictim waswas a Peruvian.Peruvian. DetailsDetails araree lackinglacking aboutabout thesethese cases,cases, howeverhowever oneone victimvictim waswas a visitingvisiting ChineseChinese merchantmerchant andand thethe murderedmurdered PeruvianPeruvian hadhad lentlent moneymoney toto hishis killer.killer. OnOnee interestinginteresting developmentdevelopment waswas thatthat inin 18881888 thethe AspillagasAspillagas beganbegan turningturning accusedaccused murderersmurderers overover toto publicpublic officialsofficials ratherrather thanthan punishingpunishing themthem oonn 92 Cayaltf.Cayalti'. 92 ThisThis diddid notnot occuroccur asas a resultresult ofof a re-evaluationre-evaluation ofof theirtheir moralmoral andand legallegal responsibilities.responsibilities. RatherRather,, itit reflectsreflects ththee growinggrowing politicalpolitical stabilitystability ofof PeruPeru andand thethe possibilitypossibility thatthat newsnews ofof a privateprivate executionexecution mightmight causecause a scandalscandal andand damagedamage thethe risingrising politicalpolitical careercareer ofof AnteroAntero AspillagaAspi'llaga 93 Barrera,Barrera, whowho waswas thenthen a cabinetcabinet minister.93 CorporalCorporal punishment andand imprisonmentimprisonment werewere thethe mostmost visiblevisible methodsmethods ofof socialsocial controlcontrol onon coastalcoastal plantations.plantations. However,However, plantersplanters alsoalso controlledcontrolled ChineseChinese workersworkers throughthrough thethe useuse ofof opium.opium. TheThe BritishBritish cultivatedcultivated opiumopium poppiespoppies onon plantationsplantations inin IndiaIndia andand suppliedsupplied hugehuge quantitiesquantities ofof thethe drugdrug 94 toto China. 94 BritishBritish merchants,merchants, whowho hadhad strongstrong commercialcommercial tiesties withwith SouthSouth America,America, soonsoon realiserealisedd thathatt ththee opiuopiumm marketmarket coulcouldd bbee expandeexpandedd ttoo includeinclude ChineseChinese inin Peru. 9955 TheThe PeruvianPeruvian governmentgovernment establishedestablished anan officialofficial monopolymonopoly overover opiumopium 00 90 AHAH toto AH,AH, I1 Sept.Sept. 1876,1876, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 01 91 AHAH toto AH,AH, 3131 JulyJuly 1877,1877, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 92 92 AHAH toto AH,AH, 2 JulyJuly 1886,1886, Cayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 1212 Nov.Nov. 18881888,, CayaltitoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 1212 Nov.Nov. 1875,1875, CayaltitoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 Nov.Nov. 1888,1888, CayaltiCayalti't too Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2020 Dec.Dec. 1888,1888, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, I1 Nov.Nov. 1892,1892, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 21 I Aug.Aug. 1895,1895, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 03 93 GonzalesGonzales,, Plan/a/ionPlantation Agriculture,AgriCliI/llre, pppp.. }2-}'32—3. 9~94 JonathanJonathan Spence,Spence, 'Opium'Opium SmokingSmoking inin Ch'ingCh'ing China',China', inin FrederickFrederick Wakeman,Wakeman, Jr.Jr. andand CarolineCaroline GrantGrant (eds.),(eds.), Conflict and Control in Late Imperial China (Berkeley(Berkeley & LosLos Angeles,Angeles, 1975).1975). 95 01 oun 95 AccordingAccording toto PabloPablo Macera,Macera, betweenbetween ISp1852 andand IS79,1879, 767,4017^7. 4 poundsP ds ofof opiumopium werewere soldsold toto PeruPeru byby Britain.Britain. SeeSee Macera,Macera, Lashas plantacionesplanlaciones azucareras,a^ucareras, p.p. cxviii.cxviii. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 441 122 Michael J. Gon^alesGonzales importsimports andand sales.sales. MerchantsMerchants suppliedsupplied publicpublic bidsbids toto thethe MinisterMinister ofof TradeTrade andand CommerceCommerce whowho acceptedaccepted thethe mostmost attractiveattractive offer.offer. TheThe amountamount ooff opiumopium importedimported waswas limitedlimited toto 50,00050,000 kilograms,kilograms, whichwhich waswas soldsold ttoo retailersretailers atat 10 %% profit.profit. RetailersRetailers werewere licensedlicensed byby thethe government,government, anandd theythey werewere requiredrequired toto keepkeep anan accurateaccurate accountingaccounting ofof sales.sales. MostMost retailersretailers werewere plantersplanters oror ChineseChinese merchants.merchants. TheThe Aspillagas,Aspi'llagas, forfor example,example, werewere thethe retailersretailers forfor Cayalti.Cayalti'. Interestingly,Interestingly, inin thethe latelate 1880s1880s thethe MinisterMinister ooff TradeTrade andand CommerceCommerce waswas nonenone otherother thanthan AnteroAntero AspillagaAspillaga Barrera.Barrera. IInn addition toto officialofficial imports,imports, therethere waswas alsoalso a livelylively contrabandcontraband tradetrade iinn opium.0968 TheThe AspillagasAspi'llagas soldsold betweenbetween 100100 andand 150150 poundspounds ofof opiumopium a monthmonth aatt CayaltiCayalti whichwhich representedrepresented a profitprofit ofof 200-400200—400 silversilver soles. 9797 TheThe priceprice ooff anan ounceounce ofof opiumopium atat CayaltiCayalti roserose fromfrom 7070 toto 8080 silversilver centavoscentavos inin ththee I1870 870ss toto S.IS./1.20-S./1.7 1.20-S'; I. 700 silversilver solessoles inin thethe I1880s 880s,, andand thenthen fellfell slightlyslightly ttoo 98 aroundaround S.IS./1.0 I .000 silversilver inin thethe earlyearly I1890s. 890s. 98 I havehave alreadyalready publishedpublished aa detaileddetailed calculationcalculation showingshowing thatthat ChineseChinese labourers atat CayaltiCayalti couldcould nonott havehave paidpaid forfor opiumopium withwith their'their * meagre meagre wages.wages.99" Instead,Instead , theythey hadhad toto borrowborrow moneymoney fromfrom eithereither plantersplanters oror contractorscontractors toto maintainmaintain theirtheir habits,habits, andand theirtheir indebtednessindebtedness boundbound themthem toto thethe estate.estate. ThisThis was,was, ooff course,course, a considerableconsiderable bonusbonus toto thethe AspillagasAspi'llagas duringduring a periodperiod ofof labourlabour shortages.shortages. ItIt isis likelylikely thatthat opiumopium servedserved a similarsimilar functionfunction onon otherother coastalcoastal estates.estates. AtAt PaltoPalto administratorsadministrators alsoalso usedused thethe drugdrug toto rewardreward andand punishpunish addictedaddicted workers.workers. ForFor example,example, onon severalseveral occasionsoccasions managersmanagers threatenedthreatened ttoo withholdwithhold distributiondistribution ofof opiumopium unlessunless thethe ChineseChinese completedcompleted theirtheir (areas.tareas. Thus,Thus, plantersplanters helpedhelped turnturn thesethese menmen intointo drugdrug addictsaddicts andand thenthen controlledcontrolled themthem throughthrough supplyingsupplying oror denyingdenying themthem drugs.10IOO0 ItIt isis,, however,however, ironicironic thatthat plantersplanters diddid notnot seesee thethe correlationcorrelation betweenbetween opiumopium consumptionconsumption andand fallingfalling workerworker productivityproductivity andand absenteeism,absenteeism, whichwhich werewere majormajor preoccupations.preoccupations. ItIt seemsseems likelylikely thatthat plantersplanters werewere primarilyprimarily 96 96 'Estanco'Estanco deldel opio',opio', EIEl Co-"'ercio,Comercio, 1010 Jan.Jan. 1888;1888; EIEl Comercio, 2711 Feb.Feb . 1888;1888; EIEl Peruano,Peruano, 2727 Sept.Sept. 1877;1877; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1919 MayMay 1891,1891, CayalttCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 97 97 AHAH toto AH,AH, I1 MayMay 188j,1885, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 MayMay 1891,1891, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2424 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 8 MayMay 1876,1876, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 MarchMarch 1879,1879, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 3 Nov.Nov. 1891,1891, CayalttCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 08 98 AHAH toto AH,AH, 7 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 AprilApril 1876,1876, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 8 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 MarchMarch 1879,1879, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2828 Oct.Oct. 1879,1879, Cayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1313 Jan.Jan. 1880,1880, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2121 July,July, 1891,1891, CayalttCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 AprilApril 1893,1893, Cayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 99 99 Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture,Agriculture, pp. pp . 102-3.102-3 . 100 a t0 t0 100 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, 4 AprilApril 1879,1879, PaltoP ' to LimaLima,, AFAAF A;; JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa Palto t0 toto AH,AH, 21 I MarchMarch 1879,1879, Palto to LimaLima,, AFAAF A.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 414 i33 concernedconcerned withwith havinghaving workersworkers securelysecurely boundbound toto estates,estates, regardlessregardless ooff theirtheir physicalphysical condition.condition. Resistance ConsiderinConsideringg ththee harshnessharshness ooff plantersplanters'' methodsmethods ooff controlcontrol,, itit seemsseems unlikelyunlikely thatthat thethe ChineseChinese couldcould havehave mountedmounted anan effectiveeffective resistanceresistance ttoo totaltotal domination.domination. However,However, thethe ChineseChinese diddid resistresist andand theirtheir defiancedefiance contributedcontributed toto fallingfalling productionproduction andand toto thethe transitiontransition toto alternativealternative formsforms ofof labour.labour. ChineseChinese resistanceresistance waswas moremore effectiveeffective atat PaltoPalto thanthan atat CayaltfCayalti andand thisthis mamayy suggestsuggest a patterpatternn forfor similarlysimilarly structurestructuredd estates.estates. CayaltCayaltfi waswas a bibigg sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantation thatthat waswas efficientlyefficiently managedmanaged byby a largelarge staffstaff ledled bbyy 10IOI1 oneone ofof thethe estateestate owners. Moreover,Moreover, byby thethe I1880 880ss thethe responsibilityresponsibility foforr controllingcontrolling ChineseChinese workersworkers waswas sharedshared byby ChineseChinese labourlabour contractors,contractors, whowho suppliedsupplied thethe majoritymajority ofof workers.workers. TheseThese characteristicscharacteristics werewere sharedshared 102 byby otherother largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantations. 102 Palto,Palto, byby contrast,contrast, waswas a mediummedium- sizedsized cottoncotton estate.estate. ItIt waswas almostalmost nevernever managedmanaged byby thethe owners,owners, andand hiredhired administratorsadministrators werewere lessless effectiveeffective atat socialsocial contact.contact. A majoritymajority ofof Palto'sPalto's workersworkers werewere alsoalso non-contracted,non-contracted, whichwhich gavegave themthem moremore mobility.mobility. ResistanceResistance tooktook manymany forms.forms. TheThe mostmost desperatedesperate actact waswas suicide,suicide, usuallyusually byby ingestingingesting largelarge amountsamounts ofof opium.opium. ThereThere werewere sixsix recordedrecorded suicidessuicides atat CayaltfCayalti duringduring thethe 1870S,1870s, andand itit seemsseems likelylikely thatthat therethere werewere more. 103103 InIn a settingsetting wherewhere drugdrug addictionaddiction andand physicaphysicall exhaustionexhaustion werewere commonplacecommonplace manymany ChineseChinese maymay havehave contemplatedcontemplated takingtaking theirtheir liveslives.. WeWe knowknow thatthat the'the 'fina finall straw'straw' camecame forfor oneone manman afterafter a whippingwhipping anandd 104 forfor anotheranother becausebecause ofof hishis debts. l04 SuicidesSuicides alsoalso occurredoccurred amongamong ChineseChinese 105 onon sugarsugar estatesestates inin thethe PativilcaPativilca Valleyl05Valley andand onon thethe guanoguano islands.islands . LivingLiving andand workingworking onon hugehuge moundsmounds ofof birdbird manuremanure waswas especiallyespecially conduciveconducive ttoo suicidesuicide as,as, overover a two-yeartwo-year period,period, 6060 ChineseChinese tooktook theirtheir liveslives outout ofof aa 106 workforceworkforce ofof approximatelyapproximately 500.106500. HighHigh asas thesethese figures forfor PeruPeru werewere,, however,however, JuanJuan PerezPerez dede lala RivaRiva claimsclaims thatthat thethe frequencyfrequency ofof suicidesuicide amongamong 101 101 Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, ch.ch . 4.4 . 102 102 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 103 103 AHAH toto AH,AH, 8 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltiCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltiCayalti ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 JulyJuly 1876,1876, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 4 Jan.Jan. 1876,1876, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RARABB toto AAB,AAB, 2)25 Jan.Jan. 1876,1876, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 4 JuneJune 1878,1878, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. ThisThis waswas alsoalso thethe mostmost commoncommon wayway forfor ChineseChinese toto commitcommit suicidesuicide inin Cuba:Cuba: JuanJuan PerezPerez dede lala Riva,Riva, EIEl barracon: Esclavitud Esclavitudy y capitalismo en en Cuba Cuba (Barcelona, (Barcelona , 197)),1975) ,p. p .70. 70 . 104 104 AHAH toto AH,AH, 8 MayMay 1876,1876 , CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB , 44 Jan.Jan . 1876,1876 ,Cayaltf Cayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAAF A.. 105 105 HumbertoHumberto RodriguezRodriguez Pastor,Pastor, La Rebelidn de los Rostros Pintados (Huancayo,(Huancayo, Peru,Peru, 1979),•979). Pp.- H·34 - 106106 Mendez,Mendez, 'La'La otraotra historia',historia', pp.pp . 13,13 , 4).45 . 16 I.AS 21 http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 441 I 4 MichaelMichael]. J. GonzalesGon^aks thethe ChineseChinese inin CubaCuba gavegave thethe CaribbeanCaribbean islandisland thethe highesthighest suicidesuicide raterate iinn thethe world.101077 A moremore commoncommon formform ofof resistanceresistance onon PeruvianPeruvian plantationsplantations waswas flight.flight. TheThe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission arguedargued thatthat runawaysrunaways werewere a seriousserious problemproblem forfor PeruvianPeruvian agricultureagriculture andand theythey visitedvisited severalseveral estatesestates wherewhere workersworkers hadhad beenbeen shackledshackled forfor fleeing. InIn thethe mostmost extremeextreme case,case, thethe plantationplantation 18 LurificoLurifico claimedclaimed thatthat overover 270270 ChineseChinese hadhad fled overover thethe years.years." lOS JudgingJudging fromfrom thethe experiencesexperiences ofof CayaltfCayalti andand Palto,Palto, runawaysrunaways occurredoccurred onon a fairlyfairly regularregular basis. J09109 BetweenBetween 18751875 andand 18821882 therethere werewere 4545 recordedrecorded runawaysrunaways fromfrom Cayalt!,Cayalti, ofof whomwhom onlyonly 1414 couldcould bebe capturedcaptured andand returnedreturned toto ththee estate. 111100 OnlyOnly a fewfew ChineseChinese managedmanaged toto fleeflee duringdurin g thethe ChileanChilean invasion,invasion, however,however, asas thethe AspillagasAspi'llagas paidpaid theirtheir workersworkers earlyearly andand increasedincreased security.lIlsecurity.111 MostMost runawaysrunaways werewere contractedcontracted workersworkers whowho werewere poorlypoorly paipaidd anandd heavilyheavily indebted.indebted. A majoritymajority soughsoughtt refugerefuge amongamong ththee ChineseChinese communitycommunity inin nearbynearby Chiclayo,Chiclayo, althoughalthough oneone fled toto LimaLima andand threethree othersothers toto Pisco.Pisco. OnOn otherother occasions,occasions, thethe AspillagasAspi'llagas believedbelieved thatthat runawaysrunaways endedended upup working,working, eithereither throughthrough choicechoice oror coercion,coercion, onon neighbouringneighbouring 112 sugarcanesugarcane plantations. 112 RunawaysRunaways werewere alwaysalways vigorouslyvigorously pursuedpursued byby mayordomosmayordomos oonn horsebackhorseback whowho sometimessometimes roderode asas farfar asas thethe sierra inin search search ofof Chinese. Chinese . TheThe AspillagasAspi'llagas alsoalso offeredoffered rewardsrewards forfor informationinformation leadingleading toto thethe capturecapture lIll:i ofof Chinese,Chinese, andand thisthis broughtbrought resultsresults onon atat leastleast twotwo occasions. :1 WhenWhen 107107 PerezPerez dede lala Riva,Riva, ElEI barr'acon,barraco'n, p.p. 67.67 . 108108 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 109109 JorgeJorge Basadre,Basadre, His/oriaHistoria de 10la RepublicaRepublics del Pmi,Per/1, 4th4th ed.,ed. , 22 vols. vols . (Lima,(Lima , 1949),1949) , vol.vol . z,2 , p.225·p. 22;. 110110 RABRABt too AAB,AAB, 2121 Sept.Sept. 1875,1875, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 5 Oct.Oct. 1875,1875, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 8 Oct.Oct. 1875,1875, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 8 MaMayy 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2121 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AABAAB toto AH,AH, 1919 JuneJune 1876,1876, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 JulyJuly 1876,1876, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2121 Feb.Feb. 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2 JuneJune 18771877,, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 6 JulyJuly 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1616 JulyJuly 1878,1878, CayaltfCayalti toto LIma,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1414 Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1616 Oct.Oct. 1880,188o, CayaltftoCayalti to Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; AABAAB toto lAB,1AB, 3 MayMay 1881,1881, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; unsignedunsigned letterletter dateddated 8 JuneJune 1882,1882, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 111 III RABRAB toto lAB,LAB, 2626 JulyJuly 1881,1881, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 4 Oct.Oct. 1880,1880, CayaltftoCayalti'to Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 6 JulyJuly 1889,1889, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AABAAB toto AH,AH, I1 Nov.Nov. 1880,1880, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 112112 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 JulyJuly 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1414 Sept.Sept. 1887,1887, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto lAB,1AB, 2626 JulyJuly 1881,1881, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AABAAB,, 5 Oct.Oct. 1875,1875, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 113113 AHAH toto AH,AH, II11 Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1818 Feb.Feb. 1879,1879, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2121 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 8 Oct.Oct. 1875,1875, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 2 JuneJune 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto AAB,AAB, 8 Oct.Oct. 1875,1875, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1414 Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFAAFA.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 ChilleseChinese PlalltatiollPlantation Workers alldand Social COllflictConflict illin Peru 415415 captured,captured, runawaysrunaways werewere severelyseverely punishedpunished andand mademade toto repayrepay thethe costcost ofof theirtheir apprehension.apprehension. RamonRamon AspfllagaAspi'llaga BarreraBarrera onceonce interrogatedinterrogated somesome capturedcaptured ChineseChinese andand demandeddemanded toto knowknow whywhy theythey hadhad fled. TheyThey answered,answered, 'as'as theythey alwaysalways did',did', thatthat theythey 'were'were receivingreceiving insufficientinsufficient wageswages forfor people'.people'. RamonRamon refusedrefused toto believebelieve this,this, however,however, asas hehe suspectedsuspected thatthat theythey hadhad beenbeen forcedforced oror paidpaid toto leaveleave Cayaltf.Cayalti'. TheseThese runawaysrunaways werewere badlybadly beatenbeaten byby mayordomosmayordomos andand imprisonedimprisoned onon thethe estate.estate. RamonRamon laterlater wrotewrote toto hishis brotherbrother AnteroAntero thatthat hehe waswas certaincertain thatthat 114 GodGod wouldwould punishpunish themthem eveneven more. 114 OnOn thethe haciendahacienda Palto,Palto, whichwhich hadhad a workwork forceforce aboutabout one-tenthone-tenth thethe sizesize 115 ofof Cayaltf's,Cayaltfs, therethere werewere sixsix recordedrecorded escapesescapes fromfrom 18761876 toto 1881. 115 WWee knowknow somesome detailsdetails aboutabout twotwo ofof thesethese cases.cases. OneOne workerworker owedowed 2020 solessoles toto fellowfellow ChineseChinese whowho werewere pressuringpressuring himhim toto paypay up.up. HeHe hadhad requestedrequested anan advanceadvance ofof 1010 paperpaper solessoles fromfrom thethe administratoradministrator inin returnreturn forfor renewrenew- iningg hihiss contractcontract.. HiHiss requesrequestt hahadd beebeenn denieddenied,, howeverhowever,, becausbecausee ththee administratoadministratorr lackelackedd authorisatioauthorisationn frofromm ththee AspillagasAspt1lagas.. ItIt iiss cleaclearr thathatt thithiss 116 workeworkerr fledfled ttoo avoiavoidd physicaphysicall abusabusee frofromm hihiss creditors.116 AnotheAnotherr cascasee involveinvolvedd a determinedeterminedd workeworkerr namenamedd Silvestre.Silvestre. WithiWithinn sixsix monthmonthss ooff hihiss arrivaarrivall aatt PaltPaltoo hhee hahadd rurunn awayaway.. NeverthelessNevertheless,, hhee wawass capturecapturedd anandd forcedforced ttoo worworkk iinn chainchainss foforr eigheightt yearsyears.. AAtt ththee endend ofof hihiss contractcontract,, hhee signedsigned onon 117 agaiagainn iinn returreturnn foforr 6464 solessoles paper,paper,117 onlonlyy ttoo rurunn ofofff ttoo IquiquIquiquee witwithh aa 118 femalfemalee friend.friend. 118 ThosThosee ChinesChinesee whwhoo dididd nonott escapescapee frofromm plantationplantationss stillstill founfoundd waywayss ooff resistinresistingg ththee sociasociall orderorder.. AAtt PaltPaltoo anandd CayaltiCayaltf,, ChinesChinesee werweree responsibleresponsible foforr severaseverall firesfires anandd thefttheftss thathatt resulteresultedd iinn seriouseriouss losselossess foforr ththee AspillagasAspt1lagas.. IInn ththee absencabsencee ooff testimontestimonyy bbyy ththee ChinesChinesee themselvethemselvess iitt iiss difficuldifficultt ttoo knoknoww theitheirr motivationsmotivations.. FireFiress mamayy havhavee beebeenn accidentsaccidents,, bubutt thetheyy werweree alsalsoo a traditionaltraditional formform ofof protestprotest byby sugarsugar workers.workers. TheftsThefts seemedseemed designeddesigned toto hurhurtt planterplanterss aass welwelll aass ttoo makmakee moneymoney.. OOnn ththee otheotherr handhand,, thertheree iiss nnoo indicatioindicationn thathatt thieverthieveryy wawass meanmeantt ttoo extracextractt additionaadditionall incomincomee becausbecausee planterplanterss hahadd failefailedd ttoo complcomplyy witwithh somsomee reciprocareciprocall obligation.obligation. TherTheree werweree twtwoo majomajorr firesfires aatt CayaltCayaltfi causecausedd bbyy ChinesChinesee workersworkers.. IInn 18718788 ththee AspillagaAspfllagass blameblamedd fifteenfifteen ChinesChinesee foforr burninburningg approximatelyapproximately 1,001,0000 acreacress ooff sugarcanesugarcane.. ThiThiss coscostt thethemm a considerablconsiderablee amounamountt ooff monemoneyy 114 114 RARABB ttoo AABAAB,, 5 Oct.Oct . 1875,187s ,Cayaltt Cayalti to to Lima, Lima ,AFA. AFA . 115 115 JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa ttoo AHAH,, 1199 JulJulyy 18781878,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; AAHH ttoo AHAH,, 1100 SeptSept.. 18801880,, LimLimaa ttoo PaltoPalto,, AFAAFA;; JosJosee PerePerezz y AlbelAlbelaa ttoo AHAH,, 2244 JulJulyy 18781878,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 1177 ApriAprill 18771877,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; EE.. AugustAugustoo ttoo AHAH,, 3311 MarcMarchh 18761876,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 2277 JulJulyy 18771877,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA.. 116 116 FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 1I77 ApriAprill 18771877,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA.. 117 117 RodrigueRodriguezz PastorPastor,, 'Biografi'a'Biograffass ddee Chinos'Chinos',, pp.. 1414.. 118 118 EE.. AugustAugustoo ttoo AHAH,, 31 I MarcMarchh 18761876,, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAF A.. 16-16·22 http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 44i166 Michael J. Gon^alesGonzales inin potentiapotentiall sugarsugar salessales andand inin ththee costcost ofof clearingclearing andand re-plantingre-planting.. TheseThese workerworkerss werweree forcedforced ttoo reparepayy thesthesee losseslosses witwithh theitheirr labour.111199 TenTen yearyearss later,later, a firenre destroyeddestroyed somesome 55,00055,000 poundpoundss ofof sugarsugar wortworthh approximatelyapproximately 320320 poundpoundss sterlingsterling onon ththee LondonLondon marketmarket.. TheThe AspillagaAspillagass blameblamedd a ChineseChinese watchmawatchmann forfor ththee blazeblaze,, andand hhee wawass imprisonedimprisoned forfor anan indenniteindefinite perioperiodd ofof time.120120 FireFire andand thefttheftss atat PaltoPalto werweree moremore clearlyclearly attacksattacks onon ththee estate.estate. InIn 18718766 a ChineseChinese waswas seenseen runningrunning fromfrom a nrefire thatthat diddid considerableconsiderable damagedamage toto thethe buildinbuildingg wherwheree machinermachineryy wawass stored.121211 TheThe followingfollowing yeayearr a ChineseChinese stolestole allall ofof ththee estate'sestate's chickenschickens and,and, inin ththee processprocess,, destroyeddestroyed ththee chickenchicken coop.coop. ThiThiss mamann wawass captured,captured, placeplacedd inin chains,chains, andand imprisoned. 121222 FourFour yearyearss laterlater somesome ChineseChinese disassembleddisassembled a cottoncotton gingin andand stolestole severalseveral kekeyy partsparts.. TheThe administratoradministrator offeredoffered workerworkerss a rewarrewardd ofof 200200 papepaperr solessoles forfor naminnamingg ththee thievesthieves,, bubutt thetheyy refusedrefused.. ManagementManagement stronglystrongly suspectedsuspected somesome contractedcontracted ChineseChinese bubutt theythey werweree neveneverr ableable ttoo recoverecoverr ththee lostlost machinery.machinery.123123 TheThe AspfllagaAspillagass hahadd difficultydifficulty replacinreplacingg ththee partpartss andand effortsefforts ttoo keepkeep ththee gingin runninrunningg througthroughh specialspecial rigginriggingg proveprovedd disappointing. 121244 AdditionaAdditionall formsforms ofof resistancresistancee occurredoccurred onon coastalcoastal estates.estates. ManagersManagers aatt PaltoPalto frequentlyfrequently accusedaccused ChineseChinese ofof feigningfeigning illnessillness inin orderorder ttoo avoidavoid workwork,, whicwhichh couldcould bbee consideredconsidered a formform ofof resistanceresistance.. TheThe difficultydifficulty comescomes inin differentiatingdifferentiating betweebetweenn ththee trultrulyy illill andand ththee resistersresisters.. HealthHealth conditionsconditions allall alongalong thethe coastcoast werweree babadd andand thethe ChineseChinese periodicallperiodicallyy fellfell seriouslyseriously illill witwithh malariamalaria,, influenza,influenza, typhustyphus,, typhoidtyphoid,, dysentery,dysentery, andand otherother diseases.diseases. PlantersPlanters recogniserecognisedd thithiss andand tootookk stepssteps ttoo prevenpreventt epidemicsepidemics thatthat couldcould halhaltt productionproduction.. EspeciallyEspecially noteworthnoteworthyy werweree ththee hirinhiringg ofof physiciansphysicians andand ththee distributiondistribution ofof medicinemediciness (notably(notably quinine).125quinine).125 InIn addition ttoo thethe trultrulyy ill,ill, managermanagerss atat PaltoPalto werweree convincedconvinced thathatt somesome ChineseChinese werweree cleverclever fakersfakers and,and, inin fact,fact, thertheree wawass anan unusuallunusuallyy highighh percentagpercentagee ofof illill ChineseChinese atat PaltPaltoo inin comparisoncomparison witwithh Cayalti.Cayalti. ForFor example,example, duringduring 1876-71876-7 aann 119 119 AAHH ttoo AHAH,, 1919 NovNov.. 1878,1878, CayaltiCayalti ttoo Lima,Lima, AFAAFA;; AAHH ttoo AHAH,, 2525 NovNov.. 1878,1878, CayaltiCayalti ttoo Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 120 120 AAHH ttoo AHAH,, 1010 Oct.Oct. 1888,1888, CayaltiCayalti't too Lima,Lima, AFAAFA;; AAHH ttoo AHAH,, 7 NovNov.. 1888,1888, CayaltiCayalti ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 121 121 E.E. AugustAugustoo ttoo AHAH,, 3 1I MarchMarch 1876,1876, PaltoPalto ttoo Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 122 122 FranciscoFrancisco PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 3030 OctOct.. 1877,1877, PaltPaltoo ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 123 123 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego ttoo SenoresSefiores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 3030 JuneJune 1881,1881, PaltoPalto ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego ttoo SenoresSefiores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 7 JulyJuly 1881,1881, PaltoPalto ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 124 124 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego ttoo SenoresSefiores PrevostPrevost & Co.,Co., 9 MayMay 1882,1882, PaltoPalto ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 126 125 SeeSee Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, Agriculture, pp. pp 103-6,. 103-6 for, fo ar discussiona discussio nof o healthf healt hconditions condition s atat CayaltiCayalti andand alongalong ththee coast.coast. ForFor PaltoPalto seesee HumbertoHumberto RodriguezRodn'guez Pastor,Pastor, 'Salud' Salud y muertmuertee enen loslos trabajadoretrabajadoress chinoschinos dede ununaa haciendhaciendaa costena',costena', inin HumbertoHumberto RodriguezRodriguez PastorPastor (ed.),(ed.), Chinos culies: bibliografia Jy fllentes,fuentes, dommentosdocumentosy J ensayosensayos (Lima, (Lima , 1984),1984) ,pp. pp . 15150-750 -75.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in PeruPeril 414177 averageaverage ofof 2020 ofof thethe 150150 ChineseChinese atat PaltoPalto werewere sick,sick, comparedcompared withwith 2020 ofof ththee 420420 ChinesChinesee atat Cayalti'.Cayalti. 126126 Palto'sPalto's managersmanagers attemptedattempted toto solvesolve thisthis probleproblemm withwith force.force. InIn 18718777 thethe administratoradministrator tooktook 2424 suspectedsuspected malingerersmalingerers toto PiscoPisco wherewhere a doctordoctor judgejudgedd 9 ofof themthem toto bbee healthy.healthy. TheyThey werewere placeplacedd inin thethe custodycustody ofof ththee subprefectsubprefect whowho puputt themthem toto workwork inin thethe barracks.121277 Moreover,Moreover, onon atat leasleastt twotwo otherother occasionsoccasions suspectedsuspected fakersfakers werewere eithereither beatebeatenn oror forcedforced toto spendspend thethe nightnight inin jail.jail.128128 TheseThese tacticstactics diddid notnot solvesolve thethe problemproblem,, however,however, aass managementmanagement continuedcontinued toto complaincomplain aboutabout malingerers. 129129 SomeSome credencecredence isis givengiven toto managements'managements' claimclaim bbyy thethe generalgeneral tendencytendency ofof thethe ChineseChinese atat PaltoPalto toto resistresist totaltotal domination.domination. ForFor example,example, managersmanagers repeatedlyrepeatedly complainedcomplained thatthat thethe ChineseChinese werewere disobedientdisobedient andand talkedtalked back.131300 OnOn oneone occasionoccasion a ChineseChinese stolestole sixsix sackssacks ofof cottoncotton and,and, whewhenn caught,caught, explainedexplained thatthat hehe waswas onlyonly 'completing'completing hishis tarea(area in in harvesting'. harvesting' . TheThe managermanager hadhad himhim whippedwhipped andand chained,chained, andand placeplacedd a 24-hour24-hour guardguard onon harvestedharvested cotton.131311 MoreMore significantly,significantly, thethe ChineseChinese actedacted collectivelycollectively toto protecprotectt individualsindividuals andand toto protesprotestt lowlow wageswages andand excessiveexcessive physicalphysical abuse.abuse. I havehave alreadyalready notednoted thatthat twicetwice duringduring thethe 1880s1880s theythey stoppedstopped workwork 132 andand demandeddemanded higherhigher wages,132wages, andand similarsimilar protestprotestss occurredoccurred onon fourfour 133 differentdifferent occasionsoccasions duringduring thethe decade. 133 Moreover,Moreover, inin 18761876 10-1210-12 ChineseChinese riotedrioted afterafter thethe administratoradministrator severelyseverely punishepunishedd a ChineseChinese forfor insolence.insolence. FirearmsFirearms werewere usedused toto forceforce thethe riotersrioters bacbackk intointo thethe galpongalprfn andand bebe- 134 hindhind lockedlocked doors.134 TheThe followingfollowing yearyear thethe administratoradministrator severelyseverely bludgeonebludgeonedd a ChineseChinese whowho hadhad runrun awayaway forfor threethree days,days, andand twotwo othersothers forfor malingering.malingering. TheThe beatingbeatingss occurredoccurred beforbeforee thethe assembledassembled workforceworkforce andand werewere meantmeant asas a lessonlesson forfor all.all. Instead,Instead, theythey produceproducedd a 'great'great 126 126 RodriguezRodriguez Pastor,Pastor, 'Salud'Salud y muerte',muerte', pp.. 166.166. RodriguezRodriguez putputss thethe numbernumber ofof ChineseChinese aatt CayaltiCayalti atat 800,8oo, bubutt thethe truetrue numbernumber isis closercloser toto 420420.. 127 127 FranciscoFrancisco PerezPerez CespedesCespedes toto AH,AH, 21I Sept.Sept. 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAAFA.. 128 128 AABAAB toto AH,AH, 3030 AprilApril 1877,1877, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA ; JoseJose PerezPerez yy AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH , I 1 I1 April April 1879,1879, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAAF A.. 129 129 ForFor example;example; 'Peones'Peortes libresfibres havehave beebeenn employedemployed inin weedingweeding becausbecausee thethe contractedcontracted workersworkers leftleft overover fromfrom ploughinploughingg allall taketake turnsturns goinggoing toto thethe hospital.hospital. ThereThere areare alwaysalways l; oror 6 eveneven 7,7, thisthis gamegame isis playedplayed amongamong them,them, becausebecause thethe trulytruly illill thethe pastpast twotwo weeksweeks areare nono moremore thanthan MatosMatos andand AtacAtac Raco.'flaco.' ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto MuyMuy SenoresSefiores Mios,Mfos, 3030 JuneJune 1881,1881 , PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAAFA.. 130 ISO JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, In I Oct.Oct. 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAAFA.. 131 lSI JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela toto AH,AH, l5 AprilApril 1878,1878, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAAFA.. 132138 Cf.Cf. p.p. 18.18 . ISS133 ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto MuyMuy SenoresSefiores Mias,Mt'os, 9 JuneJune 1881881 I,, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegBrihuegoo ttoo SenoresSefiores PrevosPrevostt & Co.,Co., 1616 Aug.Aug. 1881,1881, PaltPaltoo ttoo Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSefiores PrevostPrevost y Co.,Co., 9 MayMay 1882,1882, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A:: ManuelManuel J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSefiores PrevostPrevost y Co.,Co., 2424 Aug.Aug. 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 134 IS4 E.E. AugustoAugusto toto AH,AH, 7 MarchMarch 1876,1876, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 4i1 8 Michael J. Gon^alesGonzales disturbancedisturbance'' thathatt forceforcedd ththee managemanagerr ttoo retrearetreatt ttoo ththee casa hacienda.hacienda. He He barricadebarricadedd himselhimselff iinn ththee dinindiningg rooroomm anandd grabbegrabbedd a riflriflee whilwhilee ththee mayordomomayordomoss graduallgraduallyy calmecalmedd dowdownn ththee workersworkers.. ThThee Aspi'llagaAspfllagass werweree sufficientlysufficiently concerneconcernedd ttoo makmakee a specialspecial tritripp ttoo ththee estateestate.. AnterAnteroo judgejudgedd thathatt ththee malingerermalingererss shouldshould nonott havhavee beebeenn beatenbeaten,, bubutt thathatt ththee runawayrunaway shouldshould havhavee receivereceivedd 100ioo lasheslashes.. HHee admonisheadmonishedd ththee ChinesChinesee ttoo respectrespect theitheirr patrones andand threatenedthreatened toto sendsend 6060 soldierssoldier s toto PaltoPalto toto enforceenforce 135 order. 135 ThiThiss incidenincidentt highlighthighlightss a generagenerall probleproblemm iinn laboulabourr controcontroll atat PaltoPalto.. ThThee Aspi'llagasAspfllagas,, as patrones and and members member sof of the th eelite, elite ,were were more more important importan t authoritauthorityy figuresfigures thathann hirehiredd administratorsadministrators.. ThiThiss wawass somethingsomething thatthat everyoneveryonee recognisedrecognised,, bubutt ththee ownerownerss werweree stillstill reluctanreluctantt ttoo residresidee aatt PaltoPalto becausbecausee iitt wawass nonott theitheirr majomajorr investmeninvestmentt anandd hahadd uncommodiouuncommodiouss livingliving 136 quarters. 136 ThThee ChinesChinesee alsalsoo demonstratedemonstratedd solidaritysolidarity iinn defencdefencee ooff individuals.individuals. TwTwoo exampleexampless cacann bbee taketakenn frofromm theitheirr contentioucontentiouss relationshirelationshipp witwithh ththee localocall blacblackk communitycommunity.. IInn 18761876 a blacblackk camcamee ttoo PaltPaltoo anandd accuseaccusedd aa ChinesChinesee ooff stealingstealing hihiss horsehorse.. ThThee entirentiree ChinesChinesee workforcworkforcee rallieralliedd behindbehind theitheirr countrymacountrymann anandd forceforcedd ththee managemanagerr ttoo insisinsistt thathatt ththee blacblackk identifyidentify ththee horse'horse'ss branbrandd anandd providprovidee aann exacexactt descriptiodescriptionn ooff ththee animalanimal.. WheWhenn ththee blacblackk wawass unablunablee ttoo ddoo so,so, hhee wawass forceforcedd ttoo leavleavee ththee estateestate.. HHee soonsoon returnedreturned,, howeverhowever,, accompanieaccompaniedd bbyy severalseveral soldierssoldiers andand witwithh a letteletterr fromfrom ththee governogovernorr demandindemandingg ththee returreturnn ooff ththee horsehorse.. ThThee administratoadministratorr nonoww agreeagreedd ttoo returreturnn ththee horshorsee iinn exchangexchangee foforr 2200 solessoles ttoo reparepayy ththee coscostt ooff boardinboardingg ththee animalanimal.. AlthougAlthoughh ththee ChinesChinesee werweree oonn ththee vergvergee ooff rioting,rioting, ththee paymenpaymentt ooff ththee 2200 salessoles calmecalmedd thethemm down.I:17down.137 A yeayearr laterlater a blacblackk workeworkerr fromfrom UrrutiUrrutiaa accusedaccused oneone ofof Palto'sPalto's ChineseChinese ooff stealingstealing hihiss horsehorse.. WheWhenn ththee ChinesChinesee deniedeniedd itit,, ththee blacblackk threthreww hihimm ttoo ththee groungroundd anandd tootookk ththee horsehorse.. WheWhenn newnewss ooff ththee incidenincidentt reachereachedd PaltoPalto 60-7060—70 ChineseChinese grabbedgrabbed theirtheir farmfarm toolstools andand beganbegan searchingsearching forfor thethe black.black. ThThee administratoradministratorss ooff ththee twtwoo estateestatess soughtsought ttoo calcalmm dowdownn ththee workersworkers anandd ttoo solvesolve ththee disputedispute.. TheTheyy determinedeterminedd thathatt ththee blacblackk oweowedd ththee ChineseChinese 5050 salessoles anandd thathatt ththee ChinesChinesee hahadd taketakenn ththee horshorsee whewhenn ththee blacblackk refusedrefused ttoo paypay.. RamoRamonn AspfllagAspt1lagaa BarrerBarreraa finallyfinally interveneintervenedd anandd hahadd ththee horsehorse 131388 returnereturnedd iinn exchangexchangee foforr 40 soles. IInn alalll probabilityprobability,, ththee ChinesChinesee moneylendermoneylenderss werweree contractorcontractorss whowho coulcouldd garnegarnerr ththee supportsupport ooff workersworkers.. HorseHorsess werweree probablprobablyy a blacblackk 135 136 AAAABB ttoo AHAH,, 3300 ApriAprill 1877,1877, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFA.AFA. 136 136 FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 2ZI1 JulJulyy 1877,1877, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFA.AFA. 137 137 EE.. AugustAugustoo ttoo AHAH,, nI I ApriAprill 1876,1876, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAF A.. 138 138 FranciscFranciscoo PerePerezz CespedeCespedess ttoo AHAH,, 1010 JulJulyy 1877,1877, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA;; AAHH ttoo SenorScfior RepresentantRepresentantee dedell PropietariPropietarioo ddee llaa HdaHda.. ddee 'Urrutia''Urrutia',, 2233 AugAug.. 1877,1877, PaltPaltoo ttoo LimaLima,, AFAAFA.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese PlantationPlanfation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 419419 peasant'speasant's mostmost valuablevaluable possession,possession, andand byby stealingstealing a debtor'sdebtor's horsehorse a moneylendermoneylender couldcould applyapply considerableconsiderable leverage.leverage. TheThe majoritymajority ofof thethe valley'svalley's peasantrypeasantry waswas blackblack andand ChineseChinese contractorscontractors andand merchantsmerchants werewere probablyprobably a majormajor sourcesource ofof small,small, short-termshort-term loans.loans. TheThe ad hoc andand violentviolent naturenature ofof thesethese transactions,transactions, whichwhich vaguelyvaguely resembleresemble howhow oneone mightmight getget a loanloan onon a bigbig citycity streetstreet corner,corner, illustrateillustrate oneone reasonreason whywhy thethe twotwo ethnicethnic groupsgroups werewere atat odds.odds. OtherOther formsforms ofof violenceviolence alsoalso occurredoccurred onon thethe plantations.plantations. WeWe havehave alreadyalready seenseen thathatt twtwoo mayordomosmayordomos werweree killedkilled bbyy ththee ChinesChinesee atat PaltPaltoo andand Cayalti.Cayalti'.139139 MayordomosMayordomos were,were, inin fact,fact, frequentlyfrequently thethe objectsobjects ofof ChineseChinese rage.rage. TheThe foreman'sforeman's jojobb waswas toto pushpush workersworkers asas hardhard asas possible,possible, andand somesome ofof themthem werewere especiallyespecially brutal.brutal. AtAt Cayalti,Cayalti, a mayordomomayordomo onceonce administeredadministered 100100 lasheslashes toto a ChineseChinese simplysimply becausebecause hehe diddid notnot likelike thethe man,140man,140 andand atat PaltPaltoo a foremanforeman namenamedd GutierreGutierrezz wawass ssoo violenviolentt thathatt hishis meremere presencepresence mademade itit difficultdifficult toto recruitrecruit workers. 14l411 AccordingAccording toto thethe knowledgeableknowledgeable contemporarycontemporary J.J. B.B. H.H. Martinet,Martinet, blackblack mayordomosmayordomos werewere particularlyparticularly cruelcruel toto thethe Chinese:Chinese: BlackBlack mayordomos,mayordomos, thethe majoritymajority rearedreared underunder thethe lashlash ofof slavery,slavery, enjoyenjoy administeringadministering ththee blowsblows,, thathatt beforbeforee hadhad caressecaressedd [acariciado[acariciado] J their thei backs,r backs to, to others,others, likelike thethe Chinese,Chinese, whowho areare underunder theirtheir ordersorders andand whowho theythey viewview withwith supremesupreme contemptcontempt [soberano desprecioJ.142 desprecio].142 ThereThere is,is, ofof course,course, anan importantimportant psychologicalpsychological dimensiondimension toto thisthis contentiouscontentious relationshiprelationship whichwhich lieslies beyondbeyond thethe scopescope ofof thisthis paper.paper. ThThee mostmost significansignificantt homicidehomicide committedcommitted bbyy thethe ChineseChinese waswas thethe murdermurder ofof thethe ownerowner ofof Pucala,Pucala, a largelarge sugarcanesugarcane plantationplantation inin Lambayeque.Lambayeque. TheThe contemporarycontemporary BritishBritish travellertraveller GeorgeGeorge R.R. Fitz-RoyFitz-Roy ColeCole describeddescribed thethe incident:incident: TheThe fatherfather ofof oneone ofof thethe writer'swriter's companionscompanions inin thisthis expeditionexpedition [J[Jos osee MarfaMaria Izaga] J wawass killekilledd bbyy hihiss owownn ChinameChinamenn iinn aann outbursoutburstt ooff vindictivvindictivee passion,passion, whewhenn ththee cooliescoolies conspiredconspired togethertogether toto revengerevenge thethe harshharsh treatmenttreatment theythey hadhad received,received, andand breaking intointo thethe house,house, beatbeat theirtheir mastermaster toto deathdeath withwith theirtheir farmfarm tools.tools. ThisThis wawass afterafter longlong endurance;endurance; forfor oneone ofof thethe punishmentspunishments thisthis manman hadhad imposedimposed onon ananyy cooliecoolie whomwhom hehe hadhad caughtcaught inin thethe actact ofof escapingescaping waswas toto hobblehobble himhim withwith aann ironiron chain,chain, forcingforcing himhim toto workwork asas usualusual withwith thisthis heavyheavy weightweight added,added, untiluntil hhee considereconsideredd hishis punishmentpunishment sufficient.sufficient. ForFor lighterlighter offencesoffences hehe usedused toto beatbeat themthem unmercifully,unmercifully, andand curtailcurtail theirtheir rationsrations toto thethe starvationstarvation point.point. ThisThis wentwent onon tiltilll eveneven thethe long-sufferinglong-suffering Chinaman'sChinaman's patiencepatience waswas exhausted,exhausted, and,and, rousingrousing himselfhimself 143 oneone morning,morning, hehe avengedavenged himselfhimself inin thethe summarysummary fashionfashion alreadyalready related.143 139 139 Cf.Cf. pp.pp. 2j-7.25-7. 140 140 AspnIagasAspillagas y Cia.Cia. toto Senore5Senores ZaracondeguiZaracondegui y Cia.,Cia., 6 Sept.Sept. 186j,1865, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 141 141 ManueManuell J.J. BrihuegoBrihuego toto SenoresSenores PrevosPrevostt Co.,Co., I1 I1 JulyJuly 1882,1882, PaltPaltoo toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 142 142 QuotedQuoted inin Macera,Macera, Las plantationsplantaciones azucareras,a^ucareras, p.p. cxxi.cxxi. 143 143 Cole,Cole, Peruvians, pp.pp. 139-40,139-40, 200.200. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 442200 MichaelMichael]. ]. Gon^alesGonzales OnOn twtwoo occasionsoccasions ththee ChineseChinese rosrosee enen massmassee andand severelyseverely testetestedd localocall authority.authority. TheThe first uprisinuprisingg occurredoccurred inin 18701870 whewhenn 1,200-1,5001,200-1,500 ChineseChinese overranoverran ththee PativilcPativilcaa ValleValleyy andand attackedattacked urbaurbann areas.areas. TheThe revolrevoltt beganbegan onon ththee haciendhaciendaa ArayArayaa wherwheree ChineseChinese killekilledd ththee estateestate administrator,administrator, hihiss family,family, andand allall mayordomosmayordomos.. RebelRebelss successfullysuccessfully overranoverran severalseveral vallevalleyy estates,estates, killinkillingg administratorsadministrators andand mayordomomayordomoss andand sackingsacking storesstores anandd houseshouses.. InIn ththee meantimemeantime,, survivingsurviving propertpropertyy ownersowners regrouperegroupedd ttoo defenddefend ththee towtownn ofof SanSan IldefonsoIldefonso dede Barranca,Barranca, andand PresidentPresident JoseJose BaltaBalta sentsent trooptroopss fromfrom LimaLima undeunderr ththee commandcommand ofof ColonelColonel AntoniAntonioo RodriguezRodriguez Ramirez.Ramirez. TheThe PeruviansPeruvians defendingdefending BarrancaBarranca werweree welwelll armedarmed anandd managemanagedd ttoo repulsrepulsee ththee Chinese,Chinese, whwhoo hahadd ververyy fewfew firearms.firearms. TheThe rebelsrebels disperseddispersed witwithh ththee maimainn groupgroup fallingfalling bacbackk onon thethe plantatioplantationn Upaca,Upaca, whicwhichh hahadd beebeenn occupiedoccupied bbyy armedarmed PeruviansPeruvians fromfrom Supe.Supe. TheThe ChineseChinese 141444 sufferedsuffered oveoverr 100100 casualtiecasualtiess aatt UpacUpacaa anandd ththee rebelliorebellionn wawass crushed. WhenWhen trooptroopss arrivedarrived fromfrom LimaLima thetheyy huntehuntedd downdown ChineseChinese andand shotshot manmanyy onon sight.sight. TheThe survivorssurvivors werweree subsequentlysubsequently rounderoundedd uupp andand distributeddistributed ttoo plantersplanters.. ThreeThree importantimportant growersgrowers werweree appointedappointed governorsgovernors ofof locallocal districtsdistricts andand LimaLima wawass askedasked toto establishestablish a comisariocomisario rural. LocalLocal notablenotabless blameblamedd thethe rebelliorebellionn onon chinos libres,libres, who who werewer e consideredconsidered agitators,agitators, andand ththee Chinese'sChinese's lustlust forfor opium.opium. However,However, thetheyy presentepresentedd nnoo evidenceevidence ttoo substantiatesubstantiate theitheirr interpretation.141455 Chinos libres libres werweree dislikeddisliked becausbecausee thetheyy demandeddemanded highehigherr wagewagess andand werweree hardeharderr toto control.control. Moreover,Moreover, thethe ChineseChinese diddid nonott havhavee ttoo stealsteal toto bubuyy opium,opium, thetheyy couldcould bubuyy itit onon creditcredit fromfrom plantersplanters.. TheThe rebelliorebellionn isis besbestt explainedexplained asas a primitivprimitivee outburstoutburst ofof angeranger directeddirected atat planterplanterss andand mayordomos.mayordomos. TheThe ChileanChilean invasioninvasion ofof PeruPeru inin 18801880 wawass ththee secondsecond occasionoccasion forfor thethe ChineseChinese ttoo rebelrebel.. TheThe wawarr causedcaused ththee temporartemporaryy collapsecollapse ofof thethe oligarchicoligarchic statestate andand ushereusheredd inin a perioperiodd ofof politicalpolitical,, militarymilitary,, andand classclass conflict.conflict. TheThe Chileans,Chileans, ledled bbyy GeneralGeneral PatricioPatricio Lynch,Lynch, 'the'the reredd prince'prince',, burnedburned 148 plantationsplantations,, demandeddemanded ransoransomm fromfrom survivors,survivors, andand occupiedoccupied Lima. 146 TheThe AspfllagaAspt1lagass lostlost severalseveral heaheadd ofof livestocklivestock atat PaltoPalto andand CayaltiCayalti ttoo thethe 147 invaders147 butbut,, onon balancebalance,, sufferedsuffered farfar lessless thathann otherother plantersplanters.. TheyThey managemanagedd ttoo transportransportt thethe majoritmajorityy ofof Palto'sPalto's workerworkerss ttoo Cayalti,Cayalti, andand temporariltemporarilyy transferretransferredd ownershipownership ofof theitheirr estatesestates ttoo oneone ofof theitheirr majormajor creditors,creditors, PrevostPrevost & Co.Co. ofof thethe UniteUnitedd States.States. ThisThis rusrusee savedsaved CayaltiCayalti anandd 144 144 RodrfguezRodriguez Pastor,Pastor, LLaa Rebelion.Rebelidn. 146 145 Ibid., pppp.. 772-92-9'. 146 146 Basadre,Basadre, Historia, volvol.. 2,2, pp.. 225;225; Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, pppp.. 31-2;31-2; Bonilla,Bonilla, 'The'The WaWarr ofof ththee Pacific',Pacific', pppp.. 92-119.92-119. 147 147 JoseJose PerezPerez y AlbelaAlbela,, 'Razon'Razon dede loslos anianimale maless perdidoperdidoss y muertomuertoss dede lala HdaHda.. Palto',Palto', 2828 MarchMarch 1881,1881, AFAAFA;; RABRAB ttoo lAB,IAB, 2626 JulyJuly 1881,1881, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 4 OctOct 1880,1880, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA,AFA, AHAH toto AH,AH, 6 JulyJuly 1889,1889, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AAAABB ttoo AHAH,, I1 NovNov.. 1880,1880, CayaltiCayalti ttoo Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 424211 PaltoPalto fromfrom destruction.14I488 NeitherNeither diddid thethe AsplllagasAspfllagas suffersuffer muchmuch damagedamage atat thethe handshands ofof theirtheir workers.workers. DuringDuring thethe confusionconfusion surroundingsurrounding ththee invasion,invasion, thethe ChineseChinese atat PaltoPalto stolestole somesome livestocklivestock andand threethree workersworkers managedmanaged toto escapeescape fromfrom Cayalti,149Cayalti,149 butbut thatthat waswas insignificantinsignificant inin relationrelation toto thethe losseslosses sufferedsuffered byby others.others. ManyMany ChineseChinese sawsaw thethe ChileanChilean invasioninvasion asas anan opportunityopportunity toto avengeavenge yearsyears ofof abuseabuse byby planters.planters. InIn PacasmayoPacasmayo 600-800600-800 ChineseChinese helpedhelped ththee ChileansChileans sacksack sugarsugar estatesestates andand casas haciendas, haciendas, and an thisd thi scenes scen wase wa repeateds repeate d inin thethe Chicama,Chicama, LambayequeLambayeque andand CaiieteCanete Valleys.I50Valleys.150 TheThe ChineseChinese alsoalso foughtfought alongsidealongside thethe ChileansChileans duringduring thethe battlebattless ofof SanSan JuanJuan anandd MiraAores,151Miraflores,151 andand therethere waswas alsoalso riotingrioting andand lootinglooting byby non-Chinesenon-Chinese workersworkers inin coastalcoastal cities.cities. AsAs HeraclioHeraclio BonillaBonilla hashas observed,observed, oligarchsoligarchs soonsoon camecame toto fearfear thethe popularpopular classesclasses moremore thanthan thethe Chileans,Chileans, andand thisthis waswas anan 152 importantimportant reasonreason whywhy theythey suedsued forfor peace.I52 UnfortunatelyUnfortunately forfor thethe Chinese,Chinese, thethe ChileanChilean invasioninvasion diddid notnot resultresult iinn theirtheir liberation.liberation. FollowingFollowing thethe devastatingdevastating defeatsdefeats ofof thethe PeruvianPeruvian armyarmy onon thethe outskirtsoutskirts ofof thethe capital,capital, thethe troopstroops fellfell backback onon LimaLima andand beganbegan lootinglooting thethe city.city. AmongAmong thethe victimsvictims werewere 70-8070—80 ChineseChinese merchantsmerchants whwhoo 153 lostlost theirtheir liveslives asas wellwell asas theirtheir businesses.153 ForFor theirtheir part,part, thethe ChileansChileans sentsent manymany ChineseChinese toto workwork inin thethe occupiedoccupied guanoguano andand nitratenitrate fieldsfields anandd 15I544 forcedforced 2,0002,000 moremore toto burybury fallenfallen soldiers. TheThe ChineseChinese inin thethe CaiieteCanete ValleyValley eveneven fellfell victimvictim toto a massacremassacre byby blackblack peasantspeasants inin 1881881 I.. AccordingAccording 155 toto thethe BritishBritish consul,consul, anywhereanywhere fromfrom 700700 toto 1,5001,500 ChineseChinese werewere killed.killed. 155 PedroPedro PazPaz SoldanSoldan y Unanue,Unanue, writingwriting shortlyshortly afterafter thethe slaughter,slaughter, hashas leftleft usus withwith a graphicgraphic descriptiondescription thatthat depictsdepicts thethe deeplydeeply scarredscarred hatredhatred thatthat divideddivided thethe twotwo marginalisedmarginalised ethnicethnic groups:groups: TheThe mobmob ofof armedarmed andand mountedmounted blacksblacks andand cholos,cholos, withwith nobodynobody toto resistresist thethemm -—since since they they had had always always made made up up the the entire entire population population ofof the the valley valley - —went wen roundt roun d oneone haciendahacienda afterafter another.another. TheThe Chinese,Chinese, takentaken byby surprise,surprise, lackinglacking anyany defencedefence andand suresure ofof theirtheir innocence,innocence, werewere killedkilled withwith clubs,clubs, knives,knives, stones,stones, machetes,machetes, iinn a thousandthousand ways.ways. SomeSome subalternsubaltern estateestate dependentsdependents - thethe onlyonly menmen inin chargecharge ooff thethe abandonedabandoned propertiesproperties atat thethe timetime - lockedlocked thethe labourerslabourers intointo theirtheir quarters.quarters. TheThe attackersattackers burnedburned thesethese down,down, oror brokebroke downdown thethe doorsdoors toto reachreach andand killkill ththee innocentsinnocents within.within. 148 148 RABRAB toto lAB,IAB, 2626 JulyJuly 1881,1881, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 4 Oct.Oct. 1880,1880, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 6 JulyJuly 1889,1889, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AABAAB toto AH,AH, I1 Nov.Nov. 1880,1880, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 148148 JosJosee PerezPeiez y Albela,Albela, 'Razon'Razon dede loslos animalesanimales perdidoperdidoss y muertosmuertos dede lala Hda.Hda. Palto',Palto', 2828 MarchMarch 1881881 I,, AFA;AFA; RABRAB toto lAB,IAB, 2626 JulyJuly 1881881 I,, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 4 Oct.Oct. 1880,1880, CayaldCayaltf toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AHAH toto AH,AH, 6 JulyJuly 1889,1889, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA;AFA; AABAAB toto AH,AH, Ii Nov.Nov. 1880,1880, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 160160 Bonilla,Bonilla, 'The'The WarWar ofof thethe Pacific',Pacific', pp.pp. 107-8107-8.. 141 161 RodriguezRodriguez Pastor,Pastor, Le Rebelion,Rebe/io'n, p. p .95. 95 . 152 1 162 Bonilla,Bonilla, 'The'The War ofof thethe Pacific'.Pacific . 153 164 155 U3 Ibid., p.p. 10j.105 . 164 Ibid.,Ibid., pp.. 107107. . 155 Ibid.,Ibid., pp.. 109.109 . http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 422422 MichaelMichael]. J. Gon^alesGonzales SomeSome soughtsought safetysafety inin thethe sewers;sewers; butbut thethe blacksblacks waitedwaited forfor themthem atat thethe outletsoutlets andand killedkilled themthem asas theythey camecame out.out. OtherOther unfortunates,unfortunates, whowho stillstill believedbelieved inin whatwhat waswas traditionallytraditionally sacred,sacred, soughtsought asylumasylum inin thethe CasagrandeCasagrande school.school. '"...There There,, thetheyy werewere alsoalso killedkilled byby thethe renegades,renegades, bentbent onon vengeancevengeance andand rapine.rapine. AsAs theythey stormedstormed through,through, theythey smashedsmashed furniture,furniture, windows,windows, doors,doors, destroyingdestroying everythingeverything andand makingmaking bonfiresbonfires inin thethe veryvery heartheart ofof thethe homeshomes ofof theirtheir formerformer andand apparentlyapparently 'dear'dear masters'.masters'. TheThe corpsescorpses ofof thethe ChineseChinese werewere draggeddragged outout intointo thethe courtyardscourtyards ofof thethe masters'masters' houses.houses. There,There, beforebefore beingbeing leftleft toto bebe torntorn toto piecespieces byby thethe birds,birds, theythey werewere thethe subjectssubjects ofof savagesavage profanation,profanation, asas inin somesome BacchicBacchic carnival,carnival, byby thethe womenwomen andand thethe boys.boys. TheThe veryvery blackblack womenwomen whowho hadhad onceonce beenbeen thethe paidpaid concubinesconcubines ofof theirtheir victims,victims, nownow mutilatedmutilated theirtheir bodies,bodies, cuttingcutting offoff theirtheir bleedingbleeding andand palpitatingpalpitating organsorgans andand placingplacing themthem intointo theirtheir openopen mouths,mouths, asas withwith a cigar.cigar. 'Leave'Leave thisthis oneone forfor me!',me!', thethe blackblack womenwomen screamed,screamed, quarrellingquarrelling overover thethe victims,victims, drunkdrunk withwith 156 bloodblood likelike thethe womenwomen whowho toretore PentheusPentheus limblimb forfor limblimb .... 156 Conclusion: ChineseChinese Labourers Labourers and and the the Grande Grande and and Petite Petite Bourgeoisie Bourgeoisie TheThe deep-seateddeep-seated animosityanimosity thatthat divideddivided blacksblacks andand ChineseChinese obviouslyobviously hinderedhindered thethe abilityability ofof bothboth groupsgroups toto resistresist dominationdomination byby thethe PeruvianPeruvian bourgeoisie.bourgeoisie. TheThe abilityability ofof thethe ChineseChinese toto rebelrebel duringduring thethe warwar waswas alsoalso hurthurt byby thethe eagernesseagerness ofof thethe ChileansChileans toto exploitexploit theirtheir labour.labour. ClasClasss divisionsdivisions amongamong thethe ChineseChinese themselvesthemselves alsoalso underminedundermined theirtheir abilityability toto resist,resist, andand helpedhelped plantersplanters enormously.enormously. NoNo groupgroup contributedcontributed moremore toto planters'planters' survivalsurvival ofof thethe warwar thanthan ChineseChinese contractorscontractors whowho roundedrounded upup thousandsthousands ofof theirtheir countrymencountrymen andand broughtbrought themthem backback toto thethe plantations.plantations. ContractorsContractors werewere membersmembers ofof anan emergingemerging ChineseChinese petitepetite bourgeoisiebourgeoisie thatthat alsoalso includedincluded merchantsmerchants andand landowners.landowners. LikeLike PeruvianPeruvian planters,planters, theythey alalll profitedprofited fromfrom thethe labourlabour ofof ChineseChinese workers.workers. TheThe ChineseChinese CommissionCommission ofof 18871887 reservedreserved specialspecial criticismcriticism forfor contractors,contractors, whomwhom theythey accusedaccused ofof underminingundermining traditionaltraditional patron-clientpatron-client relationsrelations onon plantations.plantations. AccordingAccording toto Commissioners,Commissioners, contractorscontractors collectedcollected ChineseChinese andand hauledhauled themthem upup andand downdown thethe coastcoast lookinglooking forfor thethe bestbest dealdeal forfor themselves.themselves. TheyThey alsoalso accusedaccused contractorscontractors ofof withholdingwithholding workers'workers' wageswages andand keepingkeeping themthem submissivesubmissive throughthrough allotmentsallotments ooff opium.opium. TheThe CommissionCommission eveneven citedcited a casecase inin LaLa Libert:l.dLibertad wherewhere a contractorcontractor hadhad shotshot twotwo escapedescaped workersworkers inin coldcold blood.151577 AsAs dramaticdramatic asas thesethese examplesexamples ofof abuseabuse are,are, manymany moremore couldcould bbee mentionedmentioned involvinginvolving PeruvianPeruvian plantersplanters andand mayordomos.1mayordomos.15588 Moreover,Moreover, 166 156 JuanJuan dede AronaArona [Pedro[Pedro Paz-SoldanPaz-Soldan y Unanue],Unanue], LLaa inmigracion en el Pmi:Peril: MonografiaMonografia histrfrico-critica,historico-critica, wd2nd ed.ed. (Lima,(Lima, 1947),1947), pp.pp. 99-102.99-102. AlsoAlso quotedquoted inin Bonilla,Bonilla, pp.pp. 109-10.109-10. TranslationTranslation isis byby EricEric J.J. Hobsbawm.Hobsbawm. 167 167 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 158 168 SeeSee above,above, sectionsection onon planterplanter control.control. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 Chinese Plantation Workers and Social Conflict in Peru 423423 thethe traditionaltraditional patron-clientpatron-client relationsrelations idealisedidealised byby thethe CommissionersCommissioners existedexisted underunder eveneven moremore unequalunequal systemssystems ofof production,production, namelynamely slaveryslavery andand indenturedindentured servitude.servitude. Ultimately,Ultimately, itit waswas thethe systemsystem ofof productionproduction thatthat createdcreated opportunitiesopportunities forfor exploitation,exploitation, andand thethe lacklack ofof concernconcern amongamong ththee PeruvianPeruvian bourgeoisiebourgeoisie thatthat allowedallowed abusesabuses (crimes)(crimes) toto gogo unpunished.unpunished. ChineseChinese contractorscontractors hadhad foundfound anan avenueavenue ofof socialsocial mobilitymobility withinwithin aa raciallyracially divideddivided andand repressiverepressive society.society. ByBy thethe latelate 1880s,1880s, a fewfew ChineseChinese hadhad eveneven becomebecome planters.planters. ForFor example,example, thethe heirsheirs ofof PabloPablo AnsejoAnsejo ownedowned threethree estatesestates inin thethe HuauraHuaura Valley,Valley, andand WingWing OnOn FayFay rentedrented mostmost ofof thethe hugehuge sugarsugar estateestate Pucala.151599 ItIt isis alsoalso apparentapparent thatthat somesome ChineseChinese hadhad becomebecome establishedestablished merchantsmerchants byby thethe 1880s.1880s. WingWing OnOn ChingChing & Cia.Cia . ofof PiuraPiura soldsold opiumopium toto planters,160planters,160 a majormajor wholesalerwholesaler inin PiscoPisco waswas aa 161 ChineseChinese namednamed JoseJose Elias,Eli'as, l6l andand thethe AspillagasAspillagas commentedcommented thatthat ChineseChinese 162 werewere acquiringacquiring wholesalewholesale andand retailretail businesses. 162 MoreMore commonly,commonly, however,however, ChineseChinese becamebecame pettypetty capitalistscapitalists inin coastalcoastal townstowns andand citiescities wherewhere theythey establishedestablished smallsmall stores,stores, restaurants,restaurants, vegetablevegetable standsstands anandd 163 artisanalartisanal trades.163 DespiteDespite theirtheir success,success, thesethese individualsindividuals werewere stillstill vulnerablevulnerable toto abuseabuse bbyy Peruvians,Peruvians, asas witnessedwitnessed byby thethe sackingsacking ofof ChineseChinese storesstores duringduring thethe WarWar ofof thethe Pacific.Pacific. ForFor thethe majoritymajority ofof Chinese,Chinese, thesethese yearsyears werewere spentspent labouringlabouring onon thethe plantations.plantations. TheirTheir productivityproductivity allowedallowed severalseveral plantersplanters toto survivesurvive thethe crisiscrisis ofof thethe periodperiod andand toto developdevelop theirtheir estatesestates inin thethe 1890s1890s.. TheThe AspillagasAspillagas acknowledgedacknowledged thatthat theythey treatedtreated thethe ChineseChinese asas virtualvirtual slaves,slaves, butbut explainedexplained thatthat itit waswas commoncommon practicepractice asas wellwell asas necessarynecessary foforr theirtheir economiceconomic survivalsurvival andand gloriousglorious future:future: ItIt isis notnot necessarynecessary toto thinkthink ofof slaveryslavery sincesince itit existsexists forfor butbut shortshort periodsperiods ofof time,time, besidesbesides wewe areare notnot thethe onlyonly ones,ones, althoughalthough theythey saysay thatthat toto followfollow thethe badbad exampleexample ofof severalseveral isis toto taketake thethe adviceadvice ofof fools,fools, butbut somesome needneed othersothers andand thisthis bringsbrings usus forwardforward asas heroesheroes whowho searchsearch forfor a suresure deathdeath inin orderorder toto livelive eternallyeternally inin ththee pagespages ofof history.164history.164 TheThe AsptllagasAspillagas alsoalso believedbelieved thatthat thethe ChineseChinese werewere raciallyracially inferiorinferior anandd thereforetherefore undeservingundeserving ofof betterbetter treatment.treatment. ThisThis waswas a commoncommon beliebelieff amongamong PeruviansPeruvians whowho werewere generallygenerally ignorantignorant ofof AsianAsian culture anandd history.history. TheThe Asptl1agasAspillagas frequentlyfrequently characterisedcharacterised ChineseChinese workersworkers aass perverse, lazy,lazy, degenerate,degenerate, andand vice-ridden.vice-ridden. TheyThey concludedconcluded thatthat thesethese 159158 ChineseChinese CommissionCommission Report,Report, 1887,1887, B.N.B.N. 160 160 AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 MayMay 1876,1876, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A;; AHAH toto AH,AH, 1212 MayMay 1891,1891, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFAFA A.. 161101 GerardoGerardo PerezPerez toto AH,AH, 2121 Oct.Oct. 1884,1884, PaltoPalto toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 162102 AHAH toto AH,AH, 2424 Jan.Jan. 1893,1893, CayaltfCayalti' toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 163103 Engelsen,Engelsen, 'Social'Social Aspects',Aspects', pp.pp. 355-95355-95.- 164104 AHAH toto AH,AH, 2828 MayMay 1878,1878, CayaltfCayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126 424424 MichaelMichael]. J. GonzalesGon^aks characteristicscharacteristics stemmedstemmed primarilyprimarily fromfrom opiumopium consumptionconsumption andand gamgam- bling.bling. ThisThis analysisanalysis waswas notnot altogetheraltogether flatteringnattering toto thethe Aspillagas,Aspillagas, 165 however,however, becausebecause theythey werewere opiumopium retailersretailers andand racehorseracehorse owners. 165 TheThe inherentinherent contradictioncontradiction inin thethe Aspillagas'Aspillagas' viewview ofof thethe ChineseChinese isis perhapsperhaps capturedcaptured bestbest inin thisthis statement:statement: TheThe ChineseChinese notnot onlyonly troubletrouble usus asas racialracial degenerates,degenerates, butbut alsoalso becausebecause theythey cacann createcreate withwith timetime veryvery seriousserious socialsocial problems,problems, sincesince they,they, bebe itit becausebecause ofof theitheirr intelligence,intelligence, oror theirtheir habits,habits, areare absorbingabsorbing allall wholesalewholesale andand retailretail businesses,businesses, eveneven haciendas.haciendas. TheyThey dodo soso withoutwithout leavingleaving anyany permanentpermanent benefitbenefit forfor thethe country,country, sincesince they,they, althoughalthough theythey couldcould bebe overover eightyeighty yearsyears old,old, onceonce theythey havehave monemoneyy 166 theythey taketake itit toto theirtheir country.166country. ForFor a ChineseChinese toto succeedsucceed inin businessbusiness duringduring thesethese troubledtroubled timestimes requiredrequired thethe skillskill andand intelligenceintelligence easilyeasily equalequal toto thatthat ofof a westernwestern capitalist.capitalist. InIn thethe end,end, PeruviaPeruviann plantersplanters stayedstayed inin businesbusinesss becausbecausee ofof theirtheir exploitationexploitation ofof ChineseChinese labour.labour. NoneNone ofof theirtheir contradictorycontradictory justificationsjustifications cancan avoidavoid thisthis conclusion.conclusion. ForFor thethe Aspl1lagas,Aspillagas, asas ambitiousambitious sonssons ofof aann emigreemigre ChileanChilean merchant,merchant, profitsprofits fromfrom CayaltiCayalti andand PaltoPalto boughtbought themthem entreeentree intointo eliteelite societysociety andand nationalnational politics.politics. OtherOther planters,planters, somesome ooff themthem citedcited forfor horrendoushorrendous abusesabuses ofof ChineseChinese workersworkers byby thethe ChineseChinese Commission,Commission, alsoalso emergedemerged asas importantimportant membersmembers ofof thethe elitistelitist CivilistaCivilista partyparty duringduring thisthis period.period. VictorVictor Larco,Larco, JoseJose IgnacioIgnacio ChopiteaChopitea andand OctavioOctavio CanevaroCanevaro areare examples.examples. AsAs forfor thethe Aspillagas,Aspillagas, allall fourfour brothersbrothers servedserved asas CivilistaCivilista congressmencongressmen andand AnteroAntero servedserved asas MinisterMinister ofof TradeTrade andand Commerce,Commerce, fourfour timestimes asas presidentpresident ofof thethe Senate,Senate, andand twicetwice stoodstood aass 167 CivilistaCivilista candidatecandidate forfor president,president, bothboth timestimes losinglosing inin disputeddisputed elections. 167 166 165 OnOn opium,opium, cf.cf. pp.pp. 27-9.27-9. 166 166 AHAH toto AH,AH, 2424 Jan.Jan. [893,1893, Cayalt{Cayalti toto Lima,Lima, AFA.AFA. 167 167 Gonzales,Gonzales, Plantation Agriculture, ch.ch. 2;2; DennisDennis Gilbert,Gilbert, TheThe OligarchyOligarchy andand thethe OldOld RegimeRegime in Peru (Ithaca,(Ithaca, NewNew York,York, 1977),1977), pp.pp. 170-1.170-1. http://journals.cambridge.org Downloaded: 04 Mar 2013 Username: staceyerdmanIP address: 131.156.159.126