APPENDICES

THE MEUCCI many thousands of souls, up to a FAMILY maximum of about ten thousand. The Religious censuses were compiled according to the order in The Religious Censuses of which the houses were blessed. If Florence’s parishes a family was not in during the first The Religious censuses were round, it was listed subsequently. actual annual censuses done by At any rate, every year almost all the parish priests of each parish parishes drew up an index of last during their pre-Easter visits to the names in alphabetical order, so houses placed under their that still today it is easy to find the jurisdiction. This work began in page on which the individual souls the pre-Lent period, that is to say were registered. six weeks prior to Easter, thus, As one can see from the 1808 generally, in February. The data religious census of the S. Frediano collected were accurately recorded parish (see p. 119), the religious on a special register (generally censuses are ordered first of all by triennial) on an individual basis, street; for each street, the houses soul by soul, as well as in a are listed according to their num- summary compendium; it was ber; then the families living in then verified and countersigned by each house are numbered, the curate who put down the date followed by the name and number on which the verification was of the souls in each family, their completed (generally in June). relationship with the head of the Naturally, the souls were family and their age (often classified according to the roughly indicated, since it merely ecclesiastical criterion, as: served to distinguish adults from Married men, Married women, impuberals). Unwed adult men (or Adult Indeed, a column follows males), Unwed adult women (or which indicates the progressive Adult females), Impuberal boys number of impuberals, whereas (under fourteen), Impuberal girls the last column indicates the (under twelve), Priests, Nuns, progressive number of adults. Heterodoxes (namely people be- longing to a different religion). At the time, a parish could count 118 Antonio Meucci

(On the left) Example of the ‘recapitulation’ of a Domiciles of Amatis Meucci Antonio is registered at the age of religious census (S. and his family one. Giuseppe, 1834) It was possible to identify most The other residences were of the domiciles thanks to the Re- traced in the various religious cen- ligious censuses of the parishes suses of the subsequent parishes they belonged to, which - thank- they belonged to, identified most fully - were always mentioned of the time through the baptisms also in the baptism, wedding and and weddings of Amatis’ children death registers and, often, also in (nine on the whole). The final police reports. In the baptism compendium is on page 120. certificate of Antonio Meucci, the As one can see, all the resi- eldest son of Amatis, son of dences of Amatis and his family Giuseppe Meucci, and Maria have been identified, up until the Domenica daughter of Luigi Pepi, time Antonio Meucci and his wife it is indicated that he was born in left for Cuba (5 October 1835), the S. Frediano quarter. However, except for the last three years. Of according to the aforementioned these, it was possible to trace only religious census of the S. Frediano the domicile of Amatis’s family in in Cestello parish of the year 1808 1834, which was on Via delle (shown here), only Amatis and his Mete, house no. 7426, in the S. wife lived on Via Chiara no. 475, Giuseppe parish; Antonio, how- whereas their son Antonio was not ever, is not included, although in registered. This can be explained the wedding certificate (dated 7 by the fact that Antonio (their August 1834) he was indicated as firstborn son) was born in April, belonging to the S. Giuseppe when the round of pre-Easter parish. Research has been con- visits - hence the census - had ducted for the three years previ- already been completed. ously mentioned in the S. Religious Census of After Antonio’s birth, Amatis Giuseppe as well as S. Michele the S. Frediano in Cestello parish of 1808 moved with the family to house Visdomini, SS. Annunziata, S. no. 765 in Via dello Studio1, under Ambrogio, S. Frediano and S. Fe- the parish of S. Maria de’ Ricci. lice in Piazza parishes, unfortu- Indeed, in the 1809 religious cen- nately with no results. sus of that parish,

1In the Florence’s State Archives, this domicile is given in Via dello Studio, house no. 759, instead of no. 765. Florence 119

Year Domicile Parish

1808 Via Chiara, 475 S. Frediano in Cestello 1809 and 1810 Via dello Studio, 765 S. Margherita de’ Ricci 1811 and 1812 Via dei Pucci, 6119 S. Michele Visdomini 1813 to 1816 Via dei Pilastri, 6766 S. Ambrogio 1817 to 1820 Via del Castellaccio, 6412 S. Michele Visdomini 1821 to 1832 Via de’ Servi, 64122 S. Michele Visdomini 1833 unknown unknown 1834 Via delle Mete, 7426 S. Giuseppe 1835 to 1838 unknown unknown 1839 unknown S. Giuseppe (Luisa’s wedding) 1840 unknown unknown 1841 Via della Salvia, 75083 S. Giuseppe (State census) 1842 to 1847 unknown unknown 1848 unknown S. Ambrogio (Luigi’s wedding) 1849 to 1855 unknown unknown 1856 Via de’ Pentolini, 71554 S. Ambrogio 1857 unknown unknown 1858 unknown S. Giuseppe (Giuseppe’s wedding) 1859 unknown unknown 1860 unknown S. Maria Novella (Fanny’s birth) 1861 to 1863 unknown unknown 1864 Via de’ Pentolini, 285 S. Ambrogio (Amatis’s death)6 1866 Via dei Pepi 45 S. Lorenzo (Ida’s birth) 1869 Via Nazionale Aretina 3 S. Lorenzo (Ugo’s birth) 1881 Via S. Antonino 24 S. Maria Novella? (Fanny’s death) 1889 Via S. Antonino 24 (Lazzeri Daria’s death) 1890 Via S. Antonino 247 S. Maria Novella (petition of inheritance)

2It is certain that the house remained the same (Casa Pasqui, thus named after its owner, who lived next door to the Meuccis), but was subsequently assigned to Via de’ Servi instead of Via del Castellaccio, since it was positioned on the corner between the two streets. This is proven by the fact that the house number remained the same. 3Currently Borgo Allegri. 4Currently Via de’ Macci, according to the papers left by Giuseppe Meucci Jr, discov- ered by Renzo Martinelli, of the Florence’s newspaper La Nazione, in 1913 (see bibl.). 5It is probably the same residence of 1856, but with the new numbering system of the Kingdom of Italy. 6The data reported below refer to the residence of Giuseppe Meucci Jr, instead of those of Amatis Meucci. 7From the Petition of inheritance presented in February 1890 by Charles Bertolino, Antonio Meucci’s testamentary executor.

119 120 Antonio Meucci

A first hypothesis is that Anto- wedding is unknown. According nio lived at the Teatro della to the aforementioned report of the Pergola and that for some reason S. Croce Police Superintendent, he was not included in the Giuseppe was supported by his ecclesiastical census. Another son Amatis. However, as he is not hypothesis is that Antonio was in listed in any religious census with hiding for political reasons. In a Amatis’ family, he must have letter written by him to his friend lived elsewhere (perhaps in the Carlo Paladini from Lucca, he country), probably alone, as he says: “… the Italy for which in ’33 had been left a widower for many and ’34 I served many months in years. prison with Guerrazzi.” Evidently, if Antonio was in prison during Amatis Meucci, son of the pre-Lent periods of 1833 and Giuseppe and Cateni Anna, was 1834, he could not be registered probably born in Florence in 1776, by the parish he belonged to. But according to the religious census in 1835 he should have been living of the S. Ambrogio parish and to somewhere with his wife Esther. the already mentioned information Perhaps they were still at the note of the S. Croce Police Theater. Superintendent dated 15 January 1829. According to Florence’s census of 1841 he would appear as Personal information on the born in 1780. According to less members of the Meucci reliable religious censuses, he was family born in 1778. At any rate, since Giuseppe Meucci (Sr.), son of Amatis’ baptism does not appear Iacopo and Stella … (illegible last in the registers of S. Maria del name), born between 1739 and Fiore between 1771 and 1775, he 1742, according to an information must be born on or after 1776. On note of the S. Croce Police Super- the basis of many documents, he intendent dated 15 January 1829 was Royal Employee by (which mentions him as being 89 profession. In the register of years of age) and to a plea for- deceased it is indicated that he warded by Amatis on 5 January died a widower and ‘poor man’ 1828 (which states that he is 86 (though ‘goldsmith’ by years old). Instead, according to profession) on 4 March 1864, at the register of the deceased of S. the age of 86 (instead of 88, which Maria Nuova (certificate no. 832), is actually more likely), in Via de’ he died on 3 November 1829, at Pentolini no. 28, in the S. Am- the age of 80; this latter informa- brogio parish. tion, however, is quite unreliable. In the same register he is defined Maria Domenica Pepi, as laborer by profession and un- daughter of Luigi and Maria … able to see. He was married to (illegible last name), was born al- Cateni Anna, but the date of their most surely in 1786, according to Florence 121 the religious censuses of the S. imation) indicated in the weddings Ambrogio parish. According to register, have mixed up Esther the register of the deceased of the with her sister Flora Maria S. Maria Nuova Hospital, she died Teresa, born on 14 July 1808 in there on 20 May 1862, at the age the S. Giuseppe quarter. Esther of 75, therefore she must have died in Clifton, Staten Island been born in the year 1787. In this (USA) on 21 December 1884. She register, it is mentioned that she was buried in the Woodlawn was ‘calzettaia’ (a woman who (today called Woodland) makes socks). From Florence’s Cemetery, on Grymes Hill, census of 1841 she would appear (around 10 km West of Clifton). as born in 1780. According to the Subsequently, her mortal remains religious censuses of the various and the funerary stele were parishes, she had nine children. transported and placed next to the ashes of her husband, at the Antonio Santi Giuseppe Garibaldi-Meucci Museum in Meucci, son of Amatis and Maria Rosebank, where they are today. Domenica daughter of Luigi Pepi, From her marriage with Antonio was born in Via Chiara, house no. Meucci apparently only one child 475, in the S. Frediano quarter, on was born in Cuba in 1844. It Wednesday 13 April 1808, at 5:00 seems that this little girl died at AM. He married Esther Mochi, in the age of six, just before the S. Maria Novella, on 7 August Meuccis moved to the United 1834. He died at Clifton, Staten States. Island (USA) on Friday 18 Octo- ber 1889, at 8:30 AM. His body Maria Maddalena Elisa was cremated and today his ashes Meucci, daughter of Amatis and are kept in the monument Pepi Maria Domenica, was born dedicated to him, which stands in on 27 September 1809 in Via dello the enclosure of the Garibaldi- Studio, 765, in the S. Margherita Meucci Museum at Rosebank, de’ Ricci parish. She died on 7 Staten Island. November 1813, at the age of four years and two months. Maria Matilde Esther Mochi, daughter of Gaetano, son of Vin- Maria Assunta Adelaide cenzo Mochi, and of Assunta Meucci daughter of Amatis and daughter of Giuseppe Papini, was Pepi Maria Domenica, was born born on 5 October 1810, at seven on 29 May 1811 in Via dei Pucci o’clock in the morning, in the S. no. 6119, in the S. Michele Ambrogio quarter. She married Visdomini parish. On 31 January Antonio Meucci in the church of 1832 she married, in the church of S. Maria Novella, in the quarter S. Giovanni della Fortezza, where she lived. At the time, her Barbadoro Pasquale, a hairdresser, father Gaetano had already passed aged 33, of S. Giovanni della away. Many authors, on account Fortezza. It is likely that she went of the age (always a rough approx- to live with her husband. In the

121 122 Antonio Meucci

wedding certificate she is said to appear either in the religious be a tailor by profession. The census of the previous year, or in possible birth of children and the that of the following year, date of her death are unknown. therefore she must have been born not prior to February 1815 and Maria Giuseppa Luisa Meucci died not later than February 1817; daughter of Amatis and Pepi hence, she was not even two when Maria Domenica, was born on 13 she died. On the other hand, the August 1813, on via dei Pilastri, years around 1816-1817 are re- house no. 2257, in the S. membered as years characterized Ambrogio quarter. She married on by famines and typhus fever epi- 28 September 1839 with Galleni demics, which claimed the lives of Ranieri, a school teacher, in the many children. Her baptism San Giuseppe parish, to which certificate has not been found in S. both of the spouses belonged. In Giovanni, the only baptismal font the wedding certificate she is in Florence up until 1940. In indicated as a housewife by addition to the Spedale degli profession (a family worker). She Innocenti, newborns could be died on 21 August 1880. This was baptized outside of the city walls, confirmed by a letter written in in some parish, or at the maternity 1891 by her brother Giuseppe to Hospital, which is where poor the editor of ‘Il Progresso Italo- women went, or where women Americano’ (quoted in its entirety were taken when delivery was in Section Four): “…Luisa Galleni particularly difficult, according to died, also in Florence, in the same what is referred by Mr. Enzo year 1880, leaving two sons, Settesoldi of the Santa Maria del Napoleone and Oreste who have Fiore Archives in Florence. It is been living in Paris for over 30 more likely that she was born at years…” One of their sons, Oreste the maternity Hospital. Galleni, an industrial entrepreneur by profession, who resided in Maria Assunta Meucci, Paris, in 1889 claimed a part of daughter of Amatis and Pepi Antonio Meucci’s inheritance, Maria Domenica, is registered in according to what is referred by the 1819 religious census of the Moncada in his unpublished San Michele Visdomini parish, at manuscript (see bibliography). the age of three (although her age is only roughly indicated). She Maria Giuseppa Meucci, does not appear in the religious daughter of Amatis and Pepi census of the previous year. In that Maria Domenica, is listed in the of the following year she is religious census of the S. indicated as deceased at the age of Ambrogio parish of 1816 as the four. Therefore, she must have youngest of Amatis’ children, been born not earlier than aged two (although her age is only February 1818 and died around roughly estimated). She doesn’t February 1820, when she was not Florence 123 even two. Also as far as this little the editor of ‘Il Progresso Italo- girl is concerned, it is likely that Americano’ (fully quoted in Sec- she was born at the maternity tion Four), we learn that “… Luigi Hospital. died in Florence in 1880, a wid- ower and childless ….” We must Giacinto Luigi Meucci, son of therefore consider incorrect the Amatis and Pepi Maria Domenica, news given by ‘La Nazione’ on 18 was born on 11 September 1814 October 1939, saying that: “Fifty and was baptized at the Spedale years ago today, Antonio Meucci degli Innocenti, where he was died … Approximately twenty presumably entrusted to public years later [therefore in 1909], charity. He was given the name two of his brothers, Florentines, Giacinto degli Innocenti (SCT - who earned a living in Florence Stato Civile Toscano f. 1473, all of their life, passed away, a few record No. 2848). On 5 April 1820 months one from the other, in the he was acknowledged as Bonifazio Hospital …” On the legitimate son of Amatis Meucci contrary, according to Giuseppe, and his wife, with a sentence Luigi died nine years before Anto- passed by the Court. According to nio Meucci. the religious censuses, he lived This was confirmed by research with Amatis’ family as of conducted by Mrs. Paola Peruzzi, (February) 1818. Therefore, he whom we have mentioned several was presumably taken out of the times, at the Florence’s State Institute a few months after his Archives. Mrs. Peruzzi found the birth and was raised thanks to a registration of the death of Luigi modest subsidy provided by the Meucci in the books of the S. Spedale, up until his acknowledg- Maria Nuova Hospital, which ment, decreed by the Court. In the reads as follows: “Meucci Giac- 1841 census, he was registered as into, widower of Teresa Serandrei, Meucci Luigi, aged 23, decorator, the son of the late Amatis and the living with his father Amatis. In late Maria Domenica Pepi, aged the weddings register he appears 63, decorator, Via Ghibellina no. as decorator by profession. On 9 60, Florence, was hospitalized on April 1848 he married Serandrei 6 April 1880, for cataracts and Teresa, innkeeper, aged 48, died on 18 October 1880. He widow of Iacopetti Giovanni. In occupied bed no. 356.” the wedding certificate (Register Furthermore, the date of Luigi’s 7, No. 94), it is stated that he be- death is consistent with the longed to the Sant’Ambrogio content of two letters sent by quarter. His wife, Serandrei Antonio Meucci to his brother Teresa, died on 29 November Giuseppe. Indeed, in one of them, 1872. In the religious censuses dated 25 February 1880, he wrote: traced, from 1818 to 1834, Luigi is “Send my regards to Gigi and Gi- always indicated as living with his gia.” Instead, in the second one, father. From a letter, written in dated 2 August 1880, he wrote: “I 1891 by his brother Giuseppe to have received your letter of 13 last

123 124 Antonio Meucci

... I am distressed to hear about heir of Antonio Meucci, with his our brother Luigi …,” which evi- residence in Via S. Antonino 24. dently refers to Luigi’s hospitalization on 6 April 1880. Roberto Lodovico Maria Meucci, son of Amatis, son of Registration of the Giuseppe Gustavo Meucci, son Giuseppe, and Pepi Maria baptisms of Luisa, Giuseppe and Roberto of Amatis and Pepi Maria Domenica, was born on 15 Meucci Domenica, was born on 23 Octo- September 1822 on Via dei Servi, ber 1818 on Via del Castellaccio, house No. 6412 (Casa Pasqui), in house No. 6412 (Casa Pasqui), in the San Michele Visdomini parish. the San Michele Visdomini parish. When he died, on 7 August 1824, Like Luigi and Luisa, he lived he was not even two. In the with his father, until the day he got archives of Florence’s Archiepis- married. According to the wed- copal Curia, it is registered that he dings register, he was employed at died at half past three in the morn- a law office. In his first daughter’s ing from convulsions. He was the baptism certificate he is mentioned ninth and last child of Amatis as copyist by profession. On 17 Meucci and Domenica Pepi. October 1858, at the age of forty, he married Maria Daria Teresa Lazzeri, daughter of Antonio and Amatis Meucci’s of the deceased Maria Lastrucci, Descendants born in Florence, milliner by pro- On the basis of what was stated fession, aged 22. Three children in the previous paragraphs, it is were born of the marriage: Fanny evident that of Amatis’ nine chil- (born in 1860, died in 1881), Ida dren, four died in early childhood, (born in 1866), and Ugo (born in the two girls who survived 1869). In fact, according to a letter (Adelaide and Luisa) married but written by Mr. Miniati, Giuseppe obviously did not hand down the Meucci’s attorney, to the president family name and, of the three boys of the Bell Co. on 16 June 1899 who survived (Antonio, Luigi and (quoted in Section Four), in that Giuseppe), only Giuseppe (aside period Giuseppe had two children, from Antonio’s little girl, who a boy and a girl, that is Ida and died at the age of six) had Ugo. Daria Lazzeri died in the children, precisely two daughters house at Via S. Antonino 24 (near (Fanny and Ida) and a son (Ugo). S. Maria Novella) on 17 June Their personal details, which were 1889, at just 52 years of age. collected with the help of Mrs. Giuseppe, instead, died in the Paola Peruzzi of the Florence’s Bonifazio Hospital, at Via S. State Archives, are illustrated Gallo 87, at 4:30 AM on 18 March hereinafter. 1909, at over 90 years of age (long-lived as well). In February Fanny Maria Vittoria Meucci, 1890, Giuseppe was named by daughter of Giuseppe, son of Carlo Bertolino as the only living Amatis, and of Lazzeri Daria, was Florence 125 born in the Santa Maria Novella Via Bonifacio Lupi 21, on 27 quarter on January 22, 1860. April 1902. Bianca never married Fanny died very young (she was and died in Florence on 20 only 21) and unmarried, in her fa- January 1962, in Via Vac- ther’s house at Via S. Antonino chereccia, 3. As regards Bianca 24, on May 31, 1881. Meucci, on 25 November 1939, Florence’s La Nazione wrote: Ida Adele Maria Meucci, “She is one, actually the only, daughter of Giuseppe son of Ama- living niece of the great inventor tis and of Lazzeri Daria, was born who was so cruelly betrayed. She in Via dei Pepi 45, on June 30, isn’t actually a direct niece, since 1866. On November 17, 1894, in she is a descendant of Giuseppe Florence, she married Umberto Meucci, Antonio’s brother. Marchionneschi, from Rosignano Giuseppe was the grandfather of Marittimo (currently Rosignano this little woman, so humble and Solvay). The couple had a daugh- yet so resigned and serene in her ter, Dina Giustina Daria Mar- misery … she owned letters, a chionneschi, who was born on photograph, and other extremely August 23, 1896, in the house of important documents … but now her paternal grandfather, in Via S. she no longer has anything … all Antonino 24. Dina died in Livorno she has is that last name … on January 7, 1990, at the age of Bianca Meucci … and a small 94, probably unmarried. Her check from the [Italian] telephone mother Ida, who had become a company. Furthermore, every now widow, remarried in September and then she receives some 1922 in Rosignano Marittimo, at subsidies from the [Italian] the age of 56. The date of her Ministry …” Always in regard to death is unknown. Bianca, Respighi (see bibl. p. 22) refers: “Some letters signed by Ugo Antonio Meucci, son of Meucci were on display at the Na- Giuseppe son of Amatis and of tional Science Exposition, in Flo- Lazzeri Daria, was born in Flo- rence (1929). These letters were rence on 1 April 1869, in Via presented by a grand niece Miss8 Nazionale Aretina 3, outside Porta Bianca Meucci and were donated S. Niccolò. On 17 November 1894 to the Istituto Superiore Postale (on the same day his sister Ida Telegrafico e Telefonico thanks to married) he married Emma Mon- the intervention of Professor Banti esi, who was born in Florence, and of the director of the although her family came from Telegraphs in Florence, Mr. Modena. According to the Baldacci …” The family tree of wedding certificate, Ugo was a The author confirms that today Amatis Meucci’s descendants salesman by profession. The these letters are on display at the couple had a daughter, Bianca Museo Storico PT in Rome, where Daria Erminia Meucci, who was born on 24 August 1895, in Via 8This confirms once again that Bianca de’ Servi 47. Ugo Meucci died in Meucci did not marry.

125 126 Antonio Meucci

all of the pieces of the Istituto Su- of the disease. This might be the periore PT were transferred in reason why, in the fifty years that June 1959, when the Museum was he was married to Esther (that is to set up. say from 1834 until Esther’s death On the contrary, on the basis of in 1884), they never had any investigations carried out by Mr. children. Gualandi in Livorno on behalf of Nevertheless, a well-informed the author, no evidence was found newspaper of Baltimore, The Sun, to confirm what was written in the in its obituary notice on Antonio issue of La Nazione dated 11 Meucci, which was published on February 1926, that is to say that: 19 October 1889, stated as fol- “… Some of Meucci’s grandchil- lows: “In 1850, Meucci came to dren live in that city [Livorno], on New York from Cuba, where his Via del Corallo, close to the only child, a girl of 6, had just Jewish cemetery. Their names are died …” Therefore, according to Vittorio and Francesco Meucci, The Sun, Antonio Meucci had only Iginia Giardini, Adriana Biagi one daughter from Esther, who and Elvira Meucci, and they all died in Cuba in 1850 at the age of live modestly …” six. The author did some difficult At any rate, they must have researching in Cuba with the aim been namesakes, descending from to trace the birth and/or death of other branches, but not from that this young girl, but with no of Amatis Meucci. success, at least at the time the To conclude, the family tree of first edition of this book was Amatis Meucci’s descendants is published. illustrated, which, as one can see, Another two (unlikely) children is extinguished with Bianca of Antonio Meucci, a boy who de- Meucci, the niece of Giuseppe clared himself legitimate, and a Meucci. girl, who proclaimed herself illegitimate, are: Carlo Meucci The Would-be Children of (registered as such at the Patti Antonio Meucci Registry Office, province of Due to the fact that Antonio Messina, Italy) born in 1872, and Meucci had contracted an Esther Mathilda Nisini, married to incipient form of syphilis at the a Mr. Grosch, born in the Meucci age of 21, it seems likely that, home on 12 April 1885. although he could continue to Hereunder, we provide the have regular sexual relations, he information that is available on the was probably left with some two. Carlo Meucci in 1962 degree of infertility9, on account Carlo Meucci declared that he was the legitimate son of Antonio 9Note that infertility is not the same as Meucci and of Esther Mochi, al- sterility (i.e. the inability to conceive a child under any circumstances). With in- fertility, the possibility to conceive a Mayo Clinic Family Health Book, CD- child has by no means ruled out [from ROM by IVI Publishing Inc.]. Florence 127 though he was born when the pre- shore. When he returned to Italy, it sumed mother was sixty-two and is likely that his documents had to the presumed father sixty-three; be re-drafted, on the basis of his furthermore, at the time, the latter statements and of witnesses. The (Esther) had been semi-paralyzed journalists who interviewed him in for over ten years. A journalist 1952 and in 1962 refer that he who interviewed him in 1962 worked as junk dealer in Tindari refers that Carlo Meucci was born and in other towns nearby, in the on 3 November 1872 (another Messina province (Sicily), and journalist stated that he was born that he bore a certain physical in 1873) in Clifter, Long Island resemblance with Antonio Meucci (sic!), from Antonio Meucci and although, quite frankly, it doesn’t Esther Machi (or, according to an- seem so to us. other journalist, from Antonio The author did some research at Meucci and Esther Magri) and the Registry Office of the Patti that at the age of eleven months he Municipality (Messina), of which was entrusted to a Giovanna Tindari is a division, and found Gullotta from Villa San Giovanni that Carlo Meucci was registered who was to take him back to Italy there as being born in New York with her, in order to save him from (not in Clifton or Clifter) on 3 the ‘Mano Nera’ (the black November 1872 from Antonino hand)10 which had threatened and Esther Mochi, and having died Antonio Meucci to kidnap his in the Patti Municipality on 19 presumed son. Carlo Meucci June 1966 at the age of almost 94. returned to the United States in Moreover, according to the same 1893, according to him, to look for Registry Office, it appears that up his father, and discovered that he until 13 June 1957, he resided in had died four years before. It is the nearby Municipality of also referred that twelve years Sant’Agata di Militello. In turn - later, precisely on 12 September according to the Municipality of 1915, the ship which was taking Sant'Agata di Militello, where he Carlo Meucci back to Italy, the is registered as the son of Sant’Anna, was wrecked off the Antonino and of Magrì Esther, coast of the Azores Islands, and married to Preghiere (?) Anna in Carlo Meucci miraculously saved Venice in 1922, and traveling junk himself by swimming back to the dealer by profession - he resided on Via Bottego 2, as of 15 June 1942, and he came from 10 The Mano Nera was an association of Barcellona Pozzo di Gotto delinquents, which was widespread in Sicily as well as among the Sicilians in (Messina). The data available at New York; their mark was precisely a the latter Municipality are the black hand. It apparently originated be- same, except for the last name of tween 1873 and 1883, as a Spanish anar- his wife, which is Preghieri chical sect. Subsequently, it spread and instead of Preghiere. Previously, became ill-famed on account of the fact that its members had often eluded the Carlo Meucci was registered as law. residing in Marsala (Trapani),

127 128 Antonio Meucci

from 21 April 1936 to 7 July 1941, him. Furthermore, at the Museo with similar registry data; more Storico PT of Rome, a peculiar ce- precisely, he was registered as ramic tile is on display, which was born on 4 November 1872, instead donated to the museum by Carlo of 3 November 1872; furthermore, Meucci. The tile reads: it is said that he married Marianna Pugliese (not Preghiere) in 1921, “My father Antonio Meucci, and came from Mazara del Vallo born in Florence in 1808, invented (Trapani). Here, however, traces the telephone, a precursory and are lost, since the Municipality of eminent discovery which, by re- Mazara del Vallo notified the au- ducing distances, increases and thor that it has no registry data favors human relationships. How- prior to the year 1954. ever, my father didn’t benefit from According to research con- his invention, for, as he was in ducted at the Patriarchal Curia and need, he sold the project and an at the Historical Archives of the American company set up tele- Venice Municipality Registry Of- phones everywhere. Desperate, fice, no marriage of Carlo Meucci after a vain struggle to claim his and Preghiere or Preghieri or right, he died in exile in 1889 in a Pugliese, Anna or Marianna, was hovel in Clifton. ever registered here at the time Only in 1904, with a sentence considered. passed by the United States Finally, the New York City De- Cassation, which I was able to partment of Records and In- for- obtain, my father was mation Services - Municipal acknowledged as the inventor of Archives, upon request of the au- the telephone, when - a trick of thor, issued a certificate in which fate - the patent had expired. it is stated that no-one by the name Having lost all my savings and the of Carlo Meucci is registered, few dollars I had in the wreck of either in the Manhattan registers the ship that was taking me back or in the Staten Island ones, as home, I live here in destitution born on any day of 1872 or 1873. with my wife. One of the above-mentioned April 1960 Carlo Meucci journalists stated that Carlo (reproduction forbidden)” Meucci “Reached Messina after many hardships, in 1922.” Needless to say, except for the Nothing is known as to where he first introductory sentence and the lived from the time of the last one regarding the miserable shipwreck of the Sant’Anna conditions of Carlo Meucci and (1915) until 1922, although it his wife, the rest seems to be would be interesting to verify the entirely made up. In conclusion, it registry data of his first residence seems quite likely that the would- in Italy. In the appendix of be Carlo Meucci invented a false Capelvenere’s book (see bibl.), identity; surely the date and place some ten pages are dedicated to of birth, and the year and place of Florence 129 marriage are false, and, middle). After a few years, the consequently, so are the names of Nisinis left Ellicot City and went his father and mother. It also to Staten Island where they lived seems strange that Antonio on Bay Street, in front of the gas Meucci never mentioned him in tank. There, they had a second his will, which we illustrate in full daughter, around 1880. She was hereinafter. named Cornelia (Lillie) Garibaldi, the one to the right in the Esther Mathilda Nisini photograph. Evidently, Cesare Grosch, the legitimate daughter of Nisini adored Garibaldi, for he Cesare Pasquale Nisini and named two of his daughters Mathilda Julienne Marie Dotzler, (actually three, if one includes the was born on 12 April 1885 in An- first Anita, who died) after him or tonio Meucci’s cottage in Clifton, his wife. Anita, Mathilda and Staten Island (USA), according to We don’t know exactly when Cornelia Nisini a statement released by herself to the Nisinis went to live in the Daniel Santoro on 18 April 1940. Meucci home. Perhaps (in ex- Her legitimate father was Italian change for lodging) they moved and had married a French woman there to assist the Meuccis also by the name of Mathilda Julienne during the night; Esther required Marie Dotzler in France on 17 Oc- particular care, because she was tober 1863. There, the Nisini almost paralyzed and was forced spouses had a daughter, Anita (or to spend most of her time in bed. Annita), who, however, died in a Daniel Santoro (see bibl., p. 144) fire. On 26 July 1872, the Nisinis states that in 1888 Cesare Nisini emigrated to Montreal (Canada), officially lived with Antonio where Mr. Nisini ran a cigar shop. Meucci. We also have a photo- Shortly thereafter, they emigrated graph of 1887, taken on the porch from Canada to the United States of the Meucci cottage, which and were hired by an Italian shows Meucci with the little family in Hoboken, New Jersey; Mathilda next to him and, some Mr. Nisini worked as a gardener, distance away, Mathilda’s mother while Mrs. Nisini worked as a and a maid, named Elizabeth. It cook. A few years later they also seems sure that Mathilda was moved to Ellicott City, MD, where born after Esther’s death (which they had a daughter, whom they occurred on 21 December 1884), also named Anita (or Annita) - the precisely on 12 April 1885, in a one to the left in the photograph - room in Meucci’s cottage, located born, perhaps, around 1876, if one on the eastern side of the house, trusts a rough evaluation based on opposite Garibaldi’s room, the lat- the comparison of the physical ter being occupied by Antonio aspect of the three sisters, as they Meucci at the time (see Santoro’s appear in the photograph, taking sketch in which, however, as reference the year of birth Garibaldi’s room is incorrectly (1885) of Mathilda (the youngest; positioned behind the one in the photograph, she is in the occupied by Meucci, whereas it

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was actually the same room). The “I hereby certify, that I was little girl was named Esther born in the Meucci cottage on the Mathilda, in honor of Antonio above date [12 April 1885, Edi- Meucci’s wife who had recently tor’s note]], and that I lived there passed away. until shortly after Meucci’s death Therefore, one must deduce on 18 October 1889. that the Nisinis went to live with My father died in February the Meuccis prior to 1885 and 1901, at his home, No. 61 Penn- perhaps before 6 March 1884 sylvania Ave. Rosebank; (date of Meucci’s first will). according to a bill for mortuary After Antonio Meucci’s death, services rendered by Martin the Nisinis had to leave the Hughes the undertaker, which is cottage, for it was immediately dated February 28, 1901, his body taken over by three curators, as we was cremated at Fresh Ponds L.I. shall see later on, in order to turn - the cost of funeral was 112.05 it into a historical landmark. dollars. Therefore, the Nisinis went to live My mother died at my house at on 61 Pennsylvania Avenue 29-28, 70th Road, Forest Hills, (currently Hylan Boulevard), Long Island, on December 31, Rosebank, Staten Island. Cesare 1928. Nisini died here on 14 February About two weeks before she 1901. When his daughter Mathilda died, my mother, who was sitting Esther married a Mr. Grosch, Mrs. up in the living room of my house, Nisini went to live with her and called me and said ‘Mathilda, I stayed there until she died, on 31 feel that I am not going to live December 1928. Since Cesare very long - I have something to tell Nisini had died twenty years you - something which I have before his wife, one might deduce never before told anyone - it has that he was much older than her always remained a secret, (perhaps he was the same age as unshared by anyone. You look and Antonio Meucci). act different than your sisters, as In 1936, architect Daniel San- you have said on different toro, the founder of the Staten Is- occasions - that is true, because land Italian Historical Society, you are only a half sister to your tried to get in touch with Mrs. sisters, you are Antonio Meucci’s Esther Mathilda Grosch, in order daughter - I was Meucci’s to recover some of the belongings sweetheart, that’s why you are so of Meucci and Garibaldi that had good natured and intelligent, and been passed on to Mrs. Grosch by quick to grasp any intricate her mother. On that occasion, proposition. I am telling you this Santoro made an exceptional as I feel that I have little time to finding. Indeed, here is the live, and that you should know statement released to him by who your real father was.’ I give Esther Mathilda Grosch on 24 this statement to Mr. Daniel San- April 1940: toro, to use as and when seems fit. Florence 131 [Signed]Mrs. Esther Mathilda lived with the Meuccis …” were Grosch, daughter of Cesare then put up for auction. Therefore, Nisini.” on the basis of Antonio Meucci’s In another statement, released last will, one has the clear feeling in the same period to Daniel that he had a true and sincere af- Santoro himself, Esther Mathilda fection for Cesare Nisini (his wife Grosch stated, among other things: isn’t even mentioned in the will, “Everything belonging to whereas “the gentle wife of Anto- Meucci and Garibaldi came to me nio Lazzari” is mentioned) and for from my mother after her death the three little girls, without par- being that I was named after ticular preference for Mathilda, Meucci’s wife, Esther. Mr. Meucci who later declared to be the god- was my Godfather.” daughter and illegitimate daughter Also this story, about a second of Antonio Meucci, whereas the (illegitimate) daughter of Antonio latter declares that his goddaughter Meucci, seems unlikely to us. was Annita. Indeed, in his first will (drawn Moreover, it isn’t plausible that up on 6 March 1884 and reported Meucci returned Cesare Nisini’s in full at the end of this appendix), friendship by having an adulterous Antonio Meucci left a legacy of affair with his wife, furthermore 100 dollars for “Annita Nisini, allowing the name of his deceased daughter of Cesare Nisini, of wife, Esther Mathilda, to be given whom I am the godfather.” There- to the child born from such an af- fore, Meucci had expressed prefer- fair. Instead, it is likely that Nisini ence for the oldest (living) daugh- himself named his daughter Esther ter of Cesare Nisini, a man who Mathilda as a token of his affec- was surely a friend to Meucci. In tionate solidarity to Antonio his last will (drawn up a few days Meucci, who had been deprived of before his death, on 13 October his wife, who had recently died. 1889), Meucci left 100 dollars “to This without bearing into account the three minor daughters of Mr. that when Esther Mathilda was Cesare Nisini, named Annita born, Antonio Meucci was already Nisini, Cornelia Nisini and 77 years old and his wife had been Mathilda Nisini, until each of the deceased for a few months. daughters have respectively come It is therefore likely that these of age …”; furthermore, “… as a statements were a form of self- legacy and a token of friendship exaltation which, however, also for the affectionate care devoted seems to have passed on to Mrs. to me, to Cesare Nisini I leave my Grosch’s descendants, as can be charcoal-pencil portrait signed ‘L. deduced from a short article which Bistolfi, 1884.’” appeared on ‘The Philadelphia Plan of Meucci’s Finally, according to Moncada Enquirer’ some twenty years after cottage, drawn by D. Santoro (notice the (see bibl., p. 144), after the death the above-mentioned interview, room where Mathilda of Antonio Meucci “… the objects which says, among other things: Esther Nisini was born) left temporarily in custody to Mr. “Alexander Graham Bell is a dirty Enrico [read Cesare] Nisini who name around my house. My

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parents always taught me that my street they were on, but with refer- great uncle, Antonio Meucci, ence to the entire city, for the so- really invented the telephone. Are called Napoleonic numbering sys- they right? - Mrs. D. P. tem was in force, which was pro- Swedesboro, NJ.” It would be gressive for the houses of the en- interesting to verify whether this tire city of Florence. It began from Mrs. D.P. Swedesboro from New current Piazza della Signoria (at Jersey was a descendant of Mrs. the time Piazza del Granduca) and Grosch from Long Island, but just ended in Via de’ Benci, not far out of curiosity. from said Piazza. Therefore, in old Meucci with friends and The two stories we have illus- Florence there were houses with with little Mathilda at the Caprera Garden trated above in detail prove, numbers even greater than 20,000. (1887) regardless of whether they are true Only after 1863 (following the or not, that Antonio Meucci was Unity of Italy) was the Napoleonic esteemed and appreciated by system abolished and replaced by Italians in America - and not by the modern numbering system. them alone - after his death, as Furthermore, it appears that during much as, and perhaps even more the first decade of the past century than when he was alive. To be the the Napoleonic numbering system children of Antonio Meucci, was reviewed; therefore, the same whether legitimate or illegitimate, house had two Napoleonic num- must have filled them and their bers in subsequent periods (prior mothers, evidently, with pride; to the modern numbering system). thus, one can understand even the The first series of Napoleonic invention of such stories, with numbers was assigned by the in- implications on the late virility of dividual parishes (indeed, they Antonio Meucci. were often called parish numbers). On the other hand, the reader Looking at the registration of will certainly be familiar with the 1808 San Frediano religious similar situations, referred by the census - transcribed and illustrated press today - as always, and in all hereunder11, for the reader’s con- parts of the world - in which venience - one can easily under- famous celebrities are attributed stand how many authors mixed up false paternities, since it is obvious the house number with the family that a scandal, however number. Indeed, Umberto Bianchi insignificant, involving them is a (see bibl.) as well as others stated … scoop. that the house where Meucci was born was perhaps Via Chiara no. 128, although this number, accord- The home where Antonio ing to the archives, was situated in Meucci was born a completely different part of First of all, it is worth remind- ing that, at the time considered (1808), the houses in Florence 11The photograph of this religious cen- weren’t numbered according to the sus, though barely legible, is shown on p. 119. Florence 133 town. The mistake made by said was number 128 (and not house authors is evident if one reads the number 128), while the other three religious census carefully. families were respectively Moreover, if they were right, only numbered 129, 130 and 131. one family lived in a house. If, House number 476 follows, with instead, the religious census is other families, numbers 132, 133, read correctly, the following and so on. information can be found: that the The first, in chronological or- house number is 475; that four der, who, as far as we know, con- families lived at such a number, ducted accurate research on the three of which were comprised of house where Antonio Meucci was only a husband and wife, while the born, was Renzo Martinelli (see fourth family was comprised of bibl.). five people; that Amatis’ family

Religious Census of the Collegiate and Parish Church of San Frediano in Cestello of the year 1808. == Via Chiara ==

475 128 Amatis son of Gius.e Meucci 35 373 Mª Domca daughter of Luigi Donnini 25 374 129 Ferdinando son of the late Domco Casini 61 375 Teresa daughter of the late Mariano Faraoni 52 376 130 Luigi son of Giov. Batt. Cistalesi 24 377 Maddalena daughter of Ferdinando Casini 22 378 131 Maria Anna daughter of the late Pietro Baldoni, widow of Paolo Cartieri 50 379 Gius.e son of Francesco Ciancolini 40 380 Luisa daughter of the late Giov. Batt. Bellagamba 40 381 Maria daughter 19 382 David son 11 121 i 476 132 Mr. Franco son of the late Giorgio Ferosa 53 383 Mrs. Caterina daughter of the late Felice Ulivetti 46 384 Ferdinanda daughter 16 385 Nunziata daughter of Gaetano Materassi, maid 24 386

Mr. Martinelli, having realized comprised between Via del that house number 128 was situ- Campuccio and Via ated in a completely different part Sant’Agostino12) and was told that of town, checked in the municipal archives all of the house numbers 12Notice that today, there exists a Via S. of the very short Via Chiara Chiara in a completely different area of (which coincided with the section Florence. Under the S. Frediano jurisdic- of the current Via de’ Serragli tion, in the surroundings of Via Chiara, there were: Via dei Camaldoli, Via del

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the house number must have been Martinelli also says (and in this he 2722. Indeed, Martinelli writes: is wrong) that the registration Via “Mr. Alfonso Alferni… secretary Chiara no. 2722 was found in the of the Municipality Registry San Frediano in Cestello religious Office, assisted me. He, who is an census of 1808 and confirms this expert in all that concerns the in his other article of 1939, in streets of Florence, has consulted which he recalls the research con- books and catalogues and has ducted by him in 1913. Further- been able to tell me - with more, he calls Via Chiara ‘Via scrupulous accuracy - that the Chiara del Goldoni.’ But the house, which in 1808 was Teatro Goldoni, situated on the numbered 2722, is currently corner of Via Chiara and Via number 44, and is owned by Mrs. Santa Maria, was opened in April Minucci Beatrice nel Caselli …” 1817, therefore this Via Chiara couldn’t be called Via Chiara del Goldoni in 1808, although it may have taken this name subsequently.

Campuccio, Via della Nonziatina, and a section of the current Via dei Serragli - from parish number 514 to 545 and from 594 to 616. Florence 135

Photograph (above) and transcription (to Religious Census of the Collegiate and Parish Church the right) of the S. Frediano in Cestello of San Frediano in Cestello of the year 1809. religious census of == Via Chiara == 1809 2723 181 … … 2722 182 Franco son of the late Giuseppe Bracciolini 69 367 Anna daughter of the late Cristoforo Fondrizzi? wife 55 368 Maria daughter 29 369 Margherita daughter 23 370 Vittoria daughter 19 371 Santi son 16 372 Giovanni [impuberal] son 13 126 183 Ferdinando son of the late Domco Casini 62 373 Teresa daughter of the late Mariano Faraoni, wife 53 374 184 Luigi son of Giov. Battista Cistalesi 25 375 Maddalena daughter of Ferdinando Casini, wife 23 376 2721 185 … …

From all this one can deduce Note in the last column that the that the number 2722 must have progressive number of impuberals been given when Florence’s differs from the progressive houses were re-numbered accord- number of adult souls. ing to the new Napoleonic system, On behalf of the Author, Mrs. which was introduced in 1809. Paola Peruzzi also accurately This hypothesis is confirmed by checked that no. 2722 of Via research conducted by Mrs. Paola Chiara in 1809 and today’s no. 44 Peruzzi, of the Florence State of Via de’ Serragli are indeed the Archives, for the author; by com- same house. In fact, Via Chiara paring the religious census of the changed name and house numbers year 1808 with that of 1809, Mrs. in 1863, as was confirmed by fol- Peruzzi has proven that house lowing the same families in the re- number 475 (temporarily assigned ligious censuses of the San Fredi- by the S. Frediano parish in 1808) ano parish, before and after said indeed became 2722 in 1809. Be- date (see the photographs below). low is a transcription of San Fredi- Mrs. Peruzzi also observed that, ano in Cestello’s 1809 religious on average, four families have al- census. One can see that, after the ways lived at that address. In fact, Meuccis moved out, the Casini the photograph of the small door and Cistalesi families (whose on Via de’ Serragli no. 44 (which members, needless to say, were appears in the main text) shows one year older than in 1808) that there are still four doorbells, remained in the same building. hence four apartments. In the

135 136 Antonio Meucci

wake of investigations conducted respectively. One can easily by Mrs. Marica Cassola of the observe that the same families - Florence Municipality Historical Farini, Grassi, Giovannini and Archives, it was confirmed that Ammannati - registered in 1862 at the house numbers and the Via Chiara 2722 are registered in structure of the buildings in Via 1866 at Via de' Serragli 44, de’ Serragli have remained thereby proving beyond any doubt unchanged since 1863, the only that the two addresses correspond exception being some to the same building. Correspondence restructuring work to the Teatro As was stated previously, the between Via Chiara 2722 and Via de’ Goldoni on Via de’ Serragli. change of name and numbers Serragli 44 The pictures shown hereinafter occurred in 1863, but the religious refer to two religious censuses of census of that year is not as the San Frediano in Cestello readable as that of 1866, shown parish dated 1862 and 1866, hereunder. Florence 137 Antonio Meucci’s first will into cash, as I give and bequeath (drawn in English, 6 March 1884) the same as follows. To pay onto Matilde Brignoli, I Antonio Meucci, son of the who is now employed as a servant late Amatis, a native of Florence, girl in my house, the sum of One Italy, and now, since many years a Hundred Dollars ($100.00) citizen of the United States of To pay unto Annita Nisini of America, residing in Clifton, whom I am God father, daughter Staten Island in the State of New of Cesare Nisini, the sum of One York, being of sound mind and Hundred Dollars ($100.00) memory and considering the To pay one half of all the re- uncertainty of the human life, do mainder of the proceeds of my hereby make, publish and declare said property to my beloved wife this to be my last will and Ester Meucci to take place in lieu testament. of dower and of all the claims she I nominate and appoint my may have against my estate, for friends Carlo Bertolino and her own disposal & forever. Michele Lemmi, both of the city of To pay the remaining one half New York, to be the executors and of the proceeds of my said prop- trustees of this my last will and erty unto my beloved brothers testament, for them to receive and Giuseppe Meucci, Luigi Meucci take into possession all of my and sister Luigia Meucci who are properties, both real, personal and all in Italy, in equal part to each mixed, and in their good judge- of them, and in the event that any ment to sell and convert the same of them should be dead, to their in cash money, giving and be- igene (if any) per stirpes [line of queathing into my said executors descendants, Editor’s note]. all of my said properties in trust In the event that my beloved for the following purposes; to wit, wife Ester should die before my I direct my executors that, when decease, then to pay the entire re- I shall be dead, they shall dispose mainder of the proceeds of my that any funeral shall be very said property unto my said modest, and that my body shall be brothers Giuseppe and Luigi, and cremated as they may deem best, sister Luigia at equal share to and that my ashes shall be each of them, or, should any of distributed by them to my heirs in them be dead at that time to their equal proportions. igene per stirpes. After all my lawful debts, fu- And I authorize my said execu- neral cremating expenses shall tors to select after my decease have been paid and discharged, I among my wearing apparel and direct my said executors to furniture of my house any thing or dispose of the rest, residue and object that they may choose and remainder of the proceeds of my keep the same, as I hereby give said property, after it is converted and bequeath it to them as a sou- venir in token of my friendship and in addition to the percentage or

137 138 Antonio Meucci

interest allowed to them by law on Richmond, State of New York, in my estate as executors of this my the house known as “Garibaldi last Will and Testament. Homestead,” at two o’clock p.m. In Witness whereof I have I, Giovanni Paolo Nobile Riva, hereunto subscribed my name and General Consul of His Royal affixed my seal in presence of the Majesty the King of Italy at the hereinafter subscribed by me re- New York residence, having come quested witnesses this sixth day of to the above indicated place ex- March A. D. Eighteen hundred pressly on request of Mr. Antonio and eighty four (1884) Meucci, and there in the presence Antonio Meucci Testator of Lemmi Michele, son of the late The aforegoing written instru- Fortunato, born in Livorno, ment was subscribed by the said domiciled in New York, serving as Antonio Meucci in our presence Secretary of the Chamber of and acknowledged by him to each Commerce of Italy, of us: and he at the same time de- Oldrini Alessandro son of the clared the above instrument so late Luigi, born in Milan, resident subscribed to be his last Will and in New York, Professor of litera- Testament; and We at his request ture, in his presence, and in the Pacini Agostino son of presence of each other, have Bonaventura, born in Livorno, signed our names as witnesses domiciled in New York, a wood hereto and written opposite our sculptor, names our respective place of Rigali Pilade, son of the late residence. Antonio, born in Barga in the Thr Alexander Jr, West 154th St province of Lucca, domiciled in New York City New York, stucco worker. Angelo Bertolino, 234 East 85th All four witnesses well known, Street N.Y. City eligible, and in possession of the Otto Heidenheimer, qualities prescribed by the law, 62 West 37 Street and appointed for the purpose. I have found Antonio Meucci son of the late Amatis, born in The second and last will of Florence, domiciled in Clifton, Antonio Meucci Stated Island, mechanic and (drawn in Italian, 13 October electrician by profession, lying ill 1889) in his bed, but of sound mind. In the presence of the above- His Majesty Umberto I, reign- indicated witnesses, he declared ing for the Grace of God and the as follows: will of the Nation King of Italy, in that at a time which he didn’t the year 1889, on the 13th of the recall exactly, but which must month of October, in Clifton, have been around the years 1880 Staten Island, in the County of or 1881, he had made his will by Florence 139 public deed in the presence of a specifically the one that carries public notary who exercised in the name of the beneficiary. New York, Mr. Angelo Bertolino, I intend for all the documents whose office is situated at 35 that concern me and that will be Broadway, in the archives of found in my house, correspon- which the will is kept. dence, diplomas, manuscripts, ac- That to that last will, he intends counts and any other paper, to be to add, like with the present public handed over to the Government of deed does, the following codicil - the Reign of Italy. which must have full effect and I declare that, outside of these force. provisions as indicated above, I I intend and provide that what I confirm and validate in all its had left with the aforementioned parts the will that exists at the will to Mrs. Matilde Brignole, the office of the Notary A. Bertolino, wife of Luigi Succi, and to Mrs. as I intend this codicil’s Maria de Gregorio, since both of provisions to have full effect and them have died, the total sums that force. were respectively destined to both As requested, I, R. Consul have shall be given to the minor three received and extended the present daughters of Mr. Cesare Nisini, public deed which, after its read- named Annita Nisini, Cornelia ing, was confirmed by the testator Nisini and Matilde Nisini, until in all its parts, and was signed by each of the daughters has respec- the latter together with the above- tively come of age. indicated witnesses and the pro- As a legacy and token of friend- ceeding office. ship for the affectionate care given Signed by: me I leave to Cesare Nisini my Antonio Meucci charcoal-pencil portrait signed L. Bistolfi, 1884. Michele Lemmi, witness I wish for all of the objects that Alessandro Oldrini, witness make up my heredity to be auc- Agostino Pacini, witness tioned, with the exception of the Pilade Rigali, witness ones for which specific indications The R. General Consul: are provided in the will which is signed G.P. Riva Portrait of Meucci, kept by Notary A. Bertolino. charcoal drawing done by L. Bistolfi in 1884 I wish for my body to be cre- Bibliography mated, and the ashes must be (Editorial), In margine a un given to the Società dei Reduci cinquantenario, La Casa di Meucci, La delle Patrie Battaglie, in New Nazione, Florence, 21 October 1939 (The author is probably the same Renzo York, of which I was appointed Martinelli who wrote the article dated honorary president with a diploma 1913) dated 28 May 1888. (Editorial), Morto il sedicente figlio I leave as a legacy to the gentle dell’ideatore del telefono, La Nazione, wife of Antonio Lazzari residing in Firenze, 24 June 1996 Clifton, one of the two rustic arm- chairs lined with wool, and

139 140 Antonio Meucci

(Editorial), Una pura gloria fiorentina. she states that she is the illegitimate child Antonio Meucci e le sue vicende, La of Antonio Meucci, 24 April 1940, kept at Nazione, Florence, 11 February 1926, p.5 the Staten Island Historical Society, (Editorial), [about a Meucci’s descendant Richmondtown Restoration, S.I. in N.J.], unknown date, but after 1958, as Josca, P., Il figlio novantenne di Antonio it mentions Schiavo’s Book. Clipping Meucci - Dall’inventore del telefono ha supplied by P.L. Bargellini ereditato solo infelicità, Corriere della Arcivescovado di Firenze, Stradario Sera, 20 December 1962 Sinottico per Alfabeto Rigoroso della Martinelli, R., Una gloria fiorentina, Città di Firenze, Tipografia Vescovile, Antonio Meucci. L’inventore del telefono Florence, 1856 - Il “principale” di Garibaldi [also: The Bianchi, U., La Rivendicazione di una house where Meucci was born], La Gloria Italiana, A. Meucci, Tipografia Nazione, Florence, 7 May 1913 Camera dei Deputati, Rome, 1923 Moncada, F., Antonio Meucci Capelvenere, F., Antonio Meucci, Storia L’Inventore del telefono, Unpublished di un’ingiustizia, Newton Compton manuscript of 215 pages, without Editori s.r.l., Rome, 1989 pictures, dated 15 April 1933, kept at the Cassola, M., Private communications to Staten Island Historical Society, the Author, Florence 1991-1992 Richmondtown Restoration, S.I. Celso Calzolai, C., L’Archivio Perotti, G., Antonio Meucci non ebbe figli Arcivescovile Fiorentino, Rassegna [letter in which it is stated that the Italian Storica Toscana, Y. III, No. II, 1955, pp. PT Ministry conducted research on the 127-181 paternity of Carlo Meucci with negative Comune di Firenze, Stradario Storico e results], Corriere della Sera, 20 April Amministrativo della Città e del Comune 1963 di Firenze, Florence, 1929 Peruzzi, P., Reports to B. Catania on Deposition of Antonio Meucci, rendered research carried out at the Florence 7 December 1885 through 13 January State Archives and at the S. Frediano 1886, National Archives and Records Parish, Florence, 1991-1993 Administration, Northeast Region, New Respighi, L., Il telefono e Ia priorità di A. York, NY - Records of the US Circuit Meucci, Edizioni Italiane, Rome, 1939 Court for the Southern District of New Richmond Surrogate’s Court, Testament York - The American Bell Telephone Co. of Antonio Meucci, in English, 1884, et al. vs. The Globe Telephone Co. et al. March 6; - Codicil, in Italian, with Also ‘Deposition of Antonio Meucci,’ translation in English, 1889, Oct. 13; - New York Public Library (Annex) Certificate of death, Oct. 18, 1889, h. Direzione Provinciale P.T. di Firenze, 8.30 AM; - Petition of Carlo Bertolino, Registry research on Antonio Meucci, executor of testament, 1890, Feb. 26, Letter to the P.T. Headquarters (Rome), Surrogates Court, Richmond County, dated 16 April 1959 N.Y., P 2158 Favoino di Giura, G., Il Vero Inventore Santoro, D., A history of the Italians on del Telefono, Antonio Meucci, Cocce Staten Island, manuscript dated 23 March Press, New York, N.Y. (USA), 1940 1940, kept at the Staten Island Historical Frisoli, G., Quest’uomo che vive con 300 Society, Richmondtown Restoration, S.I. lire al giorno è iI figlio di Meucci, Santoro, D., Interview with Mrs. l’inventore del telefono, Epoca, 5 August Mathilda Esther Grosch, Forest Hills, 1962, pp. 20-23 L.I., 18 April 1940, kept at the Staten Ghiglione, E., Il Figlio di Meucci [letter Island Historical Society, Richmondtown which states that the results of the Restoration, S.I. research conducted to establish Carlo Santoro, D., Letter to D. Wallace, 15 Meucci’s paternity were negative], May 1935, kept at the Staten Island Corriere della Sera, 2 January 1963 Historical Society, Richmondtown Grosch, Mathilda Esther (maiden name Restoration, S.I. Nisini), Interview to D. Santoro in which Florence 141

Settesoldi, E., Private communication to cianfrusaglie lacero e povero nelle strade the Author on baptisms administered in di Messina, Il Progresso Italo-Americano, Florence, at S. Maria del Fiore, 29 May 1952 Florence, 1991-1993 Spani, G., Il figlio dell’inventore del Telefono fa il venditore ambulante di

141 142 Antonio Meucci

LIST OF From: Antonio Meucci, to: DOCUMENTS AND Most Illustrious Sir Cavati, President of the Buon Governo TRANSCRIPTIONS Asks to be appointed Assistant Gatekeeper, as a place has In the following, a summary (in become vacant. italics) is given for each Florence State Arch. N. 196 document, as well as its rough location in the archives. More 12 May 1824 precise indications are given in the From: President of the Buon General Bibliography of Vol. One. Governo, to: General Adm. of the Wherever a transcription is RR. Revenues cc. Chief Gate- available, either it is indicated in keeper which page it can be found or is A place as Assistant given after the summary, within Gatekeeper has become vacant, quotation marks. following the death of Giuseppe Sani; the “supernumerary” 3 October 182313 Antonio Meucci is appointed From: President of the Buon Florence State Arch. N. 261 Governo, to: Gio. Boldrini, Chief 12 May 1824 Gatekeeper; cc. General Adm. of From: General Adm. of the the RR. Revenues Royal Revenues Alessandro Pon- Luigi Ficini and Antonio tenani, to: Most Illustrious Sir Meucci nominated to take over the Prone Colmo, cc. Sir Knight Pres- vacant posts of Gatekeeper ident of the Buon Governo Supernumerary The above order is received [see transcription on page 33] and provides instructions for the Florence State Arch. N. 45 related allowance 4 October 1823 Florence State Arch. N. 262 From: General Adm. of the RR. 14 April 1825 Revenues Alessandro Pontenani, From: Presidency of the Buon to: President of the Buon Governo Governo (?), to: S. Spirito Police The above order is received Superintendent and confirms to have provided Requests specific information instructions for the related on Antonio Meucci’s allowance responsibility in the accident Florence State Arch. N. 54 involving his colleague Ficini at … October 1823 the Porta San Niccolò, which occurred on April 10, and on Antonio Meucci’s general conduct also off duty 13It may be interesting to note that, in the [see transcription on page 45] original Italian documents, the months Florence State Arch. N. 578, 2 are often indicated as 7bre (September), pp. 8bre (October), 9bre (November), Xbre (December). 26 April 1825 Florence 143 From: Presidency of the Buon All eight are charged with the Governo (?), to: S. Spirito Police wounding of and offenses against Superintendent Vincenzo Lascialfare, Domenico Attached to Ficini’s plea for a Spuntoni, Isabella Gargiotti, Gio- subsidy; requests an opinion vanni Cantini, Carlotta Florence State Arch. N. 593 Cinganelli, Maria Antonia Sati, 16 May 1825 Carlo Lamberti and Giuseppe From: Auditor Director of Case Colzi. Proceedings — Report, Delibera- Incident tion14 In the auspicious circumstance Reckless firing of rockets from of the joyful birth of the child of the merlons of the Palazzo the August Consort of His Royal Vecchio occurred on 4 April 1825. and Imperial Highness the Grand Antonio Meucci is held Duke our Lord, Jubilant fireworks responsible. were fired in the usual venue, the Florence State Arch. N. 74 ÷ N. Palazzo Vecchio, on the evenings 99, 50 pp. of April 2, 3 and 4, of this year. This welcomed display of pub- “Case against: lic exultation corresponded well 1 Gaetano Baratti, aged 46, with its most gladsome purpose on umbrella maker and fireworks the first two evenings, for it was amateur not disrupted by any inconve- 2 Gaspero Carloni aged 40, nience. cooper and fireworks amateur The same does not hold true for 3 Gaetano Marucelli aged 25 the third evening, for, according Assistant Gatekeeper and fire- to the Investigation on the Cause, works amateur as soon as the display was begun 4 Luigi Pagani, aged 60, em- with the so-called Colombina [a ployee dove-shaped rocket used to light 5 Pasquale Nigi, aged 36, car- fireworks], a great deal of rockets penter shot off from the merlons of the 6 Antonio Meucci, aged 1815, Palazzo Vecchio at various inter- Assistant Gatekeeper vals, and many each time, rapidly 7 Giuseppe Franci, aged 35, and violently slithering down like plumber thunderbolts in every direction, 8 Vincenzo Andreini, aged 31, and landing on the various spots umbrella maker where the spectators were standing in the Piazza, in the adjacent streets, and in the Balconies and Windows of the 14The case records consist of 50 hand- Houses, causing commotion and written pages. Hereunder, the excerpts bewilderment; and these unusual taken from the records are printed in ital- discharges continued, much to the ics, whereas the other portions of the lat- ter are summarized in plain text. surprise and disgust of the huge 15Actually, Antonio Meucci was only 17 Audience, throughout almost half years old. of the Display …”

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Eight people were injured, ac- Fabbri reported damages amount- cording to the detailed description: ing to 2.6.8.16 Lire for one of the Vincenzo Lascialfare, who was panes of the balcony’s window standing at the side of the Piazza, was shattered. Anna Del Chiaro, was wounded in the face, while who was upstairs from Nicola the dress of a girl standing close to Fabbri, burned the shawl she was him caught fire; Domenico wearing; the damage amounted to Stampini, who was also near the one hundred Lire. The same rocket square, fainted on account of a burned the felt hat of her son, En- rocket that hit him in the face; Is- rico Del Chiaro, causing damages abella Alessandri married to Gar- for 3.6.8 Lire. Lastly, Felice giotti, who was watching from the Maggiorani’s suit was slightly balcony of a house nearby, suf- burned, although, according to fered three face injuries; Giovanni him, no real damage was caused. Cantini, who was standing next to Baratti and Carloni were not the latter, reported slight burns, held responsible; the contractor of while a boy, Carlo Lamberti, was the fireworks, Girolamo Tentini - hit in the chest by a rocket, an old man, who lay sick in bed - without consequences, as well as had put the two in charge of coor- in the arm, which was bruised; dinating the firing of the rockets, Carlotta Cinganelli was wounded since on other occasions and for in the head, and lost a great deal of many years they had conducted blood; Maria Antonia Sati, who the same work with great was standing on the balcony of a responsibility, never causing house nearby, reported a semicir- accidents. Furthermore, they were cular wound on her front; finally, elsewhere when the rockets were Giuseppe Colzi, who was in the fired from the merlons where Piazza not far from the Post Meucci and the others were. Office, scraped his skin and Moreover, “since they stood by reported slight excoriations on the large windows, the dense account of a rocket that fell on his smoke released by the Rockets, feet. which remained in the Corridor Furthermore, six people suf- where the large windows were, fered material damages: a woman even after the rockets were fired, by the name of Teresa Berti - who and the bright and blinding light had been hit between the knees by given off by the Roman candles a rocket that burned her silk dress, while she was out on the balcony of a house nearby - two days later 16As was previously stated, prior to the had an abortion, perhaps because Unity of Italy, many Italian states of the fright. The silk dress of En- adopted an English-like monetary system. Therefore, like the pound, the Lira was richetta Berettari, who was with subdivided into 20 soldi, and each soldo Teresa Berti, was also burned by into 12 denari. One paolo was worth 13 the same rocket, the damage soldi and 4 denari (0.13.4), the zecchino amounting to 8 or 9 paoli. Niccola was worth 13 lire, 6 soldi and 8 denari (13.6.8). Florence 145 made of antimony, sulfur and niter been assigned to him and that they held to light the ma- Marucelli, from the Tower in the chines, did not allow the two men direction of the Uffizi. Meucci’s to see and understand what oc- confession is confirmed by curred beyond a certain Marucelli, who repeatedly stated distance.” In other words, they that he had no part in that could not see the pandemonium operation, by the statements of the that broke out in the square, which Witness Ferdinando Lucchi, who apparently lasted more than an stated that he saw Meucci lighting hour. one funnel, and by the results of The two men in charge stated the Proceedings, according to that Meucci also took part in which other people were not in- preparing the rockets, and that he, volved.” like his fellow workers, had been Marucelli, also Assistant Gate- given specific instructions on how keeper like Meucci, was thus freed to light the rockets; indeed, from blame by his companion and nothing out of the ordinary had colleague. The other two, Andreini happened on the first two and Franci, accused one another evenings. Pagani and Nigi were till the end and both ended up freed from blame by their being held responsible. companions, since they were only “… Thus, as it is a sure and in charge of the rockets fired in proven fact that each of the three the opposite direction, which went defendants Meucci, Franci and well. Andreini directly took part in That left four people: Marucelli Lighting the Rockets of the Fun- and Meucci, who were in charge nels which caused the inconve- of the rockets fired at the other niences mentioned several times side of the tower, and Franci and already, and that all ten of these Andreini, who were to fire the Funnels were lighted by them rockets on this side of the tower. alone … a second inspection en- Apparently, it was the multiple sues on the basis of which to de- rockets (up to 15), which were termine their conduct while lighted together by means of executing the job, and if said funnels, that caused the damages behavior reveals criminal intent and wounding. A detailed and guilt such as to authorize to description of these funnels and of proceed by Fiscal Action the way they were used follows, according to the Liber of bearing into account that the fire Woundings and Offenses, as was doubled on that occasion and caused by the action of the fore- that a different procedure had to going rockets.” be adopted that time. It was deemed impossible that “Meucci, after having denied the three defendants could not his responsibility almost through foresee the direction that the rock- to the end of the Interrogations, ets would have taken, first of all finally admitted that he had because it was not the first time lighted all four Funnels that had that they handled such rockets,

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and furthermore because, In conclusion, the Criminal according to the opinions of Court, which deemed itself experts, the operation was very competent not only for the simple and could not go wrong. woundings, but also for the Therefore, they must have material damages suffered by intended to shoot the rockets people - also in the cases in which downwards instead of upwards, as the latter did not file a complaint - had always been done. A famous decreed that Antonio Meucci, fireworks expert, by the name of Giuseppe Franci and Vincenzo Girondini, refuted Meucci’s thesis Andreini were to be sued, granting according to which he had sought them the benefit of doubt as far as refuge behind the merlon to avoid their intentionality was concerned, the blaze coming from the mouth whereas the other defendants were of the funnel, for it was sufficient freed from blame. to keep the mouth of the Funnel “Signed on 16 May 1825 outside of the merlons to prevent by C.a Bologna” such a danger. Since a rocket burst 30 May 1825 on impact with Mrs. Cinganelli, it From: S. Spirito Police was even hypothesized that, when Superintendent (?), to: Most it was prepared, some substance Illustrious Sir Prone Colmo was mixed into it to cause the de- Replies to the request for layed explosion. details on the Ficini incident and “… and, finally, the deposition judges Antonio Meucci a scatter- of the Witness Doctor Antonio brained (heedless) young man. He Banti, and of the victim Felice suggests 5 days in prison Maggiorani; the former recalled [see transcription on page 45]. having heard during the day, with- Florence State Arch. N. 579- out, however, remembering where 581, 3 pp. or from whom, that on the last evening the rockets would be 31 May 1825 lighted towards the square; the From: Police Superintendent of latter said she had learned from the S. Spirito Precinct D. Callepi, her brother, who, instead, does not to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone agree, that one of the people who Colmo and cc. Sir Knight Presi- lighted the rockets on the afore- dent of the Buon Governo mentioned evening / among whom On account of Ficini’s monthly Meucci seems to be indicated / allowance of a mere L. 40 and of had invited him to go and see Meucci’s insolvency, he expresses them, saying that something a positive opinion as regards the special was in store, to which he subsidy requested by Ficini replied negatively saying ‘Today Florence State Arch. N. 594- you seem somewhat tipsy to me, 595,3 pp. surely they cannot go well, I don’t 3 June 1825 want to come.’ …” From: Luigi Ficini, Assistant Gatekeeper at the gates of Flo- Florence 147

rence, to: Secretary (of State) 9 June 1825 Franzesi, for His Royal and Impe- From: Police Superintendent of rial Highness the S. Spirito Precinct D. Callepi, Requests a single subsidy of 3 to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone zecchini, owing to Meucci’s insol- Colmo and cc. Sir Knight Presi- vency dent of the Buon Governo Florence State Arch. N. 601- [note in the margin] Supports 602, 3 pp. the plea presented by Amatis, sug- 3 June 1825 gesting the sentence to prison be From: Aurelio Pernini, official reduced by 3 days, which is of the Grand Duchy, to: His Royal granted and Imperial Highness [see partial transcription on Backs up the request of Assis- page 50] tant Gatekeeper L. Ficini for a Florence State Arch. N. 591, 2 subsidy of 3 zecchini pp. Florence State Arch. N. 604- 9 June 1825 605, 3 pp. From: Buon Governo Depart- 4 June 1825 ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Spir- From: Buon Governo Depart- ito Police Superintendent ment (Prone Colmo?), to: Police Authorizes to reduce by 3 days Superintendent of the S. Spirito the sentence to prison inflicted on Precinct Assistant Gatekeeper Antonio Resolution against Antonio Meucci Meucci of 8 days in prison, 3 of [see transcription on page 51] which on bread and water, plus Florence State Arch. N. 592 payment of proceedings and dam- 10 June 1825 ages, disregarding additional in- (sent on the 22nd to the S. flictions in connection to other tri- Spirito Police Precinct) als From: Franzesi, Secretary of [see transcription on page 46] State, to: Most Illustrious Sir Florence State Arch. N. 589 Prone Colmo and cc. Sir Knight 9 June 1825 President of the Buon Governo From: Amatis Meucci, custo- Notifies that His Royal and Im- dian at the Buon Governo Depart- perial Highness has granted an ment, to: Sir Knight President of extraordinary subsidy of 4 the Buon Governo zecchini to Assistant Gatekeeper Asks to reduce the sentence in- Luigi Ficini flicted on his son, who is in jail, Florence State Arch. N. 603 and to take him back as Assistant 9 February 1826 Gatekeeper From: General Adm. of the RR. [see transcription on page 50] Revenues, Alessandro Pontenani, Florence State Arch. N. 590, 2 to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone pp. Colmo cc. Sir Knight President of the Buon Governo

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Reports that Antonio Meucci not stopped, but indeed she has has stolen a copper pail belonging continued worse than before to to the office insult my wife as well as … those Florence State Arch. N. 247 who come into the house, directly 14 February 1826 in their faces: how vile! All of this From: Buon Governo Depart- in front of my wife, who, this ment (Prone Colmo?), to: Police morning, like many other times Superintendent of the S. Spirito before, was showered with insults Precinct and offenses by Renzi, while she States that Antonio Meucci took lay sick in bed; the offender … the pail to use it for works in this house for Mr. Gio. measurements, and did not put it Biagini, a tenant of the same back in its place. Requests an house, which is owned by the opinion undersigned. Florence State Arch. N. 248 Considering that this behavior on the part of the would-be Anna … September 1827 Renzi could … (?) From: G. Cialdi, Employee of I beg you, Most Illustrious Sir, H. E. State Councilor …, to: Most to summon Meucci and to order Illustrious Sir Knight Luigi Bonci, him to immediately rid us of the President of the Buon Governo presence of this insolent woman or Complains that he was insulted see to it that she no longer be so by a woman by the name of bold as to insult the … (?) Renzi17 who “associated” with Most Illustrious Sir, you may Amatis Meucci. request information from H. E. … Florence State Arch. N. 42, 2 (?) as to the reserved ways of the pp. undersigned and his wife “Most Illustrious Sir Knight … Gius. Cialdi” Luigi Bonci, President of the Buon 9 September 1827 Governo of Tuscany. From: President of the Buon Giuseppe Cialdi … Employee Governo, to: (not indicated) of H. E. State Councilor Amatis Meucci, Custodian of Battaglini, Your very Humble Ser- the Presidency, is reprimanded vant, wishes to expose that, after and Renzi is expelled from having tried to seek your Florence authoritative mediation in order to Florence State Arch. N. 43 stop Anna would-be de’ Renzi - “Through the Police Inspector, who associates with Meucci, a without involving any Police Su- Custodian of the Buon Governo - perintendent, and after having from insulting the undersigned personally reprimanded the and his wife, not only has Renzi Custodian Amatis Meucci, insinuating he be more respectful of his duties as Husband and 17 According to a note in the margin, Father, it was possible to send Renzi lived on Via de’ Pilastri N. 6736, 2nd floor, and worked for Mr. Biagini. Renzi away from Florence.” Florence 149 [Illegible signature] From: Presidency of the Buon 5 January 1828 Governo, to: Police From: Amatis Meucci, to: His Superintendent of the S. Croce Royal and Imperial Highness Precinct Begs for the authorization of Lanari, manager of the Teatro deductions from his monthly al- degli Intrepidi and of the Teatro lowance, to return a loan of 100 della Pergola, asks His Royal and scudi Imperial Highness for a subsidy of [see transcription on page 53] 200 zecchini Florence State Arch. N. 284 Florence State Arch. N. 24 30 January 1828 15 January 1829 From: Presidency of the Buon From: S. Croce Police Superin- Governo, to: S. Croce Police Su- tendent, to: Presidency of the perintendent Buon Governo Requests information in regard Delivers the information re- to Amatis’ plea quested on 9 January Florence State Arch. N. 284 [see transcription on page 54] Florence State Arch. N. 23 24 March 1828 From: S. Croce Police Superin- end of January 1829 tendent, to: Presidency of the From: President of the Buon Buon Governo Governo, to: His Royal and Impe- Delivers the information on rial Highness Amatis Meucci requested by the Proposal of nominations for the Buon Governo vacant positions at the Presidency [see transcription on page 53] of the Boon Governo Florence State Arch. N. 284 Florence State Arch. N. 32 This document contains 21 December 1828 interesting considerations on the From: Presidency of the Buon salaries of top positions: 20÷25 Governo, to: S. Croce Police Su- scudi a month plus 2÷3 scudi as perintendent and Pron. Colmo Perquisites. All of the candidates Report by a Police Inspector on are praised, except Amatis 13 December regarding Antonio Meucci. It is suggested that the Meucci’s affairs and misconduct latter be transferred, with the same on duty salary, to the position of Custodian 2 Florence State Arch. N. c228 of the Presidency of the Criminal 9 January 1829 Court, covered by a Vittorio From: Presidency of the Buon Cortigiani; instead, it is suggested Governo, to: S. Croce Police Su- the latter be promoted from perintendent Custodian of the Criminal Court to Requests information, following 4th Copyist. This is what the Amatis’ plea for a subsidy report had to say about Amatis Florence State Arch. N. 23 Meucci: 10 January 1829 “It is with pleasure that I pro- pose Mr. Cortigiani for this job,

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and I would like for him to be ap- dency; Amatis is transferred to the pointed to this position, for a va- Criminal Court cant place as Custodian of the Florence State Arch. N. 32 Presidency of the Criminal Court, The decree concerns 10 nomi- with a monthly salary of 12 Scudi, nations to offices at the Presidency would give me the opportunity to of the Buon Governo, all promo- beg Your Royal and Imperial tions, except Amatis Meucci’s; in- Highness to transfer the Custodian deed, the latter is removed from of this Department, Amatis his post as Custodian at the Meucci, who receives the same Presidency of the Buon Governo monthly salary of 12 Scudi, in re- and transferred, with the same placement of Cortigiani. President salary, to that of First Class Andreucci is in agreement with Custodian at the Criminal Court this proposal, as can be read in Department, in replacement of a His Official letter dated January Vittorio Cortigiani, who is 20, herein enclosed. promoted to Fourth Copyist at the While I cannot accuse Amatis same Presidency. The titles and Meucci of having been disloyal salaries of the offices are inter- during Service, I have no confi- esting: for instance, a lawyer by dence whatsoever in his personal- the name of Carlo Renzi is nomi- ity, for he is a Gossip and is anx- nated Fifth Clerk, evidently with ious to be informed on matters, important duties, since his salary which is not acceptable in an im- was fixed at Lire 1680 a year (140 portant Secretariat such as that of lire a month, almost twice the the Buon Governo, and finally, salary of Amatis Meucci). The de- this office cannot be held by a man cree contains the original signa- who has children whose conduct is tures of Leopold II and Vittorio condemnable, and are under Fossombroni. Police surveillance, and still on 1 May 1829 trial, as is currently the case with From: Buon Governo Depart- his Firstborn son, tried at the ment (Pron. Colmo?), to: S. Croce Police Precinct of S. Croce in Police Precinct connection to a double scandalous Requests an opinion on the re- affair18.” ports received from Gatekeeper 25 February 1829 Del Nibbio and Assistant Gate- From: His Royal and Imperial keeper Antonio Meucci regarding Highness Leopold [Decree]: their dispute Promotion of 9 people to fill in Florence State Arch. N. 32 the vacant positions at the Presi- “S. Croce Police Precinct Sent on 1 May 1829 18Evidently, the Auditor did not appreci- I submit to your attention the ate Amatis as much as he did Cortigiani. reports presented by Gatekeeper Indeed, the previous opinion of Police Del Nibbio, who was on duty this Superintendent Cecchini on Amatis had morning, and by his assistant, been “his morality and conduct are abso- lutely flawless.” Antonio Meucci, regarding a Florence 151 quarrel they had, so that you may From: Buon Governo Depart- determine what happened and, on ment (Prone Colmo?), to: General the basis of the results, express Adm. of the RR. Revenues your opinion. Communicates the order to put However, as regards Meucci, Antonio Meucci in prison and to because he committed the serious suspend his salary infraction of leaving while on Florence State Arch. N. 236 duty, which he admits in his 17 May 1829 report, and given that there are no From: General Adm. of the RR. satisfactory excuses for his Revenues, Alessandro Pontenani, behavior, no matter how things to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone went, You, Most Illustrious Sir, Colmo and Sir Knight Auditor shall order for him to be put in jail President of the Buon Governo immediately, suspending his Communicates that he has re- salary, in … of the resolution ceived the letter and that he has that…” sent instructions to the Customs [text interrupted here] Office Cashier to suspend Antonio 8 May 1829 Meucci’s salary From: S. Croce Police Precinct Florence State Arch. N. 237 (F. A. Cecchini), to: Most Illustri- 29 May 1829 ous Sir Prone Colmo and cc. Sir From: His Royal and Imperial Knight President of the Buon Highness Leopold [Decree]: Governo Amatis Meucci is appointed Antonio Meucci has taken leave Audience Bailiff in the Supreme from his duty at Porta S. Gallo Court several times to mix with women. Florence State Arch. N. 60 Bad relationship with Gatekeeper Gaetano Del Nibbio. One month 25 June 1829 in jail without salary is suggested From: S. Spirito Police Precinct (N. Tassinari), to: Most Illustrious [see transcription on page 56]. Florence State Arch. N. 229 ÷ Sir Prone Colmo and cc. Sir 232, 7 pp. Knight President of the Buon Governo 14 May 1829 Report on Amatis Meucci for From: Buon Governo Depart- having complained in the Gate- ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Croce keepers’ office about the unjust Police Precinct imprisonment of his son. The Agrees with the sentence to one Gatekeepers are divided into two month in prison, with the order factions: one in favor of the not to associate with Mrs. Socè Sovereign (which reported the in- and Mrs. Paoletti; should he formation) the other against him. breach said order, he shall be Amatis says that he is happy he removed from his job left his previous position and that [see transcription on page 58]. now he is satisfied Florence State Arch. N. 235 [see transcription on page 60]. 16 May 1829

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Florence State Arch. N. 172 ÷ 30 September 1829 175 bis, 8 pp. From: Police Inspector Gio- 2 September 1829 vanni Chiarini, to: Auditor Presi- From: Sir Knight Superinten- dent of the Buon Governo dent of the Land Registry Records, Supplies the information re- to: Auditor President of the Buon quested, including those on Anto- Governo (Prones? Colmo) nio Meucci Request for information on 13 [see transcription on page 68] applicants for a post as Custodian Florence State Arch. N. 1884 of the Archives of the Grand-ducal 9 October 1829 Tithes - Antonio Meucci among From: Auditor President of the them Buon Governo, to: Sir Knight Su- Florence State Arch. N. 1884 perintendent of the Land Registry 3 September 1829 Records From: Dr. A. Frassani, family Forwards the information sup- doctor [Report]: plied by the Police Inspector on 30 Antonio Meucci is affected by September syphilis, a hazard for his health, Florence State Arch. N. 1884 requires treatment 20 October 1829 Florence State Arch. N. 407 From: Dr. Antonio Targioni 10 September 1829 Zoppetti, fiscal doctor [Report and From: Dr. Antonio Targioni recommendation for the Zoppetti, fiscal doctor, with note Presidency of the Buon Governo]: in the margin of the Presidency Declares that Antonio Meucci dated 16 September [Report and has improved but that he is still af- recommendation for the fected by a throat infection and Presidency of the Buon Governo]: recommends another month off Confirms the diagnosis of the duty, in order for him to recover family doctor and recommends fully one month of treatment off duty. Florence State Arch. N. 408 Exostoses on the left parietal bone 5 November 1829 with swelling and inflammation of From: Antonio Meucci, to: the adjacent soft parts. A note Most Illustrious Sir Knight dated September 16 gives consent President of the Buon Governo [see transcription on page 67] Admits that Gatekeeper Doni Florence State Arch. N. 406 had told him to appear before 14 September 1829 Chancellor Corsi at the S. Croce From: Auditor President of the Police Precinct, and that he did Buon Governo, to: Police Inspec- not show up because he knew he tor Giovanni Chiarini would be put in jail. Asks to be Presents the above-cited forgiven and promises irreproach- request for information dated 2 able conduct. September [see transcription on page 70] Florence State Arch. N. 1884 Florence 153 Florence State Arch. N. 490, 2 been ascertained that, indeed, pp. Meucci was in the store of the 12 November 1829 aforementioned Luisa Socè, and in From: S. Croce Police Precinct, union with this Woman, on the to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone evening of that very day, 31 Octo- Colmo and cc. Sir Knight Presi- ber, it was requested that the Ac- dent of the Buon Governo cused be summoned; as the latter On 30 October Antonio Meucci did not show up, another notice is found at 4 PM with Luisa Socè was sent with the Bailiffs, inviting in her store outside the Porta a him to appear before the Police. Pinti. Antonio Meucci says he was The Bailiffs, however, reported there to see her daughter Augusta, that he was not in his House, and whom he wishes to marry. He is that he had left town. summoned on 31 October but does On the morning of 7 November not show up until 7 November. Meucci spontaneously turned him- One month in jail is suggested self in and confessed that he had Florence State Arch. N. 480 ÷ been found in the company of the 483, 8 pp. aforementioned Mrs. Socè and of her Daughter in their store; “Most Illustrious Sir Pron. notwithstanding, he declared that Colmo he did not think he was breaching On 30 October around 4 the Injunction according to which o’clock in the afternoon, Police he was not to associate with Mrs. Officer Vincenzo Bertini, who Luisa Socè, stating and protesting works for this Police Precinct, that he was not there to see her caught Assistant Gatekeeper but her Daughter, Augusta, whom Antonio Meucci in the act of he said he was courting with the breaching the injunction intention to Marry her. communicated to him on 14 May Furthermore, on 31 October he of this year with the approval of said he received from the Chief this Superior Department. He was Gatekeeper the order to appear found with Mrs. Luisa Socè, the before the Court but that at the wife of Antonio Socè, in their time, because he was ill, and in Store outside the Porta a Pinti. the days that followed, on account The incident was communicated to of a previous engagement out of this Court that very evening with a town, it had not been possible for Report presented by the Police him to go to the Police Precinct; Officer, which solicited to proceed this conduct and these excuses against Meucci for having were deemed absolutely breached orders. unacceptable, and are actually The following morning, Flavio indicative of his marked Guelfi and Pellegrino Bonini, the insubordination and absolute Witnesses, were immediately disregard for the orders of the questioned, and, on the basis of legal Authority, which had invited their sworn testimonials, having him to account for his behavior.

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In the wake of these events, and sentenced to one month in jail as following the investigations con- of the day he enters the latter; fur- ducted, it appears that Meucci is thermore, he should also pay all an ill-tempered individual and expenses connected to the insolent disdainer of Superior Proceedings, and when he is to decisions; it seems to me that, resume service, moreover, I am of beyond all doubts, he has the opinion that, with a serious breached the injunction, which warning, he should once again be very clearly stated that for no reminded of the breached reason whatsoever was he to Injunction and notified that, speak with Luisa Socè, whereas, should he fail to comply once as previously stated, he was found again, he will be arrested and in her company by the Police. If, sentenced to two months in jail for honest and legitimate reason and, without further notifications, toward the daughter he was he will be definitively dismissed allowed back into the Home of her from his service. Mother, he was to notify the Enclosed herein are the Pro- Court, prior to violating an order ceedings of the related case. I take Rightly given him; furthermore, he this opportunity to send you my should have been particularly very best regards. careful not to breach orders, From the S. Croce Police Precinct knowing that by so doing he would 12 November 1829 be dismissed from his job, which Your most Faithful and Humble would have damaged him Servant irreversibly. N. Tassinari, However, I must observe that, Police Superintendent according to the attached Report, presented by the “Campagna” To: Sir Knight Auditor of the Buon [Country]19 Head of Police, the Governo” justifications presented by Meucci 14 November 1829 are actually legitimate, and, From: Buon Governo Depart- consequently, although they ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Croce cannot erase altogether the Police Precinct mistake committed by the Accused, Meucci sentenced to two they are nevertheless sufficient to months in prison, suspending mitigate the gravity of the matter, salary and allowance, with warn- and it is for this reason that I am ing as to further misconduct of the compliant opinion that, also [see transcription on page 71] on account of the marked Florence State Arch. N. 488 contempt displayed toward the orders of the Court, he should be 14 November 1829 From: Buon Governo Depart- ment (Prone Colmo?), to: H.E. 19Antonio Meucci went out of town, in Pontenani? (General Adm. of the the countryside, probably because grand- RR. Revenues) father Giuseppe was dying. Florence 155 Order to proceed with suspen- anything on which to live, sion of job and salary for two earnestly begs Your Excellency to months. grant the Grace to release him Florence State Arch. N. 489 from prison 15 days early and to 16 November 1829 also grant him his salary. From: General Adm. RR Rev- Hoping to reside in Your Grace enues, Alessandro Pontenani, to: 12 January 1830 Most Illustrious Sir Prone Colmo From: Buon Governo Depart- and Sir Knight Auditor President ment (Prone Colmo?), to: H.E. of the Buon Governo Pontenani (General Adm. of the The order is received and in- RR. Revenues) structions are given to proceed Gives instructions to pardon with the suspension of job and the suspension of 15 days’ salary, salary as requested by Antonio Meucci Florence State Arch. N. 491 Florence State Arch. N. 223 24 December 1829 13 January 1830 From: Buon Governo Depart- From: General Adm. of the RR. ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Croce Revenues Alessandro Pontenani, Police Precinct to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone The last 15 days of Meucci’s Colmo and Sir Knight Auditor prison sentence are pardoned, and President of the Buon Governo instructions are given to release Ensures he has provided for the him from prison at once condonation, as requested by his [see transcription on page 72] superior Florence State Arch. N. 492 Florence State Arch. N. 23 1(?) January 1830 9 June 1830 From: Antonio Meucci, to: From: Buon Governo Depart- Most Illustrious Sir Knight ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Spir- President of the Buon Governo ito Police Precinct Asks that, in addition to Antonio Meucci charged for pardoning 15 days of prison, as he having arrived 3/4 hour late at the is living in destitution, he also be Porta alla Croce, where he was on granted the related 15 days’ duty, for the second time in one salary month. He is sentenced to two Florence State Arch. N. 213 days in prison and threatened to be fired “Antonio, son of Amatis Florence State Arch. N. 20 29 Meucci, from Florence, one of the 7 July 1830 Assistant Gatekeepers of this city, From: Buon Governo Depart- Very Humble Servant of your Most ment (Prone Colmo?), to S. Spirito Illustrious Excellency: with All Police Precinct Due Respect Explains that Antonio charged for having ar- Suffering great misery on ac- rived 3/4 hour late for the third count of the very Fair Punishment time. He is sentenced to 15 days’ inflicted to him, and not having

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suspension from duty and salary; From: Buon Governo Depart- he is once again warned that he ment (Prone Colmo?), to: Inspec- risks losing his job tor of Gatekeepers Florence State Arch. N. 6 Gatekeeper supernumerary Ar- 7 July 1830 cangelo Tosoni is appointed in re- From: Buon Governo Depart- placement of Antonio Meucci who ment (Prone Colmo?), to: First is said to have resigned Fiscal Accountant? (General Adm. Florence State Arch. N. 173 of the RR. Revenues) 14 July 1830 Communicates suspension of From: Buon Governo Depart- Antonio Meucci’s job and salary ment (Prone Colmo?), to: First Florence State Arch. N. 21 Fiscal Accountant? (General Adm. 10 July 1830 of the RR. Revenues) Urgent from: Buon Governo Gatekeeper supernumerary Ar- Department (Prone Colmo?), to: S. cangelo Tosoni is appointed in re- Spirito Police Precinct placement of Antonio Meucci who Amatis Meucci, Usher of the is said to have resigned. Provision auditor of the Supreme for his allowance Magistrate, on account of his Florence State Arch. N. 174 misconduct in the Gatekeepers’ 15 July 1830 office that morning, is immediately From: Buon Governo Depart- put in prison for 6 days ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Spir- Florence State Arch. N. 29 22 ito Police Precinct 13 July 1830 In consideration of the special From: Buon Governo Department circumstances presented by (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Croce Po- Amatis Meucci, he is immediately lice Precinct let out of prison Invites to summon Antonio Florence State Arch. N. 25 Meucci to inform him that his res- (received) 20 July 1830 ignation has been accepted Section 2 - 20 July [note in the Florence State Arch. N. 23 margin by the Presidency] 13 July 1830 From: Amatis Meucci, to: Most From: Buon Governo Depart- Illustrious Sir President of the ment (Prone Colmo?), to: S. Spir- Buon Governo ito Police Precinct Refers that, on 10 July at 9 AM, Once Amatis has served his 6 he had complained about the way days in prison, he will be warned his son had been treated simply not to go near the Department or because he was a few minutes late its offices, without having been in- (less than 1/4 hour), and that at 4 vited to do so PM he was unjustly sentenced to Florence State Arch. N. 24 six days in prison; he thus believes that Antonio Meucci’s resignation 14 July 1830 from his job was not spontaneous Florence State Arch. N. 26 Florence 157 office, which was absolutely not ”Most Illustrious Sir President true, for, aside from this of the Buon Governo circumstance, in which he It was because of my love as a couldn’t help but lose his temper, Father that I went to the Inspector ever since the time I was at the of Gatekeepers to justify the pre- Presidency, where I worked for sumed misdeed that my son was many years prior to being charged with; indeed, he was ac- transferred to the Supreme Court, cused of being negligent on the job I have always loyally obeyed the for having arrived 3/4 hour late - orders of my superiors, and I have according to them - at the Gate likewise behaved humbly towards where he was on duty. With all those who worked under me, and I due respect, I told this Inspector have been true to this principle all that he had not been informed of my life. well, but he insisted in saying that I do not know how this Inspec- my son had been negligent on the tor presented the Incident, while I job. At that point, I could not help am serving the sentence of 6 days saying (always with great humble- in prison set by the Police ness) that Soldiers have their Superintendent of the drum, and that they are quartered, aforementioned quarter, and they are allowed to be one according to the orders of the minute late, but this greatly upset Superior Department, and since the Inspector who said to me that such a mortification was not there was no such custom with the enough to give vent (I wouldn’t Gatekeepers; I therefore replied know what other word to use) to that perhaps he should submit the Mr. Zucchetti’s heart, My son has matter to the attention of the Most been suspended from his job, and Illustrious President, who, guided his salary has been suspended as by his wisdom, would have surely well, for 15 days, with the warning done something about it. that he risks losing his job; This was my conversation with I do not intend to defend such Mr. Zuchetti on 10 July at 9 AM, … … (the rest is missing). and around 4 o’clock in the after- 4 August 1830 noon I was told to immediately ap- From: Buon Governo Depart- pear before the Most Illustrious S. ment (Prone Colmo?), to: First Spirito Police Superintendent, Fiscal Accountant? (General Adm. and, should I fail to do so, I would of the RR. Revenues) had to pay a fine of Fifty lire; so The “former” Assistant Gate- at once I rushed to hear his keeper Antonio Meucci is orders. pardoned the suspension of his While I was being questioned salary for the 15 days referred to by Sir Chancellor Marabotti, I in the deliberation dated July 7 was very much astonished to learn Florence State Arch. N. 35 that a trial against me was being prepared as a consequence of my … February 1832 misconduct at the Gatekeepers’

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From: Antonio Meucci, to: The undersigned regrets such a Most Illustrious Sir President of dramatic Mistake and is anguished by the fact that he is the Buon Governo aged 2621, unemployed, and fully Asks to be re-employed supported by his poor Father, who Not found in the Florence State surely cannot continue to provide Archives, but referred to in the for him; therefore, in the present favorable circumstance, in which following N. 389 our Kind Sovereign has granted to 15 June 1833 generously pardon many (received on 20 June) misdeeds, also the undersigned hopes to be able to benefit from From: Antonio Meucci, to: such Sovereign Benevolence, and Most Illustrious Sir President of implores Your Most Illustrious the Buon Governo Excellency to pardon his past Begs to be re-employed (taking wrongdoings; also, having heard advantage of the Sovereign’s that two places as Gatekeepers have become vacant following the amnesty and of two places left va- retirement of the two Gatekeepers cant by Gatekeepers who retired), Bacci and Graziani, the stating that he has not had a job undersigned also humbly begs the for almost 4 years after having Goodness of Your Most Illustrious Excellency, should You grant your “rashly and heedlessly requested pardon as requested above, to be to be dismissed from his office” so kind as to re-employ him who Florence State Arch. N. 389 resigned from his post as Gatekeeper in the city of Florence, now that the two aforementioned “Note for the Most Illustrious places have become vacant, Sir President of the Buon Governo namely the ones left by Bacci and «2/18 June/ Pontenani/ Re-em- Graziani who have retired, so as ployed» [note in the margin by the to allow him to relieve his poor Presidency] Father of such a burden, and to be Antonio, son of Amatis Meucci, able to provide for himself. very humble servant of Your Most Filled with confidence, this is Illustrious Excellency, full of def- what the undersigned hopes to ob- tain from Your Most Illustrious erence once again turns to you to Excellency, and once again with inform you that, after having great respect declares himself worked for several years as Assis- 15 June 1833 tant Gatekeeper, for four years Most Humble, most Devout and now20 owing to some reprimands made by his superiors on account Much Obliged Servant of slight misdeeds on duty, has Antonio Meucci” been deprived of his job, having, as a consequence of said repri- 30 April 1834 mands, rashly and heedlessly re- From: General Adm. of the RR. quested to be dismissed from said Revenues (illegible signature), to: Most Illustrious Sir Prone Colmo office, as he has had the honor to and Sir Knight Auditor President tell you once already in the past, of the Buon Governo in February 1832. Mentions the inappropriate be- havior of the Boscolungo Customs

20Actually, it was only three years, since his resignation was accepted on 13 July 21Actually, he had turned 25 two months 1830. before. Florence 159 Officers and, on the contrary, the I shall bear the names in mind and appropriate conduct of one on Tuesday I will go back to have Antonio Meucci, who should be a a look. Rest assured of my Loyalty name-sake, also due to the fact and Secrecy. that it refers to S. Marcello and Your Most Devout Servant Pistoia as places of origin. Antonio Meucci” Florence State Arch. N. 246-7, 3 pp. 5 July 1834 From: Antonio Meucci, to: 5 July 1834 Alessandro Lanari From: Antonio Meucci, to: Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence Alessandro Lanari Second letter, also dated 5 July Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence 1834, with other elucidations. “Mr. Alessandro Florence, 5 July 1834 10 July 1834 Letter from Alessandro As soon as I received your let- From: Alessandro Lanari, to: Lanari to Antonio ter, I immediately rushed to the Antonio Meucci Meucci Post Office, but since I did not get Biblioteca Nazionale, Florence the letter in time because Millo [see transcription on page 102 could not find me, at the Post Of- and a reproduction of the letter on fice there was not anything for this page] anyone of the family; nevertheless,

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HISTORY OF church and the boldness and FLORENCE FROM intolerable interference of the clergy and the feudal lords of the THE LORRAINES forty-seven feuds established by TO THE the Medici. UNIFICATION OF In 1743 Francis II opened the ITALY prisons of the Sant’Uffizio (Holy Office), which were far worse than Francis II (1737-1765) the ones of the Grand Duchy, and On 9 July 1737 the last Grand for many years suspended the Duke of the Medici dynasty, Gian Court of Inquisition. His succes- Gastone, died in Florence without sor, Peter Leopold, completed the leaving heirs. The Bourbons and work of his father by definitely the Hapsburgs reached an agree- closing the Court of Inquisition on ment, according to which the 5 July 1792. On 29 April 1749 throne of the Grand Duchy was Francis II passed a law on the dis- handed over immediately to the cipline of feudalism, which de- Lorraine family. This arrangement prived the forty-seven despotic was later confirmed by the Treaty feudal lords of most of their pow- of Vienna, in 1738. Francis ers and privileges. A law was also Stephen of Lorraine, husband of passed on the press, to free it from Maria Theresa of Austria became the censure of the clergy. Emperor of Austria as Francis I Francis II died on 18 August and Grand Duke of Tuscany as 1765, aged only 57. He was struck Francis II, since there had already by an apoplectic fit as he came out been a Grand Duke of the Medici of a theater in Innsbruck. The family by the name of Francis. eighteen-year old Peter Leopold, Francis II ruled the Grand Duchy his third son, ascended to the for twenty-eight years, that is, throne of the Grand Duchy of Tus- until his death in 1765. However, cany. His second son had died he resided only three months in earlier, while the first, Joseph, be- Florence: from 19 January to 28 came Emperor of Austria, thereby April 1739. In his absence, power separating the two thrones, as en- was exercised by the Regency visaged by the wedding agree- Council. ments of the Archduke Joseph The Lorraine family found the with Maria Luisa of Bourbon. As Grand Duchy in pitiful conditions. a result, since then, the Grand They had to deal with the financial Duchy became independent from catastrophe (the public debt Austria. totaled some 14 million 250 thousand scudi), the total anarchy Peter Leopold (1765-1790) in public offices, the venality of The enlightened Leopoldian re- officials, the decadence of all forms were so bold and far-reach- social classes, the vast amounts of ing as to irritate the nobles and the uncultivated land owned by the clergy. On the contrary, the Florence 161 Bishop of Pistoia, a friend of Peter impossible. In the room of scan- Leopold, was so enthusiastic, that dals, Peter Leopold also kept a file he went as far as proposing a re- on false spies, that is to say, those form of the Church and proclaim- who double crossed him. Among ing, together with the 1786 Synod his almost twenty thousand in- of Pistoia, the supremacy of the formers at all levels, there were Church over the Pope, thereby also a number of high society summoning even the National ladies who referred a lot of draw- Council. Peter Leopold was one of ing room gossip to him, as well as the first European princes to abol- a sizable group of priests. He left ish the death penalty and torture. his son the following warnings: In 1773 he confiscated the assets “… the Tuscans are gentle, not of the Jesuits and assigned them a very courageous, but alert, not pension. On 1st August 1778 he very sincere, yet highly refined, passed a law on the absolute neu- with a penchant to satisfy their in- trality of the Grand Duchy of Tus- terests and seek ways of swindling cany, so as to secure a long period others to achieve their objectives. of peace during which he could in- They are always disunited, diffi- troduce the reforms he had con- dent and envious of one another ceived. …” Bencivenni Pelli, the director of It is thanks to Peter Leopold the Uffizi gallery at the time, de- that the Academy of Fine Arts (see scribed him as follows: appendix) was founded and that “… He was sober and dressed the arts and sciences were plainly. He demanded that he not promoted. He himself had a well- be deceived. He was lively and equipped chemistry laboratory. hot-tempered, but knew and con- Peter Leopold ruled Tuscany trolled himself. He was tireless. for some 25 years, until 27 He jotted down notes and re- February 1790, when he became marks… he knew everything about Emperor of Austria as Leopold II, everyone…. he had a room, which following the death of his brother he called the room of scandals, Joseph. As a result, in April 1790 where he kept papers containing Peter Leopold left Florence for information on all those surround- Vienna. While waiting for the ing him. Before leaving, he burnt arrival of twenty-year old all those papers …” Ferdinand III, his second son to Moreover, he had almost en- whom he handed over the throne tirely abolished Court etiquette, of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, thereby provoking the ambiguous Peter Leopold established a smiles of the nobles and some of Regency Council in Florence. The the high officials. He needed the weak and incompetent regents truth - adds Vittoria Corti, in her destroyed within a short period excellent volume on the bicente- most of Peter Leopold’s work and nary of the Academy of Fine Arts were unable to deal with the (see bibl.) - to avoid being de- discontent of the people. As a ceived, or rather to render deceit result, rioting broke out in Pistoia

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on 24 April, in Leghorn and Val di into exile. However, Ferdinand III Nievole on 30 May and in would return to Florence sixteen Florence on 9 June, where years later. Grand Duke Ferdinand thousands of women, with false III of Tuscany with his wife military mustaches and armed The Napoleonic Interlude with wooden sticks joined in. (1799-1814) However, when in April of 1791 Once Ferdinand III had left, the Ferdinand III arrived in Florence city was ruled by a member of the he was warmly welcomed with Directory, a certain Reinhard. In celebrations. Yet he was later addition to the self-interested and forced to repeal most of the re- ambiguous promises of peace and forms introduced by his father. order made by the French, new, violent attacks were made against Ferdinand III (1st period, the Church, in the name of the 1791-1799) new goddess of reason. The In the first years of his reign, leaders of the Jacobin movement Ferdinand III attempted a in Italy, who had ties with some reconciliation with the old princes eminent Frenchmen, declared that and powers which his father had it was in the interest of France that endeavored to ruin. As a result, Italy be freed of all foreigners and most of Leopold’s edification was become a united and independent almost entirely destroyed. Further- nation. The Florentine Jacobins, more, Ferdinand III had to deal enraptured by an irresponsible with the difficult international sit- form of fanaticism, planted trees uation following the French Revo- of freedom in the squares of Santa lution. He tried to maintain the Croce and Santa Maria Novella, Grand Duchy neutral, but this was amid considerable commotion. not appreciated by either the After less than a month from French or their opponents, espe- Ferdinand III’s departure, anti- cially the English. In June 1796 French, but, above all, anti-Ja- Napoleon Bonaparte occupied cobin rioting began with slogans Leghorn thereby driving away the such as “Death to the French and English who had arrived there the Jacobins!” and “Long live only a few months before. In 1797 Austria! Long live the Emperor!” the English and the French left The first upheavals, which were Tuscany, but the following year immediately repressed, took place the Directory demanded that in Florence on 12 April 1799. A Ferdinand III either become an few days later riots broke out in ally or an enemy of France. Then, Pistoia and were only repressed with the excuse of driving out the thanks to the peaceful mediation Neapolitan troops from Leghorn, of the Bishop. On 5 and 6 May the French occupied Tuscany and there was a revolt in the town of forced the Grand Duke to leave Volterra, which was followed by Florence on 27 March 1799, the the occupation of a large part of same day when Pope Pius VI went the Maremma. On 6 May there Florence 163 were uprisings in Arezzo and lived, since in May 1803 he died, Cortona, which resisted the attack less than two years after having of four thousand Polish soldiers ascended to the throne, while his who had marched in from the son Carlo Lodovico was still a south. On 26 June nineteen child. The Queen mother, Maria Jacobins and Jews were burnt Luisa of Bourbon, ascended to the alive at the stakes put up in Piazza throne as regent and had a Spanish del Campo in Siena. On 4 July the garrison arrive to join the one of entire French garrison left the Duchy of Parma. Maria Luisa Florence. A weak Florentine allegedly encouraged luxurious Senate was promptly set up, which extragavanzas at court, which immediately urged the Austrians weighed heavily on the finances of to send an army, in order to the Grand Duchy. Nevertheless, reestablish order in the Grand even the regency of Maria Luisa Duchy. The army arrived on 7 was short-lived, lasting just over July 1799, but, after the victory at four years. Marengo, the French invaded Tus- Following the treaty of cany again and entered Arezzo on Fontainebleau in October 1807, 19 October 1800, thereby crushing Tuscany was annexed by the the resistance of the inhabitants. French Empire and became the They pillaged the town and killed Department of the Arno. Maria anyone that was found armed. Luisa and Carlo Lodovico of With the treaty of Luneville, Bourbon received northern stipulated between Napoleon and Lusitania in compensation. In the Emperor of Austria on 9 compliance with the above- February 1801, Ferdinand III for- mentioned treaty, the French mally lost the Grand Duchy of troops entered Florence again on Tuscany, but in exchange received 10 December 1807 and took the the Grand Duchy of Wuertzburg place of the troops of Spain and in Germany. Tuscany was the Duchy of Parma. On 1st April renamed the Kingdom of Etruria 1808 Elisa Baciocchi, nominated and handed over to Lodovico of Grand Duchess of Tuscany by his Bourbon, the son of the Duke of brother, Napoleon, arrived in Parma. In this way the Kingdom of Florence, followed by her Etruria came to be united with the husband, Prince Felice (a few days crown of Spain. On 12 August later Antonio Meucci was born in 1801 Gioacchino Murat, Florence). On 15 May of the same Napoleon’s brother-in-law, who year the Code Napoleon was intro- had temporarily established duced in France, and laws and himself in Florence, officially provisions that complied with the handed over the Kingdom of French ones were applied in Tus- Etruria to Lodovico. At the same cany. Of the many changes that time, the French garrison was took place, the Tuscans bitterly replaced by the one of the Duchy complained about taxation (taxes of Parma. The kingdom of were levied even on doors and Lodovico was, however, short- windows) and compulsory

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military service. The first thereby totaling nineteen years of recruitments deprived Tuscany, rule. At the beginning of this pe- which was no longer accustomed riod, the inhabitants of the Grand to military practices, of some ten Duchy amounted to just over one thousand young men. million. During this same period, Furthermore, the clergy resented, there was a strong economic re- among other things, the fact that cession compounded by repeated they were compelled to recite the famines and typhus epidemics following prayer every day: which took their toll on the popu- “Domine, salvum fac Imperatorem lation until the end of 1817. Napoleonem” that is “God save In this second period, Ferdi- the Emperor Napoleon.” nand III tried to return, to a certain After the final defeat of extent, to the legislation of his fa- Napoleon, Elisa Baciocchi left ther, Peter Leopold, who had, in a Florence on 17 February 1814 way, anticipated the French Revo- with ten carriages, taking away lution with his reforms. However, many of the treasures of Pitti he maintained many of the innova- palace. Shortly after, Gioacchino tions introduced by the French Murat, King of Naples at the time, Regime, such as the trade code, arrived in Florence as an ally of the mortgage system, the court Austria, and therefore as an enemy procedures, the public nature of of his brother-in-law Napoleon. court rulings and the Registry Two months later, in April 1814, Office. The unpopular compulsory the Parma Convention restored military service was abolished and Ferdinand III on the throne of the taxes were reduced. Yielding to Grand Duchy of Tuscany. From the pressure of Pope Pius VII, he Wuertzburg, the Grand Duke im- re-established the authority of the mediately appointed a “commis- church by ordering the re-opening sario” (a provisional administra- of 77 convents, the ecclesiastical tor). He returned to Florence on 18 courts, the confraternities and September 1814 and was greeted other similar associations. joyfully by the people. Piazza S. Amiable and good-natured, Marco was transformed into an Ferdinand III claimed to be more amphitheater to celebrate his re- Tuscan than German. He would turn. even have agreed, after the 1821 riots, to a form of representative Ferdinand III (2nd period, government, had not Austria pre- 1814-1824) vented him from doing so. Many On 9 June 1815 the Treaty of believed him to be unable to leave Vienna was signed which restored his mark on the Grand Duchy and the great monarchies and enabled accused him of yielding to the Pa- Ferdinand III to recover the Grand pacy and Austria. He was also ac- Duchy of Tuscany. Ferdinand III cused of false liberalism and false ruled Tuscany for ten more years, patronage and of taking pride in until his death on 24 June 1824, his non-rule. He did indeed leave Florence 165 much freedom to his ministers, Only the first period, which who under his rule promoted lasted until 1849, was fruitful. many important public works, Liberal reforms were introduced such as the building of schools, art and it was even tolerated that Tus- galleries, roads and palaces and cans take part in the first war for the reclaiming of vast areas. the independence of Italy. Following the example of his Eminent men, expelled from other father, although only in theory, he States for political reasons, were used to walk the streets of the city invited to hold lectures in the and attend processions. However, universities of the Grand Duchy. he only received his ministers Congresses of the Italian once a week. The Tuscans even scientists, where the unification of accused him of lacking in artistic Italy was openly discussed, were taste. hosted in Pisa in 1839 and in In 1821 Ferdinand III married Florence in 1841. However, this Maria Ferdinanda Amalia of Sax- liberalism would soon turn against ony. His first wife, Maria Luisa, Leopold II. had died when giving birth to their child in 1802, during their exile in Leopold II (2nd period, 1849- Germany. 1859) On 18 June 1824 Ferdinand III, In January 1849 the died at the age of 55. Democratic Ministry, headed by Guerrazzi and Montanelli, Leopold II (1st period, 1824- installed itself and a constituent 1848) assembly was called for. Leopold On 19 June 1824 Leopold II fled in voluntary exile to Gaeta, succeeded his father, Ferdinand where he joined the Pope. Later, III. He would rule for 35 years. On backed by Austrian troops, he 1st April 1825 great celebrations returned to Florence, but was were organized in Florence in subordinated to Vienna. The honor of the child which the concessions made before were Grand Duchess Maria Carolina of promptly repealed, Parliament Saxony gave birth to. However, suppressed and the freedom of during the celebrations, press curbed. A young boy was firecrackers were thrown at the even executed in Pistoia, an un- crowd from the top of Palazzo precedented event in the history of Vecchio and a number of people the Grand Duchy. It is the age of were wounded, as we have already the satires of poet Giuseppe reported. Giusti. The reign of Leopold II may be In 1859 all of Florence divided into two periods: a first prepared to take part in the second bright period lasting 24 years and war for the independence of Italy. a more dismal second period The ministers of the Grand Duke lasting 10 years which ended with met at the ambassador of Leopold’s dethronement. Piedmont’s and later set

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unacceptable and humiliating tion. Mazzini defined Italy’s re- conditions to Leopold II, who nunciation to Istria, Friuli and rejected them and decided to leave South Tyrol shameful. Florence. In June 1865 the capital was On 27 April 1859 the court of transferred to Florence, as Rome the Grand Duke left Florence by was still occupied and protected carriage and headed towards by the French. It remained the Bologna. capital until 20 September 1870, when the Bersaglieri entered Towards the Unification of Rome through the breach of Porta Italy Pia. A temporary council was im- mediately elected in Florence. It Bibliography turned to and obtained protection Cooper, J. F., Le Stanze del Granduca, from the King of Piedmont, who Mazzei Gazette, Y. 5, No. 15, September 1990, pp.19-22 appointed Boncompagni as Corti, V., L’Accademia di Pietro “Commissario Reale” (Royal pro- Leopoldo [in: L’Accademia di Belle Arti visional administrator), who in di Firenze 1764-1984 (bicentennial of its turn appointed the Baron Bettino foundation)], Conti, Tipocolor, Ricasoli as Prime Minister. On 7 Calenzano (Florence), 1984 Falciai, M., I Medici e i Lorena negli August 1859 a General Election ultimi due secoli del Granducato di was held to appoint members of Toscana, Vallecchi Editore, Florence, parliament. On the 11 August par- 1938 liament met and decided on the Gallo Mattucci, A., Il Conservatorio permanent dislodging of the d’Arti e Mestieri dell’Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze, M.C.S., Florence, House of Lorraine and Tuscany be December 1988 annexed to the Kingdom of Italy. Lucchesini, P., I teatri di Firenze, On 22 March 1860 the annexation Newton Compton Editori, Rome, 1991 was ratified by a popular Ploetz, K., Enciclopedia della Storia (dal plebiscite. 4000 a.C. a oggi), A. Mondadori—Storia Illustrata, Milan, 1962-1965 On 14 March 1861 the parlia- Valsecchi, F., L’Italia Storica, Collana ment in Turin proclaimed the Conosci l’Italia, Vol. V, Touring Club Kingdom of Italy and on 17 March Italiano, Milan, 1961 Vittorio Emanuele assumed the Various Authors, Cronologia Universale title of King of Italy. Rizzoli, RCS Rizzoli Libri S.p.A., Milan, 1987 On 3 October 1861 Italy ac- Various Authors, La Nuova Enciclopedia quired the region of Venetia from Universale Garzanti, Garzanti Editore, Austria, following the peace of Vi- Milan, 1982 enna and thanks to French media- Florence 167 F. D. GUERRAZZI authors, both Italian and foreign) AND POLITICAL is entirely unfounded. In another obituary for Meucci, CONSPIRACIES IN published by The Sun of Baltimore TUSCANY on the same date (19 October 1889, see bibl.), it is more accu- Premise rately reported that Meucci be- It was observed, in the principal longed to the “Carboneria” and text, that Tuscany was for the that he was involved in the most part immune from uprisings conspiracy of 1834 (“He was a for Italian independence, at least member of the Italian Carbonari, in comparison to other Italian re- and was identified with the gions. Nonetheless, even if they revolution of 1834”). This were not accompanied by bloody affirmation is corroborated by a or violent events, conspiracies by letter written by Meucci himself to secret societies of varied inspira- his friend Prof. Carlo Paladini, of tion did exist in Tuscany, and they Lucca, on 2 May 1889 (see bibl.), were followed by arrests and sen- in which he wrote “the Italy for tences from the Grand Duchy for which in ’33 and ’34 I spent many lese majesty. months in prison with Guerrazzi Antonio Meucci’s name was ...” associated with the uprisings for Unfortunately, in the Florence Italian unity, at times quite imagi- State Archives (Files of the Presi- natively, by several authors who dency of the Buon Governo) we even depicted him fighting on the did not find anything on Meucci’s barricades of some unidentified incarceration in the period he indi- city, or else by Garibaldi’s side, on cated, neither in the Common Af- some unspecified battlefield. For fairs section nor in the Secret example, the New York Times on Archive section (in which there is 19 October 1889 (Antonio Meuc- an “Inventory of the archives of ci’s obituary, see bibl.) referred the Secret Buongoverno and of the that Meucci returned to Italy in Secret Prefecture”). Even though 1844-48 to fight during the revolu- the archives of the years 1833 and tions of that period, that he was 1834 were partly destroyed in the promoted on the field to the rank flood that hit Florence in 1966, in- of lieutenant and that he then spired by our faith in Antonio returned to Cuba to escape capture Meucci’s proven sincerity, we by the Austrians (“Returning to continued our research, centering Italy in time to take part in the it on Francesco Domenico revolution of 1844-8, he won a Guerrazzi, expressly named by Lieutenant’s commission. To avoid Meucci in the letter quoted. capture by the Austrians he went Thanks to the help given to the again to Havana”). In Section author by Dr. Schiffini of the Two (Havana) of this book we Museo del Risorgimento of Milan, will demonstrate how such an we were able to find, in a chapter assertion (later taken up by many of E. Michel’s book on Guerrazzi

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himself (see bibl.), an explanation (Enlightenment) education, advis- for the absence of documents in ing him to read plays and novels the Florence State Archives. by the most famous late-eigh- Michel says, in fact, in a note (see teenth-century French writers. p. 174): “Secret Archive of the Following arguments with his fa- Buon Governo - 1833 - no. 352. In ther, Guerrazzi fled home and, for the same archive, no. 532, which a short time, earned a living as a should refer to the trial against proofreader, taking advantage of Guerrazzi and his comrades, is such work to broaden his knowl- missing. Guastalla (op. cit., p. edge. After a reconciliation with 277) defends Guerrazzi for having his father, he went back to his stolen it at the time of his greatest family and continued his studies in power in Tuscany22.” Michel’s the law school of the University of book, furthermore, contains very Pisa, where he found an environ- useful information on political ment that was politically lively conspiracies in Tuscany, exactly and hostile to the Grand Duchy. in the years 1833 and 1834 which He was also suspended for a while interest us, for which reason we from the university for having have thought it appropriate for the sympathized with the subversives. reader’s convenience to reproduce He graduated with a degree in law the entire eighth chapter of the in 1824, and thus returned to book further on. Livorno, where he opened a law office, at the same time attempting Francesco Domenico a career as a writer of literary Guerrazzi - Biography works. However, his first dramas, Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi such as Il Bianco and I Bianchi e i was born in Livorno (Leghorn) on Neri were not successful. In 1826, 12 August 1804, son of Francesco he wrote his first historical novel, Donato and Teresa Ramponi. La Battaglia di Benevento, which Since childhood, he demonstrated instead won him great renown. a lively intelligence and a In the same period, Guerrazzi rebellious character. He received turned his combative character to- his first schooling from the ward politics, violently attacking Barnabite fathers of the San conservatives and supporters of Sebastiano boarding school. The the Grand Duchy. In January fathers, especially his teacher, 1829, he founded a newspaper, father Spotorno, gave him both a which he named L’Indicatore classical and a modern Livornese, similarly to the newspaper in Genoa founded by Mazzini. His writings irritated the 22 Guastalla is probably referring to Jan- ducal government, which uary 1849, when the Ministero Demo- cratico was instituted in Florence, headed suppressed the newspaper in by Guerrazzi, Mazzoni and Montanelli, February 1830. Soon after, which proclaimed a Constituent Assem- following a public speech bly, while the Grand Duke Leopold II (commemorating Cosimo del was in voluntary exile at Gaeta. Florence 169 Fante, deceased in the Russia 1848-49, in which he played a de- campaign), in which Guerrazzi termining role. Since 1847 Guer- launched ardent diatribes of revo- razzi had already been collaborat- lutionary content, the ducal police ing on the Corriere Livornese, confined him to a forced domicile practically transforming it from a in Montepulciano for six months. moderate to a revolutionary news- During his confinement, Giuseppe paper. Following riots that broke Mazzini went to visit him along out in Livorno, Guerrazzi was with Carlo Bini23. They realized, again arrested and sent to however, that they could not con- Portoferraio, in January of 1848. trol Guerrazzi’s rebellious charac- Freed after a brief imprisonment, ter for the purpose of channeling it he took to his political activities towards the Mazzini movement’s again. On 8 February 1849, he ideals and organization. established, together with Francesco Domenico When he returned to Livorno Giuseppe Montanelli and Guerrazzi in prison in 1833 from his confinement, Guerrazzi Giuseppe Mazzoni, the Governo resumed, along with his legal pro- Provvisorio (provisional gov- fession, his political activism op- ernment) in Florence, forcing posing the Grand Duchy. For this Leopold II to flee into exile at reason, on 2 September 1833, Gaeta. On 27 March of the same Guerrazzi was arrested by the year, Guerrazzi was named dicta- ducal police during a round-up in tor, but a popular insurrection which many conspirators were which broke out in Florence on 13 captured (including Bini). The April 1849 overthrew the Governo prisoners were locked up for three Provvisorio. Immediately after- months at the Forte Stella in the ward, the Grand Duke, supported town of Portoferraio, where, how- by Austrian troops, returned to ever, they were treated very well Florence, and Guerrazzi was im- and then released. But Guerrazzi prisoned first in the Belvedere fort was held under constant surveil- and then in the Volterra dungeon lance by the ducal police. In 1836, awaiting trial. There he wrote the his most famous work was pub- famous Apologia della sua vita lished in Paris, L’Assedio di politica and Beatrice Cenci. After Firenze, which became an impor- four years of (very mild) impris- tant stimulus for the fight against onment, he was sentenced to seven oppressors and tyrants, not only in years of penal servitude for lese Italy. majesty. In 1853 he accepted the His political activism reached commutation of his penalty into its peak during the revolution of exile from the Grand Duchy. He chose Bastia, in Corsica, where he 23 Carlo Bini, writer and patriot, born in remained for about four years, de- Livorno in 1806, died in Carrara in 1842. voting himself to writing other He was imprisoned at Portoferraio with works, such as Pasquale Paoli o Guerrazzi, with whom he had been la rotta di Pontenuovo. In 1857, friends since childhood. In prison he wrote “A Prisoner’s Manuscript,” which Guerrazzi fled from his place of was published posthumously in 1869. exile because of dissensions with

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the French government, and, with from 1830 to 1835, Società Ed- the consent of the Sardinian gov- itrice Dante Alighieri di Albrighi- ernment, took refuge in Genoa, Segati & Co., Milan, 1904. where he remained until the end of 1859. After April 1859, when «Chapter VIII Tuscany was united with the Summary: Fears of the police; Kingdom of Italy, he refused to Arrests throughout the Grand return there because he was not Duchy; The second trial of the invited with the proper attention “Giovine Italia;” Other secret so- and regard by the new Ricasoli cieties; Surveillance of the liberals government. He was elected deputy for the Rocca S. Casciano The various demonstrations constituency in 1860, and in suc- which had occurred in succession cessive legislatures (until 1870) in in the Grand Duchy led the police the Casalmaggiore, Livorno I and to believe that they were not iso- Caltanissetta constituencies. In lated events limited to one place or Parliament he sided with the far person, but that they were con- left, opposing in particular the nected and dependent on “social politics of the Count of Cavour, and sectarian affections.” especially regarding the cession of The police had already known Savoy and Nice to France. for some time that in Siena a In 1870 he settled in Livorno, brotherhood of the Giovine Italia where he held the office of Mayor had been reorganized thanks to the for about a year. He then retired to attorney Francesco Guerri and the his farm at Fitto di Cecina, where mathematician Enrico Montucci, he expired on September 23, 1873. and they had managed to get their His final work was Il secolo che hands on the sect’s documents and muore, considered his political last circular letters. These printed pa- testament. In 1885 the city of pers gave an account of the state Livorno dedicated a statue to him, of affairs, insisted on the which was erected in the square propagation of the society, fixed that bears his name. impositions, the state of the treasury, the armed decuries and The Conspiracies of 1833 their hierarchy, and boasted of Here below we included the en- relations abroad and the tire Chapter VIII of Michel’s cooperation of other societies all book, cited in our bibliography, aimed at the founding of a free since it is of extreme interest in and independent Italian republic. order to cast light on the events of After discovering the existence Antonio Meucci’s last two years of this brotherhood, on the night of residence in Florence before between 6 and 7 April [1833 - going to Havana. Editor’s note] Lieutenant Pietro Casaglia and several other officers Michel, E., F. D. Guerrazzi and burst in on Guerri, Montucci, Political Conspiracies in Tuscany Matteo Nabissi, the new convert Florence 171 Adeodato Poiretti and other feder- “extended conference” with ates in the suppressed convent of Guerri. The latter revealed: Santa Chiara. The papers and “that the Siena brotherhood was records found in the meeting room comprised by Enrico Montucci, were confiscated. Among them director of the Police Department, there were a paper entitled Arbor under the war name Ettore di cognationis, a list of federates, and Ruvo, Francesco Guerri, director a book entitled Lucubrationes of the Interior, Giovanni Aguto, Syrio-Kopticae, the three of them Antonio Pistoi, director of the Fi- written in enigmatic or conven- nance Department, Pietro tional characters. Farnese, Giuseppe Paselli, The discovery of these impor- director of the Bonifazio Visconti tant documents, confirming the Education Center, Celso criminality of the scheme, per- Marzucchi, president of meetings, suaded the police to deliver the de- Roberto Guiscardo, now resigned; fendants without delay to the “that the central Tuscan Criminal Court, so that they might brotherhood was based in be tried according to the ordinary Florence; its heads and rules of justice and that a proceed- correspondents with Siena were ing begin under the title of “Attack the attorneys Venturi and against the public order or lese Salvagnoli, who signed their majesty.” names respectively as F. Spinola, To decipher the important con- director of foreign affairs, and fiscated documents, the court Foscolo, director of Finances; summoned a youth, a certain “that the Siena brotherhood re- Giuseppe Semach, an expert in ceived both orders and news from ancient languages and in arbitrary the central one, and presided over and conventional characters. He Poggibonsi and Chiusi, where accepted the job with much repug- there were so-called orderers, that nance, and translated Arbor is Federico Sozzi, Mayor, in cognationis and the list of Chiusi and the Marchi brothers in federates, but either did not want Poggibonsi …; or was unable to explain the book “that the Siena brotherhood Lucubrationes. Nonetheless it held correspondence with two came to be known that the Siena other chapters, that is the central brotherhood was composed of 195 one and the one in Livorno, of individuals, of which the names of which the heads known to him 147 were known with certainty. were Giovanni Palli, merchant, As if the evidence already col- and Carlo Bini, from Livorno ...; lected were small, a few days later “that the central brotherhood Guerri informed the President of corresponded abroad with the ones the Buon Governo that he was in Bologna and Lucca; that these willing to make many disclosures had the same government as the if he were promised impunity. one in Siena, without the latter President Bologna traveled however having legal knowledge promptly to Siena, and had an of this …”

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These revelations alarmed, as The police chief of Santa one can easily imagine, the timid Croce, reporting to Bologna on and fearful ducal police, and they liberal machinations, wrote: “At alarmed it even more since it was the moment it is universally being informed of liberal machina- believed among the liberals that tions from all over the place. also in Tuscany the moment is The Austrian minister in Flo- near for the crisis of convulsion in rence led the President of the which the whole civilized world Buon Governo to believe that a has the misfortune of finding landing by Mazzini on the Tuscan itself. coast was possible; and Mr. “I believe that the liberal grand Bologna hastened to give the committee now seated in Geneva severest orders for the terrible has finally decreed the Italian conspirator to be arrested revolution, and is waiting at any immediately. This was the moment to hear that it is realized description he sent to the governor and to experience its effects. of Livorno: “It is incredible how much fa- naticism therefore reigns today Mazzini Giuseppe, age 25 approx- among the sectarians, and how imately. much exultance dominates their Proper height, thin. hot heads.”24 Face rather long, olive color. In spite of the discoveries made Jet black hair. and the alarming reports that ar- Eyes the same, beautiful and rived from every part of the Grand bright. Duchy, the government did not Beautiful forehead which they make any decision, and limited its have called Homeric. action to sending a circular letter He wears small black mustaches. to all magistrates regarding the Nice voice, clear, quick in speech. rumor of a general uprising in all Noble deportment, energetic in ev- Italy.25 erything. But soon the police succeeded From Livorno a spy who en- in obtaining this letter from Mazz- joyed the trust of the liberals re- ini dated from Geneva 16 August ferred to the same Bologna that [1833, Editor’s note], to Giacomo they had tried to corrupt the police Caraggi in Florence: chief Biliotti “to act unembarrassed and careless during “Brothers I. U. L. [Italy United Mazzini’s planned landing in and Liberated, Editor’s note] Now Livorno”; and also that an and forever. emissary from the revolutionary The signal for the Italian insur- committee in France had been sent rection has been given. The field to Tuscany with a million French Francs to serve the insurrection 24Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - movement in Italy. 1833 - no. 429. 25 Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - 1833 - no. 446. Florence 173 is open. Whoever might not know “Every town must act as if on how to seize the opportunity its action depended the welfare of would merit infamy or worse from the whole Italy. his brothers! The Neapolitan “Every town must act as if the insurrection is not a partial neighboring town were about to uprising, nor a desperate attempt, rebel, and the means of its own in- it is the beginning of an Italian surrection would thereby emerge. uprising, calculatedly adopted so “The already hinted uprising of that the uprising will have a point bands in the Papal States will of support and also so that in case begin well before the 20th in the of an accident the insurrection can Ancona territory commanded by regain strength and not be rapidly the famous Sciabolone. suppressed. Because in the face of “Tuscany must rebel rapidly, all Italy, the uprising in Piedmont energetically, republican-ly, towards which the eyes of twenty youthfully. The quickness of the million people are turned is weak uprising must be our safety; and must not take risks, after the several days after the Neapolitan latest disorders, until the moral offensive all the Italian territory effects of the Italian insurrection comprised between the Faro and assure it of the unanimous the Po must be emancipated. The concurrence of all elements Tuscan insurrection is necessary to whatever the color of their prevent the Austrians from political orientation. For I know dividing the eastern and western that by one of those coincidences Italians. that must nonetheless be foreseen, “The Tuscan insurrection is as- that if the uprising begun from signed for the insurrection of Piedmont were suppressed, no one Siena and Montepulciano to would any longer dare to rebel in reinforce the insurrection of the Italy, whereas if such should neighboring Perugia territory. The happen after the initiative had Livorno insurrection is to open a spread elsewhere, they would port to the rebellion and to the rebel again after ten or fifteen thousands who will rush to Italy. days. Since Naples was the point The Pistoia and Pisa ones are to around which the most Italian and materially cooperate with the European uncertainties are bound, insurrection in the Duchy of it was necessary for Italy and Modena and Lucca, and to Europe with the Neapolitan conduct, once the Lucca uprising campaign to prove that the is carried out, a rapid demon- uprising is unanimous, that the stration on the Ligurian Riviera, system is one, that the fire of the then move with a select company G.I. [Giovine Italia, Editor’s note] of brave youths towards the has penetrated the political- Sarzana territory passing through topographic-military positions in Massa and Carrara and the Luni- the whole peninsula. Every town giana territory, where the town of must act as if the health of all Italy Val di Magra especially must be a rested in its actions. gathering of good Italians who

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may ensure the communication bloody repression and punish- ring between the Eastern and ments that might lead to severe Western links. terms of justice. “Tuscany must be confident The second option was pre- like the other Provinces, nor must ferred, and on September 1, sev- it separate itself with culpable eral trusted employees were sent diffidence from its brothers. In from Florence to Livorno, Pisa, Revolution, there is a point at Siena, and Montepulciano to bring which everything depends on instructions to the local govern- unified thinking and quickness of ments. decision and execution. “Confidential. If Livorno should The next day, the liberals were ever be recusant, the Florentine arrested with the utmost secrecy, brotherhood will remain entrusted and their papers searched by the with the execution of orders with police: arrested in Florence were the Siena brotherhood and with Vincenzo Salvagnoli, Enrico Con- the other Tuscan one. The Livorno trucci, and Luciano Salle, a young brotherhood will in such a case be shopkeeper who was in charge of dissolved and all powers regarding picking up revolutionary mail at Livorno’s matters will be the post office; arrested in Pisa conferred to a single power in were Giuseppe Menici, the lawyer Florence. Angiolini, and the count F. Strozzi.” Alamanno Agostini; in Siena Dr. [F. Strozzi was Giuseppe Mazz- Vaselli and Fausto Mazzuoli; in ini’s pseudonym, Editor’s note]26 Montepulciano Zelindo Boddi, the This letter from Mazzini was surgeon Gherardi and Bernardo the surest evidence of an intention Basetti; in Livorno Alessandro to attempt an insurrection in Foggi, Carlo Guitiera, Ciriaco Tuscany as well, and the Domenickelli, of Greek origin, government believed the moment Luigi Minutelli, Carlo Bini, and had arrived to intervene. Two Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi.28 ways, as Baldasseroni27 wrote, All the arrested were locked up appeared before them: to prepare in the Old Fortress in Livorno to for the event, wait for the be subsequently sent off to beginning of its execution, different places. A few days later suppress it with force and then Guerrazzi, Pini [Bini, Editor’s strike down the rebels with the note], Agostini, and Angiolini rigor of the law, or to tear down were sent to Portoferraio and the ranks of the conspiracy, pre- locked up in the Forte della Stella. vent the crime, spare possibly

26This letter, left out of the Epistolario 28[Editor’s note]: It is to be taken into mazziniano published by Sansoni, was account that E. Michel mentioned the authored by Guastalla in the work already name of the important persons arrested. cited. People like Antonio Meucci (not promi- 27Leopold II and his time, page 99. nent at the time) were not quoted. Florence 175 The journey described with problems, the governor allowed such refined humor by Bini in a “that husband and wife be left free letter to his father29 was stormy; to converse together even closed and the good governor of Livorno in a room without the assiduous was sorry that the prisoners had so presence of anyone supposed to suffered sea-sickness30. watch and listen to their discussions.” The prisoners in the Old The lawyer Salvagnoli was also Fortress were not treated too frequently visited by relatives and severely. They were adminis- friends. On 7 October the lawyer tered—and the expense charged to Pietro Garinci from Empoli asked the fiscal treasury—a daily meal and was allowed to discuss several consisting of soup, boiled meat, civil suits with prisoners Sal- entree, fruit, bread and wine, be- vagnoli and Venturi. He went to sides table linens and oil for the fortress in the morning and had lamps, for the sum of 2: 6: 8 per a conference with Salvagnoli; in person. An upholsterer named the evening he went back to talk Silvestro Magnani had arranged with Venturi, and while he was each room with the necessary going to the latter’s room, Sal- furniture, with change of bed vagnoli passed him a paper from linens every fifteen days for a total his window onto the corridor. The sum of 10 lire a month per person. escorting corporal ordered the And since these supplies were visitor to give it to him, but arranged towards mid October, the Garinci refused, and ripped the prisoners were later reimbursed paper into tiny pieces. for expenses they had had to cover When this fact was referred to earlier to support themselves31. the fortress’s commanding officer, In addition, the prisoners were Garinci was arrested and held in not prohibited from receiving or jail until the end of the hearings. writing letters; but these had to re- “His actions,” wrote the Commis- gard family affairs and interests, sioner of the Interior, “seemed ir- not useless or leisurely things. regular and reprehensible, and They could also receive visits raised grave suspicions of con- from relatives or friends. The nivance and perhaps collusion to lawyer Venturi was visited daily support the views of the prisoner by his wife, and since he was Salvagnoli, all the more so afflicted by certain health because information collected has shown him to be a dangerous 29Scritti di Carlo Bini, edited by G. Lev- subject in terms of political antini Pieroni, p. 340 (Florence, Succ. Le opinions.”32 The abbé Contrucci Monnier, 1900). was visited by the bishop of 30Livorno Historical City Archives - Livorno, monsignor Gilardoni, Copialettere del Governatore - 1833 - no. 683. 31Livorno Historical City Archives - 32Livorno Historical City Archives - Ministerial Correspondence - 1833 - 3rd Ministerial Correspondence - 1833 - 3rd block, file 153. block, file 153.

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and the kindly prelate, to make the Portoferraio, took to studying all detainee’s imprisonment less sorts of books—specially painful, sent him many books historical and political ones—with from his own private library. The great ardor, and to composing learned abbé occupied much time L’Assedio di Firenze. The Forte in study, and translated St. Au- della Stella can boast having gustine’s best Soliloquies33. Some witnessed between its walls the time later he fell ill, and the gover- dawning of a poem that was nor had him transferred from the sacred to the Italian generation. Old Fortress to the Capuchins’ After three months of useless monastery, entrusting him to the investigations, the detainees were superior father Mei, who was “so released. Salvagnoli was enjoined renowned for the irreproachability not to associate with suspicious of his principles.” persons and to retire for a time to In spite of all these attentions, his villa at Corniola near Empoli. Contrucci left a pathetic diary of Guerrazzi and Bini were made to his imprisonment34. Guerrazzi also understand through an emphatic complained of suffering in his in- reprimand that “if what happened carceration, and not out of a habit had not been sufficient to admon- of declamation, as Martini notes, ish them to stay quiet, to not get but because a pride equal to his mixed up in vicious relations of great intellect, so wounded, suf- the kind for which they had been fered pains the body does not even reproached, and to not approach know, and which for him changed persons known to be previous those few months into as many of offenders of the same kind and Spielberg’s years35. notoriously suspicious, they would And yet even in Portoferraio find themselves exposed to greater Guerrazzi and his prison mates displeasures and more rigorous were treated with every possible measures of longer duration regard. They wrote and received depending on the case or letters, conversed together, read circumstances.”36 books. Bini sent his burlesque Only the federates of the Siena tales to Angiolini: “To Messer Ag- brotherhood underwent a regular nolo the happy detainee,” and trial. The criminal court, on the wrote a Prisoner’s Manuscript. beginning of 1834, found the de- Guerrazzi, knowing that Napoleon fendants guilty of the crime of lese had left a part of his library in majesty to a remote degree, and condemned Guerri to six years of

33Opere edite e inedite di Pietro Contrucci - Vol. IV (Pistoia, Cino 36Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - Printing House). 1833 - no. 352. In the same archive no. 34See A. Chiti, Il risorgimento italiano 532 is missing, and should refer to the nel carteggio di Pietro Contrucci, Par- hearing against Guerrazzi and his com- avia, Turin, 1904, p. 25 ff. rades. Guastalla (op. cit., p. 277) defends 35Proemio alle memorie del Giusti, Guerrazzi of having stolen it at the time Treves, Milan, 1890, p. XLI. of his greatest power in Tuscany. Florence 177 forced domicile at Grosseto, Modena, from Tuscany and even Montucci to five years of the same from the remote Ancona. Their penalty, Nabissi to three years of maxim is to do nothing serious, confinement to the [Tuscany’s] and yet they never dare, nor do Lower Provinces, and Peiretti to they ever stumble ...” the detainment already served. Even though he opposed it so The search performed in ferociously, in order to avoid a Alessandro Foggi’s house in dangerous dualism, Mazzini had Livorno led the police to the dis- not refused an accord between this covery of a second secret society society and the Giovine Italia. To- named the Veri Italiani (true Ital- ward the end of 1832 the bases of ians). an agreement had been drawn up Founded in Paris by Filippo and signed by Mazzini and by Buonarroti, descendant of the Gaetano Ceccherelli, commissary great Michelangelo, the Veri with special powers from the Veri Italiani society had spread quickly Italiani. into Italy as well. It proposed to Several copies of these basic make a single state out of the agreements were thus found in various Italian states and to Foggi’s house, along with the so- convert it into a republic based on ciety’s General Statute, the complete equality, and thus had Statutes of Family no. 17 the same goal as the Giovine established in Livorno, and Italia. various papers which regarded the Nonetheless, Mazzini opposed founding of the same family and it with outraged hate, because it the basic agreement between the relied on the support of France. Veri Italiani and the Reformed “The Giovine Carbonaria dei Veri Carboneria in Livorno.38 Italiani,” he wrote to Rosales37, From these papers the names of “is French to the very end. The all the sect’s affiliates were also Veri Italiani are a noose held out learned. Since these were very to the Italians so that they may numerous, a sovereign resolution lose the fruit of all their labors and on 17 November ordered regular be nicely subject to foreign judicial proceedings only against direction in the yoke of the those who were listed as heads, French. The Giovine Italia is the regulators and recruiters, and that Palladium, and the national banner there be no arrest or incarceration par excellence. Must we always be for those simply registered as sect slaves, even in the career of members. liberty?” Arrested were Carlo Guitiera, And again with increasing hate who by authorization from family he wrote to Rosales: “In Italy the no. 1 had established family no. 17 brotherhood of the Veri Italiani is in Livorno, and Magliulo, Monte- spreading. May God strike them fiore, Tubicci, Barigazzi, Balzano, down! I have news of them from 38All these documents were published by 37Epistolario, Vol. I, p. 187. Guastalla (op. cit., p. 406 ff.)

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Ottolenghi, and Alessandro Foggi, foreign captain, one Giacopello, who had all been the society’s first was interrogated and searched be- affiliates and had striven for others cause he was believed to have to join. taken on the task of transporting In the following chapter we two cases of rifles to Viareggio.39 will see the trial and the sentence The police did not even spare pronounced against these any special regard for the ladies. sectarians by the criminal court of The countesses Giovanna Maffei Florence. and Teresa Guiccioli, “suspected of political afflictions,” were care- After the arrests throughout the fully observed, especially the lat- Grand Duchy in September 1833, ter, who had just come from Mar- the police continued to exercise seilles, and was suspected of hav- the most careful and scrupulous ing some sectarian office.40 vigilance. Bologna recalled the Governor More than a few individuals, of Livorno’s attention to the both Tuscan and foreign, from the nearby island of Corsica: “I must moment of the first arrests had not overlook to warn you that precipitously left their homes. The Corsica is today one of the President of the Buon Governo principal meeting points for wrote to the various government faction members, who it is even authorities: “Such behavior seems believed to have succeeded in to explain a great deal, so that we organizing an imposing mass of may suspect them especially if militia, even available for foreign they are already known for their expeditions, and that these militia adherence to the sayings of these have already been assigned to days, and, in the case of different points on the Italian foreigners, this event can suffice coast. It is additionally believed for the adoption of a provision that the most famous and hot- prohibiting them from re-entering headed chiefs of the Giovine the Grand Duchy should they Italia, particularly the most leave it, or to make them promptly renowned Mazzini, have already leave in the case they should re- gone or are about to go to that is- enter and reappear in the place land to direct the movement and they had abandoned without a the expeditions of the so-called known legitimate cause.” federates ...” Refugees from other Italian Some time later the baron of states, particularly from the Lom- Formont, French consul in bardy-Venetia state, were not ad- Livorno, went to the governor mitted into Tuscany; foreigners Garzoni Venturi and, showing him were not let out of sight. In Livorno a certain Santi Hermitt, a 39Livorno Historical City Archives - baker from Provence, was con- Ministerial Correspondence - 1833 - 3rd stantly watched because he was block, file 153. suspected of storing cartridges. A 40Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - 1833 - no. 62. Florence 179 a letter from the duke Di Broglio, Montanelli and Giuseppe assured him that the rumors which Mazzoni. had spread in Florence of a large The former, “a very studious arms deposit on Corsica and of a youth, very attached to the cava- possible hostile attack on the Tus- liere Prof. Carmignani, and friend can coast were false.41 of the lawyer Angiolini,” was sus- Nonetheless Bologna was not pected of acting as an reassured, and since around the intermediary for correspondence middle of November several indi- between the liberals. The latter, viduals of good condition had who had already compromised gone to the island for the season’s himself with the Tuscan police, abundant hunting, he advised the had been expelled from the Tuscan consul to practice cautious Sardinian states for having surveillance over all of them, es- distributed various pamphlets of pecially Francesco Cipriani and the Giovine Italia, and for having Luciano Bartolommei from tried to subvert and corrupt the Livorno, “to investigate their minds of young students in the movements and know with greater Spedale [Hospital, Editor’s note] accuracy the real motive of their quarter of Genoa. simultaneous journey.”42 To keep Mazzoni from stirring Even the liberals, who were up the Tuscan schools, Bologna staying quiet in the Grand Duchy, relegated him to the Lower were subjected to constant surveil- Provinces. Not until June of 1835, lance. when a third of the inflicted con- The police chief for the finement had passed, did he permit outskirts of Florence kept an eye Mazzoni to return to Livorno, re- on several vacationers at Galluzzo, newing however all the constrain- among them Colonel Poerio: “It ing precepts that tied him down. seems in truth,” wrote the police Again in Livorno suspicions were chief in a report, “that this man raised by several foreign con- only attends to leading the life of a sulates, particularly those of hedonist, and that having removed Greece, the Sardinian states, and his dangerous blood ties (!!), he no even Austria. longer gives cause for The Austrian consul’s son, Pe- apprehension.”43 ter Tausch, recently named vice- In Pisa and Livorno, police’s consul, was friend with Pachò, fears were raised by Giuseppe Pietro Bastogi, the lawyer Ricci, Guerrazzi and the Greek consul’s eldest son, Panaiotti Palli, espe- cially dangerous in political mat- 41Livorno Historical City Archives - ters. It was said that Tausch had Copialettere del Governatore - 1833 - no. made friends with Mazzini during 910. his stay in Livorno, and that the 42Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - 1833 - no. 479. terrible agitator had several times 43Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - been a guest of the Austrian con- 1833 - no. 62. sul.

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Even Luigi Spagnolini, eldest headquarters of the brotherhood, it son of the Sardinian consul, har- was learned that the Siena bored the same sentiments as brotherhood was composed of 195 Tausch, and like the latter was al- initiates, that it depended on the ways surrounded by liberals. central brotherhood in Florence “These [liberals],” wrote the (of which the heads were police magistrate, “are interested identified), that there were other in having proselytes and influence brotherhoods in Poggibonsi, in these two most important and Chiusi and Livorno, and finally feared consulates, whereas they that the central brotherhood are quite content with the French, corresponded abroad with the American, Belgian and several Bologna and Lucca brotherhoods. other consulates where they al- The letter sent by Mazzini from ready have easeful and well-estab- Geneva to Florence, on 16 August lished relations.” 1833, in which he stated in no Friendships and relations with vague terms that Tuscany must the liberals were dangerous espe- “rebel rapidly, energetically, re- cially for the Austrian consul. And publican-ly, youthfully,” came to in fact Tausch was more than once the attention of the police, which heard exclaiming, “These boys decided to proceed, in great se- want to be the ruin of me!” 44 crecy, with a series of preventive And they would have certainly arrests in Florence, Livorno, Pisa, gotten him into some difficulty if Siena and Montepulciano on 2 the blind reaction to which the September 1833. Guerrazzi was various governments of Italy aban- among those arrested in Livorno. doned themselves had not aston- Probably Meucci was among those ished the liberals and restrained arrested in Florence. Since, them from other revolutionary en- according to what Michel wrote, deavors.» all those arrested were locked up in the Old Fortress of Livorno, to [Here ends Chapter VIII of be later sent to various Michel’s book] destinations, it may be possible that Meucci was sent, together Conclusions with Guerrazzi, from Livorno to From the above, we can deduce Portoferraio. Their imprisonment that the Tuscan conspiracies came lasted three months, at which point to light with the discovery by the they were released, just before ducal police of the Siena brother- Christmas of 1833 (as was often hood of the Giovine Italia at the the habit). beginning of 1833. From the doc- Also of interest is the existence uments confiscated by the police in Tuscany of a second secret so- on 7 April 1833 in the ciety, called Veri Italiani, founded in Paris by Filippo Buonarroti (a left-wing politician) and at first 44Secret Archive of the Buon Governo - disliked by Mazzini. The docu- 1832 - no. 385. Florence 181 ments confiscated by the ducal po- Chronology lice in Livorno indicated that this 1804 - 12 August - Birth in Florence of sect’s affiliates were as numerous Francesco Domenico Guerrazzi as those of the so-called Carbone- 1824 - Guerrazzi obtains his degree in law at the University of Pisa, then opens ria Riformata, with which, a lawyer’s office in Livorno nonetheless, the families of the 1826 - Guerrazzi writes his first historical Veri Italiani had just agreed on an novel alliance pact. 1829 - January - Guerrazzi founds the Finally, Michel tells us (more newspaper L’Indicatore Livornese in Livorno elaborately in a later chapter not 1830 - February - L’Indicatore Livornese transcribed here) of the hearings is suppressed by the police. Soon after- against the affiliates of the Car- ward, because of a speech hostile to the boneria at the beginning of 1834, Grand Duchy, Guerrazzi is sent into con- and of the respective sentences. It finement at Montepulciano for six months. Here he meets Mazzini, with all seems, therefore, perfectly con- whom he cannot reach an agreement gruent with Antonio Meucci’s af- 1833 - beginning - The ducal police dis- firmations about his covers the existence of the Siena brother- incarcerations, both in 1833 and in hood of the Giovine Italia 1834. Even the fact that Meucci’s 1833 - 7 April - Police break into the Siena brotherhood and confiscate docu- name is missing from the parish ments which reveal the sect’s organiza- registers in 1833, 1834 and 1835 tion in all of Tuscany seems justified by Michel’s 1833 - 16 August - Mazzini in Geneva affirmations: “More than a few sends a letter to Florence, inciting all individuals, both Tuscan and Tuscany to rebel immediately. The letter comes to the attention of the police, who foreign, from the moment of the decide to carry out a series of preventive first arrests had precipitously left arrests in many Tuscan cities, with the their homes ...,” as well as the utmost secrecy declaration of the President of the 1833 - 2 September - Guerrazzi is Buon Governo that, “Such behav- arrested by the police in a round-up and sent to the Forte Stella in Portoferraio, ior seems to explain a great deal, where he is held for three months. Then so that we may suspect them espe- he is released along with other cially if they are already known conspirators. Other arrests are carried out, for their adherence to the sayings the same day, in Florence (presumably of these days …” It is also of no Antonio Meucci among others), Livorno, Pisa, Siena, and Montepulciano. Many surprise, that Antonio and Esther suspects leave their homes, furthering the had managed to be dispensed from police’s suspicions the publication of their marriage, 1834 - Other hearings are held against the in order to avoid disclosing Carboneria affiliates in Tuscany Antonio’s domicile, and that in the 1836 - In Paris, Guerrazzi’s most famous work, L’Assedio di Firenze, is published end they were induced to abandon 1847 - Guerrazzi collaborates with the Florence. Corriere Livornese, transforming it into a revolutionary paper 1849 - January - Following riots in Livorno, Guerrazzi is arrested and sent to Portoferraio

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1849 - 8 February - Guerrazzi constitutes che muore, represents his final political the Governo Provvisorio in Florence, to- testament gether with G. Montanelli and G. Maz- 1885 - Livorno dedicates a statue to zoni. On 27 March, Guerrazzi is named Guerrazzi, erected in the square that bears dictator his name 1849 - 13 April - A popular insurrection in Florence overthrows the Governo Bibliography Provvisorio. Grand Duke Leopold II re- (Editorial), Garibaldi’s Friend Meucci gains power. Guerrazzi is locked up in Dead, The Sun, Baltimore, Saturday, 19 the Belvedere fort, then in Volterra. In October 1989. jail he writes the Apologia della sua vita (Editorial), Obituary - Antonio Meucci, politica and Beatrice Cenci. He is sen- The New York Times, 19 October 1889. tenced to seven years of prison Biblioteca di Bibliografia Italiana, 1853 - Guerrazzi accepts the conversion Bibliografia dell’età del Risorgimento, of his penalty into exile and goes to Bas- Leo S. Olschki Editore, Florence, 1971. tia, in Corsica. Here he writes other Dizionario Enciclopedico Italiano, [F. D. works, including Pasquale Paoli or the Guerrazzi], Istituto della Enciclopedia Defeat of Pontenuovo Italiana di G. Treccani, Rome, 1961. 1857 - Guerrazzi flees Bastia because of Meucci, A., Lettera a C. Paladini di dissidences with the French government, Lucca (2 May 1889), Lucca State and repairs to Genoa, where he remains Archives, ASL Legato Cerù 197, letter until the end of 1859 #126. 1859 - April - Tuscany is united with Michel, E., F.D. Guerrazzi e le Italy, but Guerrazzi does not return there cospirazioni politiche in Toscana because he had not received an official dall’anno 1830 all’anno 1835, Società invitation from the Ricasoli government Editrice Dante Alighieri di Albrighi- 1860-1870 - Guerrazzi is elected deputy Segati & C., Milan, 1904. in Parliament, where he sides with the far Rosi, M. (Ed.), Dizionario del left Risorgimento Nazionale - Le Persone, 1870 - Guerrazzi, no longer re-elected, Francesco Vallardi Editore, Milan, 1933, settles in Livorno, where for one year he pp. 274-6. holds the office of mayor. He then retires Various Authors, La Nuova Enciclopedia to his farm at Fitto di Cecina Universale Garzanti, Garzanti Editore, 1873 - 20 September - Guerrazzi dies at Milan, 1982. Fitto di Cecina. His last work, Il secolo Florence 183 THE ACADEMY OF in her excellent volume published FINE ARTS OF in the year of the bicentennial of the Academy “... the aim was to FLORENCE help the more ambitious boys of (from the origins to the unification less humble families to bypass of Italy) (and they did succeed) the long and servile apprenticeship in the The Origins botteghe (workshops), by Originally the Academy of Fine shortening their training period Arts was the Compagnia di San ...” Luca, an institution of a strictly re- In 1571 the Accademia became ligious nature, founded during the an independent Magistratura and first decades of 1300, that in 1585 new by-laws were adopted attracted painters, of which San and applied until the reforms of Luca was the patron. The Peter Leopold. Magistratura delle Arti e del Towards the end of the rule of Disegno, where registers of all the Medici family, marked by gen- artists and draftsmen were kept, eral decadence, even Tuscan uni- and the Scuola d’Arte (School of versities had deteriorated, with the Art) were established later. A first exception of the one in Lucca, a step towards the founding of the town which was, however, inde- Academy was made during the pendent from the Grand Duchy. middle of the sixteenth century by Vittoria Corti writes in this regard: the famous painter, architect and “… There was great rivalry be- writer Giorgio Vasari, who, with tween the universities of Pisa and the support of Cosimo I de’ Siena and each would have gladly Medici, created the Accademia del watched the other succumb, but Disegno (Academy of Design), a they both agreed on keeping 250 corporate body whose members year-old systems, void of content. were chosen among the best artists ... Each year many young men re- of the Compagnia di San Luca. ceived degrees, generally in law According to the by-laws of the and medicine, the two professions Accademia dating back to 1562, in which a better living was masters were required to inspect earned …” the works of younger artists one or more times, advise them and The Leopoldian Reforms single out those who one day The grand duke Peter Leopold, would become masters. Every who came to power in 1765 at the year three new masters were age of eighteen, first implemented appointed: one for painting, one State reforms, before dealing with for sculpture and one for archi- the reform of the Accademia. He tecture. The school activities also began on 7 March 1783 by sup- included anatomy lessons, held at pressing the Magistratura delle the hospital of S. Maria Nuova, Arti e del Disegno, thereby and mathematics lessons held on removing its control on the artists Sundays. As Vittoria Corti writes

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and craftsmen of Florence, who exceptions (among which, used to turn to it to settle their Antonio Meucci, many years later) disputes. Then, with the by-laws came from well-off families. Peter of 3 October 1794 Leopold Leopold attached great importance converted the old Accademia del to competition and prizes, which Disegno from a simple corporation part of the academics were ex- to an institutional body, thereby pected to take care of. The aim of giving it its current name: the prizes was to stimulate doing, Accademia di Belle Arti (Academy rather than dwelling on lengthy of Fine Arts). Peter Leopold and useless disquisitions. Finally, transferred the Academy to the he prevented any form of former hospital of S. Matteo in via favoritism in admissions, in that del Cocomero (now via Ricasoli) future students were no longer which leads to Piazza S. Marco, required to sit admittance where it still stands today. The examinations, for which they were hospital of S. Matteo was restored coached, upon payment, by the by Paoletti, an architect. same teachers who would then Moreover, with his decree of 21 examine them. March 1785 Peter Leopold abol- Students were required to ished all confraternities (of which attend one school (the school was there were 264 in Florence alone a subdivision of a class) per year, and 2059 in the entire Grand unless they chose otherwise or Duchy), including the Compagnia were encouraged to do so by their di San Luca, whose members au- teacher, providing they had not tomatically became members of decided to change subject. the Academy of Fine Arts. Mathematics and anatomy lessons Piazza S. Marco toward Peter Leopold introduced two were abolished, so as to allow the mid-eighteenth century fundamental innovations. The first students to concentrate on basic On the left: the Church laid greater emphasis on technical subjects. The schools of nude and and the Convent of the Nuns of S. Caterina. aspects within the framework of copper engraving remained. All On the right: S. Matteo art, with the aim - as specified in existing schools of drawing, Hospital the by-laws - of financially boost- including the ones in Borgo Pinti ing Tuscan handicrafts. The sec- and Via della Crocetta, merged ond was that, schooling was to be with the school of Via del public and free. The eight teachers Cocomero. The Academy, at its and two caretakers were from that new, restored seat in the former moment onwards paid by the hospital of S. Matteo, was inaugu- State, which also covered rated with a solemn ceremony on expenses for teaching material. 2 January 1785. Students were to pay nothing. The library of the Academy However, poor families preferred was gradually expanded thanks to to send their sons to work, rather bequests and purchases. However, than to school. Although the many volumes were acquired, fol- Academy was free, most of the lowing the dissolution of numer- students, with a few rare ous religious orders commanded Florence 185 by Peter Leopold in 1786 and later Firenze (Annals of the Imperial by the Napoleonic regime between Museum of Physics and Natural 1808 and 1810. In fact in 1810 the History of Florence), with articles library received about seven thou- by professors Babbini, Gazzeri, sand books following the above- Targioni Tozzetti and Uccelli. mentioned dissolutions. However, after the restoration, the grand The Napoleonic Interlude duke Ferdinand III instructed that After the French chased from most of these books be returned to Florence, in 1799, the grand duke the religious orders from which Ferdinand III, the son of Peter they had been seized. The library Leopold, the Academy suffered was open to the convenience of the the consequences of the wars and schools and the public. From 1816 there were even times when the to 1853 it was moved to the teachers of the Academy received former convent of S. Caterina no salaries. together with the Conservatorio The first consequence brought d’Arti e Mestieri (the conservatory about by the new regime was new of arts and trades), as described by-laws for the Academy imposed further on. on 10 June 1807 by Maria Luisa In addition to restoring (or of Bourbon, who became regent of rather, virtually founding) the the so-called Kingdom of Etruria, Academy of Fine Arts, Peter created by Napoleon, after the Leopold had the Abbé Fontana re- death of her husband Lodovico. organize the Museo di Scienze Maria Luisa tried with these new Naturali (Museum of Natural Sci- by-laws to change the way Peter ences), which was re-baptized Leopold had organized the Museo di Fisica e di Scienze Natu- Academy, by re-establishing the rali (Museum of Physics and Compagnia di San Luca, which Natural Sciences), where obtained its ancient privileges and renowned professors, such as authority again. The teaching of Giuseppe Pigri exhibited their mathematics, perspective and his- work. The Museum also tory-mythology was introduced comprised an extremely so- again. Under the guidance of phisticated laboratory. The Mu- Pietro Benvenuti, the Academy seum - now the Museo della was divided into two levels: stu- Specola, in Via Roma no. 17 - was dents started at the first level at the opened to the public in 1775. At age of twelve, when they attended the time of Antonio Meucci, it was a sort of ‘liceo’ (secondary school) managed by Count Girolamo and basically learned figure and Bardi, who remained the director ornamental drawing. Then, they until 1829. Count Bardi moved on to one of the four introduced the free teaching of classes: Painting, Sculpture, sciences in the museum, and Architecture and Engraving. The published from 1808 to 1810 the Academy was also linked to a Annali del Museo Imperiale di Corpo degli Artigiani (Body of Fisica e di Storia Naturale di

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Artisans), formed by the thirty tions et découvertes qui ont eu lieu best artisans of Florence, who met récemment et des pratiques et with the teachers of the Academy procédés qui forment la ressource, once a month with a view to dans l’ancienne France, de cer- discussing technical matters. The taines villes manufacturières” (see Body was made up by two bibl., Gallo Martucci, p. 37). In silversmiths, two bronze workers, other words, Paris feared the com- two wood carvers, two gilders, petition of Tuscan craftsmen and two cabinet makers, two thus decided not to transfer to the upholsterers plus the Royal Master Florence’s Conservatory of Arts upholsterer, 2 coach-makers, 4 and Trades the most recent ma- chief master masons, 3 marble- chines, prototypes, drawings etc. workers, 3 stone-cutters, 3 that were developed in France. carpenters and 2 locksmiths. All The perplexities of Paris were had to be aged over 35 and be ex- furthermore compounded by the perts in their trade. strong opposition of the Florentine With the end of the Kingdom of academics, who were determined Etruria ordered in October 1807 - not to mingle arts with trades, so a few months after the as to safeguard the dignity of the introduction of the new by-laws of former, or at least to keep the the Academy - and the subsequent Conservatory separate from the annexation of Tuscany into the Academy. French Empire, all Tuscan institu- A decisive step towards the es- tions were required to adapt to the tablishment of the Conservatory of standards of Paris. As a result, Arts and Trades was made by the with the decree of 26 October new grand duchess Elisa Bacioc- 1809, Fauchet, the Prefect of the chi, who assigned to the Academy Department of the Arno (i.e. of the former convent of S. Caterina, Tuscany), established that, a Con- also situated in piazza S. Marco on servatory of Arts and Trades be the corner between Via degli set up in Florence. It was to pursue Arazzieri and Via Larga. In this similar objectives to those of the way, the old Academy and the Paris’ Conservatoire National des new Conservatory were Arts et des Métiers and be an inte- (physically) separated. The gral part of the Imperial Academy Conservatory was officially set up of Fine Arts (the new name of Flo- on 7 July 1811, but in practice it rence’s Academy of Fine Arts) did not become operative until the with which it shared its seat. How- following year. ever, the French Secretary of the The convent of S. Caterina Interior, to whom said decree was (today the seat of the Military submitted for approval, decided Headquarters of the Region of “de ne pas accorder à cet étab- Tuscany and Emilia Romagna) lissement les machines, modèles, was situated almost opposite the dessins etc. qui pourraient occa- Academy on the other side of Pi- sionner le déplacement des inven- azza S. Marco. After the dissolu- Florence 187 tion of many religious orders, de- Drawing), Ornamental design, creed by the French, the convent Copper engraving, Gem remained empty for many years, engraving, Anatomy, History and until it was assigned to the Mythology, Plaster work, Academy in 1811. It was well- Mathematics (which included suited to host the Conservatory of Hydraulics and Philosophy), Arts and Trades, because there Drawing of Flowers and School of was sufficient space for the Nude. The Class of Music and arrangement of cumbersome Declamation comprised five machinery, to be used for didactic schools: Counterpoint (or demonstrations and for the Composition), Piano, Singing, exhibits of the perspective Violin and Declamation. Lastly, museum. the Class of Arts and Trades was Location of the New by-laws were drafted for made up by three schools: Applied Accademia and of the Conservatorio on the Academy, the first of which Mathematics, Mechanics and Piazza S. Marco was introduced on 12 November Chemistry. The schools of A: Accademia di Belle Arti; 1811. According to these by-laws Painting, Sculpture and B: Conservatorio di Arti the members of the Body of Arti- Architecture could only be e Mestieri (former sans became members of the Con- attended after having finished the Convent of Sta. Caterina) founded and servatory, though maintaining the school of Elements of Drawing, annexed to the same requisites and functions. We where beginners practiced copying Accademia in 1811; removed in 1850 will give a detailed description of classical drawings, bas-relieves the 1813 by-laws, despite the fact and plaster casts. The training of that they were very short-lived, beginners also comprised the since the French left Florence in study of Anatomy, Perspective and February 1814 and the grand duke History and Mythology. Ferdinand III made his return. The As to their location, the various 1813 by-laws established that the schools of the Class of Drawing Academy was to be subdivided remained in the old seat in Via del into three classes: the first class or Cocomero, with the exception of ‘Class of Drawing,’ which embod- the School of Flowers and the ied the old Academy; the second School of Mathematics, which, to- class or ‘Class of Music and gether with the schools of the so- Declamation,’ introduced by the called scientific classes (namely, French, who stimulated entertain- the classes of Music and Declama- ment-related activities; and the tion and Mechanical Arts) were third class or ‘Class of Mechanical moved to the former convent of S. Arts,’ also known as the ‘Class of Caterina. It should not be surpris- Arts and Trades.’ ing that music was grouped with Contrary to modern customs, scientific subjects: from the each class was made up by several Middle Ages, music was part of schools. For example, the Class of the scientific quadrivium (which Drawing embodied fourteen included Arithmetic, Geometry, schools: Painting, Sculpture, Ar- Astronomy and Music) which in chitecture, Perspective, Drawing England led to a Master of Arts, of Figures (or Elements of while the more modest Bachelor

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of Arts required the study of only allowed to live on the premises. It the literary trivium, consisting in is important to note that, at the Grammar, Rhetoric and Logic (see time, a mechanic was no longer a bibl., Boorstin, p. 420). The two technician in charge of a museum classes of Music and Declamation or the assistant of some great sci- and Mechanical Arts were held in entist, but rather an inventor, that the former convent of S. Caterina is to say an independent profes- until 1850. sional, who presented his inven- Plan of the ground floor Statics, Kinematics, the proper- tions during public gatherings (see of Conservatorio di Arti e Mestieri of Florence ties of water and air and their ap- bibl., Gallo Martucci, p. 76). (1813) plications, the equilibrium of sim- In 1815 the Giornale di Scienze ple and composite machines and ed Arti (the Journal of Sciences their use, the impact of hard and and Arts) was published monthly elastic bodies, pendulums and in Florence. It was sold at the bot- their use, resistance of solids, as tega (workshop) of its creator and well as various other applications editor Giuseppe Landi, in Piazza to the arts and trades were taught del Duomo, near Via de’ Servi. It at the School of Mechanics, which was sold at the yearly subscription was open on Tuesdays and price of 30 paoli (equal to about Saturdays from eleven to one. The 177,000 lire or $147.50, in 1990). School of Chemistry, instead, was The Class of Mechanical Arts open on Tuesdays and Fridays of the Academy of Fine Arts in from eleven to one o’clock. In Florence, nominally a child of the 1813 there were only sixteen Conservatoire National des Arts et pupils at the School of Mechanics des Métiers of Paris, was among and eleven at the School of the most advanced technical Chemistry. In the course of the schools of the time. Although in years, there was no remarkable in- France the Conservatoire National crease in the number of pupils and des Arts et des Métiers was the School of Mechanics became founded as early as 1794, together increasingly linked to the School with the famous École Polytech- of Architecture, in the attempt to nique, in the rest of Europe the achieve the desired synergy be- precursors of engineering schools tween science and art. The School appeared many years later. For ex- of Mechanics was headed by pro- ample, in Italy there were only fessor Francesco Focacci until two schools of the kind, that, 1829, while the one of Chemistry however, were by no means was headed by professor Antonio “polytechnic:” the School of Targioni Tozzetti and his assistant Bridges and Roads in Naples, Carlo Calamandrei. The mechanic founded in 1811, and the School of Felice Gori superintended the Engineers in Rome established in Physics Laboratory, where tests 1817. French-style polytechnic were made and machinery and schools were set up, in continental tools built, as well as the Museum Europe, in Berlin in 1821, in of Machinery. Mr. Gori was also Karlsruhe in 1825, in Stuttgart in Florence 189 1829, in Hannover in 1831, in laws. For example, in 1822 there Dresden in 1851, in Zurich in were sixteen schools and a total of 1855 and in Milan in 1863. As five hundred pupils, as follows Luigi Cremona, a famous (the number of pupils is shown in mathematician, observed in 1861: brackets): Painting (45), Sculpture “for long time [before the advent (15), Architecture (72), Drawing of polytechnic schools] only the of Figures (119), Perspective (6), first rudiments of exact sciences Ornamental Drawing (66), have been taught at the General Engraving (3) and Universities in Italy.” Copper Etching (14), all forming The above information was part of the Class of Drawing; taken from the detailed historical Counterpoint (12), Piano (50), survey of the origins and develop- Singing (21), Violin (9), and ment of the Schools of Declamation (27), of the Class of Engineering (see bibl., Various Music and Declamation; Mathe- Authors, Il Politecnico di Milano matics (20), Mechanics (10), 1863-1914). This survey Chemistry (14), of the Class of highlights the fact that, before the Mechanical Arts. It is interesting establishment of schools of to note that girls began to be engineering, most engineers were admitted to the Academy between self-trained (and eclectic) and that 1825 and 1830. the Collegio degli Ingegneri On 18 June 1824 Ferdinand III (College of Engineers) which ex- died and was succeeded by his son isted in Milan from 1563, merely Leopold II, who, with his decree gave a ‘patente’ or license to its of 14 January 1850, separated the members, provided they met a technical schools of number of requirements, including manufacturing arts from the that of belonging to ‘a socially Academy. These later formed the distinguished family whose Tuscan Technical Institute, which, members had not been engaged in however, remained inactive until any vile or mechanic art for a long the day of its inauguration, 26 time.’ February 1857. Less than two years later, Leopold II left From the Restoration to the Florence definitively and the his- Unification of Italy tory of this city became part of the With the withdrawal of the history of the united Italy. French from Florence and the re- turn to power of Ferdinand III, the Bibliography Academy of Fine Arts was sub- Bianca, M., La Scienza a Firenze, Alinea jected to a number of slight Editrice, Florence, 1989. changes. The author examined the Boorstin, D. J., Storia delle Conquiste Students Registers from 1820 to Umane, Arnoldo Mondadori, Milan, 1985 1830 and found only slight differ- (Italian translation from English). Corti, V., L’Accademia di Pietro ences in the organization of the Leopoldo [in L’Accademia di Belle Arti Academy vis-à-vis the 1813 by- di Firenze 1784-1984], Conti Tipocolor,

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Calenzano (Florence), 1984 (Academy’s Studio, Vol. 1], Edizioni F. & F. Parretti foundation bicentennial). Grafiche, Florence, 1984. Gallo Martucci, A., Il Conservatorio Various Authors, Il Politecnico di Milano d’Arti e Mestieri dell’Accademia di Belle 1863-1914, Gruppo Editoriale Electa, Arti di Firenze, M.C.S., Florence, Milan, 1981. December 1988. Viggiano, D., (current director of the Leonardi, C., L’Ateneo Fiorentino dallo Accademia di Belle Arti, Florence), Studium Generale (1321) all’Istituto di Personal communications to B. Catania, Studi Superiori (1859), [in Storia February 1990. dell’Ateneo Fiorentino - Contributo di Florence 191 THE CLOCK Arab Moslems still follow a lunar calendar today. The Origins Furthermore, the measurement The most ancient time- of one month originated in the 1 measuring instruments were recurrence of lunar phases (292 based on the recurrence of stars days), not in the sun’s move- and planets in the celestial ments. Egyptian priests demon- vault; more precisely of the sun, strated their powers to their observed in its daily journey, people by predicting the Nile’s and of the moon and stars, floods, concurrent to the star observed in their nocturnal Sirius’s rising together with the journeys. The ‘return of the sun, an event which only took equal,’ as time was defined by place once each year. The Bergsson, was perceived by Egyptians nonetheless adopted a primitive man particularly in solar calendar, called the regard to the influence of the calendar of the Nile, which sun and moon’s cyclical fixed the beginning of each year movements on many aspects of during our month of June, his life, from agricultural which, thanks to the fertility climate to sea tides to women’s induced by the swelling of the menstrual cycles and Nile, also signaled the pregnancy, etc. The solar year, beginning of agricultural activi- the solar day and the lunar ties. month were therefore the first In China in the Middle Ages, and most obvious units of time a new calendar was proclaimed measurement in all civilizations, by each new emperor, who but with various differences would pronounce it better than which brought about differing the preceding one and than solar or lunar calendars. those used by the rulers of other Solar calendars developed in lands (defined as barbarians). It the entire occidental world. was considered a grave crime to They were derived from the challenge the imperial calendar Julian calendar, promulgated by or to propose a different one. Julius Caesar in 46 BC, then For the calendar emanated from reformed in 1582 by Pope the emperor, who was of ce- Gregory VII, who established lestial descent and therefore that the 4 October of that year infallible, and his calendar was would be immediately followed therefore accurate. by 15 October, and that every Astrology was derived from fourth year would be a leap the (logical) consequence that year, except for years initiating the influence of the stars and a new century if they were not planets was supposed to extend divisible by 400. The Hebrews, to all aspects of life, besides on the other hand, had a mixed those already known. We must solar and lunar calendar, and the not forget that astrology, like the already consolidated influ-

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ences of the sun and moon, was of dawn and sunset was divided initially an experimental into twelve equal parts. science, that is, based on Nonetheless, the most ancient statistical observation of a large sundial known (Egyptian, of number of events. Only later did green slate, dating to 1450 BC) it degenerate and become the was made with a horizontal domain of charlatans. gnomon instead of a vertical one. Even today, in upper The Sundial Egypt, a very simple and Before passing from the ingenious sundial is used, made (solar) measurement units of of a graduated linear ruler, with “year” and “day” to the modern a π-shaped iron stuck into the “hour”—defined as one twenty- center, which casts its shadow fourth of the time that passes on the gradations. Later on, the between one high noon and the Greek sundial’s gnomon was next—many millenniums went inclined at an angle parallel to by. In fact, in the most ancient the earth’s rotation axis, so that sundials, the duration of an hour the direction of its shadow changed according to the sea- would be independent of the son, since gradations of hours season. In this case, only the were obtained by dividing the length of the shadow varied interval between dawn and according to the season. And if, sunset by twelve. Thus, when as in a Greek specimen from one spoke of an hour, one had 300 BC, the surface of such a to specify the season as well. sundial was made inside the For example, in 370 BC the hollow of a semi-cone rather Romans prescribed that the than on a horizontal plane, and marching speed of their army circles were drawn on it, by troops must be “twenty miles adding the proper inscriptions every five summer hours.” one could easily obtain a yearly Sundials only began to be calendar. graduated with uniform hours in The ancient Romans had a the sixteenth century, when gigantic sundial in the Campus practical and functional Martius. It was two hundred mechanical clocks were largely meters long and used the available. obelisk now on the Water clock built in Sundials appear to have been Montecitorio square as a 1870 by the Dominican Father Embrìaco used as far back as 4000 BC. gnomon. They also held the (Rome, Palazzo Filippo Several different types existed. supremacy for miniature Berardi) The simplest kind consisted of a sundials, with a pocket-size one pole (called the gnomon), that was just four centimeters in vertically stuck onto a diameter. Certainly, however, horizontal, graduated surface on they did not have the same which it projected its shade. The knowledge of astronomy as the angle formed by the two shades Greeks if it is true that they Florence 193 actually brought a sundial from measured the level of water Catania to Rome, without filling a graduated vessel. An considering the difference in Egyptian alabaster clepsydra latitude between the two cities, dating back to 1400 BC has and then complained, wrongly, been preserved to this day. The of its inaccuracy. In Palermo word klepsydra, which means there is an Arab sundial dating water-stealing, was coined by back to the early Middle Ages, the ancient Greeks. They used with windows and lights for clepsydras in the courts as a nighttime, almost identical to time limit (six minutes) for the sundial in Damascus. In the lawyers’ speeches. The Romans Middle Ages sundials were used twenty-minute water widely used, including portable clepsydras for the same ones, many of them very purposes. The judge could sophisticated. They remained in concede further clepsydras to use, along with clepsydras and more verbose lawyers. astrolabes (instruments for Courtesans used clepsydras for determining the position of many centuries as a time limit stars), through the end of the (one half-hour) for encounters eighteenth century. with their clients. The thirty standing stones One advantage of the (megaliths) arranged along the clepsydra as compared to the perimeter of a circle, having a sundial is that it could measure diameter of 91 meters, found at time at night. However, until the Stonehenge in Great Britain and sixteenth century, the nighttime dating back to 1850 BC, hour, like the daytime one, was followed a different principle also obtained by dividing the than that of the shadow on a night’s duration into twelve sundial. They appear to have equal parts, its length therefore served, in addition to some kind varying over the course of the of religious functions, as a level year. Nonetheless, it is said that for nighttime astronomical the Babylonians made nocturnal observations of yearly and astronomical observations using multi-yearly phenomena. water clepsydras with a precision of 1‰, that is with an The Clepsydra error of only a minute and a half Time-keeping clepsydras per day. (equivalent to our modern-day In the second century BC, timers), were originally simple the Greek Ctesibius of graduated vessels made of glass Alexandria added an ingenious or alabaster, with a small improvement to the water opening in the bottom from clepsydra. He used two vessels, which water escaped (outflow one above the other, the first of clepsydras). There were also which (above) was kept at a inflow clepsydras, which constant level, therefore insur- ing a constant rate of outflow of

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water. The second vessel of a small, half-minute sand (below) received the water and clepsydra. was marked on the side with the A principle similar to Ctesi- gradations of the hours. bius’s float was used in Afterward, Ctesibius inserted a monastic water reminders in the floating part into the receiving twelfth and thirteenth centuries. vessel on which he applied a In these, when the water in an rack rod which in turn engaged inflow clepsydra reached a a cog wheel, from which one certain weight, by means of a could easily obtain a visual sort of scale, a container of representation of the time on a small metal balls was dial or activate an alarm or overturned, causing the contents other mechanisms. to fall onto a bell and awaken The sand clepsydra the rector. Water-driven (hourglass or sand-glass), was reminders were followed by introduced in the eighth century, mechanical ones. These were apparently by a monk from realized with a wheel which Chartres (France), to avoid the turned thanks to a weight (aptly freezing of water that occurred controlled by a counterweight). in water clepsydras during The wheel had twenty-four or northern winters. Subsequently, forty-eight holes, into one of the sand clepsydra took on the which a peg was inserted. When well known shape of two the peg hit a lever, it unhooked inverted and flame-sealed the alarm-sounding device. The funnels, a form which did not canonical hours—those in require refilling and protected which some duty must be the sand from humidity. performed in the Charlemagne had an enormous rectory—varied according to sand clepsydra built which monastic rules. According to the lasted twelve hours before rules set by St. Benedict in the needing to be turned over. In sixth century, the canonical Latin America the clepsydra is hours were seven, opportunely used as a timer for chicken distributed in the time interval fights. Christopher Columbus between the morning awakening used a sand clepsydra—which and the night’s retirement. It is was turned over by a sailor from the monastic reminder every half hour—to regulate life alarms that the first mechanical on board his caravels. For watches originated in the example, every eight inversions fourteenth century, (that is every four hours) the incorporating a primitive guard changed. Even the movement regulator, called a velocity of sailing ships was verge escapement, of which we measured up until the end of the will speak further on. nineteenth century with the help To stay with the theme of water clocks, we cannot forget Florence 195 the Celestial Mechanism Curious Clocks realized in China by Su-Sung in The flame clock (made with 1088 which, in fact, was a candles or oil lamps) seemed planetary calendar built inside a like a convenient way to tower about ten meters high. It measure time during the night was based on a hydraulic wheel hours, as an alternative to the with forty eight baskets ar- clepsydra. Towards the end of ranged along its circumference. the ninth century, Alfred the One of the baskets was filled by Great, King of Wessex, used a a water clepsydra which clock with six identical candles, measured a quarter of an hour, each thirty centimeters long. after which the weight of the When the candles were lit in basket disengaged the brake sequence, the clock lasted from the wheel, which could twelve hours. On each candle now turn until it hit the next twelve notches were carved one brake, while a new basket took inch apart from each other, the place of the old one. In other corresponding to ten minutes words, Su-Sung had invented a each. In the case of oil lamps, water-powered movement the consumption of oil taken regulator (escapement). It is from a graduated, transparent truly unfortunate that, in 1094, vessel was measured from eight when another emperor gained o’clock at night to seven power, the preceding calendar o’clock in the morning. This was declared wrong (as was the method was perfected by the custom) and, consequently, Su- Milanese scientist Girolamo Sung’s Celestial Mechanism Cardano, who invented a device was smashed to pieces. to ensure a constant flow (and The Jesuit missionaries in therefore constant consumption China, who applied Galilean rate) of the oil from the vessel theories in open contrast with to the lamp. the Pope, humiliated Chinese Also of interest are certain astronomers by accurately other types of clocks based on predicting the sun’s eclipse at the sense of smell, or touch and 10:30 AM on 21 June 1629, taste, rather than on sight, and with a duration of two minutes, therefore appropriate for compared to the 11:30 AM with nighttime. For instance in a two-hour duration predicted China, Japan and Korea, by the Chinese. This was the devices to burn different first time that the Chinese incense powders sequentially Minister of Rites asked the were used for the olfactory emperor for a revision of the measurement of time, even at calendar, a task which was then night. The most famous is the entrusted to the Jesuits. incense seal with one hundred gradations realized in China in 1073, after a drought had

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jeopardized the availability of reminding individuals that they water for clepsydras. Towards were part of a community. the end of the seventeenth Furthermore, to emulate the century, the Frenchman M. de first, magnificent example built Villayer constructed a clock in 1350 for the Cathedral in equipped with small containers Strasbourg, tower clocks in the of different spices most important European cities corresponding to the numbers were soon equipped with very on the dial, so that the hand of sophisticated animation its owner, awakened in the numbers. night, would be guided by the The verge and foliot45 clock’s hand in the dark to one escapement, introduced of the containers, whose spice (apparently as far back as the would be tasted, enabling him thirteenth century) by an to determine the time. unknown inventor, constituted the first oscillator, though with The Mechanical Clock a not quite regular beat. It Tower clocks were the first involved, in fact, a vertical rod type of mechanical clock, and (verge), suspended at one spread throughout Europe after extremity from a rope, 1330. They were built with a oscillating around its own axis weight motor device (charge) (thus with the rope twisting), and a verge movement regulator and equipped with two levers (escapement). With the fitted onto the rod at different mechanical clock, the modern heights and perpendicular to hour measurement—that is, each other. These two levers hours of identical duration in interacted alternately, at the two every place, season, as well as ends of the diameter, with the during the day and night—also cogs of a crown-shaped vertical made its first appearance. The cogwheel, dragged into rotation choice of a tower was due to the by a weight which, a moment need for sufficient height for the after having pushed one of the fall of the weights, so that the levers, is stopped by the other clock could be charged for at one. Then, thanks to the pull of least twenty-four hours. the weight, the brake would be Another reason is that, for the overcome and the whole entire century, tower clocks process would begin again. The beat the hour out on a bell, in order to be heard from far away. It was also said that widespread 45The word foliot comes from old French folier (to fool around, or to be- illiteracy prevented people from have foolishly) to designate an object reading the hour on the dial. It that moves in one direction or the should also be said that the opposite, as does, in our case, the sound of the bells preserved the oscillating horizontal bar of the device socializing effects of the church, described in the following (see bibl., Landes, p. 72). Florence 197 two levers, therefore, alternately technology in mechanical arrested and released the clocks, culminating towards the cogwheel, transforming the middle of the fourteenth century weight’s continual action into with the work of Giovanni de’ an intermittent one. A second Dondi. He constructed, over bar, called the foliot, sixteen years in Padua, a famed perpendicularly attached to the astrarium (astral clock) that is a vertical rod (verge) near its mechanical clock with a upper extremity, and having two perpetual calendar and an symmetrical weights at an extremely complex planetarium, adjustable distance from the which was visited by curious point of connection with the observers from all over Europe. verge, served as a fly-wheel, Giovanni’s father, Jacopo, was allowing for the variation of the credited with the invention of whole mechanism’s rate of the clock-face, in 1344. oscillation, as in a balance Obviously it only had an hour wheel. In fact, the combination hand, since at that time the daily of verge and foliot constituted a error of clocks amounted to rudimentary torsion pendulum, dozens of minutes. The same which could have had a more century also saw the precise rate of oscillation if it construction of Paolo Uccello’s weren’t for the friction in the clock, located in the inner suspension cord. façade of the duomo in The introduction of the Florence. escapement was an important In the fifteenth century, the conceptual revolution: the substitution of a weight charge continual flow of time (like the with a spring charge allowed for shadow on the sundial, the the creation of smaller clocks, water or sand in the clepsydra, particularly table clocks. But, the oil or wax of lamps) was due to their poor accuracy, at substituted by distinct instants first they were mostly (that is, quanta) of time — appreciated as just ornamental marked by the tick-tack of the objects. The spring charge escapement — as well as the appears to have been introduced counting of time instead of its by Filippo Brunelleschi as far estimation. Note that the back as 1410. From a technical escapement also assumed the point of view, the clock did not function of giving a periodic evolve much further until the impulse to the oscillating middle of the seventeenth system (just like periodically century, when the pendulum pushing a child’s swing), in clock was introduced, or rather, order to compensate the when the pendulum was tendency for the oscillations to introduced inside the clock. The dampen because of friction. motor (that is, the charge) for Italy was, for more than three fixed (tower or wall) clocks centuries, at the vanguard of continued to be composed of

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weights, while for portable has left us with a sketch of a clocks it was the spring, whose pendulum clock executed construction was gradually per- according to his father’s fected, for instance, with the instructions just before his death addition of a spindle, since its in 1642. A model of it, created elastic force tended to diminish in Florence in 1883, can be as the spring uncoiled. It should found at the Science Museum in also be remembered that in London. 1540 the first machine for The effective introduction of carving clock cogwheels was Galileo’s pendulum in clocks created by Giannello Torriano occurred in 1659, thanks to the di Cremona, who also Dutchman Christian Huygens, constructed a large astral clock who demonstrated, also for the king of Spain, Charles theoretically, that the pendulum V. was exactly isochronous if the It is known that Galileo terminal weight moved along a Galilei discovered the law of cycloid arc rather than along a the pendulum’s isochronism in circular arc. The pendulum 1589, when he was just revolutionized the concept of nineteen, using his heartbeat as the oscillator, which was no a clock. Contrary to what one longer inert, as in the verge and might think, the heartbeat foliot escapement, but was duration of a healthy adult equipped with its own — and (which can vary from one very constant — period, individual to another by not independent from the rest of the more than 5% from its average mechanism. This allowed for of 0.8 seconds) is very constant, the reduction of error in clocks especially for lengths of time of from several minutes to a few around a minute. Galileo also seconds per day and, used his discovery inversely furthermore, for the with his pulsilogio, which con- introduction of the minute hand sisted in holding a pendulum in on a clock. In fact, after 1670, one hand and a patient’s wrist in there began to appear clocks the other. The frequency of the equipped with a second hand, pulsations was determined by controlled by the so-called one- varying the length of the pendu- second pendulum, which had an lum’s string until perfect syn- oscillation semi-period (one chrony of the pendulum’s swing) of exactly one second oscillations with the pulse’s (length of pendulum equaling beat was obtained. Galileo 99 centimeters). worked on the construction of a Now that they had an pendulum clock in the last ten independent oscillator, clocks years of his life, when he was came to be composed of four held in segregation and had fundamental parts, identifiable gone blind. His son Vincenzo in modern-day clocks as well: 1. Florence 199 the oscillator; 2. the the English physicist Robert escapement; 3. the wheelwork Hooke, who also claimed (with possible sound alarms); 4. (belatedly) that he had preceded the motor (either by weight or Huygens by sixteen years in spring). inventing the balance wheel. Two important inventions, The inventions of the spring, just a few years apart, allowed the balance wheel, and the the clock to make a big leap anchor escapement together forward. The first one, in allowed for the construction of chronological order, was made sufficiently accurate pocket by the Englishman William watches and marine watches, Clement, manufacturer of seeing as it was impossible to anchors for boats. In 1671 he in- use a pendulum or a weight vented the anchor escapement, motor on a ship or person. inserting it into an one-second Another important step was pendulum clock he built for the taken in 1704 with the church of St. Giles in introduction of perforated Cambridge (England). The precious stones as low-friction anchor had the advantage of cushions for the axes of the cog- oscillating just 3°÷4° compared wheels and of the balance to the 45° of the verge, thus wheel. occupying less space. Fur- English watchmakers thermore, it was not restricted to brought themselves to the a specific orientation. The technical vanguard from the second important invention was beginning of the eighteenth the spiral balance wheel, century to the extent that, by the introduced by Huygens in 1675, end of the century, they were allowing for a much less bulky, exporting around eighty and also portable, oscillator than thousand watches per year. the pendulum. It was composed Among these were Thomas of a spiral spring, fixed at the Tompion (who in 1695 obtained inner extremity and oscillating the first patent for the cylinder at the outer extremity, to which escapement), his pupil George is attached a small fly-wheel, Graham (who in 1725 perfected the equivalent of the terminal the cylinder escapement and weight on a pendulum. We may introduced it in pocket note that, after the two in- watches), Thomas Mudge ventions of spring charge and (inventor in 1755 of an anchor spiral balance wheel, both escapement, also called lever functions, of motor and of escapement, coupled with the oscillator, once executed by the balance wheel), and many force of gravity, are now others. It is believed that the executed by the elastic force of accuracy reached by Graham’s a spring. The law of elastic watches was unsurpassed for force (proportional to the elon- nearly two centuries. gation of a spring) is credited to

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As for marine watches, it claiming that Harrison’s should be remembered that chronometer was mistaken, not since the time of the first his. Naturally, he had to go back Atlantic crossings the problem on his word as soon as the ship had existed of realizing a clock reached Madeira the next day, to carry on board a ship, as Harrison had predicted. guaranteeing high precision in Important improvements in order to determine longitude construction techniques of with sufficient accuracy. High clocks were introduced at the prizes were offered to whoever end of the eighteenth century in would solve the problem by Paris by the Swissman Abraham Philip III of Spain in 1604, and Louis Breguet. His later by Louis XIV of France, by improvements allowed for the the General Dutch States and, in passage, in the nineteenth 1714, by the English century, to industrial pro- Parliament, following a naval duction. At the time, pocket disaster off the Scilly Islands in watches generally used an 1707. Towards the middle of anchor escapement. The the century, John Harrison in winding crown of the spring, England and Pierre Le Roy in substituted for the key used France constructed marine until then, was introduced by chronometers which fairly Adrien Philippe in 1842. satisfied the requirements. In In 1896, invar (an iron- particular, the fourth prototype nickel alloy with 36% nickel, constructed by Harrison, known featuring invariant length with as Harrison no. 4, was used temperature) was discovered by between November of 1761 and the Swissman Charles Edouard April of 1762 on the English Guillaume. In 1897 he realized ship Deptford on the Madeira- the first invar pendulum. In Jamaica and return route, erring 1898 he applied a spiral to the by just ten seconds in one balance wheels that was made hundred and sixty-one days of of elinvar (nickel-iron-chrome navigation. Harrison therefore alloy), whose elasticity co- won the twenty-thousand-pound efficient remained constant in a prize instituted by the English wide range of temperatures. Fi- Parliament for the clock that nally, in 1899, Guillaume intro- could make the return journey duced his integral balance to the West Indies with a less wheel, capable of reducing an than two-minute error. It is said error of two or three seconds that the captain of the Deptford, per day in ordinary balance W. Digges, while measuring the wheels to just a few thousandths ship’s velocity with the usual of a second per day. log-chip and clepsydra, erred by nearly one hundred miles in the first nine days of navigation, Florence 201 Modern-day Clocks the end of the seventies. In Not until our century (1930) 1980, Japan exported nearly did the wristwatch appear. In seventy million watches out of the fifties automatic winding the ninety million produced in came into use, which had the world, overtaking actually been experimented by Switzerland, which had Abram Louis Perrelet back in dominated the market for over a 1756. In 1957 electricity entered century. the scene, initially used as a Air navigation—in the same motor, for the generation and way as marine navigation in the transmission of the motive eighteenth century—today impulse to a normal balance requires extremely accurate wheel. Later, the balance wheel clocks, also to avoid collisions. was replaced by the accutron, The maximum precision was that is, an electric tuning-fork, reached by atomic clocks, based vibrating with a period of one on the radiation emitted every three-hundred-and-sixtieth of a time an atom undergoes an second, so even the oscillator energy state transition, that is it became electric. In the sixties changes its spatial or electro- the electric tuning-fork was magnetic state. Such radiation substituted by the quartz- has an extremely precise oscillator, with a period of a frequency (in cycles per one-hundred-thousandth of a second), and is not subject to second, and gears were any environmental disturbances. replaced, in fixed clocks, by The first atomic clocks, based electric frequency dividers, on ammonia, were developed in employing thermionic tubes. In 1947, and could have an error the seventies, when the margin as low as one second transistor had by that time every thirty years. Modern replaced the thermionic tube, cesium atomic clocks are ten clocks became completely times as accurate.National electric, gradually becoming standard (cesium) clocks, kept smaller and smaller—therefore in the greater nations of the portable— and more accurate, world, can today boast an error thanks to progress made in margin of less than one second miniaturization and integration every three thousand years. This techniques for electric circuits. has made time measurement the The best commercial wrist- most precise of measurements watches today have an error of all physical quantities. margin of about a millisecond Nonetheless, it is theoretically per day, that is, about one estimated that, by building a second every three years. Japan hydrogen atomic clock, error began to enter the electronic could be further reduced to just watch market in 1950, and one second every three hundred gained the upper hand towards thousand years.

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Time-measurement precision

Year Type Error

heartbeat one hour/day c2000 BC sundials half hour/day (between seasons) c1000 BC water clepsydra two minutes/day 1300 tower clock variable from one (weight driven) hour to 10 minutes/day < 1675 verge and foliot 4 minutes/day 1675 Huygens, pendulum 2.5 seconds/day 1761 Harrison no. 4 about 10 seconds/year 1899 Guillaume 1 second/year 1928 quartz, standard 1 second/20 years 1947 atomic, ammonia 1 second/30 years 1950 mechanical wristwatch 1 minute/day 1980 quartz wristwatch 1 second/3 years today atomic, cesium (NBS) 1 second/3000 years future atomic, hydrogen 1 second/300,000 years

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