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The Functional Viability of Indigenous African Languages in South Africa: Challenges and Prospects of Their Survival

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The Functional Viability of Indigenous African Languages in South Africa: Challenges and Prospects of Their Survival The Functional Viability of Indigenous African Languages in South Africa: Challenges and Prospects of their survival By N. E. Sithole Submitted to the Faculty of Arts in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil) in the Department of General Linguistics and Modern Languages at the University of Zululand Supervisor : Prof. C.T. Moyo Co-supervisor : Dr. E.M. Mncwango Date submitted : 30th November 2015 i Dedication I would like to give Honour and credit to God Almighty, for His Love, Guidance and Direction. He made everything possible, and I acknowledge that my whole existence and my success are because of Him. I also thank Him because He gave me a miracle, in the form of my wife, Nonhlanhla. This thesis is dedicated to her and to my best friend, Mthunzi Mbatha, who is living proof that humility, craziness and genius always go together. ii Acknowledgements South Africa is affectionately known as a ‘rainbow nation’ as it is multicultural and speaks more than fifteen languages. There are, however, eleven official languages, excluding Sign Language and Tsotsi-Taal. Most of the official languages are regional, except for English and Afrikaans, which are dominant in all the nine provinces. This research sought to determine the use of indigenous African languages in sectors like economy, administration, law and education. This is a summary report of the research conducted in the Zululand District of the province of KwaZulu-Natal. There are people who played a very important role by availing themselves as subjects. They are people of Nongoma, especially in the Usuthu and Mahhashini areas. One cannot leave out the students of Mthashana FET College, who were randomly picked and /or ‘highjacked’ to take part when waiting for their classes to begin. The people of Haladu area in Nquthu also provided us with a unique character and invaluable information. Haladu is multilingual in that the community speaks both isiZulu and seSotho as Home Languages. As I am a teacher by qualification and profession, I would not have done justice if I left out teachers. They are sculptors shaping masterpieces out of their learners and I am proud of them. Their participation, direct and indirect, was highly appreciated. One cannot forget the community of Vryheid. The people of Vryheid and Zululand District, diverse as they are, unitedly supported me with everything. I am very grateful to the institutions that opened their doors, viz. Standard Bank, FNB, ABSA, Mthashana FET College, Abaqulusi Library, SAPS, Faizel Mohammed Optometrists, Legal Aid, LCRC, SAFA, Department of Transport, SASSA and the ANC. If I left out the name of any institution, it is an honest mistake. My head, and not my heart, is to blame. The Abaqulusi Municipality opened doors for me and provided me with all the answers. I engaged about six individuals when doing an institution survey. We engaged in thought-provoking discussions with certain staff-members and I am very grateful to the HR department and its personnel. Lastly, and most importantly, I am very grateful to my two supervisors, Prof. C. T. Moyo and Dr. E. M. Mncwango, for their guidance. They are really great scholars. I could not have done it without them. I am appreciative of the manner in which Dr. Mncwango supported and advised me throughout the programme. It was an uphill walk but, through his wisdom, humility and patience, he made it possible and less painful to climb. May God shower him with blessings and see him through his future endeavours? iii Contents Abstract ………………………………………………………………. ix Definition of terms used in the dissertation ………………………. x Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………. 1 1.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………. 1 1.2. Background to the study ………………………………………. 1 1.3. Research problem ………………………………………………. 3 1.4. Objectives ………………………………………………………. 5 1.5. Hypotheses ………………………………………………………. 6 1.6. Research methodology ………………………………………. 6 1.7. Significance of the study ………………………………………. 7 1.8. Ethical considerations ………………………………………. 7 1.9. Organisation of the chapters ……………………………………… 7 1.10. Summary ……………………………………………………… 2 Chapter 2: Literature Review …………………………………………… 9 2.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………… 9 2.2. Inequality of languages is a global phenomenon …………………… 9 2.3. Failure of Ethnicity as a Classification Mechanism …………………… 11 2.4. One’s language defines one’s identity …………………………… 13 2.5. Endoglossic and exoglossic language policies in Africa: ………………. 14 2.6. Africa and multilingualism …………………………………………… 15 2.6.1. Language distribution …………………………………………… 17 2.7. Some languages are more equal than others …………………………… 28 2.8. Rural development knows no multilingualism …………………… 31 2.9. The underdevelopment of indigenous African languages …………… 31 2.10. Attitudes of South Africans towards certain languages …….…………… 34 2.10.1. Personal and sentimental perspectives in relation to Afrikaans …… 35 2.10.2. Indigenous African languages are the bases of blackness …………… 35 2.10.3. English as a language of choice …………………………………... 36 2.11. Africa and lingua francae …………………………………………… 38 2.12. Language maintenance and death in South Africa. …………………… 41 2.13. The 1997 Harare Conference and Guidelines for Policy Formulation 41 2.14. African countries and language policies: the ‘big brother/big sister’ effect 42 iv 2.14.1. Malawi and the adoption of Chichewa …………………………… 42 2.14.2. Namibia and the case of language curriculum …………………… 43 2.14.3. Guinea and eight indigenous national languages …………………… 45 2.14.4. Kenya and English Hegemony …………………………………… 46 2.15. Language policy in South Africa …………………………………... 47 2.15.1. Language policy prior to ’94 in South Africa …………………………… 48 2.15.2. Post ’94 attempts …………………………………………………... 49 2.16. Higher Education institutions and the hegemony of English …………… 51 2.17. The MarkData Survey and the use of languages in South Africa …… 52 2.17.1. Public Language Use Patterns ………………………………….. 53 2.17.2. Language and media …………………………………………………. 53 2.17.3. Home Languages Fluency in other Languages ………………….. 54 2.17.4 Language and Occupation …………………………………………. 54 2.18. Conclusions made and lessons learned …………………………. 55 2.19. Summary …………………………………………………………. 58 Chapter 3: Research Methodology …………………………………………. 60 3.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………. 60 3.2. Research problems and hypotheses ………………………………… 61 3.3. The research methodology ………………………………………… 62 3.4. Procedure ………………………………………………………… 62 3.5. Triangulation ………………………………………………………… 64 3.6. Participants and Sampling method ………………………………… 65 3.6.1. Choosing samples ………………………………………………… 68 3.6.2. Samples ………………………………………………………... 68 3.6.2.1. Sample 1: Teaching and Learning Services (Zululand District) …. 68 3.6.2.2. Sample 2: Sisonke EFAL educators ………………………… 68 3.6.2.3. Sample 3: Nongoma ……………………………………….... 69 3.6.2.4. Sample 4: Haladu ………………………………………………… 69 3.6.2.5. Sample 5: Vryheid Community ………………………………… 69 3.6.2.6. Sample 6: Institutions ………………………………… 70 3.7. Questionnaires ………………………………………………… 70 3.7.1. Questionnaire for individuals ………………………………………… 70 3.7.2. Questionnaire on institutions and their use of language …………. 71 v 3.7.2.1. Language of meeting ………………………………………… 72 3.7.2.2. Language of minutes ………………………………………… 72 3.7.2.3. Language of Correspondence (Communication) ……………........ 72 3.7.2.4. Documentation ………………………………………………… 72 3.7.2.5. Language dominance ………………………………………… 73 3.8. Ethical considerations ……………………………………………........ 73 3.9. The process of gathering data ………………………………………… 73 3.10. Analysis ………………………………………………………… 76 3.11. Challenges and Shortcomings ………………………………………… 76 3.12. Summary ………………………………………………………… 77 Chapter 4: Data Presentation and Analysis ………………………. 78 4.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………. 78 4.2. Research problems and hypotheses ………………………………. 78 4.3. Participants and Sampling ………………………………………. 78 4.4. The process of gathering data ………………………………. 79 4.5. Responses ………………………………………………………. 81 4.5.1. Responses from the institutions ………………………………. 81 4.5.1.1. Vryheid SAPS and Vryheid Local Criminal Record Centre (LCRC) 81 4.5.1.2. Abaqulusi Municipality ………………………………………. 82 4.5.1.3. Teaching and Learning Services (Zululand District) ………………. 83 4.5.1.4. Banking institutions ………………………………………………. 84 4.5.1.5. South African Football Association: Zululand ………………. 85 4.5.1.6. Vryheid Library ………………………………………………. 85 4.5.1.7. South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) and the Department of Social Development ………………………………………………………. 86 4.5.1.8. The African National Congress (ANC) ………………………. 86 4.5.1.9. Department of Transport ………………………………………. 86 4.5.1.10 Mthashana FET College ………………………………………. 86 4.5.2. Individual responses ………………………………………………. 87 4.5.2.1. Sample 1: TLS staff ………………………………………………. 87 4.5.2.2 Sample 2: Sisonke District English FAL educators ………………. 87 4.5.2.3. Sample 3: Nongoma ………………………………………………. 88 4.5.2.4. Sample 4: Haladu ………………………………………………. 88 vi 4.5.2.5. Sample 5: Vryheid ………………………………………………. 88 4.5.3. Observation of the parliamentary deliberations though DSTV …….. 89 4.6. Narrative ………………………………………………………. 94 4.6.1. Findings based on institutions interviewed ………………………. 94 4.6.2. Findings based on individuals interviewed ……………………….. 94 4.6.3. Findings Based on Observations ………………………………. 94 4.7. Summary of findings ………………………………………………. 96 4.8. Literature vs. findings ………………………………………. 97 4.8.1. Indigenous African Languages are not functionally viable ………. 97 4.8.2. Challenges faced by Indigenous African Languages ……………… 98 4.8.3. Prospects of Survival of the Indigenous
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