3

Culturally Valid Assessment Tools: Northern Sotho Translation of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised

Corrieta Pakendorf and Erna Alant

Department of Communication Pathology University of Pretoria

ABSTRACT There is currently a great demand for service provision for the African language speakers in South Africa. The difficulties associated with assessing speakers in the absence of assessment tools in the indigenous languages is, therefore, also a perti- nent concern. Within the current socio-economic climate in South Africa where test translation and adaptation is often cited as a more viable option than that of developing new tests, very few guidelines exist for the development or adaptation of valid assessment tools for culturally and linguistically diverse population groups. This article is aimed at describing the process which took place when existing English test material, in this instance, The Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT- R)(Dunn & Dunn, 1981) was translated and culturally adapted for the Northern Sotho population in Pretoria and surround- ing areas. The findings of the research include practical examples of methodological considerations which should be taken into account while translating and undertaking cultural adaptation of test material. The newly adapted test material was also applied to a sample of 152 North-Sotho speaking pupils in the study area and the test results are discussed.

OPSOMMING Hierdie studie het voortgespruit vanuit die huidige behoefte aan dienslewering binne die Afrikatale-konteks en die gebrek aan evalueringshulpmiddels in die inheemse tale. Alhoewel die Suid-Afrikaanse sosio-ekonomiese klimaat eerder

) toetsvertaling en -aanpassing aanmoedig, as die ontwikkeling van nuwe toetsmateriaal, bestaan daar tans min riglyne vir 2

1 die beplanning en uitvoering van so 'n prosedure. Hierdie artikel verskaf'n omskrywing van die prosedure wat gevolg is 0 tydens die vertaling en kulturele aanpassing van die PPVT-R vir die Noord-Sotho-populasie in Pretoria en omliggende 2

d gebiede. Die navorsingsresultate sluit praktiese voorbeelde in van metodologiese stappe wat geneem kan word tydens die e t vertaling en aanpassing van standaard-toetsmateriaal. Die nuut aangepaste toetsmateriaal is ook toegepas op 152 Noord- a

d Sotho-sprekende leerlinge in jdie toets-area en die resultate word bespreek. ( r e KEY WORDS: African languages, cross-cultural language testing, cultural validity, diverse populations, mother-tongue, h s non-mainstream, PPVT-R, receptive vocabulary, test translation, test adaptation. i l b u INTRODUCTION therefore, a prerequisite for the development of original and P

e culturally fair tests. This necessitates ethnographically- h t Speech-language pathologists in South Africa are now, based research on the subject of African languages and cul-

y more than ever, faced with the evaluation of the African ture (Taylor, 1986). Such a research undertaking is both b Language speaking child. Especially in cases where resource- and time-consuming (Jordaan, 1989) and the de- d e speech-language and/or learning problems are suspected, velopment of original tests is thus not always a practical t n the challenge for the speech-language pathologist as pro- option within the current South African situation. a r fessional team member is to evaluate the child in a non- One of the alternatives to the application of inappro- g biased manner and then to determine if the child demon- priate language tests with the non-mainstream language e c strates a communication difference or disorder (Roseberry- user is that of modifying or revising existing tests in ways n e McKibbin & Eicholtz, 1994). Unfortunately, there are re- that will make them appropriate for the intended test c i alities that present major obstacles to providing non-bi- l population (Bradley in Taylor, 1986). The present study's

r ased and appropriate services for these children. For ex-

e main aim was to explore methods for the adaptation of an d ample, a general need exists amongst professionals who existing translated (Northern Sotho) language test into a n are not knowledgeable about these cultures or languages u culturally valid version for a specific population. The im- for original tests in the African languages. This indicates y portance of a cultural orientation, as suggested in Taylor's a the importance of the development of such evaluation in- conceptual framework, becomes evident especially when w struments. It must, however, be kept in mind that the e

t applying the same test to different populations. In a study

a study of normal and pathological communication is couched aimed at the investigation of the validity and cross-cul-

G in cultural terms. Knowledge of each community's own defi- tural generalisability of English language tests, Zeidner t nition of "normalcy" in language and communication is, e (1986) found that test scores show significant bias, tend- n i b a

S Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R 4 Corrieta Pakendorf & Erna Al

ing to disadvantage the non-standard English user. Vari- sion of the PPVT-R. The most recent Northern Sotho ver- ous researchers have stressed the need to recognise the sion (Koekemoer, 1994) of the test was adapted in order to limitations of using Standard English tests on different make it as appropriate and as applicable as possible for cultural and linguistic groups (Alant & Beukes, 1986, the intended population. Roseberry-McKibbin & Eicholtz, 1994). The importance of considering the cultural and sociolin- Sub-aim 2: guistic background of the intended test population when The applicability of the modified Northern Sotho trans- adapting existing tests or when creation of a new test is lation of the PPVT-R to a group of Northern Sotho chil- undertaken, has been strongly emphasised in the interna- dren in Grade 1, Grade 2 and Grade 3 was investigated tional literature (Miller, 1984; Taylor, 1986). Furthermore, during the experimental phase of the study. it is important that, not only the translation of a test, but also the applicability of test material such as stimulus pic- RESEARCH DESIGN tures must be taken into account when adapting an evalu- ation instrument for the intended test population. During the pre-experimental phase of this research The present study included the evaluation and further there was aimed at further development and refining of the existing Northern Sotho version of the PPVT-R. Given refinement of the most recent English-to-Northern Sotho the complexity of the cultural adaptation of a test, it was translation (Koekemoer, 1994) of the PPVT-R as well as decided to, during this part of the study, implement the an investigation of the cultural appropriacy of the origi- qualitative research design as suggested by Creswell nal picture plates for the intended test population. North- (1994). This design made it possible to adjust and re-ad- ern Sotho is the home language of approximately 10% of just according to unforseen results obtained from com- all South Africans and two previous studies (Labuschagne pleted parts of the project. This continuous developmen- 1990, Koekemoer, 1994) had been conducted aiming at tal process also implied the repetition of certain research translating the original English word lists into Northern procedures in a circular manner in order to refine all the Sotho. A third study (Naidoo, 1994) was aimed at the ad- test stimuli as well as possible. aptation of the PPVT-R for the Zulu-speaking community in KwaZulu-Natal. These studies provided a starting point In order to maximise the cultural validity of the adapted and certain guidelines which could be utilised during the test material, the pre-experimental phase of the study was also characterised by a participative methodology. This present research. entailed that Northern Sotho mother-tongue speakers, The evaluation of a child's receptive vocabulary skills professionals as well as non-professional local residents is a practical starting point for any language assessment, living in the target area, were involved in the formulation especially in the South African context where limited in- and development of test-material on a consistent basis. formation is available regarding linguistic analysis of the Marshall & Rossman (in Creswell, 1994) sustain this meth- African languages (Jordaan, 1989). Each child's knowledge odology by suggesting that when applying the qualitative of vocabulary determines his or her ability to think, speak research design, it entails the researcher entering the eve-

) and understand a language (Miller, 1984). The importance

2 ryday life of the setting chosen for the study through on-

1 of vocabulary is also reflected in the fact that vocabulary going interaction with informants, and by seeking their 0 teaching has become an important focus in second lan- 2 perspectives and meanings. This methodology character- guage teaching and learning (Morgan & Rinvolucri, 1986). d ised the developmental (pre-experimental) phase, but was e t It should, furthermore, be possible to apply a receptive also implemented during the experimental phase of the a vocabulary test even with young children, seeing that re- d research. (

ceptive language development can be evaluated without r It is important that the methods of research are not e requiring any verbal responses from the subject. Especially h only innovative but also soundly-based and scientifically s in the case of a young child, the PPVT-R, when used in i l conjunction with a measure of school achievement, could accountable. Therefore, an analytical survey design was b implemented during the second (experimental) phase of u be helpful in identifying underachievers (Dunn & Dunn,

P research. During the experimental phase, where pupils 1981). Viewed in the light of current efforts to improve e were tested individually, the acquired data was of a quan- h the educational standards within the African language t

titative nature and statistical assistance was needed to

y communities in South Africa, the relevance of a Northern extract the meaning. Intergroup comparisons were done b

Sotho instrument for the evaluation of receptive vocabu-

d by which the performance of different age groups and aca-

e lary once more becomes clear. t demic year groups were statistically compared. In this way n the applicability of the newly adapted test material, within a METHOD r the specific scholastic context involved in the present study, g

e AIMS could be investigated. c n e c Main aim PROCEDURE i l r e The main aim of the study was to investigate the applica- PRE-EXPERIMENTAL PHASE d bility of a Northern Sotho translated version of the Peabody n

u Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVT-R, Dunn & Dunn, Participants in the pre-experimental phase

y 1981) to a group of North-Sotho speaking children. a The main aim was realised by means of 2 sub-aims: Two different groups of participants were involved in w e this part of the study. t a Sub-aim 1: Firstly, a total of 21 normal Northern Sotho pupils were G

The pre-experimental phase of the study was aimed at tested. These pupils had to comply with the same require- t e the development of a culturally fair Northern Sotho ver- ments as the subjects involved in the experimental phase. n i b a

S The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R lation of the Peabody Picture g Culturally valid assessment tools: Northern Sotho Τ Vocabulary Test - Revised The distribution of scholastic year groups was as follows: velopments in terms of the spoken language in the area. Grade 1 : η = 5, Grade 2 : η = 5 and Grade 3 : η = 11. Therefore, in addition, two non-professional persons re- siding in the research area were included in the panel Secondly, the researcher used the help of a panel of which judged the appropriacy of the translated test items Northern Sotho speaking adults, consisting of three aca- of the PPVT-R as well as the appropriacy of the picture demically qualified (tertiary education) as well as two non- plates which represent these words. Both persons are academic (primary school education) residents from the native speakers of Northern Sotho and proficient in Eng- test area. These selected North-Sotho speakers informed lish. Seeing that they do not use these languages on an the researcher on the cultural and linguistic characteris- academic level, these persons showed a fine attunement tics of the intended test population on a continuous basis. for the everyday language use in the geographical area In this article the panel is referred to as "the panel of ex- included in the study. perts". Two lecturers from African Languages Depart- ments, both native speakers of Northern Sotho and profi- Description of procedure and results: Pre-experimen- cient in English were included in the panel. It was impor- tant to include native language users who are familiar tal phase with the language use and educational demands set in During the first part of the study four procedural steps the geographical area. A student, majoring in African lan- guages, was also included in the panel. This student lives were followed, certain of which were repeated in a circu- in the research area and is proficient in both English and lar manner in order to refine the test stimuli as well as Northern Sotho. possible. The variation of Northern Sotho which is the subject The first step of the pre-experimental phase of the study of interest in the present study has been classified by entailed the evaluation and further refinement of the ex- Schuring (1984) as a Koine-language. One of the out- isting Northern Sotho version of the PPVT-R by the above- standing characteristics of such a language is that the mentioned panel of selected North-Sotho speakers. Spe- vocabulary and idiom are constantly expanding and cifically the correctness of the Existing English-to-North- changing. This implies the necessity of the input of re- ern Sotho translation was investigated. search assistants who are up to date with the latest de-

TABLE 1. Description of the Pre-experimental phase of the study

Step 1 of the pre-experimental phase: Procedure and Results Outcomes

The original English word list together with the original pic- It was important to supply the pictorial stimuli

) ture plates and existing Northern Sotho translation (from which represent each word in the PPVT-R, together 2

1 Koekemoer 1994) were given to the panel of experts for evalu- with the word list to the panel while they were 0 evaluating the translation. In this way the panel 2 ation and suggested corrections, if necessary. 15 words were

d deleted from the original list. The panel judged 9% of the members were able to identify certain items where e t translated words to be incorrectly translated. A further 2% previous translations did not correspond with the a given pictorial stimuli (e.g., as in the word "tire" d were evaluated as culturally unsuitable words for the target ( population. See Pakendorf (1996) for detailed information re- which has more than one meaning). r e garding the adaptation of test material. h s i l I Step 2 of the pre-experimental phase: b

u The second step of the pre-experimental phase was specifically aimed at the evaluation of the original picture plates P

of the PPVT-R in terms !of cultural and conceptual appropriacy for the test population. e h Outcomes

t Procedure and Results y b Afile with the original (English) picture plates from the PPVT- In previous studies of a similar nature little at-

d R was supplied to the panel of experts to be evaluated. The tention was given to the appropriacy of the stimu- e t panel's suggestions regarding culturally or conceptually ac- lus pictures. n

a ceptable replacements for certain items was analyzed accord- r g ing to number and frequency of suggestions. The only condi- It was, however, noted by the field worker that

e not only the primary stimulus pictures, but also

c tion was that the lecturers had to be satisfied with the ap- n propriateness of the modified test material. 6% of the pic- certain of the distracter pictures might have a e c negative effect on the targeted test population's i ture plates were viewed as inappropriate by the panel. l performance. This is an important issue which was r e closely monitored while analyzing the pupils' re- d

n sponses to the pictorial stimuli during the pre-ex- u

perimental phase of the research. y a Step 3 of the pre-experimental phase: w e Based on the results obtained during the first two steps of the pre-experimental phase, a third step was carried out t a with the main aim of substituting certain stimulus words with more relevant Northern Sotho words and the adapta- G

tion of certain pictorial stimuli. These were carried out in order to upgrade the quality of the translated test and the t e applicability of the picture stimuli. n i b a S

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R Corrieta Pakendorf & Erna Al

Procedure and Results Outcomes "

The panel suggested alternative translations for 36% of the It was relevant to have academic as well as local~~ existing Northern Sotho word list. Furthermore, the re- residents (from the research area) with lesser aca- searcher modified 6% of the picture plates which were previ- demic qualifications on the panel. Both these ously identified by the panel as being culturally unsuitable groups gave different, but relevant recommenda- for the intended test population. The members of the panel tions during the evaluation process. The inclusion were required to reach consensus on the applicability of all of multiple sources of data collection in the present replaced items. Amodified word list and booklet of the picto- research project is likely to increase the reliabil- rial stimuli were compiled. After implementing the adapted ity of the findings (Mouton & Marais, 1990). Pre- test material, re-adapting and a second application thereof, vious studies were noted where translations were the panel was satisfied with the applicability of the modified obtained from only one person (Labuschagne test material for the intended test population. 1990) of from only academically qualified persons who did not all originate from the intended re- search area (Koekemoer, 1994).

Step 4 of the pre-experimental phase: The fourth and final step of the pre-experimental phase was aimed at the application of the refined Northern Sotho version of the PPVT-R to a North-Sotho population in order to evaluate the relevance of the test items (pre-experi mental phase of the study).

Procedure and Results Outcomes

A group of 15 pupils were tested individually with the help of It was found that the use of a pre-recorded ver- one of the panel members. The testing procedures were ad- sion of the verbal test-stimuli was time-consum- hered to as suggested by Naidoo (1994) in a study of similar ing and impersonal. The pupils were not at ease nature in KwaZulu-Natal. All test items where 42% or more with a tape recorder and the presentation of of the pupils' responses were incorrect were identified to be stimuli was often delayed by stopping and rewind- analyzed in further detail. Further modifications to these ing the tape. items were made by the panel of experts. Therefore, the stimuli (words) were presented ver- bally and directly by the North-Sotho fieldworker A second group of pupils (n=6) was tested with the newly during the second testing phase. This method, adapted test material. The test procedure was also modified which is the suggested method from the original (See next column). The pupils responded favourably to the PPVT-R, proved to be more successful than using new test material during this phase of testing. The modifica- a tape recording.

) tions proved to be satisfactory. 2 1 0 2 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: PRE-EXPERI- d but rather a translation into the standard form of North- e t MENTAL PHASE OF THE RESEARCH ern Sotho. a

d As stated by Tannen (1982), it is imperative to dis- (

As part of the further development of the latest exist-

r tinguish between "oral" and "literate" language when e ing translated Northern Sotho version (Koekemoer, 1994) evaluating a child's way of expression and his approach h

s of the PPVT-R two main areas were investigated. Firstly, i to knowledge and thought. The African language^ con- l there was aimed at the development of a culturally appli- b tain a vast number of fixed expressions and especially u cable Northern Sotho word list and secondly, cultural ad- "animal analogues" and different regions use different P

aptation of the pictorial stimuli on the test was carried

e expressions. Therefore it is especially relevant to ad- out. h

t here to a region's indigenous form of a language when

y developing a tool for the evaluation thereof. b Word list - Multiple data sources: Regional language use was d e further promoted by working with a research team t n The following four major factors were regarded as in- (panel of experts) consisting of multiple data sources. a fluential in the development of a culturally fair Northern r Not only lecturers and teachers were included in the g Sotho word list: panel, as was done in previous studies. During the e c present study local residents with lesser academic quali- n e - Koine language: It has long been established that fications, but a good command of English and North- c i Pretoria Sotho is a Koine language (Schuring, 1984). l ern Sotho also made valuable suggestions regarding

r This implies that Pretoria Sotho is an autonomous popu- adaptation of the test material based upon their knowl- e d lar language, and that it differs from the related stand- edge of the regional language use. n ard language. Both recent studies on the PPVT-R with u - Supplying pictorial stimuli: When working with the Northern Sotho populations in South Africa (Labus- y PPVT-R, the word is used as the unit of translation. a chagne, 1990; Koekemoer, 1994) were carried out in the Single words, however, present the translator with a w same test area as the present study. It was therefore e decontextualised situation (Newmark, 1988). This could t interesting to note that the evaluation carried out as a explain why it was noted during the present study that

G part of the present study indicated 21% of the previous 9% of the existing items had previously been incorrectly t translations to be non-Koine language for the region, e translated from English into Northern Sotho. By sup- n i b a The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 44, 1997 S y b d e c u d o r p e R C lturally valid assessment tools: Northern Sotho Translation of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test • Revised plying the translators with both the word lists and the school selected pupils whose mother-tongue, according stimulus pictures for each item, the translation and the to them, was Northern Sotho. Each pupil also had to intended stimulus picture could be matched. In this way, state his dominant home language to the field worker a more concrete context for translation of the word was before commencing with the test. established. Consequently, it was possible for the panel - Intelligence: In the absence of appropriate intelligence of experts to modify the incorrect translations on the tests for Northern Sotho children, pupils who were existing list (Koekemoer, 1994) of words. viewed by their teachers to be of average or above aver- . Stimulus and distracter pictures age intelligence were included in the study. This selec- No examples in previous South African studies on the tion criterion was necessary as below average intelli- PPVT-R could be found where cultural adaptation of gence could influence language performance and test the pictorial stimuli was carried out. In the present results. study the panel of experts rated 6% of the translated - Academic record: Children were required to have an items' pictorial stimuli to be culturally inappropriate academic record with no previous failures or repetition for the intended test population. It was interesting that, of a school year. with the exception of one, all these stimulus pictures - Sensory and emotional development: Children represented items of a non-human nature, e.g., heli- were required to have no known visual, auditory, social copter, ostrich and root. This tendency is of importance or emotional problems, as these factors could influence because it is stipulated in the PPVT-R manual (Dunn speech and language development. Social and emotional & Dunn, 1981) in the original development of test plates problems could also lead to poor co-operation and be- in the USA the aim was to "...maintain careful sex and haviour during testing which may influence the results. ethnic balance on the plates containing humans...". It therefore seems that the plates containing humans were Fieldworkers also appropriate for the test population in the present study. The time taken for individual administration of the test While planning the methodology of the present study to the pupils necessitated the employment of research as- care was taken to preserve as much as possible of the sistants in the study. original character of the PPVT-R. Therefore the identi- fied unsuitable pictorial stimuli were only altered to a - Selection of field workers: Four North-Sotho speak- minimal extent and substitutions were limited as far ers from the study area were recruited. The assistants' as possible. levels of education varied from Grade 8 to post gradu- Furthermore, the original distracter pictures were ate university training. Three of the selected assistants meant to be of a neutral nature and usually belonged had been involved with the pre-experimental phase of to the same semantic category than the intended stimu- this research and were therefore familiar with the test lus word. Seeing that these sets of pictures were devel- and research goals. All four research assistants were )

2 oped within a different culture than that of the intended female. 1

0 test population, the researcher viewed it as acceptable - Training of field workers: The assistants were ori- 2 when the panel of experts suggested various subtle entated in one morning to ensure their familiarity with d e changes to the distracter pictures before the testing the test procedure. The training included explanations t a commenced. of the goal of the study, training in terms of the general d

( administration of the PPVT-R and recording of the re- r e EXPERIMENTAL PHASE sponses as suggested by Dunn & Dunn (1981). All pro- h

s cedures and concepts on the test were clarified prior to i l the onset of formal pupil testing. Furthermore, a simu- b Participants in the experimental phase of the study

u lated testing situation was included and each assist- P A total of 152 normal Northern Sotho primary school ant took a copy of the pictorial stimuli and the test form e h pupils from two schools in the Mamelodi area were tested. home in order to familiarise themselves further with t the test material. y The distribution of scholastic year groups involved in b On the days of testing the research assistants were the experimental phase of the study was as follows: Grade d personally supervised by the researcher, especially since e 1 : n=50, Grade 2 : n=53 and Grade 3 : n=49. The strati- t each of them had to present the word stimuli to the

n fied sampling framework (Smit, 1983) was used in plan- a ning the pupil selection. The aim was to select 25 students pupils themselves. r g

from each of these three academic year groups in each of e c the two schools (See Table 2). TABLE 2. Exposition of stratified population groups n

e As shown in Table 2 there was an even distribution in

c involved in the experimental phase of the study i

l terms of gender and of the two relevant age groups within

r each academic year group. Ages were documented accord- e GENDER GRADE 1 GRADE 2 GRADE 3

d ing to the child's actual age on the day of testing. n u Male 14 X 6 yrs 15 X 7 yrs 14 X 8 yrs

y Selection criteria for pupils involved in the study a Male 11 X 7 yrs 11 X 8 yrs 11 X 9 yrs w e Information obtained from school records and teachers t a was used to identify pupils who met the following criteria: Female 14 X 6 yrs 16 X 7 yrs 13 X 8 yrs G t

e - Mother-tongue: Northern Sotho was required as the Female 11 X 7 yrs 11 X 8 yrs 11 X 9 yrs n i home language used by the pupils. The teachers at each b a S

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R 8 Corrieta Pakendorf & Erna Alant

General procedures during the experimental phase of arrangement of test items could be ruled out and more of the study comprehensive statistical data could be gained from the study. In order to assure reliability, specific consideration was given to the following aspects: DISCUSSION AND INTEGRATION OF RESULTS FROM THE EXPERIMENTAL PHASE OF THE - The purpose and importance of the planned study was STUDY explained to the principals and teachers involved with the selection of the pupils (n=152) involved in the test- PERFORMANCE ACCORDING TO AGE GROUPS ing. Letters and data forms were handed out to the teachers and collected a week later. The researchers The mean raw scores, ceiling values and total scores grouped the selected pupils according to the stratified obtained by each age group involved in the experimental sampling framework (Smit, 1983). phase is depicted in Figure 1 below. - The researcher was present in the classroom where all four research assistants simultaneously tested the pu- pils. Each assistant was positioned in a different cor- ner of the room with adequate lighting, a table and two chairs. - Each pupil was tested individually by a research as- sistant and his or her responses were recorded on a separate response sheet by writing the number of the picture plate to which the pupil pointed. The average testing time per pupil was ten minutes. - Lastly, each pupil's responses during the experimental phase was computed according to the original proce- dure as described by Dunn & Dunn (1981). The proce- dure was, however, altered by requiring each pupil to respond to all the test items. The results were, there- fore, not scored according to a basal or ceiling item dur- ing the testing. In this way more data could be obtained for analysis and making deductions regarding the ap- FIGURE 1: Mean raw scores, ceiling values and to- plicability and arrangement of all the test items. tal scores obtained by each age group

Analysis of the data from the experimental phase of Statistical analysis of the data, which is visually rep-

) the study resented in the above bar chart, indicates a significant 2

1 increase in raw scores as well as in ceiling values, in con- 0 The data obtained during the experimental phase was junction with an increase in age, between the seven and 2 computerised and calculations, descriptive statistics and d eight year old pupils only. The differences between the six e t analysis were carried out by means of the SAS (DATA pro- and seven year old groups, and the eight and nine year a cedure + PROC MEANS) and BMDP (PROC NPAR 1WAY old groups were not of a statistically significant nature. d ( + PROC BMDP3S) statistical packages. All the results Although an increase in total scores was measured between r e were compared on a 5% level of difference. The statistical the six, seven and eight year old groups, this increase was h s analysis of the data was greatly aimed at comparing the not of a statistically significant nature. (Refer to Pakendorf, i l performance of different age groups and pupils on differ- b 1996 for detailed statistical data). | u ent academic levels. According to the above results the important observa- P Three different scores were calculated for each pupil tion was made that an increase in age did not directly imply e h involved in the experimental phase of the study: significant growth in terms of receptive vocabulary skills t

y in the present test population. Therefore, it was relevant b - Ceiling value: The last test item where a pupil an- to explore the possible effect of factors such as academic d swers six out of eight consecutive questions incorrectly. e exposure on the level of receptive vocabulary development t - Raw score: The total of all the correct answers below n in the test population. a the ceiling item. r g - Total score: Seeing that the target population differs PUPILS FROM DIFFERENT SCHOLASTIC YEAR e c vastly from the original population as described by GROUPS: n Dunn & Dunn (1981) it was decided to further experi- e c i ment with the research data from the experimental l In addition to the procedure of the original PPVT-R

r phase of the study by not using the ceiling item (6/8 (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) the academic exposure of each pu- e d * consecutive answers correct) to determine where to stop pil was also taken into account, seeing that the researcher n measuring the pupils' performance. This implies that hypothesised that the development of receptive vocabu- u each pupil had the opportunity to answer all the items y lary within the selected test population might be more a (n=88) included in the present adapted Northern Sotho directly influenced by academic exposure than by age. w version of the PPVT-R. The scores derived by means of e Statistical analysis of the data depicted in Figure 2 in- t this procedure is referred to as the "total score" of the a dicated that the performance (mean raw score, mean ceil-

G pupil. By adhering to the above-mentioned experimen-

ing value and mean total score) of the pupils in Grade 1 t tal procedure, the possibility of an inappropriate order e was significantly lower than that of the rest of the pupils n i b a The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 44, 1997 S y b d e c u d o r p e R Culturally valid assessment tools: Northern Sotho Translation of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised TABLE 4: Mean raw scores obtained by pupils from 87 87 the same school year, but different age groups 81 | 82 83 School Age Mean Raw P-value: 64 Standards group Scores Significant 58 54 Compared Ρ < 0.05 ir 6 years 67 vs Grade 1 vs Ρ = 0.17 Pn^—Hb 7 years 50 7 years 65 Gr 1 Gr 2 Gr 3 vs Grade 2 vs Ρ = 0.07 8 years 64 β Raw score K\n\3 Ceiling value ] Total score 7 years 66 vs Grade 3 vs Ρ = 0.42 FIGURE 2: Mean raw scores, ceiling values and to- 8 years tal scores obtained by each scholastic year group * = Significant difference between the two groups involved in the study. It is also important to note that the Grade 3 pupils did not obtain statistically significant PUPILS IN THE SAME SCHOOL YEAR, BUT OF DIF- higher scores than the Grade 2 pupils involved in the study. FERENT AGE GROUPS: This indicates that the academic exposure which takes place during the first school year plays a vital role in the By means of statistical analysis of the data represented development of the present test population's receptive vo- in Table 4, it was found that the pupils' ages in all three cabulary. academic year groups did not significantly influence their The overall tendency especially of an increase between performance in comparison to other (older or younger) the performance of the seven and eight year old pupils children on the same academic level. and between the performance of the Grade 1 and Grade 2 These findings are further supported by the mean re- pupils indicated the importance of making comparisons ceptive vocabulary development of pupils belonging to the between pupils of the same age group but from different same age group, but two different scholastic year groups academic levels and vice versa. Consequently the follow- in this study. The 7 year old pupils in Grade 2 achieved ing intergroup comparisons were carried out: significantly higher scores than pupils of the same age

) group on a lower academic level (Grade 1). The raw scores

2 TABLE 3: Mean raw scores obtained by pupils from

1 of the 8 year old pupils did, however, not show a signifi-

0 the same age group but different scholastic year cant increase together with increase in academic level 2 groups (from Grade 2 to Grade 3). In conjunction with this, it was d e

t found that Grade 1 pupils belonging to two different age 'Mean Raw P-value: a School Age groups (6 and 7 years old) achieved the same levels of per- d Scores Significant ( Standards group

formance. The same was found for Grade 2 pupils (7 and 8 r Compared if Ρ < 0.05 e years old) and the Grade 3 pupils (8 and 9 years old) in- h s volved in the study. These results, namely that pupils from i l Grade 1 7 years 50 different age groups but on the same academic level did b vs old vs Ρ = 0.004* u not show significantly different levels of performance, sup-

P Grade 2 port the observation that academic exposure plays a ma- e h jor role in the development of receptive language skills in t

Grade 2 8 years ! 64

y children. ! /VS Ρ = 0.57 b vs old

d Grade 3 66

e COMPARISON OF PERFORMANCE IN TERMS OF t

n GENDER

a PUPILS FROM THE SAME AGE GROUP BUT DIF- r

g FERENT SCHOLASTIC YEAR GROUPS: Although a significant difference between each age e c groups' male and female pupils' performance could not be n This study investigated the probability that children e measured, a tendency was noted towards the boys achiev- c might show an improvement in performance in relation to i

l ing higher raw scores than the girls in each instance (See their degree of academic exposure and stimulation, rather r Figure 3, below). This difference was especially prevalent e than as a result of an increase in age. The 7 year old pu- d in the Grade 1 group.

n pils in Grade 2 did better than the 7 year old pupils in It is known that the African cultures are male-domi- u

Grade 1. However, the raw scores of the 8 year old pupils

y nated in nature. Therefore, it might be that male children

a did not show a significant improvement together with are to a greater extent exposed to language, conversation w academic progression from Grade 2 to Grade 3. The de- e and learning situations than their female counterparts. t gree of receptive vocabulary development which takes a This might be a possible explanation for the tendency of place during the first two school years in the present tar- G

boys achieving higher raw scores than girls of the same t get population, therefore, seems to be of special signifi- e age.

n cance. i b a S

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Kommunikasieafwykings, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R 10 Corrieta Pakendorf & Erna Alant

point increments in Figure 4) when the newly ordered data was implemented, while the original American item order led to a fluctuating growth in performance as the pupils' ages increased. In conjunction with this, it was interest- ing to note that the original PPVT-R (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) also shows even increments of 10 points / items per one year gained in age for the original population. Therefore, it might be meaningful to investigate a culturally fair or- der of presentation of the items, rather than simply ad- hering to the original population's intended item-order. With the newly adapted test material, the intervals between the Northern Sotho age groups at present con- sist of two items each. Theoretically, it should be possible to insert extra test items on the same level of difficulty as the surrounding items in the Northern Sotho PPVT-R, in FIGURE 3. Raw scores obtained by each gender in order to increase the gaps between the expected mean different academic year groups performance of each age group to a more substantial dif- ference, e.g., five items. ERROR ANALYSIS COMPARISON OF THE DATA FROM THE EXPERI- Keeping in mind that the present research was prima- MENTAL PHASE OF THE STUDY WITH EXISTING rily aimed at the development of a culturally fair version SETS OF NORMS AND DATA. of the PPVT-R, an in-depth error analysis of each response Since the diagnosis of language impairment can only of each respondent was carried out in order to evaluate be made on the basis of an investigation of a child's stronger the validity of the newly adapted test material. From the language which is also usually his first language (Juarez, complete test population's results (experimental phase) 13 1983), it is important to develop norms for the Northern items were identified where 50% or more of the pupils' Sotho population's receptive vocabulary. (n=152) responses were incorrect. It was found in previous studies where translated ver- Members of the panel of experts were asked to give an sions of the PPVT-R were compared with the original opinion regarding possible reasons for the children's poor (American) norms that it was not feasible to merely trans- performance in the identified items, noting that those late and maintain the norms and the validity of a test such items might require further refinement or cultural adap- as the PPVT-R (Koekemoer, 1994; Naidoo, 1994). However, tation before this version of the PPVT-R is suitable for seeing that the present study's methodology differed from implementation in future studies. 70% (n=9) of the 13 iden- that of previously mentioned studies, it was decided to tified error-items were not viewed as being problematic or ) compare the present results with the results obtained from 2 unsuitable for the intended test population. Three (23%) three specific populations for which norms or provisional 1

0 of the 13 error-items' picture stimuli needed further ad- measurements of performance on the PPVT-R were avail- 2 aptation and only one item (8%) needed further adapta- able at that time. The groups with which the present re- d e tion in terms of translation.

t sults were compared were: a d

( - Middle-class American population (English-speaking), RE-ARRANGEMENT OF TEST ITEMS AND RE- r according to the original norms for the PPVT-R (Dunn e EVALUATION OF PUPILS' PERFORMANCE DUR- h & Dunn, 1981); s ING THE EXPERIMENTAL PHASE OF THE STUDY i l - Zulu-speaking children from KwaZulu-Natal. Norms b u During the development of the present Northern Sotho contained in Naidoo (1994); P

version of the PPVT-R the original order of presentation - Northern Sotho pupils from the Pretoria / Mamelodi e area. Results abstracted from Koekemoer (1994) h of the PPVT-R test items (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) were t strictly adhered to. The items were originally arranged y b

according to an increasing level of difficulty, but at that d time the test was intended for the middle-class American e t population. n a It is, however, possible that the appropriate order of r g

item presentation for Northern Sotho pupils could differ e

c from the original American arrangement. Therefore, as 31 n part of the experimental analysis of the results the test e 17 c i items were re-arranged in order of increasing complexity l

r as determined by the number of children responding cor- e rectly per item. The items in which the pupils performed 6,0-6,11yrs d 7,0-7,11yrs 8,0-8,11yrs n best were put first in sequence and the items in which BB Dunn & Dunn, 1981 u S3 Pakendorf, 1996^ they performed the poorest were put last. y I I Naido, 1994 . I 1 Koekemoer, 1994 a An experimental statistical comparison was carried out w between the raw scores obtained from the original item- e FIGURE 4: Comparison of the mean raw score for t order and the re-arranged item-order. It was interesting a each age group involved in this study with the ex-

G to note that the increments in raw score, between the dif-

pected mean raw scores of three specific popula- t ferent age groups were of a more even nature (see even 2 e tions n i b a The South African Journal of Communication Disorders, Vol. 44, 1997 S y b d e c u d o r p e R Culturally valid assessment tools: Northern Sotho Translation of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised As anticipated, the American (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) raw ess (pre-experimental phase) which preceded the pupil scores were significantly higher than all three South Afri- testing phase. The insights which were gained regarding can groups with which translated versions of the PPVT-R different aspects of translating and modifying an existing had been applied. It was, however, interesting to note that Standard American English assessment tool for an Afri- only the American raw scores and the present version of can language (and culture) could potentially be utilised the PPVT-R showed systematic increase together with in- over a wide spectrum of similar situations. crease in the children's age. This is an indication of the Furthermore, the involvement of research assistants value of re-organising the order of test items in a chrono- with appropriate cultural and linguistic backgrounds can logical test such as the PPVT-R according to the perform- not be over-emphasised in this kind of research. By in- ance of the population for which the test adaptation is in- volving carefully selected research assistants the possi- tended. bility of sources of conflict in cultural assumptions and Most age groups involved in the present study per- communicative norms prior to clinical encounters (Taylor, formed on a significantly higher level than that of the Zulu 1986) can be minimised. pupils involved in the Naidoo (1994) study as well as the It must, however, also be mentioned that even though pupils involved in the Koekemoer (1994) study. The present it might be possible to derive a culturally applicable ver- study was carried out within the same target area and sion from already existing test material, the fact remains with almost completely similar test populations as the that when (i) translating and omitting items from the word Koekemoer study. These results serve as confirmation of list, (ii) implementing cultural adaptation of the pictorial the validity of the more stringent refinement process which stimuli, and (iii) re-ordering the sequence of presentation was followed during the present study. The additional of test items, the original test is being modified to such an adaptations which were made to the test material, in con- extent that it hardly retains any of it's original character- junction with an accurate translation of the word list, istics. In essence, the only remaining characteristic of the therefore had a positive effect on the validity of the test test is it's main aim - in this case the test is intended to material. It must be mentioned that the PPVT-R test ma- evaluate the child's general receptive vocabulary. terial underwent a more stringent refinement process than Furthermore, within the current socio-economic climate in both the previous South African studies on the same in South Africa where test adaptation is often cited as a subject. Recommendations from these studies were also more viable option than that of developing new tests as followed up in most instances in the present study. such, the present study has raised certain issues which Furthermore, the fact that the USA norms were much have potential for further investigation: higher than any of the South African sets of data supports the viewpoint of a number of professional organisations - At present an upsurge is taking place in efforts to up- in the USA which called a moratorium on the use of all lift the standards of education within the African lan- standardised tests that have not been corrected for test guage communities in South Africa. This implies a great bias when assessing the language of populations which need, not only for assessment procedures, but even more ) so, for theoretically supported intervention strategies

2 differ from the original intended test population. Specific

1 reference was made to the inappropriacy of the PPVT-R's and programmes for the expansion of the Northern 0

2 Sotho pupil's vocabulary.

norms when evaluating a non-mainstream client (Taylor, d 1986). The conclusion can be made that the test items (vo- - As the study progressed, it became increasingly clear e t cabulary) and norms contained in the original PPVT-R do that although the measurement of a child's general level a d not^apply to the levels of cognitive, linguistic, lexical or of receptive vocabulary development has a purpose (

r semantic maturation in South African children whose within the academic context, the PPVT-R does not pro- e vide adequate direction for clinicians and teachers in h / j s i mother-tongue is an African language. the planning of further intervention with the child, and l b Another aspect that should be mentioned, and which thereby promoting academic development. The test u

P cannot be measured statistically, is that of the test popu- merely determines whether or not a child exhibits a

e lation's inherent language [tradition. As indicated by Hol- shortfall in receptive vocabulary, when measured in h t land & Forbes (1986), care should be taken to assist a child comparison to children of his own age.

y from a traditionally orally orientated culture to handle b the de-contextual situation which is inherent in a formal This observation is supported in the literature: "The d e language assessment procedure. Therefore the instruction t test (PPVT-R) does not provide any theoretically supported n to the research assistants to have a short conversation in suggestions regarding which items should be taught at a r Northern Sotho and to explain the test-situation to each different stages in a child's intervention program" (Taylor, g child before commencing with the formal evaluation, was 1986). Although intensive ethnographically based research e c especially relevant. around the patterns of language development within a n e specific cultural group is often inhibited by financial and c CONCLUSIONS i l practical considerations, the knowledge gained during the r present study indicated that the development of an origi- e It is clear that South Africa with it's multi-lingual and d diverse population groups literacy in a child's mother nal test, which is based upon a developmental model for n

u the intended test population could, after all, be the best

tongue is essential (Macdonald, 1990). This poses a unique y challenge to research in test adaptation and culturally fair option. a In conclusion, all these questions and the process of w assessment procedures. At present limited examples and e

t guidelines exist which can be followed when undertaking test adaptation should be seen in the light of creating a a project of this nature. Therefore, value should be given, awareness of not only culturally adapting a test because G not only to the information gained from the experimental it is widely used in other cultures and communities, but t e phase of this research, but also to the developmental proc- because it is specifically meaningful for the intended test n i b a S

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir 'Kommunikasieafwy kings, Vol. 44, 1997 y b d e c u d o r p e R 12 Corrieta Pakendorf & Erna Alant

population and its circumstances. Only by investing our Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council. time and financial resources in a calculated manner can Miller, N. (1984). Language use in bilingual communities. In N. we really make a difference to our children's educational Miller (ed.) Bilingualism and language disability: Assessment situation. and remediation. London: Chapman and Hall. Morgan, J. & Rinvolucri, M. (1986). Vocabulary. Oxford: Oxford « University Press. REFERENCES Mouton, J. & Marais, H.C. (1990). Basic concepts in the method- ology of the social sciences. Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Alant, E. & Beukes, S.M. (1986). The application of the revised Council. version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R) to Naidoo, P. (1994). Test translation in a South African context us- non-mainstream children. South African Journal of Commu- ing the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised. Unpub- nication Disorders, 33:7-12. lished M.A. in Speech and Hearing Therapy, University of Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design: Qualitative & Quantita- Durban-Westville. tive approaches. California: Sage publications. Newmark, P. (1988). Approaches to translation. Oxford: Dunn, L.M. & Dunn, L.M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Pergamon. Test -Revised. Circle Pines: American Guidance Service. Pakendorf, C. (1996). The translation of the Peabody Picture Vo- Holland, A. & Forbes, M. (1986). Nonstandardized Approaches to cabulary Test-Revised into Northern Sotho: A preliminary in- Speech and Language Assessment. In Taylor, O.L. (ed.) Treat- vestigation. Unpublished M. in Communication Pathology, De- ment of communication disorders in culturally and linguisti- partment of Communication Pathology, University of Preto- cally diverse populations. Boston: College-Hill. ria. Jordaan, H. (1989). Management of Language disability in the Roseberry-McKibbin, C.A. & Eicholtz, G.E. (1994). Serving Chil- Bilingual, bicultural child. In SAALED Conference Proceed- dren With Limited English Proficiency in the schools: A Na- ings: Facilitating Learning: an ecological perspective, July :217- tional Survey. Language, Speech, and Hearing in Schools, 234. 25:156-164. Juarez, M. (1983). Assessment and treatment of minority-lan- Schuring, G.K. (1984). Die Omgangs-Sotho van die Swart guage-handicapped children: The role of the monolingual Woongebiede van Pretoria. Unpublished D.Phil dissertation, speech-language pathologist. Topics in Language Disorders, Rand Afrikaans University. 3(3):57-66. Smit, G.J. (1983). Navorsingsmetodes in die gedragsuietenskappe. Koekemoer, H. (1994). Die toepaslikheid van 'n Noord-Sotho Pretoria: Van Schaik. vertaling van die PPVT-R by 'n groep skoolgaande kinders. Tannen, D. (1982). Spoken and written language : exploring oral- Unpublished undergraduate research report, Department of ity and literacy. Norwood: Ablex. Communication pathology, University of Pretoria. Taylor, O.L. (1986). Treatment of communication disorders in Labuschagne, D.A. (1990). The application of the PPVT-R to an culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Boston: Col- urban group of North-Sotho speaking children. Unpublished lege-Hill. undergraduate research report, Department of Communica- Zeidner, M. (1986). Are English Language Aptitute Tests Biased tion pathology, University of Pretoria. towards Culturally Different Minority Groups? Language Test- MacDonald, C.A. (1990). Crossing the threshold into standard, ing, 3(l):80-98. three. The consolidated Main Report of the Threshold Project. ) 2 1 0 2 d e t a d ( r e h s i l b u P e h t y b d e t n a r g e c n e c i l r e d n u y a w e t a G t e n i b a S

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