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Between the Margin and the Text BETWEEN THE MARGIN AND THE TEXT He kanohi kē to Te Pākehā-Māori Huhana Forsyth A thesis submitted to AUT University in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) 2013 Faculty of Te Ara Poutama i Table of Contents Attestation.............................................................................................. vi Acknowledgements............................................................................... vii Abstract.................................................................................................. viii Preface.................................................................................................... ix Chapter One: Background to the study.............................................. 1 i. Researcher’s personal story......................................................... 2 ii. Emergence of the topic for the study............................................ 3 iii. Impetus for the study.................................................................... 8 iv. Overall approach to the study....................................................... 9 Chapter Two: The Whakapapa of Pākehā-Māori……………………… 11 i. Pre-contact Māori society and identity......................................... 11 ii. Whakapapa of the term Pākehā-Māori……………………………. 13 iii. Socio-historical context................................................................. 18 iv. Pākehā-Māori in the socio-historical context................................ 22 v. Current socio-cultural context....................................................... 28 Chapter Three: Theoretical perspectives………………………………. 34 i. The theory of Transculturalization..................................... 35 a. The development of the theory of Transculturalization 35 by Irving Hallowell......................................................................... b. Specific aspects of the theory of Transculturalization................... 37 c. Applications of the theory of Transculturalization......................... 40 ii. Theoretical approaches related to Transculturalization......... 43 a. Acculturation Theory...................................................................... b. Border Theory................................................................................ 43 c. Identity Theory............................................................................... 44 47 iii. Applying the theory of Transculturalization to Pākehā-Māori......................................................................... 59 a. Relevance to this study.................................................................. b. Limitations...................................................................................... 59 c. Significance and contribution to the wider body of knowledge...... 60 60 ii Chapter Four: Methodological approaches……………………………. 63 i. Data collection processes…………………………………………… 63 ii. Participant selection………………………………………………… 64 iii. Underpinning research paradigm…………………………………. 65 iv. Methodological approach………………………………………….. 66 a. Method............................................................................................. 67 b. Researcher positioning………………………………………………… 72 c. Data presentation and analysis........................................................ 73 d. Ethical considerations...................................................................... 76 e. Validity and potential limitations....................................................... 77 Chapter Five: Participant stories………………………………………… 82 i. Participant one……………………………………………………….. 82 ii. Participant two……………………………………………………….. 84 iii. Participant three……………………………………………………… 86 iv. Participant four……………………………………………………….. 88 v. Participant five……………………………………………………….. 90 Chapter Six: Encounters with te ao Māori……………………………. 93 i. Initial encounters……………………………………………………... 94 ii. Experiences of te ao Māori………………………………………… 99 iii. Challenges……………………………………………………………. 104 Chapter Seven: Identity…………………………………………………… 118 i. Sense of self………………………………………………………….. 120 ii. Positioning……………………………………………………………. 123 iii. Roles ………….……………………………………………………… 126 Chapter Eight: Aspects of Transculturalization………………………. 131 i. Attitudes toward second culture……………………………………. 132 ii. Length of exposure…………………………………………………... 136 iii. Adopting values and beliefs………………………………………… 137 iv. Roles in society………………………………………………………. 143 v. Motivational factors………………………………………………….. 145 vi. Language acquisition………………………………………………... 147 Chapter Nine: Discussion on the overall findings…………………… 154 i. Significant emergent themes………………………………………. 154 ii. Development and application of Transculturalization Theory…… 159 iii. Changing views……………………………………………………… 161 iii Chapter Ten: Conclusion…………………………………………………. 170 i. Conclusions................................................................................. 170 ii. Discussion.................................................................................... 176 iii. Future research possibilities......................................................... 179 Bibliography ………………………………………………………………… 181 i. Books and book sections……………………………………… 181 ii. Journal articles………………………………………………….. 194 iii. Newspaper/magazines articles……………………………….. 201 iv. Government documents/reports………………………………. 201 v. Theses/papers/presentations…………………………………. 201 vi. Personal communications/interviews………………………… 203 Glossary of terms…………………………………………………………... 204 Appendices………………………………………………………………….. 206 iv Attestation of Authorship I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge and belief, it contains no material previously published or written by another person (except where explicitly defined in the acknowledgements), nor material which to a substantial extent has been submitted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher learning. Signed................................................................................. v Acknowledgements This work was approved by the Auckland University of Technology Ethics Committee on 2/11/2010, AUTEC Reference number 10/231. Completing this study would not have been possible without the guidance and support of a number of people and first and foremost I thank my participants for their stories and for their courage in allowing their stories to be told. Their contributions and their willingness to talk about their experiences produced exceptional quality data for me to work from. I would also like to specifically thank Gary Leaf, Karen Martin and Hilda Ryan for their knowledge, advice, and willingness to help along the way. I would like to acknowledge and thank my supervisors, Paul and Andrew. Through your expertise, you have guided, motivated, and advised me in my writing, while allowing me the freedom to complete this work in my own way. I knew that each step of the way you were both behind me and your knowledge and support have been invaluable. There are many people who I have spoken with during the course of this thesis who have contributed in some way and I wish to thank them all. I especially wish to thank Trevor Bentley for sharing his knowledge of Pākehā-Māori in early settlement times in New Zealand, for his contributions to the chapter on the whakapapa (ancestry) of Pākehā-Māori, and for his willingness to help in the development of this thesis. I also want to formally acknowledge my friends and work colleagues who have supported me along the way. I want to thank my beautiful family. To my children and their partners, thank you for your words of encouragement, thank you for understanding when I was ‘absent’, and thank you for believing in me and giving me the inspiration to complete this work. To the Galo family, thank you all for making me part of your whānau. To Kirisimasi, thank you so much for the love and kindness you give me every day. This is where I draw my strength. And finally, I want to thank my sister Lizzie for all her help and support especially because whenever I procrastinated saying it was all just too difficult and spoke of giving up she would provoke me to carry on by asking, ‘did you think it was going to be easy?’ vi Abstract This thesis applies the theory of Transculturalization to examine Pākehā-Māori within current New Zealand contexts, how they see themselves, where they position themselves in relation to society, and what meaning they make of events that have shaped them. The study undertaken uses Transculturalization Theory in order to understand individuals who choose to cross cultures, and focuses on European New Zealanders who engage with te ao Māori. The topic has connections to many disciplines and to a range of theoretical perspectives, but is predominated by the theory of Transculturalization which was developed by an American anthropologist, Irving Hallowell, in 1963 as a theory to study the phenomena of what he termed ‘Indianization’, that is, individuals who consciously chose to cross cultures and live amongst the Native American Indians. This study conducted explores the experiences of five individuals who are moving between te ao Māori (Māori world view) and te ao Pākehā (European world view). The role of Pākehā-Māori in New Zealand in the nineteenth century is discussed in relation to the socio-historical context of the time, and Transculturalization Theory is used to analyse the narrative voice of the five individuals who could be named Pākehā-Māori within current contexts. The experiences of these
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