Masaryk University
Faculty of Education
Department of English Language and Literature
Kate řina Spasi ć
Cultural Background and Meaning of Ta Moko - Māori Tattoos
Bachelor Thesis
Supervisor: Mgr. Zden ěk Janík, M.A., Ph.D.
Brno 2011 2
Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Mgr. Zden ěk Janík, M.A., Ph.D. for his patience, help and valuable advice during the process of writing this thesis.
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I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the sources listed in the bibliography.
…………………………………………………
Kate řina Spasi ć 4
Abstract
The objective of this bachelor thesis is to study the origin and history of M āori tattoos and its influence on tattooing nowadays. The main aim is to discover the cultural meaning of tattoos called moko by exploring M āori legends and their spiritual life. It deals with questions such as: Why do M āori use them? How do these tattoos contribute to M āori personal identification with their own culture and traditions? And what significance and psychological meaning do they have?
This work includes three parts. The first section approaches history and M āori legends and consequently the original significance of this art. The second part focuses on tattoos in the present era and their psychological meanings nowadays and it also takes into consideration modern wearers of this tattoo and artists. The conclusion summarizes and comments on possible explanations resulting from the study.
Keywords: Tā Moko, M āori, tattoo, New Zealand
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Content
1. Introduction ...... 6 2. Māori history, legends and traditions ...... 9 2.1 Historical approach ...... 9 2.1.1 Māori arrival to Aotearoa ...... 9 2.1.2 Adaptation to the new conditions ...... 11 2.1.3 First contact with Europeans ...... 11 2.1.4 Towards the present ...... 13 2.2 Māori Mythology ...... 15 2.2.1 Creation ...... 16 2.2.2 Legends of Maui ...... 16 2.3 Māori customs and traditions ...... 18 2.4 History of the Art of Tattooing ...... 19 2.4.1 Women and moko ...... 22 2.4.2 Man and moko ...... 22 3. Moko these days and its cultural background ...... 24 3.1 Time of rebirth ...... 24 3.1.1 The development ...... 25 3.2 Features of moko ...... 25 3.2.1 Māori culture and cultural values in connection with t ā moko ...... 26 3.2.2 Moko Patterns and symbols ...... 27 3.2.3 Pākeh ā and Moko ...... 28 3.2.4 Psychological background of Moko and of wearers’ points of view ...... 30 4. Conclusion ...... 33
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1. Introduction
New Zealand lies in south western Pacific Ocean and it has been the homeland of
Māori for centuries – more precisely since around AD 1300 when first of their canoes landed at the shore of this country. Their population experienced rises and overcome falls. Generally it is possible to say that the era of their growth belongs to the period prior the arrival of
Europeans when the population expanded all over the country, they adapted to the Aotearoa
(M āori name for New Zealand) climate and conditions and established their tribal structures, religion and traditions.
After the arrival of the white man they had to deal with the impact of the clash of two utterly distinctive cultures, religion, unknown diseases or their land being taken by the newcomers and so their population decreased dramatically. Yet they did not surrender and kept fighting for their rights, which resulted in Māori rebirth in all aspects of life – the population increased again, traditions were revived and they have been participating in all spheres of life and this trend is still being in process.
Compared to Australian Aborigines who have also been struggling for their place in today’s society and facing severe social problems, M āori are few steps ahead. M āori language
(te reo) has been established as an official language besides English; their population is about
15% of all New Zealand population while there are only around 2% of Aborigines left – many of them live in reservations; M āori are active in politics, culture and they have not yielded their fight for better future. Nevertheless they still face a number of social problems ranging from unemployment, drug abuse to housing problems.
I assume that the difference between M āori and Aborigines “life story” derives from the different nature of both ethnic groups. While Māori were warriors who had been fighting over their land for centuries even before the white man arrival, Aborigines were nomads who did not understand the land ownership. They moved from place to place without any need to 7 protect themselves against invaders as the land was everybody’s property. When considering this fact Māori had the advantage in dealing with western civilization.
I have chosen this topic since my relationship to New Zealand is very personal by means of the time spent there, experiences gained and also friendly bonds I established there.
The issue of M āori tattoos is fascinating and appealing to me as I myself was strongly considering to get tattooed there. The reason for my decision not to do so was that I was not sure if it was appropriate for me as a “white European” to do so and the possible insult of Māori culture and traditions was something I wished to avoid. That was the initial impulse for my decision – to find out where “the truth lies” by studying the background of this issue and what M āori’s (and not only their) opinion is about it in general despite all that is said in literature.
What is culture? According to the dictionary it is complex of material and spiritual values created by human kind characterizing achieved degree in the society development; where spiritual culture includes science, art or social life in general and material culture includes products of manufacture or technologies. (Klimeš, 1995, p. 411) M āori art, where traditional tattooing belongs, is tightly connected with their spiritual life. Everything that they believe in and respect including their past, present and future is depicted in each one of these tattoos. It is some kind of their signature; personal identification which tells the others the life story, the status or abilities; no words necessary.
New Zealand is a “western” country in “eastern” part of the world with unique fauna and flora and people as well. Its isolation provides a certain protection against possible negative influences from “western” countries even tough with today’s globalization, which slowly erases the differences among countries all over the world, the so-called protection is not so effective, but still – New Zealand and its inhabitants keep their unmistakable charm. 8
Several Māori terms are used. To avoid misunderstanding in the text the most used ones are described in detail as follows: Moko is the term for traditional M āori tattoo in general. It also includes a very distinctive facial tattoo called taonga , which can be translated as “treasure”. Tā moko is the process of tattooing accompanied with severe but purifying pain, which plays the most important role in the whole ritual. Pākeh ā stands for the name of non-
Māori of European descend same as the first settlers who came to New Zealand from Europe.
Aotearoa means New Zealand; and it is commonly translated as “the land of the long white cloud”. Other terms used are explained either instantly or in the footnotes.
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2. Māori history, legends and traditions
2.1 Historical approach
This theoretical chapter deals with historical facts and it is divided into sections consecutively following each other according to the historical eras.
2.1.1 Māori arrival to Aotearoa
Three thousand years ago settlers from Fiji began to migrate from the west to the
Samoa and Tonga islands (fig. 1). They earned their living mainly by fishing and produced finely decorated pottery, but above all they were excellent seafarers and navigators. Their canoes built from gigantic trees could hold up to fifty people which enabled them to sail hundreds and even thousands kilometres far away and followed stars to navigate the direction.
They settled Marquesas which are ten thousand kilometres far from Fiji around the time of
Christ birth. This was the last place before setting out to the virgin land of New Zealand where the only inhabitants had been birds so far.
The first canoe which overcame all difficulties connected with natural obstacles such as trade winds, roaring waters of Tasman Sea or absence of an important waypoint such as the
North Star, was a catamaran with Polynesians under the command of a man called Kupe from
Hawaiki (probably Cook Islands or Tahiti) which is the mythological homeland of M āori
(“M āori legends”, n.d.). They landed on the north-east coast of New Zealand around the middle of the tenth century. Nevertheless we are not sure how and when exactly was New
Zealand discovered and populated as there are no written pieces of evidence of it. There are a few important common features of stories of all tribes settled here: they all arrived in many canoes to the east coast of North Island, all came from the place called Hawaiki approximately five to six hundred years ago. 10
The legend about Kupe says that while chasing a giant octopus he and his boat went astray and chanced upon an unknown island. He explored it and returned to Hawaiki to spread the news about it and the big migration began (“Maori History,” n.d.).
New inhabitants of this unusually big island whose peaks were covered with “white foam (fuka)” (Sinclair, 2003, p. 13) brought some of the seeds and young plants of the crop plants they used to grow in their homeland in order to be able to survive first moments in the new land. That is how e.g. kumara (a sweet potato) was spread all over New Zealand, but the vegetation there was generally very diverse and a number of unknown plants and animals
(birds) led to development of new words.
As Sinclair (2003) claims “the first explorers were young and strong people and their first descendants were tall and muscular men around 150 cm high, women were noticeably shorter. They lived for approximately about 35 years and women usually had no more than four children.” (p. 13). The most frequent causes of death were probably infections caused by decayed teeth and pneumonia.
Kupe was the first to call the new land Aotearoa – “the land of the long white cloud”, but there are many other ways of explaining the meaning. One of these interpretations says it was the name of his canoe so he named the land after it or another that his expedition was guided by the long white cloud.
The newcomers brought and orally preserved their own mythology and also developed many new stories about their new land. As the amount of the settlers was increasing new settlements were established all over the country and so new distinctive tribes arose. Each tribe had its own stories and legends about their creation and arrival to Aotearoa.
Māori mythology will be dealt with closely in one of the following chapters.
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2.1.2 Adaptation to the new conditions
Step by step over the centuries new inhabitants adapted to the mild climate of their new homeland, which was very different from tropical Hawaiki. They multiplied and settled mostly on the coastline and along the rivers and lakes, not so much in inland territory, though.
The land was divided into areas which belonged to different tribe groups and it changed according to the strength of each particular tribe and their ability to conquer other tribes’ land.
The land and the sea were their main source of living, although farming was a bit more widespread than hunting.
Along with the increasing number of M āori inhabitants the character of the country was changing. Colonies of seals or giant birds called Moa 1 were killed off by hunters searching for meat, fire destroyed large areas of forest mostly in South Island – New Zealand was not that untouched land anymore, but still it was not as dramatic as when Europeans came and brought metal, potatoes and pigs.
Metal was highly valuable trade commodity for M āori – metal tools made their work easier especially carpentry, wood carving and last but not least it caused a revolution in tattooing. Also potatoes were much easier to grow and store than kumara and growing of potatoes spread very quickly all over the country. Just as for pigs that became the main source of protein for M āori who let them live free in the bush, which had been the home of birds only so far.
2.1.3 First contact with Europeans
Robley (2008, p. 1) claims that the first European, who mentioned M āori tattoos, was not Abel Tasman, who entered the land in 1642 as the first European ever, but the seafarer captain Cook who rediscovered New Zealand again in 1769 and who brought
1 Moa, giant flightless bird, which was endemic to New Zealand, was around 4 metres high and weighted about 200 kilograms. It became extinct by an extensive M āori hunting. 12 detailed drawings (done by the artist Sydney Parkinson, fig. 6) and descriptions of moko back with him to Europe. Cook admired the art of tattoo designing and also the pain the tattooed person had to bear during the process. M āori fine carvings and weaponry were also a subject of high interest of the Endeavour 2 crewmen especially because of the fact that they had no metal tools and yet their work was very precise and delicate.
Europeans did not bring only useful things to New Zealand – diseases unknown to
Māori started to spread. Around the year 1790 there was an epidemic of dysentery called rewharewha spread from the Mercury Bay and later disease called tingara struck in Bay of
Islands. At the beginning of nineteenth century it was tuberculosis and in the middle of the same century M āori were attacked by epidemic of influenza, pertussis, mumps, measles and scarlet fever (Sinclair, 2003, p. 22).
The contact with Europeans and introducing metal brought a big change into traditional M āori tattooing. M āori demand for metal increased quickly soon after they found out how to reshape it and make useful tools including chisels for carving and tattooing. Metal blades were even more precise than stone and bone ones; they made the complete process much quicker and were used for cutting the flesh mostly. Nevertheless they still used bone chisels for they were easily accessible and repairable when broken or blunt.
One of the articles M āori traded for metal and weapons were cut and dried heads
(mokomokai ). They preserved heads either of their respected enemies or beloved ones to keep them closer to their family after death, but as the demand for these heads from the Europeans grew, the killing became intolerable. Finally the sale of heads was prohibited by governor and this tradition was slowly abandoned.
The process of head preservation was called pakipaki mahunga . The brain was drained out, the head treated with oils and wooden vinegar, smoked and then dried on the sun.
2 Endeavour was the name of British Royal Navy vessel under the command of James Cook, who landed in New Zealand in 1769 13
The eyes were poked out from eyeholes that were filled with flax (as well as the empty skull), eyelids sewed together and hair tied at the back so moko design was clearly visible and it was possible to identify the warrior (Robley, 2008).
The perception of facial moko (taonga) among Europeans was very diverse ranging from very negative reactions to fascination. Some of the There were some Europeans who lived in New Zealand, married M āori wives, accepted their culture and lived as M āori. They contributed to the community and thus gained the privilege to get tattooed.
At the end of nineteenth century the environment changed rapidly under the influence of wars and land confiscation. M āori together with their culture and traditions were violated and devastated not being able to face the British army equipped with incomparably better weaponry and consequently moko was not as noticeable as in the times before the
British came. Also missionaries declared moko as a heathen symbol and they banned it as being savage.
Yet at the beginning of the twentieth century new tattooing techniques emerged.
These comprised from using a steel needle attached by a fibre to a wooden handle. No cuts were made anymore, the needle punched the skin leaving the ink inside and the pain was not so severe any more. This method turned to be popular mainly due to a fast application and less pain and remained in use until electric machines were introduced (Te Awekotuku, 2007).
“Memory and desire; vanity and glamour; mystery and fear; passion and intrigue; t ā moko is all that, and more, from ancient times, until now.” (Te Awekotuku, 2007, p. 72).
2.1.4 Towards the present
Māori were generally very offensive – constant conflicts were natural way of behaving either between the tribes or among the members of a tribe. Muru was the kind of punishment applied when the member of a tribe broke the tapu (ritual ban) or other tribal law.
It consisted of physical attacks against the blamed one and his/her property was removed from 14 him/her. The traditional war dance haka accompanied by shouting and grimaces including poking out of the tongue was performed before the battle to scare the enemy by showing them how strong and fearless the tribe is (fig. 2).
Constant fights and wars were M āori heritage which they valued as the part of their nature and culture. Boys, soon after they were born, were taught how to hold and carry spears
(taiaha) and clubs made from either wood or bone or greenstone ( mere and patu ) (fig. 3).
As Sinclair (2003) says there are certain theories that speculate about boom of fights and wars being a result of M āori having a lot of free time as a consequence of easy potato growing. Before, the “war season” lasted only during the summer when there was enough food and warriors could set out for a war trail without the fear that their families would have nothing to eat.
Nevertheless the real bloodshed started after M āori were given guns (muskets). They soon began the most demanded trade commodity. Christian missionaries were vainly trying to end the fights and bring peace for twenty years (1815-1835). What missionaries were not able to achieve the nature managed easily but also with deadly consequences – epidemics of many new diseases occurred and therefore there were not enough people to wage wars.
Suddenly Christianity became very “popular” and whole tribes converted. By the year 1840 there were almost no fights and hope for peace became real. Same year on 6
February the Treaty of Waitangi was signed by British representatives and a number of most important M āori chiefs. The document established the post of British Governor on one hand and confirmed the M āori rights concerning ownership of their land and properties on the other. Soon some doubts about the correct translation and comprehension arose and instead of peace, the period of wars between M āori and Europeans initiated.
Since then M āori population decreased dramatically devastated by wars and diseases and around 1896 it was on its lowest point. Luckily, new century had brought new attitude 15 and their population started to grow again up to today’s 15% of M āori in New Zealand population, their place in society changed and they are active in all spheres of life. Some more
Māori live also in Australia or in the UK. Despite the fact that their language is an official language of New Zealand, only 4% of people speak it actively. On the other hand, Māori words are quite commonly used even by Pākeh ā (non-Māori) and M āori language influence on English is quite significant especially considering names of plants, animals or places.
Although their life standard increased and they have same possibilities as Pākeh ā they still keep fighting with higher unemployment and crime rate and also health problems or drug abuse compared with the rest of New Zealand population.
Despite all the problems they might have, Māori are very friendly people and their culture and traditions are indeed remarkably interesting and worth studying and mentioning.
2.2 Māori Mythology
Mythology is a set of myths created by people in order to explain the creation of world and the origin of humankind. M āori mythology is strongly influenced by New
Zealand’s untouched nature and deep forests which were their source of living and their home. The greatest of their gods Tane-Mahuta 3 (God of Forrest) is the one thanks to whom humankind was created.
Polynesian myths were preserved orally and M āori adapted them to New Zealand conditions.
These legends are very closely connected with the art of tattooing. M ōko designs and patterns depict natural motives; they adorn the wearer and give them the strength and honour.
3 Tane-Mahuta is also a name of the giant kauri tree in Waipoua Forest in Northland NZ. This largest kauri known is around 2.500 years old, 51 metres high and the trunk girth is 14 meters. 16
2.2.1 Creation
Mythology explains unexplainable and justifies the natural system such as the formation of the world (air, water, earth…). M āori myth about creation of world presents male element Rangi (Sky) who forms a union with female element Papa (Earth) and they produce many sons who have to live in the tight space in between their bodies in darkness.
Each of these sons represents one part of nature – Tangaroa (Ocean), Tawhiri (Wind)… they do not want to live in darkness anymore so they decide to separate Rangi and Papa. But the only son who is able to do so is Tane-mahuta. Mother Earth and Father Heaven are separated and the space for creating human life is made. “Up to this time the vast Heaven has still ever remained separated from his spouse the Earth. Yet their mutual love still continues. The soft warm sighs of her loving bosom still ever rise up to him, ascending from the woody mountains and valleys and men can these mists; and the vast Heaven, as he mourns through the long nights his separation from his beloved, drops frequent tears upon her bosom, and men seeing these, term them dew-drops.” (Grey, p. 11)
2.2.2 Legends of Maui
Maui legends link all Polynesian mythology. Stories of a demi god Maui are found in all islands of Polynesia and so connect inhabitants of islands even thousands kilometres far away from each other and proves the common origin of these. Providing that they had no written texts and they did not have any contact with each other it is rather remarkable how precisely these legends were preserved in different parts of Polynesia including New Zealand over centuries until now.
The legend of Maui and the magic fishhook explains how New Zealand was discovered. Kiri Te Kanawa in his book “Land of the Long White Cloud (M āori Myths, Tales and Legends)” presents the story (as cited in New Zealand in History, 2004):
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Maui was a demi god, who lived in Hawaiki. He possessed magic powers that not all of his family knew about. One day when he was very young, he hid in the bottom of his brothers’ boat in order to go out fishing with them. Once out at sea, Maui was discovered by his brothers, but they were not able to take him back to shore as Maui made use of his magic powers, making the shoreline seem much further away than in reality. So the brothers continued rowing, and once they were far out into the ocean Maui dropped his magic fishhook over the side of the waka 4. After a while he felt a strong tug on the line. This seemed to be strong a tug to be any ordinary fish, so Maui called to his brothers for assistance. After much straining and pulling, up suddenly surfaced Te Ika a Maui (the fish of Maui), known today as the North Island of New Zealand. Maui told his brothers that the Gods might be angry about this, and he asked his brothers to wait while he went to make peace with the Gods. However, once Maui had gone his brothers began to argue among themselves about the possession of this new land. They took out their weapons and started pounding away the catch. The blows on the land created many mountains and valleys of the North Island today. The South Island is known as Te Waka a Maui (the waka of Maui). Steward Island, which lies at the very bottom of New Zealand, is known as Te Punga a Maui (Maui’s anchor), as it was the anchor holding Maui’s waka as he pulled in the giant fish.
Maui is one of the most important characters of the M āori mythology. His name can be translated as “to live”, “to subsist” or “beauty”, “strength” and sometimes he is referred to as the “creator of a land and man” or even “the sun himself” (Westervelt, 1999). These attributes place him into a role of a powerful hero whose outstanding, brave and miraculous acts result into the creation of mankind.
Māori needed answers to different natural phenomena and the creation of world as such so Maui was created to give them these answers. He was the fearless individual who could tame the Sun, gave them the fire and their land, he even tried to win immortality for
4 Waka is the M āori name for a canoe.
18 them although not successfully. He was supposed to be a perfect example for the way how to behave and accept the challenges in order to contribute to the life of the community.
2.3 Māori customs and traditions
Māori culture belongs to the group of Eastern Polynesian culture. It was developed in coexistence and dependence on nature and its sources and therefore it includes wood, stone or bone carving, weaving, pottery and last but not least tattooing.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, haka - the war dance is quite well-known all over the world thanks to the various sports teams who perform nowadays it to scare their rival
(not the enemy anymore).
The most important events of M āori lives such as weddings, funerals, tribal
(community) gatherings, etc. take place at their community centres called marae (fig. 4). All ceremonies held here are subject to a special marae protocol which is a set of rules to be followed to show good manners. It can be compared with our ethical code. Marae house
(wharenui ) is usually richly decorated with wood carvings, which include symbols typical for the particular tribe, depictions of their ancestors and gods, symbols of happiness, fertility and others.
Kumara (sweet potato) and potatoes are the main items of M āori traditional food.
Together with vegetables and meat they are prepared in traditional hangi ovens, which are basically underground holes filled with heated stones on the bottom, where the food in baskets is put into covered with a cloth and tufts of grass and earth to prevent the heat from leaking (fig. 5). 19
2.4 History of the Art of Tattooing
The word “tattoo” developed from the Tahitian word “tautau”, which was later translated by Joseph Banks, English naturalist and botanic who came with James Cook, as
“tattow” (“Zealand Tattoo” n.d.).
The origin of t ā moko goes deep into the ancient world. There are numerous stories and legends about the beginning of this fascinating M āori art. One of the mythic narratives that come from the North Island of New Zealand explains how people first met m ōko. Te
Awekotuku (2007) retells the story as follows:
Mataora was the husband from of Niwareka, who came from the underworld. He abused her, and she fled back to her people. Remorseful and distressed, Mataora set out looking for her. He dressed in his finest garments, and enhanced his already handsome face with colour; he wanted her forgiveness, he missed her, and so he followed her trail. She was with her father, Uetonga, when Mataora arrived, desperate, exhausted, dishevelled, the pigment running with the sweat from his face, smeared and unsightly. Everyone laughed at him. Their skin were incised with rich patterns, and their adornment was forever. And though he was embarrassed and angry, Mataroa was humble, too. He begged forgiveness of Niwareka and her family; he begged knowledge of her father. They relented, teaching him the art of t ā moko, while Niwareka learned that of tāniko5, weaving with coloured fibres. And so two important art traditions, t āniko and t ā moko, were brought back to the world of light and celebrated by humankind for their magic and their beauty. (p. 12)
Everybody, just as Mataora, deserves a second chance. He mistreated his wife, he made mistakes and he had to pay for them by being humiliated and ridiculed. Eventually he realized what he had done wrong and through the painful process of t ā moko he was reborn again to be a better man than before. Having his life and lives of his ancestors chiselled into the skin of his face he knew he could not let himself to be humiliated and thus disgrace the
5 Tāniko is traditional M āori weaving technique. It also refers to the traditional designs.
20 memory of his family and tribe and also his future descendants. He learned the art of t ā moko and took it with him from the underworld to spread it among the humankind to show people the right path in case they go astray.
This principle is still the same till present times. M āori when seeing other M āori with moko feel certain respect to the person. It is some unconscious reaction which was encoded in them throughout centuries.
Māori mythology is full with such legends, which vary according to the area of settlement in New Zealand, but basically their purpose is to give a positive example and show what is right and what is wrong.
Māori culture belongs to a family which derives from a culture of an ancient Pacific
Ocean people. It is called Lapita and it is believed to be a common ancestor of cultures in
Polynesia and Micronesia. People have lived in western Pacific for thousands of years and being skilled navigators “they colonized over fifty sites across 4000 kilometres of western
Pacific Ocean and left remains of distinctive settlement marked by unique pottery forms, and designs” (Te Awekotuku, 2007, p. 14).
As well as pottery, tattooing was a part of the Polynesian culture and this tradition was brought to New Zealand together with the first settlers. The process of getting a tattoo (t ā moko) was very painful and was a part of the ritual of rebirth, which was as important as the birth itself and it secured and strengthened the wearer. The designs varied according to the tribal membership and the importance or the wearer in the tribal hierarchy and were also found in wood carvings of each tribe, which confirms the relationship between the art of tattooing and wood carving.
The skin was cut with the tiny chisels called uhi and the colour inserted into these cuts. After the wounded skin healed the coloured scars remained and thus creating remarkably looking patterns – the skin was literally carved. There were many different kinds of uhi used. 21
Main distinctions were between those used to adorn the face and those for carving body ornaments. The initial chisel, a very sharp one, was used for cutting a channel into the skin and it was called uhi whakatatar āmoa , which can be translated as “clear the way”; it was followed by uhi puru formed to carry the ink, which was inserted into the open wounds. The fine lines on the nostrils ( pōngiangia ) and around eyelids ( rewha ) were made by uhi k ōhiti , a very small chisel with 2 mm wide blade. Uhi matarau with its comb-like shape was used for shading thighs or buttocks as it could carry a considerable amount of the ink (Te Awekotuku,
2007, p. 18).
The tattoo masters were man/woman of great importance and some of them became very popular. Chiefs of tribes and people of high positions often had to overcome long distances to get tattooed by the best of them. One of the aspects of success was also a quality ink which was made of soot and oil (bird or fish) mixed with water and different plant saps for colour and healing effect. Herbal juices were used also for producing healing and antiseptic ointments which were applied after the tā moko process to disinfect the wounds and ease the pain. As well as with chisels, there were also many different kinds of inks depending on which part of the body they were used for and also on the procedure and ingredients used for producing the ink itself. Each tribe had their own formula that was kept secret and treasured from other tribes. Later even gunpowder became one of the ingredients for its bluish colour.
Getting a moko was a sacred ritual with strict rules. It could take up to six months for wounds to heal and even during this period the tattooed person had to obey the rules, among which there were for example eating of specified food or no sexual contact. These rules were there to ensure successful healing. Full facial moko was the sign of the leadership; usually important people within the tribe had it done.
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2.4.1 Women and moko
Women usually tattooed the area of lips and chin. Lips were coloured blue which was a sign of beauty as the natural reddish colour was considered graceless, poor and stateless. Tattooed lips were supposed to maintain the beauty even after a woman grew old.
Also it was a mark of sex appeal and marriageability and consequently their fertility and readiness to become a mother.
Te Awekotuku (2007) describes the relation with mythological mother Earth (Papa) aptly. Faces of old all respectable women with moko scars and scratches very much resemble the surface of the earth with its cracks – it is important to see this connection to be able to understand the meaning of woman moko.
Mōko is placed also on a forehead, neck, thighs or waist and each type has a different name such as hokitiki , which is the forehead tattoo. (Te Awekotuku, 2007)
Nevertheless there are cases known when a woman had male facial and even body moko. These women inherited a leadership of a tribe as being of the first line and they were skilled warrioresses.
The aching and bleeding process of t ā moko (tattooing) resembles giving a birth to a child and just as this it creates a new life and respect for the woman.
2.4.2 Man and moko
The original purpose of using moko was to distinguish themselves from other tribes or when fighting to appear demonic in order to scare their enemies. Men tattooed their faces so as to be sexually attractive for the other gender. It differed according to the status of the man. Chiefs had highly sophisticated and detailed motifs whereas the others had ordinary black or blue ornaments. Slaves were prohibited to wear a moko (Robley, 2008).
As Te Awekotuku (2007) says: “Tattooing was (and in some parts of Polynesia still is) a major component of adornment and identity” (p. 14). Another reason to have a facial 23 tattoo was also the fact that warriors used to cut the head of their enemies and moko helped them to identify the tribe which they belonged to. As Robley (2008, p. 16) describes, all warriors were naked when fighting the enemy, but the nudity was hidden under the tattoo which covered the area from knees up to the waist and face of course. They actually looked better without clothes - tattooed with all arms and weapons.
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3. Moko these days and its cultural background
3.1 Time of rebirth
After the period of recession in the area of tattooing among M āori, especially among
Māori men since women continued to do so, 1990’s brought the moko revival that still continues. Women unlike men were somehow trying to preserve the tradition during all hard times for M āori when they and their culture almost became extinct. They were protecting the heritage and kept having their moko done to prove that their culture and values their ancestors appreciated are not dead even if it may have seemed otherwise. Māori men were getting tattooed, but there was usually not much sense or meaning in it – it was more like a part of the gang culture.
Yet M āori had not stopped fighting for their rights completely. In 1960s and 1970s there was a number of different protests against the impact of New Zealand colonization. The revival started in 1970s by establishing The Waitangi Tribunal in 1975 to deal with the consequences of the Treaty of Waitangi, especially with the disputes over the land ownership.
In 1987 the M āori Language Act was passed, which was also one of the most important items of “Māori renaissance” (Te Ahukaram ū, 2009).
As the word “renaissance” (restoration) implies, the culture and traditions and M āori identity have been experiencing their resurrection. The success in pursuing their rights gave them new energy and determination in continuing and today Māori are reconnecting with their traditions and ancestors again and many of them search for new strength or for a rebirth
(new start) or the way back to their roots, families or tribes and this is very closely connected with t ā moko process. Some of them are even having their moko done without machines by using the old method of carving into the skin. Fashionable moko imitations, which are quite common today, are not fully considered as a part of the coming to the roots. These are often being made without reflecting on their meaning, but this trend slowly changes. 25
3.1.1 The development
The years of decline have ended and this art has been shifting from the initial coming back to the tradition to the new modern styles. The process of resurrection detected the boom of traditional styles based on black ink and pure M āori symbols and patterns. This trend is slowly changing and tattooists as well as wearers search for new ways such as using different colours or combining M āori tribal design together with some other, e.g. Celtic symbolism which is a consequence of people of mixed origins who desire to unite both of their cultural backgrounds.
Most of the tattoos nowadays are made by electrical machines nevertheless the process is still considered special and sacred. Machines are faster, do not cause so much pain and they are more precise, but as stated above there are some tendencies to bring back also the old traditional way by using uhi (chisels).
The development is also connected with changing the lifestyle and culture - moko and its designs are changing as they are very closely coexisting – the way of life, family or society status are projected in the tattoo. Also if the status given to the person by moko was breached by misbehaving, the punishment would be severe in the past while today the punishment, if any, consists mostly of family admonishing, which implies that the responsibility of respecting the privilege of wearing moko lies mostly on the wearer him/herself (Te Uhi Mataora & Toi Maori Aotearoa, 2005)
3.2 Features of moko
This section will try to expound attributes of moko from different points of view ranging from visual form of moko designs to the psychological impact and clash or interconnection with other cultures and its cultural values.
26
3.2.1 Māori culture and cultural values in connection with t ā moko
Generally speaking, culture is everything what has been created by human kind such as material outcomes of human activity or spiritual pieces of work (art, religion, politics, and traditions). More specifically we can define culture as a complex of behavioural manifestation of people from a certain community, meaning their habits, traditions, symbols, communication, same values or experiences (Pr ůcha, 2004, p. 45). It implies that cultural values of certain society is a system built upon sharing the same interests, aims, points of view; said very simply – it determines what is right and what is wrong.
People of Aotearoa – Māori – share very unique and for us (Europeans) exotic culture. Their system of cultural values consists of practising of the following principles (as stated in New Zealand History, n.d.):
Mana – often translated as power, prestige or authority given to people by gods. It is something which has to be protected and fought for. One can inherit it, but also lose it by taking wrong actions and in such case it has to be restored no matter what.
Tapu – can be translated as sacred, holy or taboo. This concept shows how to behave towards the others and the nature. It protects natural sources, people and also cultural heritage given to M āori by their ancestors and represents life, immortality and masculine side. It creates duality with the concept called noa , which is negative feminine force connected with mortality (Classic M āori Society, n.d.).
Utu – is a concept of ‘payback’, response to something, reciprocity or revenge which is practised when mana is lost or tapu broken to restore the balance. In the past this concept was behind never-ending fights and wars between the tribes.
These principles are all included in the process of t ā moko. One of the features of moko is that it shows the status of the person within the tribe or community. The status of a respected person assumes that his/her mana (authority) is very strong and that the person 27 behaves according to certain rules which are appropriate for moko wearer which also means he/she does not break the tapu (taboo). In case these two principles are breached there has to be a response to it (utu), which helps to restore them (e.g. overcoming an important life obstacle).
3.2.2 Moko Patterns and symbols
The fact that there are no two people with an identical tattoo is fascinating – each moko is an original. Yes, there are some specific patterns common for each tribe, but also the personality of the wearer as well as the one of the artist reflect in the final work. The artist has to spend some time together with the wearer to study his/her character, points of view, and beliefs and the ancestors and history are depicted there too. He/she also considers the face features and all lines drawn in it.
There is a very demonstrative example with an explanation captured in the pictures number eight and nine in the pictorial appendix. It is a wood carving called “Te Tauihu
Turanga Whakamana” with an explanation of different motives and patterns designed and carved by renown New Zealand M āori artists. The process of carving the wood (bones, stones) and “carving” the face is very similar. This carving is displayed in the city of
Gisborne in Poverty Bay north-east of New Zealand, which was the area where Captain Cook with his ship Endeavour first landed. It represents all M āori features in general: ancestors, their character, history and also the connection with P ākeh ā (Europeans), as well as moko (as described above).
It is not really possible to clearly explain all the motives of each moko as these depend very much on the artist or the area he/she comes from, but there are certain features common for all of them. The essential and most used is the symbol called koru in the shape of a spiral depicting unfurling leaf of fern (fern is a symbol of New Zealand), it symbolizes birth, growth and so new hope and future, strength and peace (fig. 10). 28
Another one called hei matau in the shape of fish hook comes from the legend of
Maui catching North Island of New Zealand on the hook he carved from his grandmother’s jawbone. It assures prosperity and good health the same as fish hook helps with earning the living by catching fish on the sea. It also provides positive energy and safe journey over the water.
Also symbol of pikorua (double twist) or rauiri (single twist) benefit the wearer with eternity and bonding friendship - single twist between two individuals and double twist represent joining the people and cultures. These occur especially in the form of carved pendants.
In facial moko it is also the place which plays an important role. For example female moko has 4 major areas of placing: forehead in between the eyebrows, the place above the upper lip under the nose, lips and chin.
Te Karu on the forehead identifies the woman of high rank within the tribe, woman of an important descent line with the knowledge of weaving. Kirupa under the nose means that the woman wearing it has a certain knowledge which has to be protected. Keikoro around or on the lips determines the place of the woman within the tribe and warunga on the chin means the first born or woman with high rank, her descend line is recognized by the tribe and she is allowed to get married. (Matakite, 2011)
3.2.3 Pākeh ā and Moko
Opinions about “white or other” people wearing moko are very contradictory ranging from very negative point of view through ambiguous or “do not care” to quite positive attitudes.
Those who agree that P ākeh ā wearing moko is an insult and disrespecting of M āori culture argue with the fact that it is a crime of stealing M āori identity as moko is based on family heritage and history, which is not the history of any other ethnic group. 29
Historically there had been Europeans who wore moko since the beginning of their settlement in Aotearoa e.g. Barnet Burns or Jack Rutherford (Te Awekotuku, 2007). Both lived with M āori, respected their traditions, were great warriors and they earned the privilege of wearing moko.
Today, when almost four centuries have passed since discovering New Zealand by
Europeans and when they have learnt to live next to each other in peace, it is no exception that there are people of mixed origins and there are a lot of them. So the question is: Are these people allowed to interfere into M āori culture by something such as getting traditionally tattooed? And what about their children? No matter, whether they are going to create a family with M āori or Non-Māori. Would these be allowed to do so?
In any case there are many t ā moko artists and wearers of mixed origin who do not see any difference as far as the person respects the culture and the process. If the process or the genealogy (whakapapa) is not respected then the tattoo is not considered moko even though it looks like that.
There is also another option, which is called kirituhi and this concept was very nicely described by the representative of Te Uhi Mataora & Toi Maori Aotearoa 6 (2005):
“Kirituhi translates literally to mean - "drawn skin." As opposed to Moko which requires a process of consents, genealogy and historical information, Kirituhi is merely a design with a Maori flavour that can be applied anywhere, for any reason and on anyone. This is not to say that Kirituhi is void of meaning because any recipient with their skilled artist can apply meaning to any design. But based upon the definition of Moko, Kirituhi is void of consents, genealogy and historical meaning.”
Kirituhi is only a tattoo with M āori motives – the final product is the most important whereas the significance of moko lies in the process.
6 Te Uhi Mataora and Toi Maori Aotearoa are two associations that are committed to promote M āori culture, arts and traditions especially moko 30
3.2.4 Psychological background of Moko and of wearers’ points of view
To have a face marked with a permanent tattoo requires a decision based upon a strong impulse and consequent well-consideration of the impact on one’s life. The person should be prepared for the reaction of others; positive or negative. Moreover having facial moko is an act that involves certain knowledge and understanding of M āori world. Therefore those who have done so are usually active within their tribe and marae (M āori community centre) and they realize that by having their genealogy, family or status caved on their face requires humble respect to these values. Rua (1999) in his research paper states copying strategies of the wearers of Moko. “Before I had my moko I wasn’t humble person. What the moko has done for me is made me humble. When people are looking at me I just go, ‘ah, they are looking at my moko’. I just have to look at them and don’t take offence. I will let them come and ask me about my moko.” (p. 5) It seems that those who got moko tattooed have found their place and some sense of life.
Facial moko stands for pride and strength which can be often viewed as intimidating for others; especially for non-Māori; which implies that the person wearing it should be ready for ambiguous reactions and a lot of questions.
Even though t ā moko process nowadays does not require so much bravery in terms of pain and physical suffering it is still a major part of searching M āori identity. “For M āori it is more than a recognition of adulthood and self, it is the proclamation of that self as belonging – to a particular descend line, family or kinship network; to a special and unique group, to a community.” (Te Awekotuku, 2003, p. 126)
These days are days of rebirth of moko, yet there are still a lot of prejudices in ways of perception among others, sometimes even M āori themselves. As stated above during the days of moko decline it was about a gang culture, which is also related with massive M āori resettlement from countryside to the urban areas in 1960s – 1970s. Such a change of lifestyle 31 led to loosening the kinship relations with their communities and to lowering the morality by means of increasing criminality, drug abuse, and employment and housing problems. This situation caught M āori unprepared. Many of them, especially the youth, searched the place where to belong again and they found it in the gang. The number of street gangs began to increase and a lot of them were arrested. However, in prison instead of real guns they were using tattoo guns assembled from whatever they could find there – needles, stereos, razors, etc. They partly re-established their tradition of tattooing although the designs often differed from original t ā moko - it was their life which changed and so did their moko. As Te
Awekotuku (2007) says these gang members created some kind of ‘bridge’ connecting traditional and contemporary moko and “between crudely Western and finely disciplined
Māori form of the art of tattoo.” (p. 164)
On one hand the gang culture can be seen as a connecting link and an element which contributed to not vanishing of the tradition, but on the other is also contributed to the fact that some people unaware of the background of this matter regard person having a moko, especially facial moko, as a person with criminal past or as a member of the gang. In some cases this approach has resulted in discrimination of moko wearers. There are some cases when facial tattooed M āori were banned from the clubs or restaurants or excluded from the group of job applicants, but they are aware of their rights, they defend themselves with the help of law (Human Rights Act 1993) and they win.
Generally speaking, people are afraid of unknown. A rising of public awareness of
Māori culture and traditions plays a significant role in surmounting these generalizations and prejudices and for this purpose there are many organizations which help to educate people such as Toi M āori Aotearoa or Te Uhi Mataora (stated above). These organize workshops, lectures, presentations or demonstrations of M āori arts and crafts, lessons of te reo (M āori language), they publish their own magazines or they contribute to the broadcasting of M āori 32 television. There is a whole range of possibilities which such organizations use to fight against stereotypes, nevertheless the process is slow.
Studying many wearers’ points of view which Te Awekotuku (2007) or Rua (1999) collected and presented, taking moko especially the facial one is always an important decision. Once one does it, it is there for the lifetime and the person must be ready for answering the questions. Usually all extended family consults it, but in the end it is the individual that carries the responsibility. Especially the earlier generations relate it with the number of responsibilities such as knowing te reo (language), participating on the marae
(community), exemplary behaviour or even dressing appropriately (e.g. concerning women wearing pants or shorts). Younger generation does not really rely on the dress code, they are more relaxed yet they do not forget to wear it with pride: “It’s about wearing it with as much pride as you can, so people looking at you will not be critical about your dress.” says Melanie
(Te Awekotuku, 2007, p. 181) or Raymond: “I just wanted to promote what it is to be M āori, instead of what a M āori should be.” (ibid)
Choosing the right moko artist is also a significant point in the process. Besides his practical skills, experience, techniques and talent, he/she should know the wearer and his/her family – a mutual trust should be established.
Māori tattoo is expressing the individuality of the wearer no matter what reasons led him/her to get it, but above all it is the pride of being M āori and honouring the ancestors and their heritage for today’s generations. It is closely connected with the state of mind of each involved individual, with their aspirations, points of view and also with his/her family and close community (or tribe). Reaction of people encountering the person with tattooed face can be very hard to anticipate so it is very important to be prepared for tackling them with dignity no matter if they are positive or negative because they are going to be there.
33
4. Conclusion
When talking about facial marking some of the wearers surprisingly state that most of the negative reactions come from their own people – Māori; as these have doubts either about the wearer in terms of being respected enough to deserve to wear it or about themselves questioning their own conscience of being true M āori. It can be said that P ākeh ā (Europeans) react generally quite positively (Te Awekotuku, 2007). This outcome proceeds from the fact that M āori knowing the background of this sacred and complex ritual somehow fear to breach its rules, which results into being very critical to their own people who had gone through it.
They need to be assured that their traditions are respected, appreciated and treated with pride even if they do not really follow them themselves. But is this critical view necessary?
Traditions are here, but time changes. Would this cultural heritage of M āori people be humiliated even if adapted into today’s world?
The process of adaptation is partly inevitable as perfectly seen on the technique and machines used nowadays. These have changed t ā moko process dramatically from being greatly painful with using chisels and spilling a lot of blood to very easy application by electric needled tattoo guns with no blood spillage. In the past it was a long-term test of bravery and ability to control the body and meditate through the waves of pain based on rituals performed during the t ā moko and through the whole period of healing. The richer and more sophisticated ornaments the more important and respected person within the community. Today it is about the bravery to proudly step out from the mass and to show who
I am and be ready for consequences. It also brings the pain, but the pain is in the minds of these people. Now it is the process of deciding whether to get tattooed or not, which is painful; or reactions of “own” people or people in general; or concerns about fulfilling the expectations. It is psychological pain, which may be much worse than the physical one. 34
Yes, it changes together with the society, but it does not mean that such a change reduces the significance of it as a treasured cultural heritage of M āori, but it is important to keep this tradition alive. Questions arise: Under what conditions it should be kept alive?
Should it be commercialized or held secret by M āori who are originally the only to possess the right to use it? In case it was commercialized, would it lose its spirituality and meaning, would it still be t ā moko? And in case it was protected exclusively by M āori, would it not be close become extinct and forgotten together with changing their lifestyle? Or is kirituhi
(M āori style tattoo without meaning on non-Māori) the golden mean between these two possibilities?
Not even M āori themselves are united in this issue. There are a lot of M āori artists who tattoo Western wearers and do not consider it treason of their values such as Tim who is cited by Te Awekotuku (2007, p. 137):
“…every individual has wairua (soul), has mauri (essential spirit), every one, and my approach is in trying to see that in every person that comes in. Part of our doing moko is that a person comes to a point in their lives where they can focus on a deeper part of themselves, and moko becomes a permanent reminder of that for them. And the crucial difference is in being a great artist who puts work on people, or being one who lets the mauri of the person, their inner being, actually dictate what happens on the skin.”
And on the other hand there is an opinion of another artist who claims that “…this is just another form of pillaging. Of extracting the spirit of a tribal people to sate the culturally malnourished appetites of the decadent and industrial west, whose people believe they are justified to do so.” (ibid) Do we have the right to take this art and change it into “money”? For this is a good selling commodity. Do Westerners have the right to buy it or M āori to sell it? 35
The main aim of this thesis was to discover the meaning and cultural background of
Māori tattoos. Moko means a new start, overcoming an obstacle, reaching a destination or the way to it, fulfilling the destiny, unity with the roots, family, ancestors, and nature. And also being part of the proud nation of warriors of Aotearoa and wearing an adornment such as moko requires being proud and humble at the same time, to honour the past to be able to live in dignity in present. Each of them tells a story about the wearer. The answer to the question if this wearer is black, white, M āori or not lies within each one of us, but may be blurred with the cloud of uncertainty brought here by the people’s frenetic search for solid ground under their feet in these times.
This art is extraordinary and unique and therefore admired by many no matter what nationality, race or religion. It should be cherished and respected as it represents human values that should be preserved here for the next generations.
36
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39
PICTORIAL APPENDIX
Figure 1 : Polynesian migration. This scheme illustrates directions of
migration which led to the settlement of New Zealand. “New Zealand”. Wikipedia. 30 November 2011. Web. 2 December 2011.
Figure 2 : M āori Haka – a war dance performed before the battle to scare the enemy. “Haka.” Kiwi Culture. Web. 2 December
2011. 40
Figure 3 : Mere and patu displayed in Cantenbury Museum in Christchurch, ā New Zealand. Traditional M ori weapons made from jade or wood. Kate řina Spasi ć. (2005)
Figure 4 : Marae (meeting house) in Rotorua, New Zealand. The centre of ā M ori community’s social life. Martin Krajtl. (2006) 41
Figure 5: Hangi oven. Traditional meal prepared underground. Jaroslav
Štark. (2005)
Figure 6 : Head of a Chief from one of
Sydney Parkinson‘s drawings. “Moko; or Maori Tattooing”. New Zealand
Electronic Text Centre. (2008). Web. 2
December 2011. 42
Figure 7: Pātara Te Tuhi - a chief of Ng āti Mahuta, painting by Charles
Goldie called “A Hot Day“, 1901. Christchurch Art Gallery Te Puna O Waiwhetu . n.d. Web. 2 December 2011.
43
Figure 8 : “Te Tauihu Turanga Whakamana”. M āori carving designed by Derek Lardelli and Te Aturangi Nepia Clamp and carved by Te Aturangi Nepia Clamp and Bill Baker in Gisborne, New Zealand. Kate řina Spasi ć. 2006
44
Figure 9 : Explanation of “Te Tauihu Turanga Whakamana” carving dealt with in the chapter 3.2.3 Moko Patterns and Symbols, p. 27 (above). Kate řina Spasi ć. 2006.
45
Figure 10 : Māori symbol “Koru” in nature – unfurling fern. A symbol of the new future and strength. Auckland Newcomers . 2011. Web. 2 December 2001.