1 Introduction 1

Notes

1 Introduction 1. The epigraph is taken from H.D.’s World War II-era poem “R. A. F.” (Collected 489). 2. Interestingly, this is true despite the fact that Darwin’s work does contain theological statements. See Gillespie, as well as Chapter 3 of Richards’s Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior. 3. Galton had argued in 1909 that eugenics had “strong claims to become an orthodox religious tenet of the future” (qtd. in Childs 3). 4. For a more detailed recounting of the history of science of this period, see Morrisson’s introduction. 5. Vitalism is a theory that posits an immaterial or nonbiological life force within living beings. See Clarke, on vitalism at the turn of the century, especially 27–29. 6. The notion of ether, championed until his death by physicist Sir Oliver Lodge, was particularly difficult to discredit. Even after the Michelson-Morley experiment in 1897 appeared to have disproved it, Bertrand Russell, in fact, imagines that ether may in fact return to scientific legitimacy (Schleifer 17). Ether is discussed at more length in the next chapter. 7. Steinman remarks that Alexander is one of the most widely read of the scientific popularizers of the early twentieth century (67). 8. Widely popular, theosophy offers an excellent instance of an occult system that exploits the language of science. Faivre’s book on esotericism is considered to be the most important historical work on theosophy. See Morrisson, Chapter 2, for a discussion of theosophy and alchemy in the modernist period. Surette’s book explores the impact of theosophy on Eliot, Pound, and Yeats, and Tryphonopoulos discusses theosophy in relation to Pound’s The Cantos. 9. See Crunden, Chapters 12 and 13, for a discussion of how many modernists were exposed to, and engaged with, the philosophies and teachings of these three. 10. Daniel Cottom discusses Einstein’s analogy in his introduction (xlviii). 164 ● Notes

11. In arguing that modernists were engaged with “popular” discourse on science and religion, I invoke Michael Whitworth’s first definition of “popularization”: “[P]opularization is an ambiguous concept, describing a movement which could be sideways, between disciplines of equivalent status, but which could also be downwards, from the elite to the mass of the people” (27). “Popular” discourse in this sense, then, might be usefully defined as nonacademic discourse on a subject, regardless of whether it appears in small press little magazines or mass- market periodicals distributed to wide audiences. While many of the modernists’ favorite periodicals were aimed at a reasonably educated audience, they did not print articles by scientists aimed at other scientists; rather, some articles printed on the topics were “popularized” and simplified to target lay audiences, while others contained discussions of science from religious (heterodox and orthodox) and philosophical perspectives that contained very little “accurate” scientific information. 12. In the inaugural issue of Dora Marsden’s New Freewoman, Francis Grierson couches her premises in pseudoscientific, spiritualist language as she argues for the women’s movement as not political but spiritual. The “active thought vibra- tions” of women are essential to the growth of the movement: “Not until women are taught how to exert a psychic influence and radiate a psychic thought-power, will the old order be permanently changed” (10). 13. See Whitworth, Chapter 1, for a more extended discussion of popular science in modernist-era journals, including the Athenaeum, the Fortnightly Review, and others. 14. See Steinman, 45–46, on the mechanical metaphors of Imagism, and Tichi, 91–96, on Vorticism’s “poetry of efficiency” and “verbal economy” (92). See also an article by Quema, who reads Pound’s theorizing of the relationship between poetry and science: “The Modernist striving towards objectivity also combines with the frequent use of scientific metaphors and comparisons” (111). See Hickman’s The Geometry of Modernism, on the ways in which geometry gen- erated scientific models of art in late modernism by H.D., Pound, and Yeats. 15. In this vein, see also Schleifer, whose book addresses the ways in which concep- tions of time, sequence, and order as reimagined by early twentieth-century physicists impact modernist formal aesthetics. 16. Virtually every scholar who writes on science and modernism laments the lack of scholarship in the field. In 2001, Whitworth remarks that “the physical science of the period has very rarely been considered in any detail in its relation to literature” (vii). It is interesting to note, however, that Danius observes that this reluctance has been solely on the part of literary critics; critics of other art forms—music, visual arts, dance, and so on—have been more willing to exam- ine the impact of science and technology on modernism (2). 17. See Tichi for a discussion of the extent to which technology dominated popular magazines in America at the turn of the century, where it was thoroughly integrated into everyday life and domesticated in its entrance into the private sphere of kitchens and laundry rooms; American magazines like Cosmopolitan, Harper’s, Collier’s, the Saturday Evening Post, and so on, “brought images of Notes ● 165

technological values and accomplishments into middle-class American living rooms weekly and monthly” (19). 18. See Albright, especially 9–13, for an account of the English avant-garde’s vilifi- cation of the Jewish Einstein; Albright suggests that the anti-Semitism of Lewis, Pound, and Eliot contributed to their negative view of Einstein’s anarchic universe, which lacked a notion of masculine force to which they ascribed, even as they were influenced by it. See Steinman, Chapter 3, for Einstein’s reception in America and his impact on American modernist poets; her phrase “native son” appears on p. 60. Steinman notes the extraordinary extent to which Einsteinian physics is covered in the American press from 1919 to 1922 (60). 19. Steinman argues that free will and democracy were associated with technology in early twentieth-century American popular press accounts (7). Seltzer discusses American capitalism throughout his study. 20. As Clarke notes, “That which falls away from the merit of science retains some of the glamor of science as it enters into its social formations” (26). He contends that as science as an ideology begins to exert explanatory power over arenas outside of its purview, it retains some of its prestige and claims to validity; like Steinman, he sees this operating in literature of the modernist period: “As modernist literature followed other arts into abstraction, it came increasingly to resemble a professional form of technical cipher, to model its ‘seriousness’ on the hard languages of mathematized sciences” (5). 21. Surette, in fact, intentionally uses the terms occult and theosophy interchange- ably in his study (26). 22. On Marinetti’s view of the body, see, especially, articles by Poggi and Foster. 23. In her typically dry tone, Loy wrote of H.D. in a 1925 essay in the little magazine Charm that she “has written at least two perfect poems: one about a swan” (Lost 160). In the early 1920s, H.D. sought gossip about Loy from both Bryher and Marianne Moore; Bryher commented on Loy’s “wild” nature but concluded “she is not as awful as most of the bunch are,” while Moore responded with a review of Loy’s performance in the Provincetown’s production of Alfred Kreymborg’s Lima Beans and included a couple of rather catty remarks by Robert McAlmon about Loy’s purported beauty (Bryher, Letter; Moore, Selected 140). 24. The several volumes of Curtiss books H.D. owned—ranging from before World War I to the World War II—are eclectic. While the initial books, such as The Voice of Isis, quote occasionally from Blavatsky, with whom they apparently studied, the later books are far less tied to formal theosophy, as the couple gradually evolve their own esoteric system aimed at a specifically American audience. 25. Discussed at greater length in the third chapter, H.D.’s library included Lumen, and several references to Flammarion in her 1940s novel The Sword Went Out to Sea indicate that her autobiographically based protagonist, Delia, had read his work carefully at a spiritualist library she visited. 26. Loy’s unpublished notes and drafts cited in this book are located with the Mina Loy Papers at the Beinecke Library. In drawing on her unpublished materials, I have attempted to reproduce her typography and spelling as much as possible, 166 ● Notes

to capture resonances of the style of avant-garde manifestos, to reveal the draft state of the writing, and to preserve puns that occasionally result from mis- spellings. Normalizing these aspects of her writing runs two risks; it may not only camouflage the “draft” status of the many notes and scraps but also mask her play with language and her inconsistent British-American spelling. See Armstrong for a transcription of the entire poem (115). While he neglects the religious language, Armstrong adeptly describes this poem as “a critique of Futurism’s machine culture,” arguing that Loy views “the body-machine coupling as fetishism”: “Rather than the machine serving as the desirable re- placement for the body, it is a reductive version of the body, while the body is a machine which fails to perform” (114–15). Armstrong is perhaps the best reader of Loy on technology. 27. Quotations from “Earth-Being” are from the second typescript draft (f. 383–87). Whenever possible, passages by Toomer are taken from either Cane, The Collected Poems of Jean Toomer, A Jean Toomer Reader, The Letters of Jean Toomer 1919– 1924, Selected Essays and Literary Criticism, or The Wayward and the Seeking. If the passage does not appear in one of these sources, I quote from the Jean Toomer Papers at the Beinecke Library, and I do not correct errors. When manuscripts and typescripts are paginated consecutively, I provide page numbers. 28. When quoting from the typescript of “From Exile into Being,” I am using the fifth version (f. 428–39). 29. Passages from this book of adages are taken from the typescript version (f. 848–57). 30. I am indebted to books on H.D. and science by Adalaide Morris and Miranda Hickman, to Helen Sword’s writings on H.D. and spiritualism, and to Susan Friedman and Rachel DuPlessis’s early work on her interest in both science and religion.

2 Electromagnetism, Sexuality, and Modernism 1. See Gilmore for a discussion of the metaphor of electricity in nineteenth-century American Romanticism. 2. While the very early twentieth century experiences a surge of interest in expanded sensory perception, Laura Otis, in Chapter 6, locates the origin of the “tendency to see a communications device as a continuation of one’s own nervous system” (9) in the late nineteenth century, when spiritualists appropriated the word teleg- raphy in coining the term telepathy (182). In her first chapter, she studies a par- allel among nineteenth-century physiologists, who modeled their understanding of the nervous system on electrical and magnetic metaphors. Thus, the concept is birthed at once within the scientific and the paranormal community. 3. It is too simplistic to say that ether and electricity are exactly synonymous here; however, Lodge’s use of the term is derived from an earlier history of electrical phenomena that holds that electricity and magnetism are the forces that bind the molecules of the universe together. This binding electromagnetic field, in this sense, comprises the ether. Notes ● 167

4. The idea of establishing and sustaining relationships via electromagnetism has another, less ethereal, source as well. In his study of technology in nineteenth- and twentieth-century American culture, Michael Carroll explores the extent to which the telephone has always been viewed as a means of creating “psychological neighborhoods” and of maintaining romantic relationships in particular: “Strangely enough telephony was already sexualized and hypermediated before it was electrified” (14, 17). In fact, Carroll reports, Alexander Graham Bell said in a deposition on patent that “he had bought a device in Boston that had long been known as a ‘lovers’ telegraph” (17). 5. H.D.’s active involvement in séances has been well documented in Friedman’s early study of H.D.’s occultism and her relationship with Freud, Psyche Reborn, and more recently in Sword, Engendering Inspiration and Ghostwriting Modernism. 6. For a discussion contemporaneous to modernism, see Mottelay and Benjamin’s first chapter for a full recounting of the worship of the magnet in ancient Greece and Syria, including the origins of the word electricity. 7. Originally an ancient Greek anatomical term, archeus also carries with it an association with the vital principle, or that which brings forth the spark of ani- mate life. See Mottelay for a discussion of Blavatsky and electricity (12–13). 8. See Heilbron, especially pp. 159–83, for a discussion of public displays and quasi-scientific experiments conducted in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; the Royal Society reportedly hired a man to produce “flashy experiments” with electricity to entertain them, and some scientists tested various levels of electricity on children and animals, and themselves. See Morus, Chapter 3, for a discussion of the short-lived nineteenth-century phenomenon of London’s electrical science galleries, which combined entertainment with instruction. 9. Though Mesmerism begins with Mesmer’s experiments into hypnosis, it is by no means an entirely European phenomenon. See Crabtree, Chapter 11, for a discussion of the American contribution to the evolution of Mesmerism. 10. Not only gender but issues of class, nation, and ethnicity played into the power dynamic between Mesmerizer and subject. See Alison Winter’s study of Mesmerism in Britain for a discussion of class differences between participants, as well as the propensity of the upper class to experiment with their domestic help (4, 57). One practitioner, for instance, declared that he especially preferred work- ing with Irish immigrants as it most approached experimenting with animals (Winter 61–62). Furthermore, Mesmerism was seen as exotic and foreign to the English, who inherited it from the French well after Mesmer was exiled to France by the Austrians; that the “charismatic French” were endowed with such power over the “susceptible English” was scandalous to some (Winter 23). 11. There is apparently no reliable accounting of the numbers of spiritualists. Nelson reports 40,000 in New York alone by 1853, and a worldwide membership of one to two million by 1854, according to both supporters and detractors (10, 24). Brandon claims that there were 11 million believers by 1854, which is probably excessive (37). R. Moore comments that it outlasted other scientific movements, like Mesmerism and phrenology, by several decades (14–15). 168 ● Notes

Hazelgrove, in Chapter 1, offers evidence that spiritualism was just as popular between the world wars as it was in the Victorian period. 12. Ozone is the Mesmerist/spiritualist term for oxygen “electrified” by a Mesmerist. 13. It is spiritualism’s claim to scientific validity that leaves it most vulnerable to attack, and anti-spiritualist publications sought to discredit spiritualists’ understanding of electromagnetism. One 1853 pamphlet dismisses spiritualism and Mesmerism as movements exploiting the lack of real understanding of electricity and magnetism, finding it “amusing to see with what pedantic gravity these latter philomaths descant upon electricity and magnetism, contorting and butchering their established laws” (Page 20–21). To the claim that a circle must be composed of alternating positive and negative persons, the Rev. Mattison, in the same year, points out that “[i]t is impossible for two persons to be one positive, and the other negative, unless they are separated by a non-conductor” (54). Of course, much of the anti-spiritualist propaganda issued from the religious community, and their understanding of science is often as deficient as that of those they opposed. 14. See Thurschwell on the collapse of distance and the creation of intimacy inher- ent in the spiritualist experience. 15. In the second volume of his Studies in the Psychology of Sex, Ellis writes, “Most of the bisexuals prefer their own sex. It is curiously rare to find a person, whether man or woman, who by choice exercises relationships with both sexes and pre- fers the opposite sex. This would seem to indicate that the bisexual may really be inverts” (278). 16. See Hekma for a thorough history of the notion of “third-sexed” individuals. 17. Electricity in Modern Life by G. W. de Tunzelmann, published by Walter Scott company in England and distributed by Scribner’s in the United States. According to his biographer, Ellis sent this volume to his father to prove the sincerity of his commitment to the series; see Grosskurth for an account of this series (114–17). 18. To his credit, Ellis is attempting to argue against what he sees as a pitfall in thinking about gender in terms of resemblance—that a woman is an unde- veloped form of man. If woman is essentially different from man, she can be judged in her own right. Conceiving of the two sexes as idealized opposites means that “we shall always find the sexes compensatory,” and thus women and men are equally valued (Man 476). One of the problems with this logic, as I have argued, is that women’s “negative” role is consistently cast as inferior. 19. The Moravianism of its leader, Count Zinzendorf, emphasized the centrality of sexuality, which was considered a sacrament signifying a mystical marriage with God, and insisted upon the actual physicality, the literal incarnation, of Jesus and Mary, whose penis and uterus and breasts, respectively, were the topic of song and discussion during religious events (Atwood 26). 20. On hieros gamos and Ezra Pound, see Tryphonopoulos on The Cantos (142–48) and Oderman on “Terra Italica” (68–69). Surette briefly discusses the concept in relation to modernism more broadly (15–16, 216–17). Notes ● 169

21. See Porter and Hall for an account of the reception of this book (162–63). 22. As Susan Tuck has observed of Women in Love, “Lawrence uses electricity as a metaphor throughout the novel to describe sexual attraction” (14). Andrew Harrison has argued that Lawrence’s use of electricity in this novel is the result of his reading of Italian Futurist writing. Both Harrison and Tuck contend that relationships like Gudrun’s and Gerald’s, which are described in electrical terms, are destructive. If Lawrence is indeed using the metaphor to criticize this relationship, however, it does not appear to be the critique of heterosexuality that H.D. makes, as discussed below. 23. Alternately, Doherty argues that in Women in Love attraction and repulsion between Birkin and Ursula are guided by the law of gravity. 24. These passages are taken from an unpublished essay on modern literature in Loy’s papers at the Beinecke Library (f. 190). Unfortunately, only pages 8–14 of this manuscript survive. 25. Though the manifesto has never been published, Loy apparently spent a significant amount of time and effort preparing this text, producing a typescript of the manuscript, and then correcting it. References to the text cite the typescript version. 26. Andrew Gaedtke’s recent article on Insel argues that modernism’s interest in insanity is connected to its cultural anxieties over new technologies that were seen as transmitting thoughts between individuals helpless to prevent their transference. While my reading focuses specifically on how sexuality is encoded within the electromagnetic metaphor, Gaedtke’s analysis of the evolving and invasive doctor-patient relationship, “the influencing machine,” and the etiol- ogy of paranoia is similar to mine in that we both argue ultimately that Insel employs electromagnetic terminology to express early twentieth-century anxiety about technology’s intervention in the body. 27. In that the texts by H.D. I consider below are autobiographical novels, my asser- tion here is very much in line with the thesis of Georgia Johnston’s recent book, which contends that modernist autobiography is premised around “a critique of dominant sexual discourses” and that lesbian modernist autobiography, more specifically, aims to “rewrite early twentieth-century scientific assumptions about human sexuality and sexual identity” (1). Johnston’s chapter on H.D. does not address the same texts as I do; rather, she organizes her work around H.D.’s responses to Havelock Ellis and Sigmund Freud. 28. In this reading of the line “She was sexless,” I am at odds with the one offered by Friedman, who remarks that “Orgasm, which Natalie experiences through masturbation, is an onanistic, ‘sexless’ eroticism” (Penelope’s 274). Where Friedman reads “sexless” as meaning lacking eroticism, I read “sexless” as lacking gender. I would argue that when Natalia experiences the masturbatory episode, in the scene quoted above, her language is infused with eroticism; it is only in the retelling of the scene to her lover, who has disappointed her by ejaculating pre- maturely, that she recasts the scene as mechanistic. Here I align my reading with that of Hickman, who notes that “Natalia’s strongest fervor is achieved when she is alone, when David has left her, when she excites herself” (“Sparse” 343). 170 ● Notes

29. On electrocution in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century writing, see Armstrong. 30. H.D.’s unpublished works are found in the H.D. Papers at the Beinecke Library. As with the papers of Loy and Toomer, no attempt is made to correct errors. 31. My focus on John Helforth’s assessment of Natalia’s book in Nights diverges from the conventional one, which views the bifurcation of the book as an illustration of “the disintegration of identity into incompatible male and female parts in which the female is driven to suicide” (Friedman, Penelope’s 217). Critics tend to quote Helforth’s initial hesitations about Natalia’s text and ignore his praise; Hickman’s article is the sole exception (333). Hickman focuses on geometry rather than electricity. Likewise, Suzanne Young’s article on the novel does not focus on electricity, and she neglects the spiritualized facets of H.D.’s scientific language. 32. Herring’s first remark is in a letter dated January 13, [1931?]; his second, which refers to Kora and Ka and Mira Mare, is in a letter tentatively dated 1934. Moore’s comment is from a letter dated October 26, 1924 (210). Friedman notes that Helforth’s evaluation of Natalia’s work echoes reviews of H.D.’s writing (Penelope’s 271). 33. The reference to “clear-cut crystal” is from a line in a letter quoted in Guest (269); the reference to “pure crystalline” is from a letter to Bryher quoted in Friedman (Penelope’s 38).

3 Spirituality and the Moving Body

1. Boyle worked as a salesperson for Duncan’s shop, and her knowing participation in the fraud no doubt made her particularly sensitive to this point. Roatcap’s oddly laudatory biography of Duncan relates that many of the tapestries sold had been woven by starving Albanian women and children he employed “under the guise of helping the Albanian victims of the Turkish-Balkan War” (18). His plot was to sell the tapestries in London for a tremendous profit, the proceeds of which would fund an operation to produce bread more cheaply than relief agencies could, thus profiting twice off the poverty-stricken war refugees. 2. As Sorrel is suspected by some to be “Arab,” it is even possible that Boyle may have had Gurdjieff in mind as well as Duncan, for Gurdjieff was famously ambiguous about his Eastern origins (36). 3. This line from Duncan was taken from an interview with the New Yorker in 1959 (qtd. in Roatcap 41). 4. Historian James Miller explains, “Precisely when the dance was first regarded as an image of divine and social harmony we may never know, but according to Plato it was certainly regarded as such by the ancient Egyptians long before the Greeks invented the idea of the cosmos and resolved to prove the reality of cosmic order. . . . The association of ritual dancing with divine might and celestial motion is literally as old as the pyramids” (5–6). 5. See Chapter 15 of Eurhythmics, Art and Education. For a discussion of the racial politics of Dalcroze’s discussion of folk dance, see Golston (29–34). Elevating Notes ● 171

the “rhythmical and musical abilities of the ‘European races,’ ” over those of the “savage races,” Dalcroze “envisions a system of ethnically based eurhythmic training centers, where the members of each race can develop their own ‘natural’ rhythms” (Golston 33). 6. Demetres Tryphonopoulos has suggested to me that these terms from early psychological theory may be mapped to theosophist G. R. S. Mead’s “three levels of being,” which Tryphonopoulos describes in his book as “the purely physical or hylic or ‘gross’ body; the ‘spirituous body,’ the subtle soul-vehicle in its inferior aspect which envelops the hylic body; and the augoeides, the perfected subtle body” (171). On Mead’s conception of augoeides and Ezra Pound, see also Oderman (73). 7. This quotation recalls the Greek saying attributed to Thales, “A healthy mind in a healthy body.” I am indebted to Demetres Tryphonopoulos for this insight. Given the predilection of some physical culture enthusiasts for ancient Greece (noted in the discussion of Toomer below), and that Welch speaks about the Greek gymnasium as an ideal, it seems likely that his paraphrase is not coinci- dental (167). 8. Originating in an Episcopal church in Boston, the Emmanuel Movement was an early twentieth-century religious system of healing based in psychotherapy. 9. Dalcroze movements were widely known and practiced by a lay audience for a time in the modernist period. D. H. Lawrence’s Women in Love features eurhythmic exercises in a scene in which Gudrun asks if she might “do Dalcroze” while Ursula sings (231). The “pulsing and fluttering rhythm” of Gudrun’s feet, however, transmutes the simple exercises into a “frenz[ied],” hieratic, “rapt trance,” “a strange palpitating dance” (231, 233). See Kinkead-Weekes for a reading of this performance; he observes that this scene proves that “Lawrence has also some awareness of significant movements in Contemporary Dance” (68). 10. See Ruyter’s article “The Delsarte Heritage” for an extended discussion of which parts of the theory were contributed by each of the three figures associated with the system. Ruyter’s “The Intellectual World of Genevieve Stebbins” documents that in addition to her knowledge of Delsarte’s spiritually inflected system of movement, Stebbins was also well-versed in theories of physical culture and scientific literature on movement in the period. 11. See Spock’s Eurythmy for the most thorough explanations of how various sounds and rhythms, consonants and vowels, colors and tones are expressed eurythmically. 12. The first epigraph is taken from Dalcroze’s The Eurhythmics of Jaques-Dalcroze (32); the second from Steiner’s Mysticism at the Dawn of the Modern Age (115); and the third from Toomer’s pencilled note in the margins of page 4 of the typescript of his novel “The Angel Begori.” 13. This sentiment finds echoes in Waldo Frank’s Our America, which Toomer greatly admired but (because of his falling out with Frank) probably would not have cited at this point in this life. Frank finds Puritan asceticism devoid of real spiritual content: “[Puritan New England] denied life in its sweet tangents of desire, in order to have the power it desired” (150). 172 ● Notes

14. Cane’s narrator writes of his dances with Avey, “I had already noticed that love can start on a dance floor” (45). John, in “Theater,” does experience a kind of transcendence when he watches Dorris dance, but the episode is circumscribed by his erotic interest in her; as Janet Whyde contends, “while her body evokes the physical freedom of passion and desire, she remains a slave to John’s interpretation of her” (48). In “Box Seat,” Dan remembers Muriel dancing in sexual terms: “Her buttocks rocked. She pulled up her dress and showed her pink drawers” (67). In “Bona and Paul,” their dance “takes blood from their minds and packs it, tingling, in the torsos of their swaying bodies” (79). Toomer makes this connection between sexuality and dance in his own life when he refers to “those who once upon a time had said what a fine dancer and what a sweet lover I was” (qtd. in Somerville 142). 15. Interestingly, Walpole had included a similar dance scene culminating in a loss of ego in an earlier book, Maradick at Forty, in which the title character gets caught up in the town processional and suddenly feels that “he, as Maradick, did not exist”: “it had not been Maradick at all, or, at any rate, some strange, curious Maradick whose existence until to-night had never been expected” (52, 53). In Portrait, it is Maradick, appearing briefly at the opening of the novel, who recommends to Harkness participation in the village dance. 16. Passages from “Book X” are taken from the second typescript draft, unless otherwise indicated (f. 358–69). 17. See, for instance, Kerman and Eldridge (50), Byrd (7), Guterl (177–78), and Whalan (177–78). As Whalan points out, Bernarr Macfadden believed that masturbation caused emasculation (177). Matthew Guterl sums up this posi- tion: “An exhausting exercise regimen and a healthy diet, Toomer believed, would give him much-needed control over his body and his sexuality” (176). He argues further that Toomer’s interest in his body suggested homoeroticism (177–78), though the most provocative discussion of Toomer’s homoeroticism is in Somerville, Chapter 5. 18. Matthrew Guterl has termed Toomer’s love of military drilling a “fascination with the fascist aesthetics of physical culture” (172), and Michael Budd has pointed out that Mussolini was a “great admirer” of Bernarr Macfadden (125). Given Toomer’s sporadic but impassioned comments against the axis powers during the late 1930s and early 1940s, however, it would be very difficult to push this observation too far. I read this comment, rather, in terms of an intellectual, religious, and masculinist elitism Toomer consistently espouses throughout the 1930s as he formulates the notion of the “New American,” a topic for the next chapter. 19. See, for instance, “From Exile into Being,” “Incredible Journey,” and the “Gurdjieff Notes” in the Jean Toomer Papers at the Beinecke Library. 20. Both, for instance, associated particular movements and gestures with letters of the alphabet. Like Stebbins’s Delsartean system, parts of the human body and its gestures are mapped to mental or spiritual concepts. There are overlaps between Dalcroze and Gurdjieff as well, since Dalcroze-trained choreographer Jeanne von Salzmann was later part of Gurdjieff’s entourage, and one reviewer Notes ● 173

of a 1923 performance of the Gurdrjieff dancers alleged plagiarism of Dalcroze’s Eastern-inflected routines (Gordon 41). 21. About the machine metaphor, Guterl draws on an early essay by Toomer to assert that “[t]he erasure of the primitive, the vital, and the racially natural was not, however, necessarily a bad thing—not necessarily something to resist or fight against. In the end, the metaphors of mechanization, efficiency, and streamlining would, Toomer suggested, lay the groundwork for the emergence of ‘the new American.’ ” (181). Whalan, likewise, argues for Toomer’s embrace of the machine metaphor for the artist, who can transform and direct energy (186). These statements, to me, seem an incomplete reading in that Toomer’s use of the machine metaphor later in life often mirrors Gurdjieff’s. Both argue that while it may be a reality that human beings are automatonic, it is a reality to be challenged by elevation to a higher level of being, a more natural level in fact. See Toomer’s unpublished play “Man’s Home Companion” for a dis- tinctly dystopic view of a future in which machines are more fully integrated into human life even as humans have become more machinelike (Jean Toomer Papers; f. 934). 22. In his 1923 The Dance of Life, Havelock Ellis observes “All human work, under natural conditions, is a kind of dance. In a large and learned book, supported by an immense amount of evidence, Karl Bücher has argued that work differs from the dance, not in kind, but only in degree, since they are both essentially rhythmic” (58). It is interesting to note the shift in Toomer’s consciousness about work, from its representation as a kind of servitude inflicted on African American men in Cane to its role in spiritual development on Gurdjieff’s compound. 23. This passage from “Second River” is taken from the second typescript (f. 556). 24. Passages from “Psychologic” are taken from holograph notes (f. 755–63). 25. Passages from the “Psychologic Papers” are derived from the typescript version (f. 796–816). 26. It may also derive from Gerald Heard’s evolutionary philosophy, which Toomer read and admired and is discussed at more length in the next chapter. Heard remarks “Evolution is now conceived not as a straight line but as a spiral.” (18). Arguing that “all growth tends to be spiral,” Heard explains that it is “because so much of the energy for advance has . . . to be drawn from the violence of reaction” (7). So there is an oscillating or vibrational effect of the spiral form, which builds, contains, and expels energy. 27. The source of the first quotation is “Cassandra” (Collected 170); the second quotation is from Spock’s Eurythmy (6). 28. Hickman attributes to Vorticism H.D.’s resistance to what Hickman terms the “passivity of mystical epistemology” (Geometry 12). 29. Silverstein’s online chronology of H.D.’s life can be found at http://www.imagists.org/hd/hdchron.html. 30. See Golston, Chapters 3 and 4, for a fascinating discussion of W. B. Yeats’s belief in poetic rhythm’s ability to induce trance states that facilitate contact with the realm of the divine. According to Golston, Yeats believed that “[i]n 174 ● Notes

poetry, rhythm is the main drive of visionary experiences, which occur when the reader intuits the ghostly presence of archaic meters pulsing beneath the modern cadences of ‘everyday’ speech” (148). 31. The sole exception is the title poem, which has provoked some interest because of H.D.’s eroticizing of a younger black man. 32. In Collected Poems, Louis Martz argues that the poem was inspired by Annie Ahlers, who performed with the Vienna State Opera (and committed suicide) while H.D. was in analysis with Freud in that city (614n15); however, he later refutes this, identifying the source as Isadora Duncan’s “Roses from the South” (Many 90). Louis Silverstein’s online chronology of H.D.’s life (http://www. imagists.org/hd/hdchron.html) speculates that H.D. saw Duncan perform as early as 1907 and was aware of her connection to the Greeks. Susan Friedman links the poem to a 1930 essay by lay psychoanalyst Ella Freeman Sharpe, whose theory that a dancer transforms her body into a “magical phallus” played a part in H.D.’s sessions with Freud (Analyzing 121–22). Interestingly, in that essay Sharpe also talks about dance in terms of control: “Dancing is a magical control of the parents by becoming the father” (129). As Matthew Kibble suggests, Sharpe may have appealed to H.D. because of her “ ‘mystical’ tendencies” and her openness to alternative sexualities (52–53). 33. Though this poem is typically overlooked in favor of its companion poems, “The Master” and “The Poet” (dedicated to Freud and D. H. Lawrence, respectively), when it is discussed the theme of bisexuality or hermaphroditism has been noted. See, for instance, McCabe (Cinematic 150) and Zaccaria (68). 34. A precise description of the dance is not given. It may or may not have been the Greek dances popular in this period. As her medium, the Asian Indian Ben Manisi, has demonstrated for her an Indian dance earlier in the novel, a dance that is recalled later on, it may well be that she emulates it. Like the array of figures she enacts for Gareth in this scene, the characteristics of Manisi’s dance traverse the globe: she describes it as “an Indian dance sequence . . . almost- Egyptian postures . . . [like] ‘angular-like Norman sculpture.’ ” She even wonders if it has Aztec origins (70). 35. This quality of rhythm Paul Fussell attributes to Romanticist poetry: “meter operates by inducing in the reader a state resembling hypnosis” (5). 36. Delia comments that she has been “conditioned” to her role as “receiving sta- tion” “by her mystical visionary Moravian background and by her father’s scientific trend and devotion to abstract truth” (157). Helen Sword usefully draws on this passage to characterize biographically a tension between H.D.’s mother’s passive religion and her astronomer father’s active scientific pursuits (“H.D.’s Majic Ring” 358). 37. In a letter to Bryher dated March 25, 1933, during her first sessions with Freud, H.D. referred to this experience as “my dance and song turn in Corfu” (Friedman, Analyzing 149). One of the reasons H.D. sought analysis with Freud is to con- front writers’ block, and Freud read this vision as evidence that she wished to be an actress rather than a poet. This is, of course, shortly after the period in which H.D. starred in Macpherson’s films. The self-deprecating reference, I Notes ● 175

would argue, is very much in line with the ambivalence Delia expresses here as she struggles to determine the validity of the vision and to maintain a sense of control over her body. 38. This interpretation runs counter to Connor’s, who contends that what distin- guishes this experience from other visionary experiences that the two women share (recorded in Tribute to Freud) is that “[w]hile Gareth functions in ‘Majic Ring’ as (passive) ‘spectator,’ Delia enacts her visionary experience” (127). 39. The traditional model of séance demands balanced masculine and feminine, not male and female, energies. As I argue in chapter 2, this distinction is important. Many overstate the extent to which spiritualist experiences were heterosexual- ized. A lesbian relationship can operate within an active/passive dichotomy, so séances such as those described in H.D.’s 1940s novels (with Gareth supplying the masculine energy to Delia’s feminine force) are possible within that para- digm; as Sword notes, “H.D. had relied on her companion, Bryher, to provide the stable, logical, ‘masculine’ half of the visionary equation” (Engendering 168). Moreover, equating a woman’s body fluids to ectoplasm, which Connor cites (123), does not necessarily contain a heteronormative assumption. 40. Though we disagree on several points, Collecott’s article remains the best close reading of the Greek montages incorporating nudes. The Web site of the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University (http://www.library.yale. edu/beinecke/) has made available many of the images from the scrapbook. 41. See Budd, Chapter 2, for a discussion of the stage history of male and female statue posing, a precursor of Stebbins’s more spiritually inflected exercise. 42. Collecott compares the collaboration between Annie and Elizabeth Brigman that produced nudes shot in the California Sierras with H.D. and Bryher’s (174). She stresses similarities in the photographs’ creation, however, rather than what I see as key differences between the end products of the collaborations.

4 Negotiating the Racialized Body 1. This passage from “Second River” is taken from the carbon of the first typescript (f. 533). 2. In this chapter, the term race entails a broad definition. It is used as their contemporaries would have understood it, in much the way that the term ethnicity would be employed today. See Jacobson on the cultural construction of “whiteness,” and Sollors, Chapter 1, on the use of the two terms in the twentieth century. I do not, however, wish in any way to conflate the differences in lived experience between those of African and those of Jewish heritage in the early twentieth century or to imply, for instance, that Jews in America endured the same degree of disenfranchisement and threat of violence as did African Americans. What interests me in this chapter is how these two very different writers could find appealing such similar theories of spiritual evolution. 3. Though a few scientific eugenicists argued for crossbreeding exclusively among Northern European whites, very few advocated crossbreeding between what they considered to be widely divergent races. One exception is horticulturalist 176 ● Notes

Luther Burbank, who suggested that his knowledge of breeding vigorous hybrid plants could be applied to humans. Both DuPlessis and Frost address Loy’s admiration for the “mongrel” in ways complementary to my own approach. On Loy and evolutionary thought, see Frost for an illuminating reading of Loy’s mock-epic “Anglo-Mongrels and the Rose.” Frost notes of Loy’s rhetoric in her poem “Anglo-Mongrels and the Rose,” “If Loy endorsed any eugenical idea, it might have been ‘hybrid vigor’ ” (159). While Frost stresses aspects of Loy’s poetic language, I am looking at spiritual and philosophical aspects of her theories of hybridity, and in particular the ways in which turn-of-the-century notions of Jewish identity inform her evolutionary theories, as well as how these theories enabled an escape from ethnic identity. By reading beyond Loy’s published work, as I do, a fuller portrait of her evolutionary concerns emerges. Though her book does not discuss specifically Toomer’s work, Daylanne English notes that in addition to other Harlem Renaissance luminaries, “Jean Toomer, too, believed in hybrid vigor” (18). On Toomer and evolutionary thought, see, especially, Hawkins, whose work is discussed at more length below. While this notion of “hybrid vigor” intersects with those of postcolonial theo- rists in theorizing hybridity as exposing the artificiality of race, they diverge in their explanations of how this exposure occurs. Loy and Toomer focus on the biological splitting of consciousness within the multiethnic subject rooted in genetic racial memory, whereas, for instance, Bhabha, Chapter 6, argues that in the encounter between colonizer and colonized there is a splitting of both figures and a slippage of identity, self into other. For Loy and Toomer, no such encounter is necessary, as the entire process occurs within the psyche of the individual. 4. The poem cited is “America * A Miracle,” written in 1941 when the United States entered World War II, according to both Conover (Loy, Last 327) and Burke. More on the poem’s composition and dating and on Loy’s naturalization as a U.S. citizen is found in Burke (393–94, 400). 5. These quotations are taken from two unpublished essays, the first from “America and Problems,” the second from “The Americans.” 6. Here, I enter into a debate between Daylanne English and Diana Williams about Toomer’s racial politics. While Williams sees Toomer’s eugenicist vision of “hybrid vigor” highly repressive, English has argued that it is important to take into account Toomer’s absolute rejection of racial purity: (E)ugenics, regardless of the racial or class politics underlying it, must be seen in its historical context as a progressive ideology, one with the widely shared, utopian aim of improving the national or racial stock by conscious intervention. In fact, eugenicists like Toomer and [George] Schuyler who advocated racial mixture as a source of genetic superiority could, perhaps even more legitimately than could the racial purists, consider their version of eugenics truly progressive and truly Darwinian, for Darwin had noted in The Origin of Species “that a cross between very distinct individuals of the same species . . . gives vigour to the offspring.” (English 18) Notes ● 177

While I do view Toomer’s concept of the “New American” as problematic in its elitism, I also think English’s point is well-taken. As should be clear, it seems to me that Toomer’s (and Loy’s) elevation of the mixed race individual is at once regressive and transgressive. See Baldanzi for a discussion of how Toomer’s eugenical ideology creates negative consequences for his female characters. 7. On the latter reading, see Jaskoski, Feinstein, and Goody. On the former posi- tion, see Pozorski, who makes this argument by locating Loy within Futurist thought. Pozorski is right to point out Loy’s ambivalence about her Jewish lineage; however, her (and others’) argument for Loy as racist eugenicist hinges chiefly on one line of Loy’s “Feminist Manifesto,” which argues that “[e]very woman of superior intelligence should realize her race-responsibility by producing children in adequate proportion to the unfit or degenerate members of her sex” (Lost 155). Loy does not define “unfit” or “degenerate”; she stresses intelligence. If we read “race-responsibility” to mean responsibility to the human race—as it did for many spiritual evolutionists—then she is advocating a version of eugenics based not on ethnicity or race but on intelligence, a belief in concert with her early poems of the Lunar Baedecker, which celebrate the intellectually elite artistic vanguard of the period. At any rate, Pozorski surely runs the risk of oversimplifying the case when she asserts that Loy advocated a policy of eugenics that “promoted the destruction of her race” (46). 8. Most critics take this stance to varying degrees, and many scholars recount the critical history of this view of Toomer; see Hawkins and Harmon for more recent attempts to do so. The more moderate stance, held by Nellie McKay, Henry Louis Gates, Jr., and George Hutchinson, is that rather than embrace whiteness, Toomer refused to abandon it either. 9. As Jessica Berman notes, the early twentieth century is an era of vexed and often conflicting responses to the notion of community, for the threat of “totalitarian models of national community, whether in the form of nativism, anti-Semitism, immigration restriction, proto-fascism, or unmodified patriarchal dominance, looms large in the first three decades of the century” (3). It is Berman’s thesis that while modernists bore a healthy distrust of community, they also sought out figurations of community that were based not in “nationalism” but in the possibility of “transformation,” which operates at both the local and the “cosmopolitan” level (8–9). Thus, for Berman, “modernist fiction becomes immersed in the politics of connection,” a fairly radical statement given traditional narra- tives of isolationist modernism (27). 10. The first quotation is from a physician, Quackenbos (9), the second from a rev- erend, Dawson (119). 11. On the general differences between American and English eugenics, see Kevles. 12. See Surette for a discussion of “the overlap between theosophical and Nazi versions of the world and race history,” which he sees as “render[ing] the occult once more as sinister and dangerous”: “The Nazi adoption of a sense of history that had currency in occult circles—and virtually nowhere else—attached 178 ● Notes

itself to a reverence for the past that had much greater currency and far more presentable provenance” (77). 13. A requested search of archived church membership rolls at the Mary Baker Eddy Library in Boston did not yield a record for Loy, though, given her play with her name, she may have joined under a different moniker. On Loy’s commitment to Christian Science, which predated her 1914 entree into the literary world and lasted until her death in 1966, see Burke (117, 390). In its examination of Loy’s affiliation with Christian Science, my work runs counter to that of other Loy scholars who are wary of attributing too much significance to it, including Shreiber and Cook. 14. Beliefs about the figure of the “Cosmopolitan Jew” crossed the Atlantic, according to Hödl (23). 15. On the historical and philosophical overlap between Christian Science and psychology or psychoanalysis, see Cunningham, Appel, and Bednarowski. Cunningham claims that the emergence of psychoanalysis in the early part of the twentieth century is largely responsible for the decline in interest in Christian Science around the same time (905). 16. Eddy’s theology is fundamentally unitarian; the trinity is in actuality a “unity,” a “three-in-one,” and Jesus is very much a physical being of “bodily existence” who is born of a mortal woman and ceases to exist after his death (227, 229). However, Eddy f latly rejects Judaism, “the antithesis of Christianity,” as “a finite and material system” without “true knowledge of God” (27). She declares, “The Jews, who sought to kill this man of God, showed plainly that their material views were the parents of their wicked deeds” (210). 17. The most comprehensive account of Jewish Science is found in Umansky. See also Cunningham and Appel. 18. Eddy has been accused frequently and rightly of plagiarizing various philosophical and religious sources. For accounts of the plagiarism controversies, see Johnsen (3–22) and Swihart (314–21). 19. Christian Science inspired a number of offshoots and sub-sects in addition to Jewish Science. Because Eddy did not choose a successor, a schism occurred after her death, and several broke from the “Mother Church” to create their own Christian Science churches; for a significant time period in the early century, in the United States and abroad, “Christian Science” churches adhered to a wide range of practices and beliefs, many of which were not officially sanctioned. See Swihart. 20. Corrections to the typescript indicate a change from “the impossible” to “our impossible” and a double underlining of the definite article preceding “POSSIBLE.” 21. My argument is not that Loy read Bill but that they share a common interest in Eddy’s remarks on evolution; however, exposure to Bill is certainly possible. A savvy self-promoter who claimed to be rightful heir to Eddy, Bill was quite influential in Britain, and later in the United States and beyond, during the period in which Loy joined the sect, and she enjoyed the support of an influential American Jewish Science group; see Swihart (226–33, 112). Notes ● 179

22. In this passage, Bill may draw on Bergson’s Creative Evolution, which uses the metaphor of a river in a passage evoking the same tension between the individual and the communal consciousness. Bergson posits the gushing forth of creative evolution as constantly “subdividing itself into individuals,” who are simultaneously dispersed and contained by “the great river” of consciousness, which is thus always mediating the distance between individuality and col- lectivity (294). Bill echoes this tension again and again, in statements such as this: “General progress in the logical line of rhythmically unfolding discovery is obviously dependent upon balancing the individual and collective human interests of the evolving social organism” (Method 16). In a different context, Loy uses a similar metaphor to describe consciousness: “Our present reality is a phenomenal foam from a wave that breaking upon the shores of our consciousness makes maps for our intellectual location. . . . But this effervescent frill is sinking all out of shape as another diagram of froth is thrown off the ceaseless ocean” (“Goy Israels” 125). 23. Loy crosses out “electric” and writes “electronic” above it. The term “electronic” carries a technological association that “electric” may not, emphasizing the new- ness and the modernity of the coming evolutionary transition. 24. Here I cite the version of the poem in the Mina Loy Papers at the Beinecke Library (f. 90) rather than the version appearing in The Last Lunar Baedeker, because that printed version omits the last two lines. 25. Cook notes of Christian Science’s influence on Loy, “a thematics of the will and its relationship to spiritually heightened senses of being is a regular feature of Loy’s work, particularly the later work” (48). 26. See Swihart for a further discussion of the role of free will in Bill’s thinking (270–75). 27. It is possible that during her years in Florence with the Italian Futurists, Loy studied Bergson as well. On the Futurists’ debt to Bergson, see Kinmont (72–73). 28. Hegel is not, of course, the only source for Eddy, though she obviously drew upon his idealist writings. Given the modernists’ predilection for occultic philosophy, which, as Surette argues in his introduction, is essentially monist, and their interest in Bergson’s texts, it is perhaps not surprising to find a Hegelian system at work here. Altieri observes, “Hegelian ideas are basic to some of the spiritualisms that fascinated [modernists]. . . . [A] substantial body of modernist art makes compelling and still vital imaginative structures out of their interests in quasi-spiritual claims about latent dynamism that we find in thinkers ranging from Bergson to Eddington” (79). 29. On “the ‘indestructible type’ of the Jew” in the writings of another American author, Henry James, see Blair (491). 30. On the term “mongrel” in American political discourse, see Jacobson (178). 31. Loy met and sketched Freud, and he read a few of her stories; see Burke (312–13). 32. Loy, who anglicized her surname from the more overtly Jewish Lowy, credits Jews with the founding of civilization, ethics, and intellectualism, and expresses 180 ● Notes

deep concern over the presence of anti-Semitism in America (Mina Loy Papers, f. 189); however, her tendency to essentialize Jewish identity leads her at times in “Goy Israels” to less favorable and stereotypical notions of Jews (and other groups, like the British) as well, often in moments of frustration over what she saw as Jewish submission to British imperialism. Her efforts to escape the trap of biology, in her theories discussed in this chapter, might well be viewed in part as an anti-Semitic self-hatred; it may also offer some perspective on Loy’s obsession with beauty and aging. 33. See Bramen on “soft” and “hard” notions of heredity. Loy’s representation of herself as an amalgam of her parents points to an earlier belief in nineteenth- century “soft” notions of heredity, in which “[r]acial extremes . . . combine into a neutral third term, an average of the two parents” (205). Early twentieth- century eugenics saw a reemergence of Mendelian-inspired “hard” genetics theories of “assymetrical inheritance,” in which some traits of nonwhites could overcome white traits in subsequent generations. Sollors connects this to the idea of a “curse” on those of mixed ancestry; he cites Horace Kallen in 1906, who averred that in the descendents of the Jew and non-Jew “what is not Jewish dies out or is transmuted” (224). This logic, of course, accords with that of Madison Grant quoted above. 34. I am reminded by Goody, who argues that the poem is a “forthright statement of modernism as the rejection of the past,” that there are implications as well for Loy’s notion of modernist aesthetics (128). 35. There are at least eight different versions of this poem in the Mina Loy Papers at the Beinecke Library, but I have been unable to locate the one printed in The Last Lunar Baedeker (f. 80). I cite here what I conjecture to be one of the more finalized versions rather than the poem as it appears in that edition, which may be an earnest composite of several witnesses. Several of these drafts are dated 1945, attesting to the longevity of Loy’s interest in spiritual evolution and racial memory. See Armstrong for a discussion of how this poem may be a comic response to Bryher’s “If I am a needle on a disk” (115–16). 36. The epigraphs are taken from a letter dated April 19, 1923 (The Letters of Jean Toomer 160), a letter dated February 8, 1932 (Jean Toomer Papers f. 24), and Cane (85). 37. The comparison of men and women to manikins is also made in one of his better-known poems, “The Blue Meridian” (Collected 58). 38. Passages from “The Crock of Problems” are derived from the typescript (f. 634–35). 39. Rusch is the first to argue, rightly, that Walt Whitman is one of Toomer’s influ- ences in writing this poem: “In this poem, Toomer was able to bring together the prophetic universalism of Walt Whitman, the racial theories of Melville J. Herskovits, and his own feelings of cosmic unity to produce a strong and positive statement about his American identity” (42). According to many of his autobiographical texts, Toomer admired Whitman greatly and considered his first encounter with the poet to be revelatory. Notes ● 181

40. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., remarks, “Despite the remarkably extensive body of critical writings about Toomer and his works, neither Toomer nor his texts afford simple or straightforward readings” (200). He, nonetheless, goes on to attempt such a “straightforward reading” of Toomer, as attempting, after 1930, to “efface his mask of blackness” (202). Likewise, Ronald Dorris contends that “[o]ne is hard pressed to find in these later autobiographical writings consistency in treating race as a contributing element to his own growth” (iv). I would argue that this lack of “consistency” can be traced throughout his career and his oeuvre, and not just within the various autobiographical texts Toomer produced in the 1930s and 1940s. 41. Passages from this autobiographical essay are taken from the typescript version (f. 513). 42. See Byrd for extensive quotations from Toomer on race in the period around the publication of Cane (55–60), and see McKay for another selection of quotations from the period after Cane’s publication (198–200). 43. Though they agree that a major shift in his thinking about race occurred, scholars offer different dates and circumstances to account for it. In “Jean Toomer: Fugitive,” for instance, Charles Scruggs suggests this occurred in the early 1920s when Toomer read Romain Rolland and met Waldo Frank. Because Toomer denied permission to James Weldon Johnson in 1930 to reprint poetry from Cane, Ronald Dorris and Henry Louis Gates, Jr., date the shift at this point. An argument could be made for 1934, when Toomer stopped writing “On Being an American,” his last work that explicitly addresses race, but I would argue that race never stops being a topic of concern for Toomer. 44. The letter to the Committee for the Release of Jacques Roumain is dated 1935–36; the letter to Langston Hughes is dated 1933; the letter about the AFSC Race Relations Committee is dated July 1, 1951; and the letter to the DC Vital Records department is dated June 13, 1941. Charles Larson speculates that Toomer was forced to pass as white because the Quaker congregation in Doylestown did not extend membership to African Americans (156). If this is true, his request for his parents’ records may be related to this problem, though his admission of his mixed heritage to the Quaker’s Race Relations Committee in 1951 suggests either that Larson is mistaken or that their membership poli- cies had been reformed by the early 1950s. 45. The letter to Beardsley is dated November 1, 1930; the letter to La Follette is dated September 22, 1930; the letter to Johnson, often cited in the scholarship on Toomer, is dated July 11, 1930; and the letter to the NYPL is dated April 18, 1931. 46. On the first point, see Hawkins: “For Toomer, blood mixture, not purity, was the crucial reality of all races” (156). 47. Toomer’s scientific sources on notions of racial mixing include Franz Boas, Alex Hrdlicka, and Melville Herskovits. See Farebrother for a discussion of these sources in relation to Cane, and see Lindberg on Herskovits and Toomer in the post-Cane era. Both document the shifting terrain of racial theory among scientists of the modernist period. Whalan addresses Toomer and anthropology as well. 182 ● Notes

48. The typescript for “Incredible Journey” is incomplete, so passages from this text are taken from the holograph notes (f. 483–506). 49. Here I offer Toomer’s original line of the poem; The Collected Poems of Jean Toomer erroneously prints, “For those that are color blind.” Toomer is commenting that those who are not blind to color—that is, those who see people in terms of color—are blind to the true identities of people. In this poem, color, interestingly, is not just a characteristic of those of African or Asian heritage but everyone. In an undated essay entitled “The Possibilities of Human Growth,” he specifically interrogates whiteness as a category: “The man who is a white man and nothing more, and is bound around by his whiteness, is a small man. . . . Whiteness, in so far as it is a subject of pride and prejudice, is a limitation, a liability not an asset, a factor of arrestation that impedes growth.” 50. Toomer’s consistent misspelling of “blend” and its derivations in this essay and in “The Americans” may suggest his (or his typist’s) unconscious at work, mixing up consonants in a word denoting the mixing of races. A similar argument might be made about the misspelled “loose” for “lose” in his early letters and in “America and Problems,” a possible indication of anxiety over the loosened nature of that which might be lost. I am indebted to Rachel Blau DuPlessis for these astute observations; see her book for her call for a return to a close reading based in “social philology,” which claims that social materials (both specific and general politics, attitudes, sub- jectivities, ideologies, discourses, debates) are activated and situated within the deepest texture of, the sharpest specificities of, the poetic text: on the level of word choice, crypt word, impacted etymologies, semantivity and line break, the stanza, the image, diction, sound, genre, the ‘events’ and speakers selected inside the work (enounced), and the rhetorical tactics of the thing on the page (enunciation). All the materials of the signifier are susceptible of a topical/topographic reading in a social philology. (12) 51. This is yet another source of contradictory thought in Toomer, but because I want to focus my discussion on notions of heredity it is outside the scope of the book to account for Toomer’s anger at America’s materialism and spiritual steril- ity. In some of his harshest criticism of the United States, Toomer complains in “America and Problems” that “[e]nclosed in an island psychology, given to pro- vincialism and to a sort of naive national egotism, Americans still often think that outside of the United States nothing of any consequence is happening, or will ever happen unless America takes the initiative.” He adds that “America began as a predatory nation and it has remained faithful to its origins” and that “[l]ife in America is void of real meaning.” Toomer’s unpublished drama “The Gallonwerps” is a biting satire on America’s materialism (Jean Toomer Papers, f. 920–33). In his poem “It Used To Be,” Toomer apostrophizes, “America, that you grow in us the need / To love and build; that you / grow the wish to scrap / What love has built” (Jean Toomer Papers, f. 1279). These criticisms appear in “The Blue Meridian,” as Toomer confronts the symbol of America, the eagle (“a sublime and bloody bird”) in all of its contradictions: “Its spread from tip Notes ● 183

to tip denotes extremes / Of affirming and denying, / Creating, destroying –” (Complete 56). 52. Toomer, who suffered from various stomach ailments during most of his adulthood, is fairly obsessed (as was Gurdjieff) with the processes of digestion throughout his writings of the 1930s and 1940s. Metaphors for digestion appear throughout his unpublished writings. 53. The press release can be found in the Jean Toomer Papers (f. 343). The letter to Johnson is dated July 11, 1930; the letter to Cunard is dated February 8, 1932; and the letter to Godo Remszhardt is dated August 23, 1930. 54. This letter is dated August 4, 1944. Toomer is commenting on the threat of racial violence and rioting in Philadelphia, arguing that if people saw themselves as what they are, “universal” men, they would cease to fight over racial matters. 55. In the phrase “A race called the Americans –” I cite an alternate, unpublished version of the poem; The Collected Poems of Jean Toomer prints “Called Americans.” 56. The first sentence of this passage had also appeared in a letter to John McClure of the Double Dealer dated June 30, 1922 (Letters 40). 57. While the satirized character Mary Carson in Toomer’s 1922 drama certainly espouses something that sounds like Christian Science, one of the members of the literary salon depicted laments specifically that he is married to a Christian Scientist. Natalie Mann seems particularly troubled with the impact of the sect on the African American community. In his 1927 drama The Sacred Factory, the main character refers disparagingly to “all of the numerous cults, new and old . . . Theosophy, Christian Science . . . Suffragism” as unhealthy outlets for women dissatisfied in their marriage (Wayward 354). In a 1933 lecture typescript, Toomer accuses Christian Scientists of being driven by financial interests: “Christian Scientists, for instance, tend to be ‘hot on the dollar’ while they pursue their religious ideas” (“How We Can” 7). In “America and Problems,” he refers to “pseudo-Christian Science.” 58. Byrd argues, in effect, that Gurdjieff is responsible for Toomer’s turning away from the theme of race in his creative works (94). As I will argue below, my own view is that while Gurdjieff did not appear to recognize racial difference as consequential in the development of higher consciousness, his theory of development is reliant upon principles that Toomer found tremendously productive in thinking through racial matters. In other words, Toomer is not attracted to Gurdjieff simply because “[a]ccording to Gurdjieff, man’s problems were not external but internal” (Byrd 94) but because the Gurdjieffian practices of self- observation and nonidentification were instrumental to Toomer’s attempts to retheorize the racialized body. 59. By his own account, as Stephanie Hawkins (most recently) and others have noted, his exposure to evolutionary theory in his college years caused him to suffer a breakdown, or, in Hawkins’ words, “an internal crisis of monumental proportions” (154). In “Book X,” Toomer writes of the three-day breakdown 184 ● Notes

that ensued from exposure to this knowledge: “the ideas of evolution upset my ideas of divine descent. . . . [A] horde of monkeys were let loose to trample down my angel-ancestors—until I, a son of the Son of man, was deflated, collapsed, and left in ruins” (217). Noteworthy here is that the downfall is brought on at once by both the biological and the religious ramifications of this new knowledge. Hawkins cites the following passage from his short autobiography “On Being an American” and notes his alarming use of a lynching metaphor, which “yokes the hereditarian discourse of evolution to the lynch mob” : “Readings of Darwin and Haeckel, the evolutionists, the materialists, and the atheists, stripped me of all religious belief; and, though my mind was greatly stimulated, my emotions were such that for a time I felt as if the bottom of the world had dropped from under, leaving me dangling like a man being hung” (“On Being” 29; Hawkins 154). 60. This letter, to Professor J. B. Rhine, is dated February 6, 1939. 61. This statement is repeated often in other writings. For instance, in an undated essay entitled “Human Beings,” he writes, “we are beings at the stage of cosmic evolution called human.” And in an autobiographical text of the early 1940s, “Second River,” Toomer remarks that “we are human beings, beings at the human stage of cosmic evolution.” 62. This passage from “Book X” is taken from a partial variant version of Chapter 1 (f. 370). 63. Notes on Lamarckian theory can be found with the papers entitled “As the World Revolves.” See Hawkins for a discussion of Lamarck’s influence on Toomer’s thought in the context of his poem “The Blue Meridian” (155). Matthew Guterl notes the importance of Lamarckian theory when he argues that “Toomer’s celebration of the various ‘bloods’ and ‘stocks’ that coursed through his veins and enabled his own excessively embodied American citizenship owed more to the classical Victorian science to heredity, especially neo-Lamarckianism, than to the postwar allegiance to Mendel” (167). He observes further that Toomer appreciated that Lamarckian theory hypothesizes “progress toward an ideal” (167). 64. This letter, dated May 19, 1944, is found in f. 233 with other letters seeking speaking engagements and scheduling talks. 65. Passages from “Co-opposition” are taken from the typescript version (f, 629). 66. This letter to Richard Walsh is dated June 20, 1939, and proposes three books, Mankind Is One being the first. 67. This passage from “Second River” is taken from the carbon of the first typescript (f. 533). 68. Free will is extraordinarily difficult to achieve in this Gurdjieffian formulation, and while America may be the site of the most rapid evolutionary change, it is also, to Toomer’s mind, particularly defined by a need to control oneself— “The fear of partially loosing [sic] control of oneself is proportionally strong”— and others, including those of other races and religions—“This fear . . . finds extension in the individual’s attitude towards men in general” (“America and Problems”). Just as evolution works against itself by producing a heightened Notes ● 185

sense of individualism, it creates its own obstacles to self-control as it facilitates the acquisition of greater individual freedom. As Hawkins points out, though, it is just this Darwinian struggle that enables evolution to propel itself forward (158–60). 69. This passage from “Second River” is taken from the second typescript (f. 548). 70. Though he does not cite this particular passage, Mark Whalan productively links this view of the body to Toomer’s obsession with the physical culture movement: “In his view, the body’s materiality was largely contingent upon the discursive frameworks within which it was produced; it was material capable of being changed—and changing in return the very nature of individual subjectivity of which it formed a part” (181). A body without form is one that is radically malleable. 71. See, for instance, “From Exile into Being,” “Earth-Being,” “The Book of Aims,” and “Psychologic Papers.” 72. About idealism and dualism, Robert Jones traces two movements within Toomer’s post-Cane career, though he focuses chiefly on his aesthetic and not his conception of the body. One of the only scholars to treat Toomer’s involvement in Quakerism, Jones cogently argues that during the Gurdjieff years, Toomer embraces idealism, but that Quakerism preserves a dualistic notion of existence. He contends that Toomer is “perpetually searching for new forms of idealism to harmonize his frag- mented personality” (133). Clearly, I agree with Jones that Toomer struggles with idealist notions of reality, and he is no doubt correct that the differences between these two belief systems influence Toomer greatly. I do not, however, find such a seamless narrative viable, and I would argue as well that the middle period of Toomer’s writings on “psychologic” deserve attention of their own in this regard. I am also not necessarily in accord with Jones’ conclusion that “[f]or Toomer, who had come to believe that the self was God, Quakerism meant alienation from God” (125). Rather, I find in Toomer a dualism in which the physical body is alienated from the true self, which is merged with God. 73. This passage from “Second River” is taken from the second typescript (f. 554).

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Adorno, Theodor, 24 Atwood, Craig D., 168n19 Africa, 49, 82 Augustine, Jane, ix, 19–20 African Americans, 114–5, 137, 139, 173n22, 175n2, 181n44, 183n57 Babbitt, E. D., 7, 31–2, 73 see also eugenics; race; Toomer, Jean Baker, Brownell, 114–15 Ahlers, Annie, 174n32 Baldanzi, Jessica Hays, 177n6 Albright, Daniel, 14, 57–8, 165n18 Bales, Charles Ransom, 77 Aldington, Richard, 14 Balsillie, David, 10 work of: “The Art of Poetry,” 64 Banner of Light, The, 40, 43 Alexander, F. Matthias, 90 Barnes, Djuna Alexander, Samuel, 5, 163n7 work of: Ladies Almanack, 57 Altieri, Charles, 179n28 Barnett, Claude A., 134, 138 American Indians, 19, 97–8, 103, 144 Barney, Natalie, 57 “American race,” 28–9, 97, 113, 120–1, Basham, Diana, 45, 65–6 133–4, 137–9 passim, 140–5, 147, Baudelaire, Charles, 185n1 172n18, 173n21, 177n6, 183n55, Beardsley, Josephine, 138, 181n45 184n63 Bednarowski, Mary Farrell, 124, 178n15 Anderson, Adrian, 81 Beers, Eli, 77 Anderson, Sherwood, 137 Bell, Alexander Graham, 167n4 anthroposophy, see Steiner, Rudolf Bell, Robert, 10 anti-Semitism, 112, 123, 126, 129, Benjamin, Park, 35–6, 37, 54, 167n6 137, 165n18, 177n9, 178n16, Benz, Ernst, 35, 37–38, 39 180n32 Bergson, Henri, 112, 122–7 passim, Appel, John J., 123, 178nn15,17 132, 179nn22,27,28 Armstrong, Tim, 16, 32, 166n26, Berman, Jessica, 177n9 170n29, 180n35 Bhabha, Homi, 176n3 Arnold, Elizabeth, 59 Bierce, Ambrose, 35 Artaud, Antonin, 82 Bill, Annie C., 8, 123, 125–7, 178n21, Ashburner, John, 40 179nn22,26 Athenaeum, 3, 10, 11, 164n13 Blair, Sara, 179n29 Atlantic Monthly, The, 129 Blast, 17 208 ● Index

Blavatsky, H. P., 6, 119 Campbell, Bruce F., 120 and electricity, 36, 167n7 Campbell, John Bunyan, 7, 74 influence of, 9, 14, 19–20, 121, Carpenter, Edward, 50, 51, 52, 53 165n24 Carroll, Michael Thomas, 167n4 and sexuality, 51 Cavling, Viggo, 118, 119, 120, 121 and theories of evolution and race, Charm, 165n23 117, 120, 121 Chesterton, G. K., 10 see also theosophy Cheyette, Bryan, 128, 129 Blundell, John W. F., 74, 75 Childs, Donald J., 3, 163n3 Boas, Franz, 181n47 Christian Science Boodin, John Elof, 127 and idealism, 75, 124, 127, 131, Bowler, Peter J., 116 132, 145 Boyle, Kay, 68, 69, 70, 170nn1,2 and Jews, 123, 126, 178n21 works of: Being Geniuses Together and Loy, Mina, 19, 20, 29, 34, 112, 1920–1930, 68; My Next Bride, 122–7 passim, 131, 132, 145, 67–9, 70, 170n2 178n13, 179nn21,25 Bradbury, Malcolm, 25 and “new” physics, 8, 123, 124 Bradford, Edgar Greenleaf, 46 and psychology, 123, 178n15 Bramen, Carrie Tirado, 180n33 and schism, 178nn19,21 Brancusi, Constantin, 9 and spiritualism, 34 Brandon, Ruth, 167n11 and theories of evolution and race, Braude, Ann, 44, 45 20, 122, 125–7, 131, 132, 145 Brigman, Annie, 108, 175n42 and Toomer, Jean, 145, 183n57 Britain, Rev. S. B., 43 see also Bill, Annie C.; Eddy, Mary British Spiritual Telegraph, The, 40 Baker; Jewish Science Britten, Mrs. Emma Hardinge, 43, 44 Christianity, 6, 19, 20, 23, 37, 42, 43, Brown, J. F., 82–3 52–3, 85, 88, 130, 178n16 Brunn, Emilie Zum, 52 see also Moravianism; mysticism; Bryher (Winifred Ellerman), 102, Quakerism 108–9, 165n23, 170n33, 174n37, Clarke, Bruce, 12, 163n5, 165n20 175nn39,42 Collecott, Diana, 175nn40,42 work of: The Heart to Artemis, 3, 25; Collins, Mabel, 19 “If I am a needle on a disk,” 180n35 Conger, George Perrigo, 4 Bücher, Karl, 173n22 Conklin, Edwin Grant, 116 Bucke, Richard Maurice, 112, 117, 120 Connor, Rachel, 44, 98, 106, 107, Budd, Michael Anton, 16–17, 69–70, 175nn38,39 87, 172n18, 175n41 Conover, Roger L., 59, 176n4 Buranelli, Vincent, 41 Cook, Richard, 124, 178n13, 179n25 Burbank, Luther, 176n3 Coolidge, Calvin, 115 Burke, Carolyn, 34, 123, 130, 131, “Cosmopolitan Jew,” 29, 122, 129–30, 176n4, 178n13, 179n31 131, 133, 178n14, 179n29 Burr, E. F., 6 Cottom, Daniel, 14, 160, Butler, George F., 76 163n10, 185n2 Byrd, Rudolph P., 155, 172n17, 181n42, Cotton, Edward H., 3, 5 183n58 Crabtree, Adam, 41–2, 52–3, 167n9 Index ● 209

Crowley, Aleister, 6, 80, 82–3 Duncan, Raymond, 67–9, 72, 78, 80, Crunden, Robert M., 9, 14, 163n9 99, 170nn1,2,3 Cullen, Countee, 138 DuPlessis, Rachel Blau, ix, 122, 128, Cummins, Geraldine, 185n2 166n30, 176n3, 182n50 Cunard, Nancy, 11, 134, 142, 183n53 Cunningham, R. J., 178nn15,17 Eddy, Mary Baker, 34, 122–7 passim, Curie, Marie, 1, 2, 3, 20, 22, 122 178nn16,18,19,21, 179n28 Curtis, Heber, 4 see also Christian Science Curtiss, F. Homer, 19–20, 165n24 Egoist, The, 11 Curtiss, Harriette Augusta, 19–20, Egypt, ancient, 19, 36, 62, 170n4, 165n24 174n34 Einstein, Albert Dalcroze, see Jaques-Dalcroze, Émile reception of, 13–14, 165n18 Daly, Ann, 71, 99, 103, 108 theories of, 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 13, 17, dance, 28, 67–73 passim, 77, 78–85, 22, 26, 34, 35, 46, 47, 69, 80, 98 88–92 passim, 96–109 passim, writings of, 4, 9, 154, 163n10 144, 161, 164n16, 170nn4,5, Eldridge, Richard, 172n17 171n9, 172nn14,15,20, 173n22, electricity, see electromagnetism 174nn32,34,37 electrocution, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34, 60, Danius, Sara, 13, 16, 164n16 62, 64, 105, 170n29 Darwin, Charles, 2, 26, 115, 116, electromagnetism, 31–66 passim 120–8 passim, 146, 147, 149, and H.D., 27–8, 33, 34, 35, 55, 56, 163n2, 176n6, 184n59, 185n68 57, 61–6, 70, 109, 170n31 Davenport, Charles, 128, 130 history of, 3, 13, 31–4, 35–54 Dawbarn, Charles, 47 passim, 73, 74, 166n3, Dawson, Marshall, 7, 114, 117, 177n10 167nn4,6,7,8, 168n17 de Tunzelmann, G. W., 46, 168n17 and Lawrence, D. H., 55–6, Dearmer, Percy, 75, 76 169nn22,23 Delauney, Robert, 9 and Loy, Mina, 27, 33, 34, 35, Delsarte, François, 69, 79–80, 84, 99, 56–61, 125, 161, 169n26, 179n23 108, 171n10, 172n20 and Mesmerism, 39–42, 65, 168n12 Derr, Ezra Z. (Arze Z. Rred), 116 as metaphor, 2, 8, 12, 32, 33, Dewey, John, 90 44–5, 55–66 passim, 109, 166n1, Dinsmore, Charles Allen, 5–6 169n22 Divisch, Procopius, 37 and sexuality, 2, 27–8, 34–5, 37–8, Dixon, Joy, 50–1 41–2, 44, 47–66 passim, 167n4, Dods, John Bovee, 34 169n26 Doherty, Gerald, 169n23 and spiritualism, 34, 39, 40, 42–6, Donat, Joseph, 6 52, 55, 57, 60–1, 63, 64, 65, 70, Dorchester, Frank E., 8, 73, 76 166n2, 168nn12,13 Dorris, Ronald, 181nn40,43 and spirituality, 2, 17, 51–3, 167n7 Double Dealer, The, 139, 145, 183n56 and Toomer, Jean, 21, 25 Dowse, Thomas Stretch, 74 see also electrocution Duncan, Isadora, 68, 80, 99, 102, 105, Eliot, T. S., 14, 97, 104, 163n8, 165n18 106, 108–9, 174n32 Ellerman, Winifred, see Bryher 210 ● Index

Ellis, Havelock, 9, 11, 47–8, 49–50, Ford, Ford Madox (Ford Madox 51, 53, 54–5, 63, 65, 73, Hueffer), 11, 20 168nn15,17,18, 169n27, 173n22 Fortnightly Review, The, 3, 5, 10, 11, Emmanuel Movement, 78, 171n8 32, 164n13 English, Daylanne K., 114, 116, Foster, Hal, 165n22 176nn3,6 Foucault, Michel, 38, 39, 159, 185n1 English Review, The, 3, 10, 11 Frank, Waldo, 137, 138, 154, 171n13, Epiney-Burgard, Georgette, 52 181n43 ether, 4, 5, 17, 32–3, 39, 40, 46, 47, 53, work of: Our America, 171n13 58, 62, 65, 77, 82, 163n6, 166n3 Franklin, Benjamin, 39, 44 eugenics, 2, 3, 11, 28–9, 49, 87, Franko, Mark, 99, 104, 108–9 112–16, 127–34 passim, 136, Frazier, James, 11 139, 147, 163n3, 175n3, 176n6, Freeman, R. Austin, 115, 128 177nn7,11, 180n33 Freud, Sigmund, 37, 49, 130, 167n5, eukinetics, see Laban, Rudolf von 169n27, 174nn32,33,37, 179n31 eurhythmics, see Jaques-Dalcroze, Friedman, Susan Stanford, 34, 166n30, Émile 167n5, 169n28, 170nn31,32,33, Euripides 174nn32,37 work of: Bacchae, The, 100 Frost, Elisabeth A., 176n3 eurythmy, see Steiner, Rudolf; Spock, Fuller, Margaret, 65–6 Marjorie Fussell, Paul, 174n35 evolution, 2, 3, 4, 6, 11, 17, 20, Futurism, Italian, 17, 34, 124, 126, 23, 28–9, 58, 88, 90, 95, 166n26, 169n22, 177n7, 179n27 111–57 passim, 173n26, see also Marinetti, F. T.; Papini, 175n2, 176n3, 177n7, 178n21, Giovanni 179nn22,23, 180n35, 183n59, 184nn61,68 Gaedtke, Andrew, 169n26 see also Darwin, Charles; Haeckel, Galton, Francis, 3, 115, 129, 163n3 Ernst; Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste; Gardner, John F., 76, 80 Spencer, Herbert Garelick, Rhonda K., 32 Gates, Henry Louis, Jr., 140, 177n8, Fairfield, F. F., 121 181nn40,43 Faivre, Antoine, 9, 163n8 Gauguin, Paul, 9 Farebrother, Rachel, 181n47 Gauld, Alan, 40 Faulkner, William, 131 Geley, Gustave, 116 Fear, Ralph Gordon, 74, 119, 120 Gilbert, William, 36, 48, 49 Feinstein, Amy, 177n7 Gillespie, Neal C., 163n2 Felski, Rita, 24 Gilman, Sander, 129 Ferrer, Daniel, 26 Gilmore, Paul, 166n1 film, 13, 22, 66, 109, 174n37 Gold, Roberta S., 128 Fitch, Michael Hendrick, 74 Golston, Michael, 12, 15, 32, 170n5, Flammarion, Camille 173n30 work of: Death and Its Mystery, 99; Goody, Alex, 177n7, 180n34 Lumen, 20, 98–9, 165n25 Gordon, Mel, 88 Flower, Sydney B., 72, 76–7 Gour, Andrew A., 86 Index ● 211

Grant, Madison, 87, 115, 180n33 Hawkins, Stephanie L., 146–7, 176n3, Greece, ancient 177n8, 181n46, 183n59, 184n63, and art, 80, 99, 108 185n68 and dance, 85, 99, 100–1, 105, Hawthorne, Nathaniel 170n4 work of: “The Birth-mark,” 31 and Duncan, Isadora, 99, 174n32 Hazelgrove, Jenny, 168n11 and electromagnetism, 36, 37, 54, H.D. (Hilda Doolittle), 1, 2, 160, 161, 167nn6,7 170n30 and H.D., 99, 100–1, 105, 108, 161, and dance, 28, 70–1, 85, 97–109, 174nn32,34, 175n40 174n32,37 and mythology/religion, 19, 85, 98, and electromagnetism, 27–8, 33, 100–1, 103 34, 35, 55, 56, 57, 61–6, 70, 109, and physical culture, 100, 171n7 170n31 and sexuality, 48 life and career of, 14, 18, 19, 20, Green, Arthur Jay, 7, 76, 77–8, 22, 26, 66, 108–9, 165n23, 118–19, 120 173nn28,29, 174nn32,36,37, Grierson, Francis, 164n12 175n42 Grosskurth, Phyllis, 168n17 and mystical/astral experience, 28, Guest, Barbara, 170n33 71, 98, 103–8 passim Gurdjieff, Georges, and religion, 19–20, 28, 51, 57, 75, influence of, 6, 11, 170n2 98, 165nn24,25, 167n5 theories of, 19, 20, 28–9, 69, 70–1, and science, 9, 22, 57, 98, 164n14, 81, 84, 85, 88–90, 93, 94, 99, 166n30 112, 134–5, 136, 146, 152–3, and sexuality, 27–8, 34–5, 51, 52, 154, 156, 172n20, 173n21, 55, 56, 57, 61–6, 104–5, 106–7, 183n58, 184n68 169nn22,27,28, 174nn32,33, and Toomer, Jean, 14, 18, 19, 175n39 28–9, 70–1, 78, 85, 88–94 and spiritualism, 19, 20, 27, 28, passim, 96, 112, 135–6, 146, 33, 34, 44, 57, 63, 64, 65, 70–1, 147, 150, 152–7 passim, 97–8, 102–7, 165n25, 166n30, 173nn21,22, 183nn52,58, 167n5, 175n39 184n68, 185n72 works of: “Cassandra,” 97, 173n27; Guterl, Matthew Pratt, 87, 172nn17,18, “Choros Sequence,” 101; “Choros 173n21, 184n63 Translations,” 100–1; “The Gutting, Gary, 38 Dancer,” 102, 107, 174n33; gymnastics, see physical culture “H.D. by Delia Alton,” 44, 99; “The H.D. Scrapbook,” 108–9, Haeckel, Ernst, 146, 147, 184n59 175n40, 175n42; Helen in Egypt, Hall, Lesley, 49, 169n21 20; Kora and Ka, 170n32; Majic Hall, Manly Palmer, 121 Ring, 22, 28, 70–1, 94, 97–8, 101, Hall, Radclyffe 102–7, 108, 109, 174n34, 174n36, work of: The Well of Loneliness, 50 174n37, 175n38; “The Master,” Harmon, Charles, 177n8 174n33; Mira Mare, 170n32; “The Harrison, Andrew, 169n22 Mysteries,” 101; Nights, 61–2, Hauser, Renate, 49 63–5, 104–5, 106, 161, 212 ● Index

H.D. (Hilda Doolittle)—Continued idealism, 169n28, 170n31, 170n32; Notes and Duncan, Isadora, 99 on Thought and Vision, 26, 52, 57, and evolution, 118, 119 65, 70; Paint It To-day, 61, 62–3, and Gurdjieff, Georges, 29 65; Palimpsest, 22; “The Poet,” and Loy, Mina, 29, 112, 113, 122, 174n33; “Pursuit,” v; “R.A.F.,” 1, 124, 155 163n1; Red Roses for Bronze, 101, and modernism, 113–14, 179n28 174n31; “Responsibilities,” 23; and Toomer, Jean, 29, 112, 113, Sea Garden, 2, 100; “The Shrine,” 155, 185n72 xv, 2; The Sword Went Out to Imagism, 11, 12, 18, 64, 66, 101, Sea, (Synthesis of a Dream), by 109, 164n14 Delia Alton, 98, 107–8, 165n25; immigration, 114–15, 128, 129, 159, 177n9 “Trance,” 102–3; Tribute to Freud, 175n38; Trilog y, cover, 20, Jacobson, Matthew Frye, 115, 128–9, 97, 104 175n2, 179n30 Hrdlicka, Alex, 181n47 Jaques-Dalcroze, Émile, 32, 69, 73, Heard, Gerald, 8, 74, 95, 112, 117, 118, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 99, 170n5, 146–7, 150–1, 173n26 171nn9,12, 172n20 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 24, James, Henry, 179n29 124, 127, 179n28 Jaskoski, Helen, 177n7 Heilbron, J. L., 38, 39, 167n8 Jeans, James, 9 Heindel, Max, 6 Jews, 49, 115, 123, 126, 128–9, 131, Heiniger, Rev. Dr. Johannes, 7, 74, 75 138, 165n18, 175n2, 176n3, Hekma, Gert, 168n16 178n16, 180n33 Herdt, Gilbert, 48 see also “Cosmopolitan Jew”; Jewish Herring, Robert, 65, 170n32 Science; Judaism; Loy, Mina Herrmann, Anne, 25 Jewish Science, 123, 124, 125, Herskovits, Melville J., 180n39, 178nn17,19,21 181n47 Johnsen, Thomas C., 178n18 Hertz, Heinrich, 46 Johnson, James Weldon, 138, 142, Hickman, Miranda B., ix, 164n14, 181nn43,45, 183n53 166n30, 169n28, 170n31, 173n28 Johnson, Mark, 103 Hinton, C. Howard, 6 Johnston, Devon, 160 Hirsch, Nathaniel D. Mittron, 130 Johnston, Donald Kent, 78 Hirschfeld, Magnus, 50 Johnston, Georgia, 169n27 Hobhouse, L. T., 4 Jones, Harry L., 97 Hödl, Klaus, 128, 129, 178n14 Jones, Robert B., 96, 153, 155, 185n72 Holmes, S. J., 130 Joyce, James, 26 Horn, H. J., 44 Judaism, 19, 49, 113, 122, 123, 126, Howells, William Dean, 134 130, 178n16 Hughes, Langston, 138, 144, 181n44 see also “Cosmopolitan Jew”; Jewish Hulme, Harold, 76 Science; Jews; Loy, Mina Hutchinson, George, 95, 177n8 Huxley, Julian, 3 Kallen, Horace, 180n33 Huyssen, Andreas, 24 Kandinsky, Wassily Index ● 213

work of: Concerning the Spiritual in Loy, Mina, 1, 2, 160, 161 Art, 9 and America, 112–13, 133–4 Kellogg, Vernon, 115 and Christian Science, 19, 20, 29, Kerman, Cynthia Earl, 172n17 34, 112, 122–7 passim, 131, 132, Kevles, Daniel J., 128, 177n11 145, 178n13, 179nn21,25 Kibble, Matthew, 174n32 and electromagnetism, 27, 33, 34, 35, Kinkead-Weekes, Mark, 171n9 56–61, 125, 161, 169n26, 179n23 Kinmont, David, 179n27 and eugenics, 112–13, 115–16, Kircher, Athanasius, 39 127–35, 142, 176n3, 177n7, Klee, Paul, 9 180n33 Korg, Jacob, 15, 160 and evolution, 23, 28–9, 58, Krafft-Ebing, Richard, 49–50 112–13, 121, 122–7, 142, 150 Kreymborg, Alfred, 165n23 and Italian Futurism, 34, 124 and Jewish identity, 28, 122–3, La Follette, Suzanne, 138, 181n45 129–31, 132 Laban, Rudolf von, 69, 80, 99–100 and Judaism, 122–3, 130 Laity, Cassandra, 16 life and career of, 14, 18, 19, 26, 112 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 147, 149, and race, 28–9, 111–14, 115–16, 184n63 121, 122–35, 141, 142, 145 LaMothe, Kimerer L., 24 and religion, 18, 19, 26, 28, 29, 34, Langdon-Davies, John, 9–10 51, 55, 56–9, 70–1, 122–7, 145, Laqueur, Thomas, 45 153, 155, 161 Larson, Charles R., 181n44 and science, 20–1, 23, 122–3, 133 Latimer, Marjorie, 142 and sexuality, 8, 27, 33, 34, 51, 55, Latour, Bruno, 33–4, 38 56–7, 58–61, 169n26 Lawrence, D. H. 33, 34, 56, 57, 58, 59, and spiritualism, 27, 33, 34, 57, 60, 61, 174n33 60–1, 70–1 works of: “The Captain’s Doll,” 55; works of: “America * A Miracle,” The Rainbow, 55–6; Studies in 112, 133, 176n4; “Anglo-Mongrels Classic American Fiction, 55, 56, and the Rose,” 176n3; “Aphorisms 66; The Trespasser, 55; Women in on Futurism,” 126, 132; “Brain,” Love, 55–6, 169nn22,23, 131–2, 134–5, 180n35; “The 171n9 Child and the Parent”, 131; Le Conte, Joseph, 4, 117 “Evolution,” 125–6, 179n24; Lecomte du Noüy, Pierre, 116–17 “Feminist Manifesto,” 115, Leisenring, W. W., 113–14 177n7; “Gertrude Stein,” 20, 122; Lewis, Wyndham, 13, 14, 165n18 “Goy Israels,” 130, 132, 179n22, Lichtenstein, Morris, 72, 123, 124, 125 180n32; “The History of Religion Lighthall, W. D., 119–20 and Eros”, 51, 56–9, 70–1, Lindberg, Kathryne V., 181n47 113, 124–5, 133, 160, 178n20, Lindsay, A. A., 53–4, 76, 120 179n23; Insel, 59–61, 169n26; Liveright, Horace, 138 “International Psycho-Democracy” Lodge, Sir Oliver, 4, 5, 11, 32–3, 46–7, 23; “Modern Poetry,” 133–4; “O 163n6, 166n3 Hell,” 122, 131, 132; “The Oil in London, Bette, 185n2 the Machine?” 20–1, 166n26 214 ● Index

Luhan, Mabel Dodge, 18 Moore, R. Laurence, 31, 34, 45, 167n11 Lynn, Mrs. Excell, 74, 78 Moore, Wm. J., 36, 65 Moravianism, 19, 22, 51, 168n19, 174n36 Macfadden, Bernarr, 85–6, 88, 100, Morey, Grace Kincaid, 121 172nn17,18 Morris, Adalaide, ix, 35, 166n30 Mack, Phyllis, 52 Morrisson, Mark S., 6, 15, 163n4, MacKaye, Steele, 79 163n8 Macpherson, Kenneth, 174n37 Morse, J. J., 40 Madeleine of Munich, 82 Morus, Iwan Rhys, 31, 167n8 Maddalena dé Pazzi, Saint Maria, 52 Mottelay, Paul Fleury, 36, 167nn6,7 Maeterlinck, Maurice, 11 Mussolini, Benito, 172n18 magnetism, see electromagnetism mystical or astral experience, 17, 28, Marinetti, F. T., 17–18, 32, 165n22 43, 52, 71, 89, 94, 98, 103–8, 111, Marsden, Dora, 11–12, 33, 45–6, 143, 155–7, 185n2 113–14, 164n12 mysticism Martz, Louis L., 14, 159, 174n32 Eastern, 23, 37, 58, 122, 124–5 Marx, Henry, 82 and Ellis, Havelock, 9, 50, 54–5 Materer, Timothy, 14 and H.D., 19, 28, 33, 51, 52, 57, Mather, Kirtley, 4 65, 71, 98, 103–8 passim, 160–1, Mattison, Rev. H., 168n13 173n28, 174nn32,36 Maxwell, James Clerk, 46 and Loy, Mina, 21, 33, 51, 57–9, McAlmon, Robert, 165n23 122, 124–5, 130, 160–1 work of: Being Geniuses Together and sexuality, 50–3 1920–1930, 68 and Toomer, Jean, 19, 94, 95, 111, McCabe, Susan, 1, 16, 174n33 143, 146, 150, 155–7, 160–1 McCarren, Felicia M., 99 Western, 17, 37, 52, 65, 71, 89, 94, McClure, John, 139, 145, 183n56 168n19, 185n2 McDonald, Jean A., 124 and Williams, William Carlos, 32 McFarlane, James, 25 see also mystical or astral experience McKay, Nellie Y., 155, 177n8, 181n42 Mead, G. R. S., 19, 51–2, 171n6 Nelson, Geoffrey K., 43, 167n11 Mellen, Joan, 68 Neuberg, Victor, 82–3 Menand, Louis New Age, The, 3, 6, 11 Mendel, Gregor, 180n33, 184n63 New Age Magazine, The, 121 Mesmer, Franz, 39–42, 44, 45, 167n9, New Freewoman, The, 3, 10, 11, 33, 167n10 45–6, 113–14, 164n12 Mesmerism, 27, 37, 39–42, 43, 44, New York Call, The, 137 45, 49, 52, 55, 65, 167nn9,10,11, Newton, Sir Isaac, 4, 10, 123 168nn12,13 Noble, Edmund, 116 Michaels, Walter Benn, 129 Miller, Cristanne, 122 Oderman, Kevin, 168n20, 171n6 Miller, James, 101, 105, 170n4 Oelze, Richard, 59–61 Mondrian, Piet, 9 Oetinger, Friedrich Christoph, 37–8 Moore, Marianne, 13–14, 65, 165n23, O’Keefe, Georgia 170n32 work of: Birth and Pine Trees, 71 Index ● 215

Olston, Albert B., 75, 145 Quema, Anne, 164n14 Orage, Alfred, 6, 11 Quimby, Phineas, 124 Oswald, Felix, 86 Otis, Laura, 166n2 race, 6, 11, 25, 28–9, 48, 79, 85, Ouspensky, P. D., 6–7, 9 87–8, 93, 100, 111–57 passim, Owen, Alex, 44, 106 159, 161, 170n5, 173n21, Owen, E. C. E., 3, 10 175nn2,3, 176n6, 177nn7,8,12, 179n30, 180nn32,33,39, Page, Charles G., 168n13 181nn40,42,43,44,46,47, Pape, A. G., 118 182nn49,50, 183nn54,55,58, Papini, Giovanni, 34 184nn59,63,68 Parks, Willis B., 77 see also “American race”; eugenics; Paul, Diane B., 128, 130 racial memory Pearson, Karl, 129 racial memory, 130–2, 134–6, 176n3, Peel, Robert, 124 180n35 Petroff, Elizabeth, 185n2 radium, 1, 3, 20, 62, 64, 122 physical culture, 16, 19, 28, 69–70, Raizizun, Yacki, 77 72–9 passim, 85–8, 100, 114, Rand, Lizabeth A., 84–5 171nn7,10, 172n17, 172n18, Raymond, Samuel, 143, 183n54 185n70 Remszhardt, Godo, 142, 183n53 Planck, Max, 2, 3 Rhine, J. B., 148, 184n60 Poggi, Christine, 165n22 rhythm Porter, Roy, 49, 169n21 of dance/movement, 32, 70, 71, 78, Pound, Ezra, 11, 12, 14, 15, 32, 51–2, 79, 83, 85, 90, 96–7, 99, 102–4, 163n8, 164n14, 165n18, 108, 171nn5,9,11, 173n22 168n20, 171n6 of nature, 99, 104, 108, 127, 171n5, Pozorski, Aimee L., 177n7 179n22 Preston, Carrie J., 99, 106 of poetry, 12, 15, 66, 96–7, 101–2, Priestley, Joseph, 40, 48–9, 66 103–4, 132, 173n30, 174n35 Priestley, R. E., 10 of technology, 12, 17, 32 psychology, 10, 15, 17, 19, 34, 69, Rice, Thurman B., 128 75–6, 77–8, 123, 171nn6,8, Richard of St. Victor, 52 178n15 Richards, Robert J., 2, 163n2 see also Bucke, Richard Maurice; Roatcap, Adela Spindler, 68, 69, Freud, Sigmund; Heard, Gerald; 170n1, 170n3 Sharpe, Ella Freeman Rolland, Romain, 181n43 psychoanalysis, see Freud, Sigmund; Rollins, Charlemae, 147 psychology Romanticism, American, 166n1 Puritanism, American, 83, 108, 148, Romanticism, British, 25, 174n35 154, 171n13 Roosevelt, Theodore, 115 Rosicrucianism, 6, 14, 121 Quackenbos, John D., 75, 78, 114, Roumain, Jacques, 138, 181n44 117–18, 120, 177n10 Rout, Ettie A., 72–3, 85 Quakerism, 18, 19, 88, 95, 138, 147, Rusch, Frederik L., 180n39 150, 153, 181n44, 185n72 Russell, Bertrand, 163n6 216 ● Index

Russell, George William (Æ), 19 Shelley, Mary Ruyter, Nancy Lee Chalfa, 171n10 work of: Frankenstein, 33, 37 Shreiber, Maeera, 178n13 Saleeby, Caleb Williams, 128 Silverstein, Louis, 98, 173n29, Salzmann, Jeanne von, 172n20 174n32 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 24 Snaith, Anna, 70 Schleifer, Ronald, 163n6, 164n15 Sollors, Werner, 175n2, 180n33 Schoenberg, Arnold, 9 Somerville, Siobhan S., 172nn14,17 Schofield, Alfred T., 76 Spencer, Herbert, 146, 147 Schuyler, George, 176n6 Sperry, Margaret, 138 Schwartz, Hillel, 78, 96 spiritualism, 42–7 scientology, 18 and Christian Science, 124 Scruggs, Charles, 137, 181n43 and Crowley, Aleister, 82–3 séance, see spiritualism and electromagnetism, 34, 39, 40, Seltzer, Mark, 13, 16, 165n19 42–6, 52, 55, 57, 60–1, 63, 64, Seneca, 80 65, 70, 166n2, 168nn12,13 Serres, Michel. 4, 34 and evolution, 127 sexology, 26, 27, 33, 46, 47–52, 53, 54, and gender, 44–6, 47, 175n39, 185n2 63, 168nn15,16 and H.D., 19, 20, 27, 28, 33, 34, 44, see also Carpenter, Edward; Ellis, 57, 63, 64, 65, 70–1, 97–8, 102–7, Havelock; Krafft-Ebing, Richard, 165n25, 166n30, 167n5, 175n39 Symonds, John Addington; influence of, 10, 11, 15, 166n2, Weininger, Otto 167n11, 168n13 sexuality, 33–66 passim and Lawrence, D. H., 55 and dance, 72–3, 84 and Loy, Mina, 27, 33, 34, 57, and disease, 129 60–1, 70–1 and Eddy, Mary Baker, 125 and modernism, 14, 18, 159–61 and electromagnetism, 2, 27–8, and sexuality, 44, 47, 50, 168n14, 34–5, 37–8, 41–2, 44, 47–66 175n39 passim, 167n4, 169n26 and suffragism, 164n12 and H.D., 27–8, 34–5, 51, 52, Spock, Marjorie, 73, 82, 97, 104, 55, 56, 57, 61–6, 104–5, 106–7, 171n11, 173n27 169nn22,27,28, 174nn32,33, Stead, W. T., 10 175n39 Stebbins, Genevieve, 79–80, 108–9, and Lawrence, D. H., 55–6, 171n10, 172n20, 175n41 169n22 Stein, Gertrude, 20, 68, 122, 123, 145 and Loy, Mina, 18, 27, 33, 34, 51, Stein, Leo, 123 55, 56–7, 58–61, 169n26 Steiner, Rudolf, 69, 73, 76, 77, 80–82, and modernism, 11, 25, 169nn20,27 83, 84, 88, 97, 104, 171n12 and spirituality, 2, 27–8, 33–66 Steinman, Lisa M., 13, 133, 163n7, passim, 104–5, 148, 168n19 164n14, 165nn18,19,20 and Toomer, Jean, 84, 86, 148, Stevens, Wallace, 14 172nn14,17 Stewart, Balfour, 4 see also sexology Stopes, Marie Carmichael, 33, 51, 53 Sharpe, Ella Freeman, 174n32 suffragism, 10, 164n12, 183n57 Index ● 217

Surette, Leon, 14, 18, 163n8, 165n21, Tichi, Cecelia, 13, 164nn14,17 168n20, 177n12, 179n28 time travel, 3, 20, 22, 97–9, Surrealism, 59–61 102–3, 107 Swedenborgianism, 37, 42, 79, 124 Tolstoy, Leo, 11 Swihart, Altman K., 178nn18,19,21, Toomer, Jean, 1, 2, 160, 161 179n26 and America, 92, 97, 112–13, 121, Sword, Helen, 14, 71, 101, 104, 159, 141–4, 148, 154, 171n13, 172n18, 160, 166n30, 167n5, 174n36, 173nn21,22, 177n6, 182n51, 175n39 183n54 Symeon the Younger, 52 and dance, 28, 70–1, 78, 84–5, 88, Symonds, John Addington, 48, 50 90–2, 96–7, 100, 172n14 Székely, Edmond, 8, 74, 117 and eugenics, 28–9, 112, 115, 141–2, 147, 176nn3,6 Tait, P. G., 4 and evolution, 29, 74, 88, 90, Taylor, Paul Beekman, 89 112–13, 117, 119, 137, 138, technology 141–2, 146–52, 155, as aesthetic, 12, 13–14, 17–8, 25 173n26, 176n3, 183n59, in America, 13–14, 121, 131, 133, 184nn61,63,68 164nn17,19 and Gurdjieff, 14, 18, 19, 28–9, innovations in, 3, 13–14, 15, 16, 70–1, 78, 85, 88–94 passim, 96, 20–1, 22, 32–3, 69, 70, 119, 121, 112, 135–6, 146, 147, 150, 152–7 148, 159, 160 passim, 173nn21,22, 183nn52,58, as metaphor, 7, 13, 20–1, 22, 33, 184n68, 185n72 43–5 passim, 97–8, 106, 131–2, life and career of, 14, 18, 25, 26–7, 134–6, 166n26, 179n23 83, 183n52, 184n64 opposition to, 13, 22–3, 164n16 and mystical/astral experience, 19, of telecommunications, 3, 7, 13, 15, 93, 94, 111, 143, 155–56 32, 33, 43–4, 46, 119, 97–8, 106, and physical culture, 28, 29, 78, 119, 166n2, 167nn4,26, 174n36 85–8, 114, 171n7, 172nn17,18, of war, 23 185n70 see also electromagnetism; and race, 28–9, 87–8, 93, electrocution; film; Futurism, 111–14, 121, 134, 135–57, Italian 161, 176nn3,6, 177n8, theosophy, 6, 9, 14–15, 19–20, 180nn36,39,40,42, 50–1, 51–2, 75, 80, 88, 163n8, 181n43, 181nn44,45,46, 165nn21,24, 168n20, 171n6, 47, 182n50, 183nn53,54,58, 177n12, 183n57 184n63 see also Blavatsky, H. P.; Hinton, C. and religion, 18, 19, 21–2, 29, 75, Howard; Mead, G. R. S.; Russell, 84–5, 88, 94–6, 104, 113, 135, George William (Æ) 138, 145, 152, 153, 184n59, Thomas, Annie, 76 185n72 Thomas, Julia, 76 and science, 20, 21–2, 22–3, 25, Thomson, J. Arthur, 1 173n21 Thurschwell, Pamela, 15, 168n14 and sexuality, 84, 86, 148, 172n14, Thurston, Herbert, 52 172n17 218 ● Index

Toomer, Jean—Continued of the Events of the World,” 148; works of: “Also Persuaded,” 45, “The Lost Dancer,” 96, 136, 135; “America and Problems,” 137; “Man’s Home Companion,” 92, 113, 139, 142, 176n5, 22–3, 173n21; “Member of Man,” 182nn50,51, 183n57, 184n68; 112, 140–1; “Men Are Made to “America 1924,” 93, 152; “The Grow,” 148, 152; “Motion and American Race,” 139, 141, 142; Rest,” 95–6; Natalie Mann 84–5, “The Americans,” 113, 141, 142, 96, 145, 183n57; “The Negro 176n5, 182n50; “The Angel Emergent,” 139; “On Being an Begori,” 83, 157, 171n12; “As the American,” 137, 139, 142–3, 155, World Revolves,” 95, 111–12, 181nn41,43, 184n59; “Outline of 147, 148, 149, 151, 153, 154, the Story of the Autobiography,” 184n63; “The Blue Meridian,” 97, 142; “People,” 140, 182n49; 111, 136, 143–4, 146, 180n37, “Portage Potential,” 91; “The 182n51, 183n55, 184n63; “The Possibilities of Human Growth,” Book of Aims,” 185n71; “Book 143, 182n49; “Psychologic,” X,” 85–8 passim, 94, 136, 141, 92, 140, 146, 147, 154, 155, 145, 146, 148, 149, 156, 172n16, 173n24; “Psychologic Papers,” 183n59, 184n62; “Brown River, 93, 146, 148, 149–50, 153, 155, Smile,” 136, 143; Cane, 18–19, 173n25, 185n71; “Race Problems 84, 91, 134, 136, 137, 138, 142, and Modern Society,” 115–16, 155, 172n14, 173n22, 180n36, 140; “Remember and Return,” 181nn42,43,47, 185n72; “Conquer 22, 93, 153, 157, 166n29; The This,” 153, 155; “Co-opposition,” Sacred Factory, 183n57; “Second 151, 152, 184n65; “The Crock River,” 92, 111, 152, 154, 157, of Problems,” 135–6, 180n38; 173n23, 175n1, 184nn61,67, “Drift,” 95; “Earth-Being,” 21, 185n69, 185n73; “Thine,” 153; 25, 143, 156, 166n27, 185n71; “Two Parts,” 153; “Unidentified Essentials, 138; “Faint Drift,” Autobiography,” 135; “Values and 93; “A Fiction and Some Facts,” Fiction,” 154;”World America,” 139–40, 141; “From Exile into 145, 148 Being,” 22, 91, 94, 111, 143, Transatlantic Review, 20 148–9, 150, 151, 152, 155, 156–7, transcendentalism, 81, 124 166n28, 172n19, 185n71; “The Tryphonopoulos, Demetres P., ix, 14, Gallonwerps,” 182n51; “He Who 163n8, 168n20, 171n6, 171n7 Grows Thereby Serves God,” 150; Tuck, Susan, 169n22 “How We Can Make Creative Turner, Darwin T., 85 Use of the Present ‘Depression’,” Two Worlds, The, 43 153–4, 183n57; “Human Beings,” 184n61; “Incredible Journey,” 140, Umansky, Ellen M., 123, 178n17 141, 142, 145, 172n19, 182n48; Underhill, Evelyn, 52 “It Used To Be,” 182n51; “Let Ure, Andrew, 31 Us Go,” 95; “Lines Written in Response to People Bowed Down van der Leeuw, Gerardus, 24 by a Sense of Oppression Because Verschuur, Gerrit L., 36–7 Index ● 219

Vetter, Lara, 108 Whitman, Walt, 117, 134, 136, 143, Vitae, Quaestor, 43–4 180n39 vitalism, 3–4, 163n5 work of: “When Lilacs Last at the Vorticism, 11, 12, 17, 32, 164n14, Dooryard Bloom’d,” v 173n28 Whitworth, Michael H., 3, 13, 164nn11,13,16 Walker, W. L., 119 Whyde, Janet M., 172n14 Walpole, Hugh Wiggam, Albert Edward, 115 works of: Maradick at Forty, 172n15; Williams, Diana I., 176n6 Portrait of a Man with Red Hair Williams, W. H., 7, 73–74 83–4, 85, 172n15 Williams, William Carlos, 13–14, Walsh, Richard, 151–2, 184n66 15, 32 Watson, James G., 131 Willis, Nathaniel Parker Watson, William, 39 work of: “Parrhasius,” 80 Weininger, Otto, 48–50 Winter, Alison, 37, 42, 167n10 Welch, F. G., 76, 77, 100, 171n7 Wells, H. G., 11 Yeats, W. B., 14, 15, 19, 20, 23, 103–4, Wells, Katharine F., 73 163n8, 164n14, 173n30 West, Rebecca, 11 Young, Carl Haven, 72 Whalan, Mark, 86, 87, 137, 172n17, Young, Suzanne, 170n31 173n21, 181n47, 185n70 Whewell, William, 47 Zaccaria, Paola, 174n33 White, Andrew D., 5 Žižek, Slavoj, 161