P. WHITNEY LACKENBAUER WITH JOHN MOSES, R. SCOTT SHEFFIELD, MAXIME GOHIER

A Commemorative History of ǾɑȝȽȵ@Ʉȵ ǸȽǸȇȨǸȽ4ȨȵȨɜǸɑɴ ǾɄɑȨȝȨȽǸȵ@ȐɄɉȵȐ

ǾɄɑȨȝȨȽǸȵ@ȐɄɉȵȐȨȽɜȣȐ

ǸȽǸȇȨǸȽ4ȨȵȨɜǸɑɴ Cover: Chief of the Ottawa nation, War of 1812, Painting by Ron Volstad [Department of National Defence]

A Commemorative History of

Aboriginal People in the

Canadian Military A Commemorative History of

Aboriginal People in the

Canadian Military

P. Whitney Lackenbauer with John Moses, R. Scott Sheffield, Maxime Gohier D2-250/2-2009E 978-1-100-12652-4 Art Direction ADM(PA) DPAPS CS08-0436

ii Acknowledgements This history on our Aboriginal Peoples and their contribution to Canada’s rich military heritage is the latest in a series of books prepared by the Director of History and Heritage commemorating especial military experience. The idea of this book and initial support to its realization came from the late Lieutenant-General Christian Couture who championed the cause of the Aboriginals in the Forces.

Today, more than 1800 First Nations, Inuit and Métis Canadians serve with the Canadian Forces at home and overseas with the same fervour and pride as their ancestors. Their diversity is extraordinary. They represent over 640 distinct bands, sharing common beliefs and practices, and all unique in themselves. As well, there are 55 languages and distinct dialects that belong to 11 linguistic families.

A sincere and heartfelt "thank you" must be extended to all those who contributed to this book and in recognition of their invaluable assistance to the successful completion of this project. They are: Lieutenant-Colonel Marcel Beaudry, Sergeant Ryan Davidson, Maurice Desautels, Arlene Doucette, Donald Graves, David Duguay, Ben Greenhous, Madeleine Lafleur-Lemire, Major Paul Lansey, John MacFarlane, Major-General Walter Semianiw, Warren Sinclair, the Canadian Forces Joint Imagery Centre, Yvan Rompré (translator), Élisabeth LeBoeuf (editor), the authors P. Whitney Lackenbauer, John Moses, R. Scott Sheffield, Maxime Gohier and our Aboriginal veterans.

Dr. Serge Bernier Director – History and Heritage

iii About the Authors P. Whitney Lackenbauer, Ph.D., is assistant professor and chair of history at St. Jerome’s University, Waterloo, Ontario. His recent books include, Arctic Front: Defending Canada’s Far North (2008), Battle Grounds: The Canadian Military and Aboriginal Lands (2007), and two co-edited volumes on Aboriginal peoples and military participation.

John Moses is an objects conservator and researcher with the Canadian Museum of Civilization in Gatineau, Quebec. His particular interests are the accommodation of Aboriginal perspectives in mainstream museum practice, and the provision of collections care training to non-specialists. He is a registered member of the Delaware band at the Six Nations of the Grand River at Brantford, Ontario.

R. Scott Sheffield, PhD., is an instructor in the Department of History at the University of the Fraser Valley. His major publications include, The Redman’s on the Warpath: The Image of the Indian and the Second World War (2004), A Search for Equity: The Final Report of the National Round Table on First Nations Veterans’ Issues (2001), and a recent edited volume on Aboriginal peoples and military participation in international perspective.

Maxime Gohier holds a Master’s degree in history from l’Université du Québec à Montréal. He is the author of the book, Onontio le médiateur: La gestion des conflits amérindiens en Nouvelle-France (1603-1717), which focuses on the Native American policies of France in North America. He is currently doing doctoral research into the history of the native peoples of Quebec under the British regime.

iv Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION WARFARE IN PRE-COLUMBIAN NORTH AMERICA...... 2

CHAPTER I THE ARRIVAL OF THE EUROPEANS: 17TH CENTURY WARS ...... 14

CHAPTER II THE IMPERIAL WARS ...... 38

CHAPTER III IN DEFENCE OF THEIR HOMELANDS ...... 58

CHAPTER IV TRANSFORMING RELATIONSHIPS, 1815-1902 ...... 90

CHAPTER V THE WORLD WARS...... 118

CHAPTER VI THE LAST SIX DECADES ...... 156

CONCLUSION ...... 184

1 Introduction

2 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America The European explorers who ‘discovered’ the Americas in the 15th Century came to a land already inhabited by a diverse and substantial indigenous population. According to Aboriginal creation stories, their ancestors had lived here forever. According to archaeolo- gists, human beings had been living in what is now Canada for at least 12,000 years and probably much longer.

The indigenous peoples in this land were divided into sedentary. The Five Nations (also known as the Iroquois a number of nations, which ethnologists classify on the or Hodenosaunee), as well as the Huron, the Neutral, basis of cultural and linguistic characteristics. In the the Petun and the Erie, lived in villages of as many as east, from the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes area, 2,000 people in the area around Lake Ontario, Lake Erie Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples mingled and divided and Lake Huron. Their homes were 10-30 metre-long the available resources in the sub-Arctic boreal forest ‘longhouses’ made of wood and covered with bark that and north-eastern deciduous woodlands. The former each housed three to five families. They enjoyed a milder Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America were generally nomadic, living by hunting, gathering climate than most of their Algonquian neighbours that and fishing. Generally, the Beothuk in Newfoundland, permitted the most northerly extension of indigenous the Mi’kmaq, Abenaki and Malecite in the Maritimes, agriculture in North America, growing corn, squash, and the Algonquin, Attikamekw, Naskapi, Montagnais beans, sunflowers and tobacco. (now known as Innu), Odahwah, Nipissing, Ojibway and Cree in Quebec and Ontario all gathered in summer In the northern Plains, the Assiniboine and Blackfoot at sites of major fisheries to socialize, trade and make lived a nomadic pedestrian existence. They survived alliances. In the fall, they would disperse into kin-based mainly by hunting bison, which were abundant at the hunting bands for the winter. On the other hand, the time and met nearly all their needs, providing not only nations that spoke Iroquoian languages were much more food but also hides for clothing and lodge coverings, as

Mohawk Warrior from Tyendinaga, Autumn 1813 The warriors from the small Mohawk community at tyendinaga near Kingston, although few Harbor and in the Niagara peninsula in 1813. Their most prominent service was rendered at the battle for Crysler’s Farm in November,1813 where they played a role disproportional of their numbers. This warrior is depicted as he may have appeared at Crysler’s Farm. Painting by Ron Volstad [Department of National Defence]

INTRODUCTION 3 4 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL the mid-to-late 18th Century. when Russian, Spanish and British explorers arrived in region were the last to come into contact with Europeans, this of nations The objects. religious and ceremonial various and utensilscanoes, make and homes build to traditions to develop in wood carving, which they used the coastal rain forest to enable highly elaborate artistic of wealth the with combinedpatterns semi-sedentary The world. the in hunter-gatherersanywhereamongst complexhierarchicalmostdensestand societies found subsistence economy of the region enabled some of the lived a lifestyle built around salmon and cedar. The rich othersTsimshian, Tlingit,and Cowichan, nulth, chah Nuu Kwakwaka’wakw,diverse Haida, region, coastal linguisticallygatheringtheexistence.and In hunting varied a lived who speakers, Athapascan and Salish Interior various as well as Kootenay, the included interior mountainous the in nations Those Coast. Pacific and cordillera the of peoples the were Rockies the of side other the On caribou. and moose hunting that of the Algonquian nations and subsisted mainly by Hareamongandothers.lifestyle aTheyhad similar to the Chipewyan, Slavey, Sekani, Dogrib, Beaver, Sarcee includingmobilenations,speakinghighlyAthapascan Yukonthe TerritoriesNorthwestlived to the through sub-arctic forests that stretched from northern Manitoba the In weapons. and tools for bones and horn as well descendants, the biological Inuit, whomand the French cultural generally their called and Thule the Finally, Warfare in Aboriginal societies Warfare in well adapted to the characteristics of their homeland. other indigenous peoples in northern North America, was by followedthose like cycle,seasonal Inuit Thetools. for antler and clothing, for sinew and hides meat, ing On land, caribou was their most important prey, provid summer clothing, tents, harpoon lines and dog harnesses. boots,into made be couldwhich hides and food, cook vided food for humans and dogs, oil to heat homes and pro- seals example, for resources:important most the resources to survive. For most groups, the sea provided animal on relied necessarily they where environment, unaccomodating an in live to them allowed kayaks, to snowhouses from technologies, ingenious Their line. tree the of north arctic the ‘Esquimaux,’in lived tary operations, as brave exploits were a source of great strong incentiveshad males often to participate in mili- tive young motivations level, needs. and At a personal interrelated, springing from both individual and collec- often and complex were causes decisiveness.The and Tom Holm has argued, it waxed in intensity, frequency as though, regions all in realitypersistent a was war to the way of life of many First Nation cultures. Indeed, centralEuropeans,monyarrivalwasofbeforethewar thathar-happymythAboriginals Despitethein lived - 5 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America INTRODUCTION eted eted role, and was waged for different reasons. Some goals, and were political for waged economic conflicts exacting territory, or resources to access gaining as such trade or controlling nation routes.another from tribute Revenge was a consistent motivating factor across North America, a factor that could lead to recurrent wealth to host potlatches and other give-away ceremo- give-away other and potlatches to host wealth multifac- a played warfare level, community a At nies. societies, the material goods and slaves acquired through acquired slaves and goods material the societies, raiding were important avenues to build up sufficient prestige in most Aboriginal cultures. According to According one cultures. Aboriginal in most prestige to way only ‘The Century, 18th the from account Jesuit Illinois the among veneration public and respect attract amongothertheSavages,acquirereputation to a as is, … warrior good a as particularly and hunter, skilful a as coast west Among man.’ true a being call they what is it Hochelaga 1535 around Library and Archives Canada (C-10489) 6 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL eracy, probably created in the late 16th Century, grew out Confed-Huronthe NationsandConfederationFive of Iroquois the as suchconfederacies, great The nations. Iroquoian these among systems political complex highlyCenturies. developmentofWar thefuelled also arrived, and were certainly evident in the 17th and 18th villages therefore must have occurred before Europeans deemed necessary. Sieges and assaults on such fortified beennot it hadmadevillagershave thenotwouldthat defences, an enormous investment in communal labour multi-layered the construct to used being diameter in inches 24 as large as logs with 1500s, the to through how these structures became larger and more elaborate describedhas KeenerCraignations. enemy by attacks built a second or even third ring to protect them against could be nearly 10 metres in height, sometimes villages lages were increasingly fortified by a timber palisade that vil- Iroquois and Petun Neutral, Huron, example, for permanent European settlers. As early as the year 1000, warfare in indigenous societies well before the arrival of Archaeological evidence confirms the prominent role of or war.illness to due prematurely died had who members family who were then adopted by bereaved families to replace prisoners,capture to intent the with raiding involved conflicts Such practiced.wars’ were‘mourning east, generations. Among the Iroquoian nations in the north- cycles of violence, often low intensity, which could last Saukamappee, of a battle with the Shoshone in the Eagle recorded the following description by the Peigen elder, the casualties. For instance, fur trader David Thompson limited that ways in conducted and ritualised highly oftentogether,were comeoccurredthat battles formal monly in evidence. In areas where large war parties could northeastthewoodlands, patternssome butcom-were on focuses below discussion the of much and region, by varied colonisation European to prior Warfare militarypractices Traditional military expeditions and the creation of alliances. organizationof the as policy,suchforeign of matters ferences without bloodshed. The Councils also discussed which ruled on inter-tribal disputes in order to settle dif- They were organized around the Confederacy Council, had been ravaging their societies for hundreds of years. of their members’ desire to stem the fratricidal wars that before the arrival of European guns and horses. Hills region of Saskatchewan when he was a youth, long on the ground, and placed their large shieldslarge their placed ground,and the on After some singing and dancing, they sat down of the bisons which made them very elastic, and wood, and the back was covered with the sinews their bows were not so long as ours, but of better other; each touching placed all wereTheirs men. two shelter to had shields our of some many,and so notwere shields our but same, the Wedid them.covered which them,before their arrows went a long way and whizzed about us as balls do from guns … on both sides, several were wounded, but none lay on the ground; and the night put an end to the battle without a scalp being taken on either side, and in those days such was the result unless one side was more numerous than the other.

Similarly, in 1609, the French explorer Samuel de Cham- plain fought a battle against the Iroquois, alongside his Innu (Montagnais) allies. According to his detailed account of the encounter, the military practices were highly ritualistic and governed by strict rules. For example, when the two groups met on the shores of Lake Champlain, they negotiated the time at which the battle would take place. They decided to ‘wait until day to recognize each other and as soon as the sun rose’ they would wage battle. ‘The entire night was spent in dancing and singing,’ reports Champlain, with the two camps shouting ‘an infinite number of insults’ and threats at each other. When the sun rose, the armies, each made up of more than 200 warriors, faced each other in close ranks and approached calmly and slowly, preparing to join combat. All the warriors were armed with bows and arrows, and wore armour made of wood and bark woven with cotton. When Champlain and two other French soldiers opened fire with their arquebuses, Attack on aboriginal fort Attack on a fort during a battle between two Aboriginal nations. they killed the three main Iroquois chiefs and the Library and Archives Canada (C-92245) enemy retreated. Finally, hand-to-hand combat was engaged and the allies of the French captured 10 or 12 prisoners.

INTRODUCTION 7 Most Europeans were derisive of such relatively blood- less sport. It was “more of a pastime than to conquer or subdue enemies,” Captain John Underhill of Mas- sachusetts Bay concluded after observing one such engagement. However, Europeans were less likely to witness the more common and more deadly raiding and ambushes that characterised the indigenous way of war across the continent. In the northeast woodlands and elsewhere, the advent of European firearms would quick- ly render such open field combat too costly according to indigenous cultural norms of war. After 1609, most observers reported that Aboriginal people did ‘not know how to fight in open country,’ and accounts of Aboriginal warfare usually described hit and run military techniques, which the French called ‘la petite guerre.’ This was es- sentially a form of guerrilla warfare, the primary goal of which was to inflict casualties, capture prisoners and take scalps, while suffering as few losses as possible. To do so, the warriors generally moved in small groups and took pains to catch the enemy unawares or encircle it, while eluding the same tactics by the other side. They took advantage of the terrain to remain concealed and ambush the enemy, or slipped into a camp by night to surprise the occupants in their sleep. Once they had achieved their objective, the warriors retreated before Iroquois Warrior with musket, c. 1730 This man wears aboriginal clothing but is armed with a French military a counter-attack could be mounted. musket, acquired either through combat or trade, a war axe with an iron blade and a small scalping knife hung around his neck. Note While it suited conditions in the forests of North Amer- the bayonet on the musket – although aboriginal warriors adopted European weapons, they did not adopt European tactics and were ica, Aboriginal guerrilla warfare was far removed from more likely to engage in hit and run ambushes than in stand-up, close quarter fighting. Library and Archives Canada (C-003163)

8 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 9 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America INTRODUCTION Raids (which among us is considered sound policy for for policy sound considered is us among (which fight, and open the in advance they chief), war a they warriors of number the for regard no with withdraw they over, is battle the When lose! may to and drink wine, celebrate as if had nothing written a down set they which after happened, side each done, have they what on declaration records two the of neither And victory! claiming fought all They camp. own his in dead the half bravely but would be no match for us at war. own our save and enemy the ‘kill is maxim Our paddling for fine are chiefs [white] These men.’ it. steering for not but canoe a Instead Instead of taking every opportunity to kill the men own their of lives the preserve and enemy systems into interaction in North America, and initiated initiated and America, North in interaction into systems borrowing. and learning mutual of process a Warriors and While women played an social and important political like were, activities military societies, indigenous in role hunting, usually reserved for men. From a young age, boys were initiated into the use of weapons and were inter- The humans. and animals both kill to how taught relationships between war and hunting were so close they say sometimes would battle to going warriors that much spent warriors The men.’ for ‘hunting going were Native-Newcomer contact brought two distinct military military distinct two brought contact Native-Newcomer to find war munitions and clothes to wear, these these wear, to clothes and munitions war find to them. for riches immense are planned enterprise on account of a mere dream, dream, mere a of account on enterprise planned some superstition or some small unexpected killing to limited was fighting Their …. accident are they when and spoils, the taking man, some or canoe French a destroy to enough fortunate not keep, follow as long as they wish, and return return and wish, they as long as follow keep, not to their villages, readily abandoning the best without without order or discipline, with customs op- do they promises make who own, our to posed own own tactics, and were themselves often dismissive of Europeans modes of combat, which they considered courageous For folly. example, Makataimeshekiakiak in fought who chief war a Sauk Sparrowhawk), (Black wrote: 1812, of War the However, Aboriginal warriors had a high regard for their their for regard high a had warriors Aboriginal However, believed believed that rigid discipline was essential to produce a soldier capable of producing maximum fire through massed in formation warriors the Aboriginal open, the generally seemed to be undisciplined fighters without trees behind “skulking” Moreover, tactics. of sense any and was aiming, particu- actually viewed as cowardly, larly at officers, was unsporting and barbaric. Writing de Laporte Louis officer French renowned the 1715, in as warriors Aboriginal described Louvigny European European methods of the time. To Europeans, who 10

Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 1,600 km] to slay a person and take a scalp,’ though this travelas far as ‘three to four hundred leagues [1,200 to tosome contemporary European witnesses, they might The warriors were often away for long periods. According heraldic and spiritual symbols. with weapons and shieldstheir decorated warriors the chiefs wore elaborate headdresses as a sign of rank and guish themselves from each other. For example, Iroquois distin-accoutrementsto other withthemselves array would warriors Sometimes, faces.’ their on fear or keep the enemy from detecting ‘any appearance of pallor to war) of and blood of colour(the red facestheir ing and physically for the warpath, in some instances paint- expeditions. Theythenprepared themselves spiritually sang their ‘war song’, generally preceded major military time those who wanted to join the expedition danced and Agreatfeastinvolving entirethecommunity, whichat favourable opportunity to kill an enemy.’ trees for two or three days without eating, waiting for a wrote tor of the Iroquois: ‘They often stay behind their food for days if need be. One contemporary commenta to the hardships of life in the outdoors or going without who have rifles time to take aim.’ They were also inured those give barely they that quickly so and skilfully so was said of some warriors that they ‘let fly [their arrows] weapons and their ability to avoid the enemy’s arrows. It skills. Theywere known for their dexterity inhandling of their lives training and thereby developed remarkable - Flatheads (a generic term that included the Chickasaw,includedthethat termgeneric Flatheads (a Carolina to wage war against the nations they called the living in the St. Lawrence Valley would travel as far as extremeanwas example. 18ththeCentury,In Iroquois When the Europeans arrived, the main offensive weapon prepare to defend themselves.’ flee with the arrow in its body and alert their enemies to ing, ‘for fear that an animal that was only wounded would night to avoid being seen. Often, they even stopped hunt arrived in enemy territory, the warriors travelled only by the land. In winter, they travelled by snowshoe. Once they them rapidly along the many waterways that crisscrossed the way for other food. In summer, bark canoes carried ons and sometimes provisions of corn; they hunted along had to travel light. The warriors carried only their weap- ChoctawandCherokee). Covering suchthey distances, to react. The hatchet, better known by the Algonquinthe by known better hatchet, The react. to time had adversary the before arrows of volley a fly let and enemy the approach to taught therefore were he was holding in his arms killed a French sailor. Warriorsdistances. In 1606, an arrow that passed through the dog However, the bow and arrow was most effective at short metres. 120 than more arrow an propel to enough ful bowwasslightly lessthan twometres longandpower- the Erie, were even known to use poisoned arrows. The as such nations, some and arrows burning used times stone. When they attacked a village, the warriors some arrow. The arrowhead was usually made of bone or flaked of a warrior in north-eastern America, was the bow and - - 11 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America INTRODUCTION soon as he arrives, the entire village gathers and and gathers village entire the arrives, he as soon lines up along the path the captives will take. It is the height of glory [for a warrior] when he he when warrior] a [for glory of height the is It As alive. back them brings and prisoners takes tact with the Aboriginal peoples, prompted by the often the by prompted peoples, Aboriginal the with tact authorities. colonial the by paid rewards attractive prisoners was Torturing not uncommon among some indigenous cultures. According to an 18th Century among lived who Allouez, Claude Jesuit the account by Illinois: the Scalping, torture and cannibalism torture and Scalping, Euro- the shocked warfare indigenous of aspects Some pean settlers. For example, the custom of scalping the cutting by hair his removing in consisted which enemy, off his scalp, scandalized many European observers. Europeans the that suggested have scholars some While practice, this introduced contact first during themselves before well existed scalping that certain appears now it saw Cartier Jacques explorer the 1535, In colonization. five scalps displayed in the village of Hochelaga. But whites the practice, the about indignant acted they while encouraged their allies to engage in it. In the 1630s, the British began offering a reward for the scalps of their enemies, the French followed suit in the 1680s. William and Axtell James ethno-historians to According British the (particularly Europeans the was it Sturtevant, settlers)adoptedpracticescalpingwhotheof aftercon- expensive expensive flintlocks, which better suited their hunting and ‘skulking way Use of of war.’ the bow and arrow attacks surprise in especially years, many for continued in which the sound of a gun firing would have alerted the but enemy, by the early most 18th north- Century, hunting for musket the using were Nation First eastern combat. and the new technology and became more skilful in handling handling in skilful more became and technology new the Indeed, the than counterparts. weapons their European speaking Algonquian the that argued has Malone Patrick of keen judges the of also became tribes New England disadvantages the recognised quickly They technology. more the demanding began and muskets, of matchlock him him more While vulnerable. a Aboriginal peoples few did manage to get their hands on firearms in the early began they that 1640s the until not was it Century, 17th mastered quickly They scale. large a on them acquiring ous noise when fired, frightening the enemy and making making and enemy the frightening fired, when noise ous approximately 60 cm usually made of a very hard wood wood hard very a of made usually cm 60 approximately and ending in a large ball) were used in hand-to-hand often then was who opponent, the down knock to combat knife. a with off finished firearms. European adopted quickly peoples Aboriginal the than effective less were arquebuses early the While bow since they and were arrow, ‘too and cumbersome thunder- a emitting of advantage the had they slow,’ too name ‘tomahawk,’ and the war club (a bludgeon of 12

Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL believe it gives them courage.’ they youths; the to piecesdistributed and coals on it [the prisoner] was valiant, they tore out his heart, grilled ‘ifterms: ritualisedthesecannibalismexplained the in 1630s, the in Huron the amonglived whoBrébeuf, de they considered particularly courageous. The Jesuit Jean the victors ate the heart or part of the body of a prisoner where the prisoner was finally immolated. In some cases, and endurance. The torment usually ended at the stake, long as possible so the captive could prove his courage as for agony the prolong to was idea Thetools. metal bodywerehisburned,red-hotofbrand or often witha post and his fingernails were pulled out and various parts a to tied usually was prisonerviolently. Thedied had who people of souls the calm to was purpose its ently appar- and ritualizedhighly however was torture The fingers or ears, others beat them with sticks. their off cut othersfingernails, their out tear some welcome: cruel receivea prisoners The name,character, responsibilitiesroleand persontheof onerwasadopted thisinmanner, sheortookhetheon bereaved families to replace the deceased. When a to pris given and spared generally were boys young and Not all captives were tortured and put to death. Women as allies or as enemies. the Europeans were frequently of a military nature, either Aboriginal societies. Consequently, their relations with healed.’ War,therefore, occupied animportant place in and injuries … and in less than 15 days the wounds had wounds my treated mother[adoptive] ‘My reported: was captured and tortured by the Iroquois in the 1650s, Pierre-Esprit Radisson, a young French adventurer who tion. If he had been tortured, he was cared for and healed. he or she was replacing and was treated with great affec- - 13 Warfare In Pre-Columbian North America INTRODUCTION French harquebusier in harquebusier Canada,French bewteen 1610 and 1620. Reconstitution by Michel Pétard [Department of National Defence] Chapter One

14 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars When Europeans began colonizing North America, they encountered warring Aboriginal nations. The pre-existing conflicts helped shape the networks of alliances that formed between the newcomers and the Aboriginal peoples, and had a significant impact on colonial wars up to the end of the 17th Century.

First contacts

As far as we know, the Norse (Vikings) were the first with bows and clubs that would have been as effective as Europeans to reach North America, sailing from their Norse bows and axes in fighting small skirmishes, their settlements in Iceland and Greenland. The Viking sagas canoes were easier to manoeuvre than Viking boats, and relate that after several exploratory trips along the coast they were in a familiar environment. Being too few in of Newfoundland and Labrador, a small settlement was number to sustain a war, the Vikings abandoned their The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars established circa 1003 or 1004 in ‘Vinland’ (somewhere settlement after only two years. It is possible that a along the north-eastern coast). The expedition that second settlement was established briefly, at about the founded the settlement at Leifsbudir (now L’Anse-aux- same time, near the current site of St. Paul’s Bay, but Meadows) near the Burin Peninsula consisted of about the documents are contradictory on this point and 65 people as well as domestic animals. The small com- archaeologists have yet to find any trace of it. The Vikings munity lived mainly by hunting, fishing and picking continued travelling to the Labrador coast up to the mid wild grapes. The first relations between the Vikings and 14th Century, bringing boatloads of timber back to their the indigenous population, whom they called skrælings barren settlements in Greenland. These expeditions were (probably Dorset Inuit or Beothuk), were fairly peace- interrupted in the 1350s, however, when the Inuit drove ful, revolving around trading. In the second year, how- these European settlers out of Greenland. ever, some accounts suggest that a conflict broke out between the two groups when the Vikings refused to sell the skrælings weapons. Aboriginal warriors were armed

Eastern Woodland Warriors c.1600 This painting by David Rickman shows three Eastern Woodland warriors with a variety of clothing and weapons. The figure in the center represents a war chief wearing wood lathe armour and carrying a war club. On the left is an archer in winter dress and on the right is a warrior in summer dress armed with a bow and a war club and equipped with a wooden shield. Painting by David Rickman [Department of National Defence PMRC-92-605]

CHAPTER ONE 15 In the late 15th Century, English, French, and Portuguese Cartier came back the following year with his two pris- navigators resumed exploration of Canada’s Atlantic oners and, despite resistance from Donnacona and the coast, seeking a route to Asia and its legendary wealth in Stadaconans, travelled up the river as far as Hochelaga spices, silk and precious metals. In 1497, John Cabot took (Montreal). Before leaving, he kidnapped Donnacona possession of Newfoundland (or Cape Breton Island) for himself to be his guide on future trips. Since the England and in 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf Aboriginal chief died in captivity, Cartier’s conduct was of St. Lawrence in the name of the King of France. In not conducive to subsequent harmonious relations with Chaleur Bay, Cartier’s men met a group of Mi’kmaq, the Stadaconans. French attempts to establish a perma- with whom they traded iron goods for furs. They then nent settlement at Quebec City in 1541-1543 failed due came to the Gaspé Peninsula, where they planted a cross to the harsh climate, an outbreak of scurvy and, most to take possession of the land and encountered a group of importantly, the hostility of the Iroquoian peoples, who Iroquoians from the Quebec City area (the Stadaconans). killed approximately 35 of the French. Other explorers Cartier set an unfortunate precedent by kidnapping the met with a similar fate. In 1577-1578, for example, the two sons of their chief, Donnacona, and taking them Englishman Martin Frobisher had several skirmishes back to France. with the Inuit while navigating along the coast of Baffin Island searching for the Northwest Passage.

The wave of European exploration and colonization was only beginning. In the second half of the 16th Century, Basque, British and French fishers, drawn by the fish stocks of Newfoundland’s Grand Banks, established seasonal outposts on the coasts of Labrador, the Island of Newfoundland, Acadia and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Alongside their fishing and fish preservation activities, they developed trading relations with the Aboriginal peoples. Copper cauldrons, iron knives, axes and arrowheads, glass beads, mirrors and clothing were traded in exchange for the Aboriginal peoples’ beaver pelts, which were used in Europe to make felt hats.

French Crossbowman French crossbowman around 1541-42, wearing the white and black livery of the members of the Cartier and Roberval expedition to Canada. Reconstitution by Michel Pétard (Department of National Defence)

16 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 17 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars - CHAPTER ONE settlement settlement in the St. Lawrence valley at Quebec City. Swe and Holland England, decades, two next the Over coast. Atlantic the along settlements established also den the and trade fur lucrative the powers, European the For establishment of settlements gradually superseded the Passage. Northwest the for quest In 1608, Champlain founded the first permanent French French permanent first the founded Champlain 1608, In launched purely commercial expeditions to the region. expeditions commercial purely launched the on monopoly crown a granted been having 1604, In fur trade, de Monts began trying to establish trading hired He City. Quebec at and Fundy of Bay the in posts the Samuel geographer de Champlain for the purpose. Saint-Malo merchants were soon attracted by were soon this attracted merchants new Saint-Malo economy and, in the late 16th men Century, such as François du Pont-Gravé and Pierre du Gua de Monts 18

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL enemies. Like with them and take them and with apparently Iroquois,who the with war nomadicat were nations network in spent the rest spent surrounding trading rela promised gonquin, plain formed a trading and military alliance with the Al- In 1603, when he spent the summer in Tadoussac, Cham- ( Algonquin,for place gathering summer a only were Lawrence St. the of shores the therefore,1600s, early the In origin.European ofepidemics by perhaps YorkNew State now is what in River Genesee the and River Hudson the between land the occupied Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga – who and Seneca) been decimated by a long war with the Five Nations (the had theyappear would It there.longer no wereearlier IroquoiansthatCartier hadencountered someyears50 Valley.Lawrence St. theThe occupyingpermanently his settlement at Quebec City, no Aboriginal nation was intertribalconflicts. timetheChamplainAt established pre-existing by determinedlargely were Century 17th French relations with the Aboriginal peoples in the early Alliance-building but also Montagnais offered to help them make peace with their In ( Innu to send forces to help them defeat the Iroquois the St. Lawrence Valley. To establish solid wanted to secure access to the emerging trade tions with the Algonquin speakers Quebec, ) of the year hunting in the interior.the Thesein hunting year the of n te loqinntos They nations. otherAlgonquian and Montagnais sides in the conflict. Champlain chose to ally himself ally to chose Champlain ) and Malecite nations. He Innu – and – importantly, Huronia to Then, in 1616, Then, Algonquin, and soldiers French several with along Iroquois, the against raids in part took he 1615, and 1610 1609, In allies’war. his in involved become and promises his renewed the alliance and was soon called upon to honour Champlain 1608, in returned he Whenenemies. their the Iroquois and preferred that Champlain make war on with peace make to refusedland,’ they their ‘people to French the for prepared were they while clear: was and to peacefully settle the land. The Aboriginal response tradepromote to way best the wasAboriginalpeoples believed that establishing a general peace among all the all administrators of New France after him, Champlain from other nations in the Great Lakes region. obtainedtheythatlarge fursCityQuebecquantities of graphic location, the Huron were able to funnel towards vital role as middlemen. Because of their strategic geo- Simcoe in what is now the province of Ontario, played a concentrated in the area between Georgian Bay and Lake IroquoianconfederacyanHuron, thewhich France,in fighting, a flourishing trade network developed in New concluded a peace treaty in 1624. During the lull in the sides two place.Thetook still occasionalraidsthough clashes between the Iroquois and the allies of the French, major no were there years, 15 following the During establish the first mission there and, most and, theremission first theestablish Innu ( to cement the Franco-Huron alliance. missionaries and soldiers were sent to Montagnais ) and Huron warriors. Huron and 19 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars - CHAPTER ONE Sioui and José António Brandão have sought to challenge challenge to sought have Brandão António José and Sioui the for arguing interpretation, War Beaver the or refine motiva- collective a as war mourning the of importance of introduction The aggression. Iroquois underlying tion peoples indigenous the which against diseases infectious Aboriginal many affected powerfully antibodies no had that suggest Estimates Iroquois. the including societies, up to one half of the population of the St. Lawrence and the Valley Great Lakes region was decimated by 17th the of half first the in origin European of epidemics territory of the Iroquois Five Nations was not particularly particularly not was Nations Five Iroquois the of territory ideally not location geographic their and in beaver, rich suited to on capitalise the fur burgeoning trade. This by a of has number been articulated scholars argument by upon elaborated and Parkman Francis with beginning believed they Essentially Hunt. George and Innis Harold increase to war, of means by seeking, were Iroquois the Euro- obtain could they so pelts of supply of sources their dominance gain to rivals their eliminate and goods, pean action of courses three goals, these secure To trade. the of between middlemen to become to them: available were new to conquer nations, Aboriginal and the Europeans in riverbanks the along wait in lie to or grounds, hunting to travelling convoys Aboriginal rob and ambush to order Iro the interpretation, this Under posts. trading French the Wars.’ ‘Beaver the as understood be to came Wars quois George Richter, Daniel as such scholars recently, More The fur trade was likely a factor in these conflicts. The a in conflicts. was The these fur likely factor trade - to determine the precise causes of these ‘Iroquois Wars,’ Wars,’ ‘Iroquois these of causes precise the determine to for which flared much repeatedly of the next 70 years. It appears that economic, cultural and political factors involved. all were the the French found that the war between their old allies had situation the However, resumed. had Iroquois the and carrying were who Iroquois the now was it and changed difficult is It Lawrence. St. the of valley the in raids out The Iroquois Wars of service the in were who brothers, Kirke the 1629, In Val Lawrence St. the of out French the drove England, 1632, in France New of possession retook they When ley. of alliances were now established in north-eastern North North north-eastern in established now were alliances of America and they would govern military relations for years. 150 next the lasted lasted from 1615 until about 1630, since the Iroquois nation Algonquian an Mohegan, the fighting busy were posts. trading Dutch the to access their blocking was that the land, their from driven been had Mohegan the Once Iroquois made an alliance with the Dutch giving them direct access to major European networks goods. Two trading post called Fort Orange near Iroquois territory, on on territory, Iroquois near Orange Fort called post trading development This Albany. of city the of site current the played a significant role in the period of relative calm which French, the of allies the and Iroquois the between Meanwhile, Meanwhile, in 1609, the Dutch began frequenting the a established they 1614, In River. Hudson the of shores 20

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL Iroquois policy in the early 18th Century: New France, made the following observations about the writers noted. For example, Denis Raudot, Intendant of tions in north-eastern America, contemporary European that they hoped to become ‘one people’ with all the na- Iroquois frequently asserted throughout the 17th Century their key role as mediators among the other nations. The themselves exercising a degree of authority by virtue of ance would be developed, within which the Iroquois saw alli- Iroquois.vastA the of land the on neighbouring extend peace, by diplomacy or by force, to all the nations alliancean amongFivetheNations, Leaguethewould Constitution. It stipulated that, in addition to establishing dation of the Iroquois League, which was essentially its ambitions are clearly expressed in the myth of the foun- ambitions, the quest for power over other nations. These hegemonic goals:political broader by also but dead, parently motivated not only by the need to replace their ap- was groupsentire capture Iroquois’ to Thedesire captives in a single raid. thousand a than morecapturingsometimes dead, their massively amplified ‘mourning wars’ in order to replace deaths, it seems plausible that the Iroquois engaged in a Century alone. In response to this unprecedented wave of to them.to Theysent them presents andthemost other nations to surrender and give themselves They devoted all their energies to inducing the carry ableto get French authorities to establish a general peace among peace general a establish to authoritiesFrench the by attempts to and France New in trade fur the to threat serious a were region Lakes Great the and ley against the Aboriginal nations of the St. Lawrence Val Iroquoisthe by waged warsclear, however,the is that It degrees.varying to and another or point one at role highly probable that all of these factors played a decisive is It wars. Iroquois the for cause sole a factors, these and the Innu( Algonquin,the with alliance his bydestroying the League of Five Nations. He renewed all for andIroquoisproblemonce thesettle decidedto Champlain 1632, in colony the to returned he When increasingly involved in the conflict. became therefore French The peoples.Aboriginalthe against It wouldItfutilebe attempt to singleto out,from among financial they would become the masters of other men. wished to surrender and disperse to their cabins, contrarytheythe on cruellestiftorments; but those who fell into their hands would suffer the they would be unable to avoid destruction, and tell them that if they did not give themselves up, skilful people of their nation to lecture them and the Huron and again pledged to support them support to pledged again and Huron the out his plans. He had to settle for supplying his allies his supplying for settle to had He plans. his out their enemies. However, the colony had serious problemsChamplaintimeandtheat never was France to provide the soldiers he needed to needed he soldiers the provide to France Montagnais) - 21 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE In In 1639, In In a secret and Algonquin had very few few very had Algonquin and ) Montagnais Merchants therefore flocked to the trading post post trading the to flocked therefore Merchants the the French, fearing that the weapons would Innu ( Innu everywhere, emerging unexpectedly and attack- and unexpectedly emerging everywhere, French and Huron Algonquin, Montagnais, ing indiscriminately. The Iroquois also sought to split the Franco-Aboriginal Franco-Aboriginal the split to sought also Iroquois The the with peace separate a negotiate to tried and alliance some some be day used against them, restricted the sale of because because was was that the Iroquois had obtained firearms. the Dutch ended the on monopoly the fur trade at Fort Orange. and, despite repeated government prohibitions, began to By firearms the selling 1643, the Iroquois. Mohawk were equipped with nearly 300 muskets, while the Huron, French excluding the other Aboriginal nations. Two 1645. in other the and 1641 in one made, were attempts Though these efforts were in direct with contradiction the French desire to establish a general peace among Franco- a to led ultimately they nations, Aboriginal the which was Iroquois treaty, ratified in 1645. agreement with the French, the Iroquois succeeded in excluding from the treaty all Aboriginal peoples who lasted peace the While Christianity. to converted not had only a year, it did have the effect of undermining the alliance. Franco-Aboriginal of balance the in shift sudden the in factor decisive The French the of allies the and Iroquois the between power takes takes its place. They are small, well-armed contingents that are constantly moving so as ambushes prepare and river entire the occupy to large large contingents at certain times during the year this but free, river the left then and summer they have changed their purpose and divided into small detachments of 20, 30, 50 or 100 at most, along all the passages and places on and when the one river, leaves group another In previous In years, previous the came Iroquois in fairly In the 1640s, the tide gradually turned against the Franco- the against turned gradually tide the 1640s, the In changed Iroquois the thing, alliance. one For Aboriginal testifies: account Jesuit a as tactics, military their back back alive to Quebec City to be tortured. In 1638, the hundred a than more capturing in succeeded also Huron others. many killing and Iroquois on on the Iroquois up to the late 1630s. In 1636, for ex- Algonquin ample, warriors organized a raid into Mo- and Iroquois 28 killed they which during territory hawk brought were whom of five others, of number a captured economic difficulties continued after Champlain’s death death Champlain’s after continued difficulties economic sup- properly to able never were French the and 1635 in 1660s. the until allies their port the Despite from modest support the the French, allies losses heavy inflict to and war the continue to managed with weaponry such as iron arrowheads and knives. The The knives. and arrowheads iron as such weaponry with 22

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL than flight, and arquebuses, won an easy victory at Saint-Ignace: Iroquoissurvivors,the byspot.accounts Accordingto Brébeuf, the two Jesuits in charge of the missions, on the de Jean and LallemandGabriel burningSaint-Ignace, Saint-Louisandvillagesof destroyedthe attackedand Jesuits. In the following year, nearly a thousand Iroquois some 700 Huron, mostly taken captive, according to the village of Saint-Joseph was overwhelmed with a loss of moved following repeated In Iroquois1648, theattacks. 1647 and subsequent years, several Huron villages were the systematic destruction of Huronia in the late 1640s. In Better armed than their enemies, the Iroquois undertook Catholicism. firearms to Iroquois], as themselves to be tied The enemy burst in at the breaktheday,at ofenemyburstin The so but terrible than death. morecruelty to doomed and captive taken or and children were either massacred on the spot only 10 Iroquois killed, and all the men, women town was taken almost without resistance, with Therefore,occurring.the was whatrealize to everyone was sound asleep and had no chance the place before we could put up a defence, since secretly and suddenly that they were masters of Aboriginal people who agreed to convert to the Huron, if they are encountered [by the The Jesuits reported that ‘since they have no commonly occurs, have no defence other if they are taken captive they allow and massacred like sheep.’ 1649, the Petun, a nation living south of Georgian Bay, followed.thatInwars the Iroquois inthe ofpower the The Huron were not the only indigenous peoples to feel finally settling at Lorette (Wendake) in the 1690s. d’Orléans and moved frequently in the following years, Île originallyonsettled groupformerrefugees. The as colony, while the rest of the nation dispersed westward French the City,in Quebec at settle to decided Huron Christianhundredseveral of group a 1650, In famine. major a in died hundred several winter following the thousandsrefugetookduringthere,Huronwhoandof theisland was too small to provide for the needs of the fled to St. Joseph Island in Georgian Bay. Unfortunately, others still whileneighbours, Erie and Neutral Petun, League of Five Nations, others took refuge among their es and disperse. Many decided to surrender and join the population decided to abandon the land, burn their villag- the Neutral, who as their name suggests had remainedhadsuggests name their as whoNeutral, the Michigan. The Iroquois then turned their assaults against foundrefuge on the shores of Green Bay, west of Lake andwestward flee toconfederacy decidedthe in lages vil- eight other the fate, same the suffer than Rather destroyed.besiegedyears,andwas 10about living for been had Jesuits several whereSaint-Jean, of village sheltered many of their refugees, were also attacked. The which had supported the Huron against the Iroquois and demic diseases, shattered Huron morale. The remaining with divisions within Huron society and despair of epi- These repeated hammer blows by the Iroquois, coupled 23 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE f necessary. f i at Onondaga, the capital of the Iroquois League. Iroquois the of capital the Onondaga, at l'Incarnation in 1650. The colony was also in a pre- their own terms. They demanded that French soldiers French that demanded They terms. own their mission and returned to the colony, deetermined to con- to deetermined colony, the to returned and mission For three years, peace reigned between the French and French the between reigned peace years, three For circumstances to negotiate a peace with the French on on French the with peace a negotiate to circumstances In 1653, the Iroquois took advantage of the favourable the of advantage took Iroquois the 1653, In from the trade, which by itself had been almost enough almost been had itself by which trade, the from lands. As a result, a French outpost was established in 1655 1655 in established was outpost French a result, a As lands. policy towards the Five Nations, abandoned their new their abandoned Nations, Five the towards policy Salières Regiment, composed of 1,500 regular soldiers regular 1,500 of composed Regiment, Salières the young king decided to take matters in hand, declared hand, in matters take to decided king young the -arms of force by peace, a impose and Iroquois the font would have to return to France,’ wrote Sister Marie de wrote Sister have to return to France,’ - would londer able to defend itself against Iroquois incursions. - londer able to defend move into their villages to defend them against their against them defend to villages their into move ambushed by the Iroquois. the by French ambushed defenceless The who no longer dared frequent the colony for fear of of fear for colony the frequent dared longer no who up the St. Maurice River and attacked the Attikamekw Attikamekw up the the and River St. attacked Maurice in their own territory, which had appeared to be virtually virtually be to appeared had which territory, own their in encampments. entire destroyed and inaccessible, to provide for the colony's needs, New France was no to provide for the south, further Erie, the attacked Iroquois the 1657, and Val Lawrence St. the in Even dispersed. also they who In success. 1651, significant achieved the Iroquois ley, travelled had warriors Iroquois that reported Jesuits the their within residence a build Jesuits the that and enemies quois. Armies of 1,200 to 1,500 Iroquois economically. carious position another warriorsthen and 1650 of fall the in village one no Since Aboriginal traders destroyed to the St. Lawrence Valley, the fur longer dared travel survi- Neutral the Petun, the Like winter. following the in sharply after 1650. Without the revenues returns declined being risk than rather westward disperse to preferred vors 1653 Between by the Iroquois. and tortured massacred between Montreal and sparing Quebec neither City, settlers who ventured to into who the New France a crown colony and sent the Carignan- hunt ventured settlers nor woods those neutral neutral in the conflict between the Huron and the Iro being nais, Laurentian region (Algonquin, Attikamekw and Montag and Attikamekw (Algonquin, region Laurentian for for New France. In military terms, the French found deprived they were only not isolated: totally themselves of the assistance of the Huron — who had changed their the Iroquois. But in 1658, the French previously Iroquois of part western the on pressure constant exerted the in allies Algonquian their of that also but — territory The string of Iroquois victories had serious consequences consequences serious had victories Iroquois of string The settlements settlements became a favourite target the of of France, the When Louis XIV ascended to the throne Iroquois. Between 1650 and 1653, they struck everywhere situation in New France changed considerably. In 1663, working working the fields. ‘The have Iroquois wreaked such havoc in these quarters that for time we believed we under the command of Alexandre de Prouville, Marquis Prouville, de Alexandre of command the under we believed we time for that quarters these in havoc de Tracy, to secure peace with the Iroquois. They landed at Quebec City in the summer of 1665 and began build- ing a series of forts on the Richelieu River, the Iroquois’ main route to the St. Lawrence Valley. They also orga- nized two major expeditions against the Iroquois. The first, consisting of 300 men from the regiment and 200 volunteers from the French colonies, left Quebec City on 9 January 1666. The results were disastrous. The soldiers were ill equipped for a winter campaign: most had no snowshoes or did not know how to use them, and were poorly dressed for ‘a cold that greatly exceeds the severity of the harshest European winter.’ In addi- tion, the army set out hastily, without waiting for its Algonquin guides, who arrived late at the meeting place. This mistake was fatal for the troops, who had to take unknown routes and constantly went off course. The soldiers quickly lost their way. After wandering around the Lake Champlain area for three weeks, they finally arrived at the Dutch village of Schenectady and were happy to receive assistance from the local merchants. During the five-week expedition, nearly 400 soldiers died of hypothermia, hunger and disease.

After this catastrophic campaign, the French realized how dependent they were on their Aboriginal allies to wage war in North America. In October 1666, a second expedition was launched against Iroquois villages, and this time a hundred Aboriginal men were present along with 600 French soldiers and 600 French-Canadian Canadian on snowshoes Canadian on snowshoes going to war over the snow at the end of the 17th century. This is the only known contemporary illustration of a Canadian militiaman. Library and Archives Canada (C-113193)

24 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 25 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE coureurs de bois coureurs The nations the French encountered with war at all almost were around Michigan Lake and SuperiorLake other. each occasionally and Nations, Five Iroquois the 1660s and 1650s the in lands their fled had them of Most and had taken refuge from the Iroquois further west. external an as French the of arrival the welcomed They who arbiter, had powerful weapons and could protect visited Salle La de Cavelier adventurer the When them. the Potawatomi for the first time in the 1670s, they the with alliance an forming for reasons their expressed The Treaty of 1667: the Rebuilding Franco-Aboriginal alliance The Franco-Iroquois peace lasted 15 years. It was a succeeded France. French New The for growth of period in the Great of alliances system their in re-establishing Lakes region. Since the destruction of Huronia by the Iroquois in 1650, only a few intrepid Groseillers had dared venture into the region to seek new trading After partners. the 1667 the treaty, route to the Great Lakes became much safer and it was not region. the in The appeared travellers French before long new for looking area, the conquer to out set also Jesuits convert. to souls a established they 1665, in Beginning was first The Haut.’ d’en ‘Pays the in missions of series called Saint-Esprit and was located at Chagouamigon Superior. Lake on such as Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médart Chouard des des Chouard Médart and Radisson Pierre-Esprit as such When the Mohawk realized that that realized Mohawk the When ratified ratified the peace treaty in Quebec City in July 1667. Andaste, the with war at were Iroquois the time, the At treaty the Signing Pennsylvania. in nation Iroquoian an not they would have to meant with the fight on French once. at fronts two League prompted the French to continue their incursions incursions their continue to French the prompted League territory. Mohawk into of of the Iroquois Five Nations (the Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga and Seneca) since 1663. The arrival of the Regiment Carignan-Salières spurred the negotiations in nations four of the by each ratified were treaties and Mohawk the 1666. of and 1665 refusal outright the But the of rest the by opened discussions the in part take to own their on them attacking of capable were French the finally and yield to decided they villages, their in lands, also also hunted to provide provisions for the troops. This reached finally first, the than prepared better expedition, To weeks. two for marching after villages Mohawk the the dismay of the French, the however, villages were deserted.con- than rather retreat to opted Mohawk The content to had French The army. French large the front and crops, fire to villages their setting with themselves City. Quebec to returning before The French had been in engaged peace talks with four volunteers. These Aboriginal allies served as guides and and guides as served allies Aboriginal volunteers. These 26

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL aainscey atclryo iiaypatcs In Canadiansociety,military particularlypractices.on peoples in the region had a profound impact on French- The prolonged contact between the French and Aboriginal selves in our favour.’ them- declared they and wars their in them supported wefriends; themselvesdeclaredour they interestsand common their took we sides; both on cemented was union the …imperceptibly lands their intopenetrated Franco-Aboriginalthe of hadalliance: French…‘The atthe end ofthe 17th Century, described the formation colony the in stayed who Potherie, La de Bacqueville historian The allies. new their arm and alliance their and distributed firearms liberally as gifts to both confirm did not make the same mistake they had with the Huron, French The gift-givingdiplomacy.ofdigenoussystem in- the though ingratiatingthempresents, them giving began French the Iroquois, the fight to nations these Toencourage them.with alliancemilitary and mercial nations (often described as enemies) and to form a com- mediation, they sought to establish peace among all these of policy their with keeping In colony.the of defence peoplesexcellent trading partners and new allies in the Aboriginal among found French the part, their For has brought you to our land.’ and youlights that Sun the Praisedbe men.protectall iron.makeyou for spiritsfirst the‘You words:of these one in areFrench Youandrule must who one the are guerrilla tactics: contemporarya chronicler, wasableprevailto usingby outnumbered French-Canadian militia that, according an to by back beaten were they 1690, in City Quebec of art the of practitioners capable become the had Century Canadians 17th the of end the by intermixture, battles alongside their Aboriginal As allies. a result of this runningfoughtmobile,and more be toorder in light French-Canadians‘began wearing moccasins, travelled According to historian Arnauld Balvay, in the 1680s the the Aboriginal peoples, the settlers refined those tactics. tradingGreatLakesregionandextensivelythe to with Iroquois attacks. frequent more counter to tacticsallies’guerrilla their adopting began settlers French the 1650s, early the who were all in one body. peoplewhereaslittle,firedaccurately theyon them disturbed them at aimed volleys furious the soenemy, tree,andthefrom tree toabout constantly flew people our as hour an than forced it to fall back. The shooting lasted more and way battaliongive one made Theyranks. tight in was which British] [the body large order,littleSavages, this the ofmanner the in with attacked and platoons small of number a intoFrench-Canadians] dividedwere[The la petite guerre petite la When they started making regular trips .’ When the British attacked attacked British the When .’ Most Europeans were derisive of such relatively blood- less sport. It was “more of a pastime than to conquer or subdue enemies,” Captain John Underhill of Mas- sachusetts Bay concluded after observing one such engagement. However, Europeans were less likely to witness the more common and more deadly raiding and ambushes that characterised the indigenous way of war across the continent. In the northeast woodlands and elsewhere, the advent of European firearms would quick- ly render such open field combat too costly according to indigenous cultural norms of war. After 1609, most observers reported that Aboriginal people did ‘not know how to fight in open country,’ and accounts of Aboriginal warfare usually described hit and run military techniques, which the French called ‘la petite guerre.’ This was es- sentially a form of guerrilla warfare, the primary goal of which was to inflict casualties, capture prisoners and take scalps, while suffering as few losses as possible. To do so, the warriors generally moved in small groups and took pains to catch the enemy unawares or encircle it, while eluding the same tactics by the other side. They took advantage of the terrain to remain concealed and ambush the enemy, or slipped into a camp by night to surprise the occupants in their sleep. Once they had achieved their objective, the warriors retreated before Iroquois Warrior with musket, c. 1730 This man wears aboriginal clothing but is armed with a French military a counter-attack could be mounted. musket, acquired either through combat or trade, a war axe with an iron blade and a small scalping knife hung around his neck. Note While it suited conditions in the forests of North Amer- the bayonet on the musket – although aboriginal warriors adopted European weapons, they did not adopt European tactics and were ica, Aboriginal guerrilla warfare was far removed from more likely to engage in hit and run ambushes than in stand-up, close quarter fighting. Library and Archives Canada (C-003163)

8 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 28

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL swords and even firearms to fight the Abenaki. made use of French weaponry such as metal arrowheads, had established trading relations with the Mi’kmaq, who Massachusetts, inhabited the region. By 1604, the French with the Abenaki who lived in neighbouring Maine and Mi’kmaq, an Algonquian nation that had hostile relations which Royal), thebecame centre of the Acadian At colony.the (Annapolis time, the Port-Royal to moved Thefollowing year, it inwas 1604 on Île Sainte-Croix. Maritimesthe settlementinFrench first the builtplain between the Mi’kmaq and the Abenaki in Acadia. Cham- waged being was war anotherregion, Lakes Great the ValleyLawrence and St. the in colony French the of While the Iroquois Wars were shaping the development Abenaki Wars, 1675-1678 and 1687-1697 Aboriginal relations. Anglo-inintermediaries as role a and market British the to accesspreferred Iroquois the guaranteed also It mutualassistance thetwoalliesby the event inwar.of for called Chain,’‘Covenantit the as Known Dutch. the with pactprevious their to similarBritish the with the And with war their in 1677, when the Iroquois experienced serious difficulties were cut off from their political and commercial allies. In ish seized control of New Holland in 1664, the Iroquois after the Franco-Iroquois treaty of 1667. Other groups also reorganized their network of alliances aste, they formed an alliance an formedthey aste, When the Brit - In 1654, Acadia fell to the British. The French did not not did French The British. the to 1654, In fell Acadia mon front against the Iroquois. Druillette visited the Abenaki to enlist them into a com- the proposed alliance until 1651, when the Jesuit Gabriel of came nothing time, that at assistanceconcrete with Abenakithe provide to unable was Champlain Since nations. their betweenfriendship close a propose and Quebec City to seek Champlain’s aid against the Iroquois to travelleddelegate Abenakian when 1629, in made commercial and military alliance. The first overture was the Abenakiopentonegotiations withtheFrench fora theMi’kmaqand betweeninducedthe itAbenaki, and This Iroquoisdevelopment raids. helped reduce tensions of targets the became Abenakithe and Mi’kmaq the the Iroquois and the nations of the St. Lawrence Valley, AfterAcadia thechanged 1624 quickly.treaty between in situation geopolitical the however, 1620s, the In quickly became firmer. Abenaki alliance, which had been shaky up to that point, French settlers married Aboriginal women. The Franco- of population male largely and small the of number a of missions among the Abenaki and the Mi’kmaq, while number a foundedRécollets the and Jesuits the years, Penobscot River (now In Castine,the the followingMaine). of mouth the at territory Abenaki in post new a established they and 1670, until territory the recover 29 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars - - - CHAPTER ONE During this conflict, the French sup French the conflict, this During When When the war that the Abenaki had with the to of with- many decided them began, English draw to the land inhabited by the French …. nations namely Two principally, those called the Sokoki and the Abenaki, carried out this plan and set out at the beginning of summer 1675. year Trois- the for in headed Sokoki The … Abenaki the and settled, they where Rivières, Sillery. called place this to withdrew plied plied Abenaki the and the Mi’kmaq with weapons to fight the British, supported them in some battles, and popu The war. the fleeing refugees in take to continued lation of Sillery grew so rapidly that the mission soon became overcrowded. Abenaki One group, primarily from Maine, settled at Sault de la Chaudière near Quebec and City, then moved again to the mouth of 1700. in (Odanak) from River Abenaki François St. the their as to chose (known the relocate Sokoki) Vermont the of shore south the on (Wolinak) Bécancour to village St. Lawrence River. Like the Iroquois missions, these Charlevoix policy. Father French served villages Abenaki Following King Philip’s War, the British began encroach began British the War, Philip’s King Following ing Abenaki and on Mi’kmaq land. Settlers from New England started fishing off the Acadian coast, seized Aboriginal hunting grounds, and built forts there for defence. In 1687, another warWilliam’s – often War – calledresumed King between the British and groups. Aboriginal Some took refuge at Pentagoët with Saint-Castin and his his and Saint-Castin with Pentagoët at refuge took Some Valley Lawrence St. the to travelled others while allies, with- had who community their of members joined and after 1660s, the in Sillery in mission Jesuit the to drawn wars. the Iroquois of the a arrival recorded The Jesuits refugees: of number large between the British colonies of New England and most most and England New of colonies British the between of the Algonquin nations on the east coast of North The Mi’kmaq. the and Abenaki the including America, colo- British the of expansion the was war the of cause destruction lands. the with Aboriginal ended It into nies and Massachusetts in nations Aboriginal the of most of and Connecticut, the exodus of Abenaki. thousands of where he acquired considerable political power. political considerable acquired he where to English the reference (in War Philip’s King In 1675, whom against chief Wampanoeg the Metacom, of name the Plymouth Puritans initiated hostilities) broke out awando, awando, an Abenaki chief important of the Penobscot the and Saint-Castin between relations Initially, nation. a after But nature. commercial purely a of were Abenaki Abenaki, the among settle to decided Baron the years, few that developed between the French and the Abenaki dur- Abenaki the and French the between developed that with Canada to came who soldier young period. this A ing d’Abadie Jean-Vincent Regiment, Carignan-Salières the woman Aboriginal a of lover the became Saint-Castin de named Pidianske, who was the daughter of Madock- The Baron de Saint-Castin exemplified the close alliance alliance close the exemplified Saint-Castin de Baron The 30

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL condition for peace, The Abenakichiefdemanded, a as French.thementto opposition to British colonial expansion and their attach- peace with the Abenaki, the latter clearly expressed their seekingBritishwerethewhen1697, In date.thatuntil lasted that Franco-Aboriginalalliance the of core the at Frenchwastheand1760Regime ofin enduntil the persistedBritish the to hostilityAcadia,InAboriginal against English settlers. freelyallowingrange while southtowarriorsAbenaki the to enemiestheir fromsecurity providinginterests, the English to resume the war.’ They also served Abenaki Iroquois, in case those Savages should be persuaded by settlement,thisingbarrierfashion againsttoawas the reported that ‘the Governor General’s intention, in creat- .That they [the Abenaki] did not see on 2. what by begin Governor] British [the he That 1. his generals. take orders from anyone other than him and being forced to do so, and they would never FranceKingtheoftowillingly withoutand themselves given had they that been, ever predecessorshad his of any nor he neither master,their be thatto claimedgrounds he forever. land their from English the withdrawing their frustration: reportedby the Jesuits in 1670, expressed the extent of comments, chief’s Iroquois An ambitions.hegemonic Iroquois to counter directly ran however,which tion, media- of policy French the by irritatedparticularly captives and to increase their supply of furs. They were take to desire a of out war the resumedIroquois the new ally of the French. It is likely that, as in the 1640s, French robbing began nation)League’swesternmost (the eca the Iroquois broke out again in the 1680s, when the Sen- After15-yeara lull, hostilities between theFrench and 1684-1701 Wars: Iroquois Resumption ofthe 3. That they would never allow the Englishto theallow never would they That 3. our people who escape the cruel fires, they make when every day, according to what we hear from and lands, these allacross God of word the peoplesdiscoveredspreadto go whothose by the protectionall his under take to claims he How does he expect us to recognize them, when and leave his Whoallies arein peace.his allies? hatchets our down lay to us wants he war: to nor] take us for? He is angry that we are going They ask, who does granted this permission to the French alone. have habitations on their lands and they had coureurs de bois coureursde Onontio and attacking the Illinois, a Illinois, the attacking and [the French Gover- 31 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE that they killed more than 80, whose heads they back, brought not counting the wounded escaped. who Our Our battalions were quickly split into small groups, which ran in all in directions a dis- orderly jumble, not knowing where they were shooting of instead other each at shot We going. confused so were we Finally, Iroquois.… the at our when clubs, with us upon fell enemy the that back them pushed together, gathered Savages, villages their to zealously so them pursued and The Denonville expedition, like that of the Marquis de of that like the Marquis expedition, The Denonville Tracy two decades was earlier, only a half-victory for the French. the the French Seneca, When they reached troops troops found the villages abandoned: ‘The only ben- efit was we from that this we obtained great enterprise a caused great which countryside, the entire waste laid to them of many caused and Iroquois the among famine soldier, launched an attack against the Seneca in the Seneca 1687, an against attack launched soldier, important an played peoples Aboriginal again once and role in the campaign. This time, at least 300 “mission and Indians” 400 another from the Great Lakes region militiamen. and soldiers French 1,800 alongside marched to who the took de part Baron According in Lahontan, the expedition, the allied warriors came to the rescue of the French troops when they fell into an Iroquois ambush: coureurs coureurs de never been anything but enemies to us? to enemies but anything been never new discoveries and enter into nations that have have that nations into enter and discoveries new . suffering end: in the a was failure expedition The Meanwhile, thanks to Meanwhile, their new with alliance the Brit- late the in Andaste the vanquished had Iroquois the ish, support the with and removed pressure 1670s. that With sign a peace treaty with the Iroquois that was ‘shameful’ ‘shameful’ was that Iroquois the with treaty peace a sign allies. Illinois his abandoned he and France New for to France. was recalled La Barre failure, this After His René successor, Brisay de Denonville, a professional expedition, expedition, along with a hundred French bois from fever and short of provisions, the French troops to forced was territory. Barre Iroquois La reached never launched an attack against the Seneca, 378 “mission In- “mission 378 Seneca, the against attack an launched Algonquin, Abenaki, Iroquois, including warriors, dian” his accompanied Lorette, from men Huron and Nipissing 680-man contingent. About Aboriginal 1,000 warriors from the Great Lakes region were to expected join the role. Among other things, they took part in many expedi- many in part role. took they things, other Among villages. Iroquois against French the by organized tions In 1684, when the Le Governor, Febvre de La Barre, of the British, the Iroquois were now able to resume their their resume to able now were Iroquois the British, the of allies. their and French the against raids — allies Aboriginal the conflict, the of phase new this In and Valley Lawrence St. the in missions at living those important an played — region Lakes Great the in those 32

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL and Sokoki from Trois-Rivières,Frenchaccompanied from Sokoki and Algonquinand Chaudière, la de Sault from Abenaki Iroquois territory. In January 1693, Huron from Lorette, struck back by launching more military expeditions into French the raids, the to end an putting of hope the In killing or capturing the inhabitants. VerchèresJésus,— Île Chesnaye, La — everywhere warwithattheFrench thetime. at TheIroquois struck France, armed and encouraged by the British, who were years, numerous small Iroquois war parties invaded New burn at the stake some of In theirthe followingcaptives. and torture withdrawingto beforehomes and barns to French dead and 70 prisoners. The Iroquois also set fire and 120 taken prisoner, to conservative estimates of 24 killed French 200 fromcontradictory: are figures alty surpriseby dawn,at while theywere asleep. Thecasu- 1689. About 1,500 warriors took the French inhabitants 5 AugustMontreal,on to Lachine,close ofvillage the villeexpedition launchingbylarge-scale a raidagainst Denon- the to responded point, that to colony French the attackingdirectly avoided had who Iroquois, The our allied Savages.’ Lahontan, ‘we are absolutely forced to have recourse to cannot destroy the Iroquois with our forces alone,’ wrote to wage war in the ‘Since forests we of North America. partnerstheirAboriginal needed they that before ever than French the to clearer was It subsequently.’perish the French demanded that the 300 prisoners be put to put be prisoners 300 the that demanded French the example, for villages,Mohawk the againstexpedition 1693 the After relations. cordialpreservedthey whom disinclinedNationsallyFivetheircousins,killwith to gener-wereMontagne La and Sault at livingIroquois The liesandsetlimitstheir oninvolvement thewar.in al-unconditionalnot were they Iroquois, the against French the supportednations Aboriginalsome While the villages, a practice that had become almost a ritual. had to content themselves with destroying the crops and withdrew before the arrival of the army and the French Iroquois the again, Once them. ledchair, a on woods who was 74 years old and had to be carried through the Onondaga and Oneida villages. Canadian militiamen mounted a last expedition against and soldiersFrenchapproximately 1,600 and warriors begun to master In guerrilla1696, 500tactics. Aboriginal Thisvictoryrevealed thattheyhad prisoners.than300 takingin threevillages surpriseby andcapturing more the French did not find They deserted succeeded villages. soldiers in a raid against the Mohawk. who were present were fiercely opposed to the plan: Saint-LouisseveralSaultIroquoisfromthe But home. death, so they should not become a burden on the journey to slay them, although they had promised to do for the prisoners and they would never consent The Savages argued that they were responsible The Comte de Frontenac, For the first time, 33 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE ited ited by the obstacles they in encountered all skilfully they that grand so was attempts, their insinuated themselves into the minds of many of our Allies, who had until then shown great for concern our interests. They began holding their Councils in without the informing secret Commander of Michilimakinak, and they necklaces. acceptedIroquois’ the of of munitions and we had supplied them with did English the that year; a than more for none if and Iroquois; the with manner this in deal not they way, this in them abandoning continued we Montreal. at seen be longer no would region], Lakes Great the [in nations the of Most at least the Huron, tired of attending to our The delegates. Iroquois the welcomed interests, policy [of the who Iroquois], were not dispir- Despite Despite these diplomatic manoeuvrings, the western allies played an important role in the Franco-Iroquois These were not empty threats, for the Aboriginal peoples peoples Aboriginal the for threats, empty not were These of the Great Lakes region conducted ongoing secret negotiations with the Iroquois on ending the war and joining their Covenant Chain. For example, in 1696 Canadian authorities contended that such negotiations were under way between the Iroquois, the Huron and nations: other possibly - According According to the French officer nal nal peoples] much more than we apparently intended to give them; that we had often as- short them leave not would we that them sured They readily promise what is asked of them, and and them, of asked is what promise readily They what to according it do to whether later decide know) always not do they (which interests their suggest. whims their or so … when they left Montreal … These sorts of of sorts These … Montreal left they when … so do. others as themselves govern not do nations that we generally promised them [the Aborigi- [the them promised generally we that The “mission” Iroquois proved to be much more useful useful more much be to proved Iroquois “mission” The dependent on these gifts for a steady supply of shot and and shot of supply steady a for gifts these on dependent powder, were quite dissatisfied and the French west allianceern faltered. In 1697, the Potawatomi chief Onanguicecomplained: distributions distributions of gifts. the all to presents large sent ‘We Catalogne, de Gédéon Iroquois the harass to them induce to nations Odahwah and divert them from their course.’ When the presents were lacking, these nations, who were increasingly The Aboriginal peoples in the Great Lakes region fought fought region Lakes Great the in peoples Aboriginal The not only because the Iroquois were their traditional enemies. French the because allies as served also They sustained their relationship through generous annual as diplomatic intermediaries between the French and the the and French the between intermediaries diplomatic as forth. and back proposals peace carrying Nations, Five 34

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL might of the French, who had carried the war to most to war the carried had who French, the of might Isolated, weakened and alarmed by the growing military France.New against war their in alliesBritishtheir of support the lost Iroquois the 1697, in British the and French the between war the endedRyswick of Treaty the addition,when In 1697.and 1689between half by fellpopulation Iroquois theepidemics, disastrous side As a result of the raids by the Great Lakes nations, along- wrote of the nations of the Great Lakes region: Potherie, who was in the colony in the late 17th Century, more than can The be historiansaid.’ Bacqueville de La on their hunting These grounds.’tactics ‘disturbed them gates of the Iroquois villages every day or harassed them than 800 men detached in small parties that were at the in 1692 alone, ‘all the Great Lakes nations … had more The colonialhundred authoritieswarriors. reported that quois in parties generally consisting of dozens or even a 1690s. late the Iroquoisin the ofdefeat the infactor main the were they Havard, Gilles historianwar. to According into the heart of Iroquois country. fire Moreover,and ironsurvive.carry to they they must make away from their homes in order expeditionshunting the all Iroquoison the in support and shield. They are the ones that rein willcatastrophebea forCanada. They are its interestsit our abandon nations these When They conducted a flurry of raids against the Iro - the Iroquois were forced to accept conditions dictatedconditions accept to forced were Iroquois the Montreal on 4 Historians Augustlong argued1701. that of their villages, the Iroquois signed the Great Peace of British conflict. the Iroquois promised to remain neutral in any French- In exchange forby thisdiplomatic undertaking, means. obtain reasonable satisfaction for the victim of the attack before committing troops to a conflict he would seek to raids The againstGovernor them.agreed, specifying that their continued region Lakes Great the from peoples French Governor pledge to defend them if the Aboriginal the that demanded they things, other Among French. years, the Iroquois wrested major concessions from the to the signing of the treaty, which lasted more than five Inthe theFrench negotiations and the thatIroquois. led betweencompromise a essentially was 1701 of treaty the fact in But surrender.Iroquois an as Peace Great thedescribed evenWilliam andhaveJenningsEccles, Francis as such writers, Some 1701. in French the by Franco-Aboriginal alliance. the threaten and reaffirm both helped that conflict a Century. 18th the into British, the and France between peace of periods the during even France, New of history military the in role decisive a play to continued wars Aboriginal Fox Wars,1712-1714and1730-1735 The Fox War is a good example of example good a Waris Fox The Expedition against the Iroquois, 1695 Count Frontenac, Governor of New France still active at the age of 74, is seen here carried in a canoe during the expedition he led against the Iroquois in 1695. Library and Archives Canada (C-6430)

CHAPTER ONE 35 36

The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL dsry h o. Vaudreuil,‘destroy’ the Fox.whose people were at war them help to westward soldiers send to Vaudreuil, de RigaudGovernor, de Philippethe asked frequently allies Aboriginal France’s years, following the In prisoner by the allies. taken or killed were Mascouten and Fox 1,000 nearly siege,19-day the During refused.he but timesseveral assistance for Detroit at commanderFrench the asked and laid siege to the Fox and the Mascouten. The latter Miami, Illinois, (Huron, Potawatomi …) joined region forces with thethe Odahwah in nations the of Most Odahwah. the against counter-attack a mounted and them defended who Fox, the among Detroit at refuge Mascouten, close allies The of Mascoutenthe Fox.took mounted and in 1712 a group of Odahwah attacked the quickly nationsdifferent the Tensions between bours. neigh-newtowardstheir Fox the attitude ofarrogant the by aggravated were and resurfaced then quarrels gathered.Ancientalready was communityAboriginal close to the French fort of Detroit, where a heterogeneous village their moved Fox the 1710, In peace. the keep and nationsthese between in step to able werePerrot, well-known some 40 years, however, influential figures, such as the had hostile relations with many allies For of the French. the French in At the the latetime, 1660s.the Fox nation They came into contactthat with still bears their name. TheFoxlived southeast ofLake Michigan onthe river coureur de bois and fort commander Nicolas were therefore forced to send troops west in the hope the in west troops send to forced therefore were Fox] were reduced to suing for peace, although there although peace, for suing to reduced were Fox] the fusiliers, two canons and a grenade mortar, they [the by firesteady of coverundertrenches digging of days the Louvignymain Fox reported village. that ‘after three rine Laporte de Louvigny, an officer of the French soldiers and 350 Aboriginal warriors led by Louis 450 some 1716, In Fox.recalcitrant the overawing of Frenchthe against and Illinois, the particularlyallies, the against raids their resumed however,soon Fox, The villages.’ yourgriefcauseinandpainmuch andtimelong a last may that war a wage to than it grant to fitting more be would itbelieve I peace,for you ask Fox the … ‘if and to alleviate the conflict, suggesting to his allies that mediate to tried initially time, the at British the with Therefore, ‘after having [unsuccessfully] attempted the foundered on the Aboriginal refusal to cease hostilities. consistentlyefforts Their region. Lakes Great the in peace restore to order in diplomacyattempted again money,’Frenchwithout theand troops without state, with the Savages [did] not suit [the] colony in its current ‘war thatKnowingFrench. the Illinoisand theagainst country entirely at peace,’ the Fox continued their raids this ‘left have to 1716 in claimedLouvigny Though and more than 3,000 women.’ ably shooting were who fort the in warriors 500 were , travelled as far as Wisconsin, where they attacked coureursbois de . The CanadianauthoritiesThe . Troupes de la Ma- 37 The Arrival of the Europeans: 17th Century Wars CHAPTER ONE You may well believe, my Lord, that the Savages Savages the that Lord, my believe, well may You have their policies as we have ours, and they fear for destroyed nation a see to reluctant are French the show They next. come will turn their dif- altogether behave then and eagerness great the on this of evidence recent have We ferently. for mercy for asked who Odahwah, the of part the Sauk, although it was in their interest to avenge the death of their people and of their Chief. Grand The The Governor added: ‘The Savages generally fear the French but they do not like them and nothing of what sincere.’ is French the to exhibit they warriors who accompanied the 84 French to Iowa (mostly Iroquois) refused ‘mission’ to fight once they fail. to expedition the causing destination, their reached the of Governor the Colonies, of Minister the to letter a In de Charles La explained de Boische Beauharnois, day, terms: these in people Aboriginal the of motives the In all, nearly 1,100 fighters (of whom whom (of fighters 1,100 nearly all, In mination to annihilate the Fox people was excessive and and excessive was people Fox the annihilate to mination alongside fight to refused nations the of Most deplorable. to hunt and peace in ‘live to preferring army, French the [feed] their women The and Aboriginal few children.’ others were tortured or adopted by their enemies. their by adopted or tortured were others against mounted was campaign French a final 1735, In the Fox. the however, In allies, the of eyes the western Fox had for punished been their sufficiently arrogance and deter- the French to neighbours, their and hostility their enemies, who gave them no quarter, quickly inter- quickly quarter, no them gave who enemies, their Fox 500 than more battle, the of end the At them. cepted some captive, taken been had others many and dead lay the while imprisoned be to France to sent were whom of only about 100 were French) gathered to lay siege to the the to siege lay to gathered French) were 100 about only Fox. The Fox attempted to negotiate several times but Saint-Ange, de Groston Robert commander, French the After refused. more than one month of siege, the Fox but night, stormy a of cover under out sneak to attempted joined by Aboriginal people from nearly all the nations nations the all nearly from people Aboriginal by joined Huron and Iroquois as well as region, Lakes Great the in living at the missions and the Sauk and former Wea, Fox. the of allies ‘entirely destroy’ the and ‘entirely destroy’ ‘exterminate’ Fox. In 1730, when the Fox were on their way to take refuge among Illinois of group a by intercepted were they Iroquois, the them forced and combat in them engaged who warriors, to hole up in a makeshift fort. The Illinois were soon gentle approach,’ the gentle approach,’ French resolved in the 1720s to Chapter Two

38 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 39 The Imperial Wars CHAPTER TWO -1748) and the Seven Years’ War War Years’ Seven the and -1748) The expansionist policy of King Louis XIV of France led led France of XIV Louis King of policy expansionist The English- an and France between War William’s King to Dutch-Austrian alliance in the late 17th Century. The with beginning Americas, over into the spilled conflict 1689. in Canada in Frontenac de Comte the of arrival the initial plan The was Governor’s to conquer the British He hoped colony that of this York. New would isolate and the force Iroquois them to stop their raids on New France. in arrived When Frontenac New France it was too late in the season to carry out this plan and he had projects. ambitious less for settle to French imperialism. They also continued defending interests. own their King William’s War, 1689-1697 The British colonies were confined to a to confined were colonies British The developments had little direct influence on already-existing alliances, alliances, had on little direct influence developments already-existing conflicts over but Aboriginal ancient new were superimposed rivalries them. overshadow to came gradually and After 1689, imperial rivalries between France and England began exert- began England and France between rivalries imperial 1689, After ing an increasingly significant influence on North American politics. King King politics. American North on influence significant (1702-1713), increasingly an Succession ing Spanish the of War the (1689-1697), War William’s 0 (174 Succession Austrian the of War the antagonisms. External European from primarily stemmed all (1756-1763) Iroquois chief between 1760-1790 Reconstitution by G.A. Embleton [Parks Canada] and geo-strategic and weakness, geo-strategic the French had to rely on Aboriginal their allies. Largely thanks to them, New France was able to survive until 1760. supported While the French in Abori- their battles, however, they ginal peoples did not become mere instruments of than 1.5 million. 1.5 than France New while coast, Atlantic the along strip narrow the became what to Louisiana to Acadia from stretched demographic their for compensate Prairies. Canadian To France France had approximately 12,000 inhabitants, while the British colonies to the south had a population of more than 250,000. Seventy years at later, the time of 70,000 only still was population Canada’s Conquest, the more was Colonies Thirteen the of that while habitants, In In 1689, at the beginning of the imperial wars, New The Imperial Wars Imperial The 40

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 41 The Imperial Wars CHAPTER TWO The work advanced with such speed that … by by … that speed such with advanced work The the next morning … we would have arrived by trench at their palisades and set them on and found also had we tar of barrel a with fire this Seeing materials. combustible other some apparatus coming near and being unable to flag white the raised British] [the … it prevent surrender. to not greatly experienced in the art of laying siege siege laying of art the in experienced greatly not to a place. They did not stop working vigor- ously and by good fortune they had found in earth. moving for suitable tools forts abandoned The trench was opened on the night of the 28th 28th the of night the on opened was trench The were Savages our and Canadians Our May]. [of In addition to these major expeditions, Aboriginal groups groups Aboriginal expeditions, major these to addition In villages on border raids individual small launched also in the British colonies, from which they brought back fear fear of falling into the hands of 200 English … who detachment, third the with up it.’ joined pursuing It were from Abenaki 60 and French-Canadians 50 of composed Quebec from out set had who mission, Saint-François the City for the Casco Bay area in Maine. Abenaki Other from Acadia joined the group. In the end, 400 to 500 warriors and 75 marched French-Canadians together on Fort Loyal and laid siege to the According to post. account, one small forts, took 54 British prisoners and ‘withdrew for for ‘withdrew and prisoners British 54 took forts, small - conciliatory attitude towards these resident Iroquois. The The Iroquois. resident these towards attitude conciliatory 25 and of 25 French-Canadians consisted party second from Sillery. Algonquin and Abenaki It headed for the settlement of Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, where it arrived on 27 March. The contingent attacked three made made to understand that our argument was only with the The English.’ large number of “mission” Iroquois the for accounted undoubtedly troops French the among to the sword, and all who tried to defend themselves were were themselves defend to tried who all and sword, the to killed. Only 50 old people, women and children man Schenectady. Schenectady. The allies arrived on 9 February in the middle of the night and launched a surprise attack on the ‘The inhabitants: war cry rang was sounded in the once.’ at attacked everyone and Savages the of manner put was garrison entire the aflame, set were houses The survived. and escape to aged were who Iroquois Thirty in at the were the ‘They village time were also spared: nal nal warriors attacked British villages and forts. Their tactics wed surprise attack and siege warfare and in tactics anguerrilla Aboriginal of combination effective European techniques. The first detachment, composed left French-Canadians, 114 and warriors Iroquois 96 of of due to and the south headed village attack Montreal expeditions against the British colonies of New England. England. New of colonies British the against expeditions Under the leadership of officers French-Canadian of Hertel as such Jean-Baptiste de la Marine, Troupes the de Rouville and Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville, parties composed of both Canadian militiamen and Aborigi- In the month of January 1690, the French organized three three organized French the 1690, January of month the In 42

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL La-Magdelaine Albany, Peter Schuyler, of against Mayor the fort the at La by Prairie-de- year following the launched was war parties did, however, take part in the second, which involved.beenhave toappear Aboriginalnot do allies indigenous which in 1690, in City Quebec against France. New againstexpeditions two launching by responded Bay,Schenectady,BritishCascothe and FallsSalmon on attacks the After British. the against colony the defend helped also French the of allies the Finally, warriors. Gédéon de Catalogne reported: soon overwhelmed by the effectiveness of the Aboriginal were butsettlers, British the amongterror sowing and aged the practice with the aim of weakening the British scalps and sold The themFrench to encour-the French. able news [about the British colonies]. the countryside, 10 écus, in order to have reli- Boston or Orange [Albany]) and for those from werethatthoseis,(that capturedécus around paid for scalps but for each prisoner we gave 20 wasprice low a thatsay to ischanged,which nothing. Therefore, the order was subsequently learn could we whomfrom scalps, often and field the in parties had always weresult a as écus10for each scalp theybrought back, and Mr.FrontenacEnglish,promisedthem dethe reconcilewith to not Savages our Toinduce The first was an impressive naval expedition naval impressive an was first The . Agroup ofOdahwah, Algonquinfrom the settlement. Meanwhile, the Mi’kmaq attacked the attacked Mi’kmaq the Meanwhile,settlement. the (now Bristol, Maine), after which they pillaged and razed PemaquidFort of out British the driving insucceeded them’ betrayed often so had who man, children would … ever make [peace] with the English that ‘neither they, nor their children, nor their children’s vowingMaine, of coasttheAtlantic settlementsalong encroachment and War In 1688,broke the out. Abenaki responded to British Algonquians and the British even before King William’s In Acadia, hostilities had resumed between the maritime warriors. Nations 270 New and Five Yorkand 150 Mohegan militiamen approximately of contingent enemy mixed a repel to French the alongside fought Saint-Louis Sault from Iroquois and Lorette from Huron Témiscamingues, joined by several Abenaki from Pentagoët, River,John St. the fromMi’kmaq that reported was it British boats that came to fish along their coasts raid on the English; as they proceededalong they as English; the on raid a for 70 ofnumber the tocanoes in out set … lishmen as prisoners. Eng- 7 of crew her held and board, on found livres,they1200which or 1000 amountingto money and merchandise all of her pillaged river,Pentagoet into prize their took Indians vessel which they attacked and captured …. The English small a encountered they coast the set out to attack most of the Britishthe of mostattack to out set . In 1692, they 1692, In . In 1696, - The conflict between the French and British was super- The War of the Spanish Succession, 1702-1713 imposed on the ancient rivalry, creating a new dynamic in the war waged by the Mi’kmaq and the Abenaki. For The War of the Spanish Succession was in some ways example, the Mi’kmaq, who proved skilful in privateer- a continuation of King William’s War. In 1700, King ing, began appearing as buccaneers on French ships. Charles II of Spain died without issue and ceded his crown Thanks to the missionaries and the settlers who were to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV. To pre- now living in Aboriginal villages, the French were able vent the French and Spanish thrones from being unified, to turn Anglo-Aboriginal hostility to their advantage. The Baron de Saint-Castin in particular played an important role in the war, so much so that the New England settlers called the conflict ‘Saint-Castin’s War.’ In the winter of 1690, for example, he urged his Abenaki allies to join with the Franco-Aboriginal force attacking the village of Casco Bay. Then, in 1695, he persuaded the Abenaki and the Mi’kmaq to join Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville’s fleet and lay siege to Fort Pemaquid, which the British had just rebuilt. Among other things, the indigenous men prepared the way so the French troops could pull the canon and mortar from the ships to the fort.

While the alliance with the French lent the Aboriginal nations support in their own war with the British, it was also at times an obstacle to the promotion of their inter- ests. For example, in 1693, Abenaki chiefs attempted to negotiate a peace with the British but the French made every effort to sabotage the talks, inducing their Aborigi- nal allies to take up the hatchet again.

Mi’kmaq warrior c. 1740 Reconstitution by Francis Back. Fortress Louisbourg [Parks Canada]

CHAPTER TWO 43 44

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL they had Tono intention solidifyof leaving.their rights which and of,dispose to right no hadFrench the view their traditional territories in the treaty, lands that in their were furious upon learning the French had surrendered Both Mi’kmaq and Abenaki to its ‘ancient boundaries.’ according England to cededAcadia Utrecht of Treaty the 1713, in ended war the When hands. British into fell town the andsuccessful was 1710, in attack,third 1708.A and 1707 in Royal Port on attacksBritish the a raid on the village They of also Haverhill.helped repel Abenaki joined 100 French and 220 mission Iroquois in 60 1708, In Massachusetts.andMaine in Britishposts attack to continuedAbenaki the years, ensuing the In began to redefine Aboriginal conflicts. conflictagainstthewill.their declaring war on the Abenaki, who were thus drawn into Iroquois, the British authorities immediately reacted by troops were made up primarily of Canadians and mission join him. Although few of them heeded his call and the to Abenakithe encouraging stronglyyear, following the England New Wellsin and Casco of villages the on raid a organized Vaudreuil de Rigaud de Philippe neutral. Deprived of his valuable allies, French governor remain to intentthetheir 1702,voicedAbenaki of fall the in NorthAmerica reached war the of news When ance and declared war on France on 13 May 1702. England, the Netherlands and Austria renewed their alli- Imperialrivalriesslowly set up a few posts in Acadia. over their newly conquered territory, the British rapidly intheir waters in1715: they captured nearly 40vessels but the Mi’kmaq began boarding British vessels fishing 1722,until anew flair notThe didAnglo-Abenaki war the Abenaki and Mi’kmaq. 2,000pounds tofund the distribution ofannual gifts to of fundspecial a up set evenking French the 1716, In British. the with hostilitiesMi’kmaq and Abenakiof rekindling a to led provocationsBritish and agement lived among the Nova French Scotiaencour- Mi’kmaq). Abenaki of Narantsuak, and Father Antoine Gaulin, who (including Father Sébastien Râle, who lived among the Acadia in missionaries their through and so, do to In time, they were withable the Abenaki and Mi’kmaq. recover and thus attempted to rebuild their relationship to day one hoped theyterritory into expansion British with happy not were Frenchpeacefully. However,the pricesensured thattheygreeted theBritish settlements fur competitivemore for desire and French the with Prins wrote: Harrald anthropologist As 1722. and 1715 between Each summer, to the resentment of the French, encouraged by their Frenchtheirentrenchedallies by encouraged and Armed fleet. this harassed seafighters Nova Scotia coast. From 1715 to 1722, Mi’kmaq the off fished vessels England New 200 some At first the Abenaki anger Etow oh Kowan, an Iroquois Chief, 1710 In aboriginal, as in white society, political and military status was indicated by elaborate clothing and insignia. This Iroquois chief, prominent around 1700, is depicted dressed for formal occasion in a mixture of aboriginal and white garments. Note that he is holding a war club but also carries a decorated European sword in a scabbard, possibly presented to him as a ceremonial gift by either the French or English crowns. Library and Archives Canada (C-092421)

CHAPTER TWO 45 Mi’kmaq chief c. 1740 Reconstitution by Francis Back, Fortress Louisbourg [Parks Canada]

46 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 47 The Imperial Wars - CHAPTER TWO The Canadian and New York authori York New and Canadian The chief. You quarrel in God’s name and take up the the up take and name chief.God’s in quarrel You for hatchet petty things. on the other hand We blood see we unless hatchet the up take not do prevent To off. cut being heads and shed being up my father I am taking happening, from this hatchet and have asked Onontio’s my brother his take to York] New of governor [the Corlard and we shall bury them both in the pit where made he when them cast Onontio father late my peace. great the You Europeans are evil spirits, said one Iroquois Iroquois one said spirits, evil are Europeans You Further east the war went against the Abenaki. the the When against went war the east Further war finally ended in 1726, the Abenaki and Mi’kmaq British the recognizing British, the with treaties signed territory. Aboriginal on settle to right Franco- the by affected seriously was Massachusetts While mostly was York New of colony the attacks, Aboriginal war. the by spared remain to hostilities of outset the at agreed informally ties neutral. This agreement primarily served the interests by negotiated was fact in and peoples Aboriginal the of dragged being avoid to wanted likely who Iroquois, the to raids face and having by the British the conflict into by the and French again. their allies As they explained governor: French the to guerrilla guerrilla campaign based out of the Green Mountains. - Settler penetration into the inte the into penetration Settler ever was deemed valuable, including the cargo cargo the including valuable, deemed was ever of dried fish, they would bring their spoil to sale. for settlements French were were easy targets for surprise attack. Falling would try Mi’kmaqs to board upon their prey, the vessel and surprise the crew. Rather than to preferred Mi’kmaq the fishermen, the killing take them alive for ransom. what- Plundering about 60 marines.about coasts their along Cruising in or shallops, their paddling sometimes swift canoes, they for searched ketches and schoo- when Especially ports. distant from hailing ners in anchored some cove, these British vessels at Cape Breton, they formed an intrepid force of of force intrepid an formed they Breton, Cape at fighting, with the western Abenaki sagamore Grey Lock Lock Grey sagamore Abenaki western the with fighting, effectively sweeping settlers from what is now New effective highly a with Vermont of parts and Hampshire them British subjects, one Abenaki chief replied that ‘the ‘the that replied chief Abenaki one subjects, British them to as him; of belongs what can dispose of King France for him, he had his land, where God had placed him, he alive, nation his of child one was there as long as and it.’ keep to fight would It must not be supposed that these Aboriginal warriors were were warriors Aboriginal these that supposed be not must It French. the On of behalf on mercenaries as simply acting their protect to seeking primarily were they contrary, the lands. their and interests own to tried British the When made of Utrecht Treaty the that Abenaki to the explain rior and into Abenaki lands Abenaki was rior and the spark into for renewed 48

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL with the GreatwiththeLakesnations, hopingdestabilizeto the hand, took advantage of the peace to establish trade ties interest in the east coast The British,fishery. on the other Canada against possible British invasion and protect their Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). They hoped to defend military establishments ever built in North America, on French built the fortress of Louisbourg, one of the largest Tothat rivalry. compensate for their loss of territory, the of illustrationclear a is Acadiainto expansionBritish making to encourage the Mi’kmaq and Abenaki to resist America continued unabated. Governor Vaudreuil’s deal- perial ambitions and the Anglo-French rivalry in North However, peace did British not colonies. extinguish im- the and France New between conflict no was there years, 30 For 1744. until peace at remained England Withthe TreatyofUtrecht, signed in1713, France and 1740-1748 Austrian Succession, War ofthe and purchase goods it otherwise could not. since it allowed the colony to dispose of its surplus furs Canadian authorities turned a blind eye to the illicit trade, from Montreal merchants to the New York capital. The purchasedfursbringing startedIroquois the as ensued Albany and Montreal between trading clandestine commanded higher prices than in Montreal. Significant allowed them to travel freely to Albany, where their furs which the from truce, greatly benefited also St. Louis) Sault from those (particularly Iroquois mission The the mission Iroquois’ best interests lay in maintaining in thelaymission interestsIroquois’ best St. LouisSault would readily of remainvillage ‘the neutral.’ it, Obviously, put he As British. the fighting in interest of lack Indians’”“mission the of complained Beauharnois de Boische La Charles Governor 1745, porttheirof Aboriginalalliesfighting in theBritish. time,the French had great difficulty garnering the sup war.This into draggingAmerica again once England, Four years later, France joined Prussia and Spain against the throne of young Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. wantedwhich Prussia, on wardeclared Englandwhen 1740, in began SuccessionAustrian the ofWar The Peace of Montreal and the waning of Iroquois power. region, where many Aboriginals had returned Ohio to after the the into venture to began even traders British Franco-Aboriginal alliance, among Slowly, other things. sachusetts (Adams, Massachusetts). According to one to According Massachusetts). (Adams, sachusetts 300 mission and Great Lakes warriors against Fort Mas- Rigaud de Vaudreuil led a detachment of 400 French and ers in The thefollowing process. year, Pierre-François de attacked the village of Saratoga, taking a hundred prison- Abenaki. In the end, the party changed its destination and andIroquois mission 400 or 300 by joinedwere They Boston.’near coast the on ‘descend to Malgue La de Marin Paul of command the French-Canadiansunder 200 of party a assembledgovernor theenthusiasm, of lack the with Faced trade. fur lucrative their protect NewYork, couldof colonythey the so neutralitywith In - 49 The Imperial Wars CHAPTER TWO they came across across came they coureurs de bois de coureurs Charles Charles des Champs de Boishébert complained of an stop to years past these redskins the among ‘agreement out.’ it fight pale-faces the let and another one destroying in presence French to hostile turned communities Some any killing region, the goods. their seizing and an put Aix-La-Chapelle of Treaty the 1748, In October to the great Succession, Austrian of the end to War the fortress the recover to able were who French, the of relief of Louisbourg in exchange for the island of Madras, and in 1746, British the from captured been had which to attack the British at Belle Rivière over the winter.’ winter.’ A the over Rivière Belle at British the attack to and Pennsylvania the on launched even were raids few borders in Virginia 1744. But the willingness to assist the French quickly turned to hostility. Following the prevent to able were British the Louisbourg, of capture Lawrence. St. the entering Quebec from vessels French a scarcity in resulting off, cut thus were supplies City’s Lakes Great the goods. in trade Trade and ammunition of of price the and standstill a to brought quickly was region the addition, In skyrocketed. traders Aboriginal for goods annual the allies their give to able longer no were French giftson which they were increasingly dependent. Ac- peoples Aboriginal White, Richard historian to cording greed French of example ‘an as change sudden the saw subsequently were French alliance.’ The the violated that preferred who allies, their of support the garner to unable officer conflict. the French in 1747, In neutral remain to In 1744, Governor Governor 1744, In Beauharnois wrote that the Odahwah, Huron and Miami Miami and Huron Odahwah, the that wrote Beauharnois them to presented hatchet the up taken ‘had Detroit from Edward Edward Island) in 1746, when a 100 or so Mi’kmaq and 15 French managed to repel a British squadron of (now Joie La Port of post the capture to trying men 200 Charlottetown). near Adams, In the peoples Aboriginal appeared sym- Great Lakes, first. at cause French the to pathetic the citadel of Louisbourg, which the French had believed believed had French the which Louisbourg, of citadel the was impregnable. to the Hoping the fortress, recapture French launched two expeditions, with the assistance of Abenaki and but of Mi’kmaq, hundreds to no avail. (Prince Saint-Jean Île on success greater had allies The war against the British. Encouraged once again by their their by British. the again once against war Encouraged on sieges two in part took nations two the missionaries, of both 1745, and 1744 in Royal Annapolis of town the unsuccessful. were which captured British the 1745, In Mountains, for instance, were very reluctant to continue continue to reluctant very were instance, for Mountains, coming of fear for border, York New the along scouting League. the in brothers their with conflict into Only the Mi’kmaq and Abenaki were eager to go to the settlements and crops they could find within 15 leagues, leagues, 15 within find could they crops and settlements the as Even etc.’ tanneries, churches, mills, barns, including however, activities, military French the in part took they inter- their protect to trying were nations indigenous the from theIroquois The Sault ests. and the Lake ofTwo observer, ‘The party wreaked havoc, burning down observer, all 50

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL ewe aaaadLusaa Consideringmovethe betweenCanadaLouisiana.and contact maintain to Presqu’île) and Bœuf (Le region the in forts two builtFrench year, thesame That land. the on settlers place to hoping England, of II George pany and bought the rights to the Ohio Valley from King Com OhioVirginia fromspeculatorsthe landcreated order among the AboriginalIn 1753,‘rebels.’ a group of the territory, chase off the British traders and re-establish to Ohio in 1749, hoping to officially take possession of defend their interests, the French organized an expedition claimed they had conquered the region in the 1650s). To (who Iroquois the from 1744 of TreatyLancaster the in rights the acquired havingownership, claimed also TheBritish sayingtheyhaddiscovered the1680s. init The Frenchand well.claimed ownership of the territory, rivalry that had begun in the Ohio Valley remained alive bellum ante quo status the restored simply Succession, Austrianthe Warof Treatyof Aix-la-Chapelle,which hadput anend tothe The Europe. to spread then and NorthAmerica in out SevenYears’ theconflicts, previousUnlike War broke War,175 Years’ Seven of 1763. Lakes region and it paved the way for Pontiac’s uprising firstlarge-scale pan-Aboriginal movement in the Great the representedyears, few a just lasted had it though authority,French toopposition concerted and massive However,the Lakes. Great the in orderre-establish to in America; the Anglo-Frenchthe America; in Painting by David Rickman [Department of National Defence] National of [Department Rickman David by Painting combat. entering before activity traditional a face, his painted has warrior One European. mainly are weapons their but clothing aboriginal and white of mixture a wearing are They America. North of control for Britain as they may have appeared in the 1750s during the great struggle between France and Woodland people Eastern the of warriors and Chief a shows reconstruction modern This War Years’ Seven the of time the at Warriors Eastern Woodland 6-1763 - colonial practices: the fundamental difference between French and British one1754, mission Iroquois sought to persuade them of in region Lakes Great the from peoples to Aboriginal Speaking tion of the British and their policy.territorial percep- Aboriginal negative the was about-face the for reason main The time. this support their lend to hesitate not did theywar, previous the in French the While Aboriginalpeoples hadbeenreluctant defendto as the French and Indian War. thestart of the hostilities known in the British colonies broke out between the French and British troops marked that battle The rights. their secure and French the out the command of the young George Washington to drive an affront, the Virginians sent an armed contingent under our father and the English? Go and take a look differencethe knowbetweenBrothers, you do anything to give us shelter at night. felled, the land is cleared and we can hardly find game are forced to leave, because the trees are theEnglishas takepossession theland,ofthe easier for us to meet our needs, whereas as soon it make to only us frequentedby places these in placed been have they forground, hunting a still is walls their beneath land the that see will you and built has father our forts the at 51 The Imperial Wars CHAPTER TWO Initially, Aboriginal support gave the French an advan- wounding 977 men, while suffering light losses. Many tage over the British. In 1754, a group of 100 Aboriginal look at this battle as the classic example of the superiority men and 500 French captured a British fort in the Ohio of Aboriginal guerrilla warfare over traditional Euro- Valley (Fort Necessity) defended by about 300 soldiers. pean battle techniques in thick forest. Historian Peter The following year, an army of 1,500 British regulars and MacLeod writes: militiamen marched on Fort Duquesne on the Mononga- hela River, a tributary of the Ohio, to drive the French As the allied centre stabilized, the British out. A counter force of 637 Aboriginals and 263 French began to learn the limitations of grenadier tac- laid an ambush and routed the British army killing or tics in a forest. Formed in line, standing upright, they had gained a fleeting ascendancy over the French, but now presented a conspicuous target to enemies who had ‘always a large mark to shoot at and we having only to shoot at them behind trees or laid on their bellies.’ The field guns were silenced by the Aboriginals who ‘kept an incessant fire on the guns & killed ye men very fast.’

In 1755, France decided to send 3,000 ground troop reinforcements to the colony under the command of General Jean-Armand Dieskau. The move initially had little impact on the Aboriginal peoples, who continued to play a vital role in the fighting. That same year, for instance, 600 Aboriginal men, 600 French-Canadian militiamen and 200 French regulars attacked a British camp entrenched at Lake George, in Mohawk territory. The following year, 250 Aboriginal warriors took part in the siege of Fort Oswego on the southern shores of Lake Ontario, along with 2,787 French soldiers

Canadian militiaman Canadian militiaman wore short capots, leggings, breeches and moccasins when leaving on lengthy expeditions through the forest. Reconstitution by Francis Back. [Parks Canada]

52 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 53 The Imperial Wars At CHAPTER TWO of Aboriginal Aboriginal of savagery and perfidy and, by extension, when it their comes to massa- However, French allies. and French the between to choose little was there cres, the British during this period. For instance, in 1759, a the razed Rogers Robert by led rangers British of group Abenaki village of because Bécancour, its inhabitants diplomats. British from neutrality of offer an refused had During the raid, the rangers burned down the entire village, killing about 30 people and capturing five. who rangers, the by eaten were captives the of two least provisions. of short were the sidelines, unable to capture prisoners, take scalps or or scalps take prisoners, capture to unable sidelines, the when aside set not were frustrations Their booty. obtain honour the garrison surrendering the offered Montcalm of marching away with their arms, baggage train and warfare flying. European flags of formalities arcane The made no sense to them whatsoever. Hundreds of war- riors would stalk the column as it marched and away, accosted the panicked soldiers, and non-combatants in search of plunder and captives. This confused and dangerous scene included many killings, beatings and of out massively blown subsequently was but captures, a of claims wild with colonies, British the in proportion three hour slaughter of hundreds, perhaps more than a thousand men, women and children. and 67 Ian between Steele inthat his estimated event the of analysis recent 184 British were killed. The chaotic scene marked the symbol a became ‘massacre’ the deeply: psyche British - - skilled in the science and cunning of scouting; we know we scouting; of cunning and science the in skilled more about these woods and how to make war in the woods.disappointed.’ be not will you us, consult you If com- hand-to-hand no with warfare, siege style European on standing and disgruntled warriors indigenous left bat, know you are a grand master of this art, but we are more are we but art, this of master grand a are you know Indian” and 979 Great Lakes Aboriginal people (from a (from people Aboriginal Lakes Great 979 and Indian” soldiers French 6,753 accompanied nations) 32 of total William to lay siege to Fort (regulars and militiamen) Mar George. the Lake occasion, of that south On Henry and opinions the for regard of lack Montcalm’s de quis tactics of his Aboriginal allies offended them greatly. war of art the brought have you father, ‘My said: They from the world beyond the great lake to this place; we groans at having to make use of such monsters, but with- but monsters, such of use make to having at groans out them, we would be outnumbered.’ It was not long in held were they that realized peoples Aboriginal before “mission 820 1757, By officers. French the by contempt the regular soldiers recently arrived from France showed France from arrived recently soldiers regular the guerrilla Aboriginal for disgust on bordering indifference The de tactics. French officer Bougain Louis-Antoine were warriors Aboriginal that wrote instance, for ville, a necessary evil, adding, ‘What a scourge! Humanity However, However, while the Canadians (including Governor had always based their Vaudreuil) Pierre de Rigaud de military tactics on extensive Aboriginal participation, and militiamen led by General Montcalm, who had succeeded Dieskau. 54

The Imperial Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL following year, a squadron of 11,000 British soldiers was 22 days of siege, the town was forced to surrender. The nearlyafterassault,butthe Frenchin2,500about side James Wolfe in 1758. About 200 Mi’kmaq stood along of commandLouisbourgtheattack under to sent were 23,000whom13,000men,ofarmyof raise an to aged decided to invest huge sums in the colonial war. He man- year before, the British Prime Minister, William Pitt, had By 1759, the tide had begun toThe turn against France. French and Canadian societies. between opened had that gulf the of symptomatic are Vaudreuil’sMontcalmandFrance. respectiveattitudes militaryaffairsNewthe ofalwaysplayedin allieshad Montcalm, reminding him of the crucial role indigenous Vaudreuil, who reacted by issuing a severe reprimand to riors returned to Montreal and complained to Governor the devil if you’re not happy Offended,about it.’the war noitring in the enemy camp, telling them, ‘You can go to generaleven refused to allow the warriors to go recon- bodies? Go out behind the fort and you’ll see some.’ The see to only come you Did you. need longer no I here, you’re that ‘Now stating,greeting, his in ungracious Montcalmwas particularly thebattle was already over. When the soldiers.warriors from Sault St. Louis arrived, outagainst a siege by an army of nearly 15,000 British held just had and ChamplainLake on Carillon Fort at was further.Montcalmeven deteriorated had peoples andFrench relationsAboriginalthebetween 1758, By Library and Archives Canada (C-14827) Canada Archives and Library andwhitesources.aboriginal Notethecrucifix. both from derives has that ornamentation and jewellery with warrior himself adorned the and peoples Iroquois the of favourite a was gear head- style helmet The combat. to enter about by warriors favoured paint face yellow and black red, the wearing depicted is man This 1804 Stretton, by Sempronius Indian aMohawk of Bust - - ham, Aboriginal marksmen lay in wait in the bushes the in wait in laymarksmen Aboriginal ham, Abra- of Plains the of battle the At 1759. of fall the in CityQuebec surrender of the until them withallied French administrators, many indigenous nations remained certain of attitude arrogant increasingly the Despite points in New France’s defence network. ticipate in an attack on Fort Niagara, one of the strategic quois to take up the hatchet against the French and par- Iro theconvinced had Johnson 1759 by effectiveand superintendent for the north. The new policy was highly had influence with the Iroquois Five Nations, was made the southern colonies. Sir William Johnson, a man who were created, one forthe northern colonies and one for Twodepartments affairsmatter.chargetaketheand of centralizemanagementof IndianAmericanto decided had London 1755, City.In Quebec againstdispatched armies on the Plains. decisive action was the clash of regular British and French was minimal, things had changed in North America: the lying Butin waittheir inimpact the on woods.’ the battle irregulars and Indians ‘encountered troops retreating aftermaththe battle,theof Britishthe pursuedwho the theofFrench troops. oneAsFrench soldier reported in the assisted Canadianalso militiamen in They covering the retreat Amerindians.’ by fired were Abraham ofPlains the ofBattle the of shots first the of‘Some battlefield.MacLeod,historianPeterthetoAccording of flanknorthern the militiamenalongCanadian with - CHAPTER TWO 55 The end of the Franco-Aboriginal alliances

In order to weaken the French, the British tried to break the Franco-Aboriginal alliance and neutralize their war- riors. As early as 1755, William Johnson was sending messages to the Aboriginal peoples in the St. Lawrence Valley through the Iroquois League, encouraging them to let the British and French fight it out between them. The Aboriginal leaders politely refused Johnson’s invitation, however, saying they and the French were of the ‘same blood’ and they preferred to die with them.

Johnson made other overtures during the war to convince the mission communities to remain neutral, but it was not until 1760 that the allies finally agreed to lay down their weapons. At the time, over 18,000 British soldiers were converging on Montreal, the last bastion of the French in Canada. One force, under the command of William Haviland, was approaching via the Richelieu River; a second contingent, under the command of James Murray, had left Quebec City and was travelling up the St. Lawrence; lastly, General Jeffrey Amherst and William Johnson were leading a third army that Aboriginal Council, 1764 had left Lake Ontario and was travelling downstream by Following the victory in the Seven Years’ War, British authorities disregarded Johnson’s advice to continue the practice of giving annual gifts to the boat. Faced with such an overwhelming opponent, the Crown’s aboriginal allies. The result was unrest that culminated in the Pon- Aboriginal nations had no choice but to negotiate peace. tiac Rebellion of 1763. This illustration depicts one of the councils between On August 30, at Oswegatchie (or La Présentation, a aboriginal leaders and British officers which ended the rebellion and restored good relations with the Crown’s important allies. village of mission Iroquois established by the Jesuits in Library and Archives Canada (C-000299)

56 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 57 The Imperial Wars The CHAPTER TWO Whatever the case, when the Treaty of Paris Treaty the when the case, Whatever authority. was peace 1763, in War Years’ Seven the ended officially already well between established them and the British Canada. eastern in Johnson Johnson promised the Native peoples that they could on ground’ of spot the of possession peaceable ‘the keep religion their practise to continue living, were they which trade free ‘a from benefit and customs, their maintain and the ‘burry to agreed groups Aboriginal open.’ return, In French we hatchet made use of, in the Pitt, bottomless Posterity.’ our or us by more seen be to never For their part, Abenaki the and Mi’kmaq found them- after selves of isolated the in Acadians deportation the in 1758. 1755 and the fall of Louisbourg their Without make to but choice no had nations two the allies, French peace with the British, and did so in June 1761. destruction of the Abenaki village of Bécancour by Robert Rogers’ rangers two years earlier may have caused the Algonquians maritime to consider the fate awaiting them if they continued to resist British - Basically, Basically, by by that means came so near to the other two armies, that the enemy could attempt nothing further without an imminent risk of the city and habitants. etc., whilst the rest preserved so strict a neutrality neutrality a strict so preserved rest the whilst etc., that we passed all the rapids, dangerous and and opposition, least the without way whole the Some of these Indians joined us, rapporte [sic] [sic] rapporte us, joined Indians these of Some Johnson, and went upon parties for prisoners they they confirmed the Treaty of Oswegatchie. On September 8, 1760, to avoid fighting a hopeless Mon of surrender the signed Vaudreuil Governor battle, with met Canada of Nations Seven treal. the later, week A Johnson William once again in Sault St. Louis, where York), William Johnson met with representatives of the the of representatives with met Johnson William York), “mis- the all included which Canada, of Nations Seven sion Indians” in the and St. entered Lawrence Valley, them: with treaty a into 1749 on the site of the current town of Ogdensburg, New New Ogdensburg, of town current the of site the on 1749 Chapter Three

58 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 59 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE … … although you have the conquered French, your not are We us! conquered yet not have you slaves. These lakes, these woods, and moun- are They ancestors. our by us to left were tains, to them with part will we and inheritance; our none. nation Your supposes that we, like the – and bread live cannot without white people, pork – and beef! But you ought to that know, He, the Great Spirit and Master of Life, had lakes, spacious these in use, for food provided mountains. woody these on and Native peoples across the frontier. As one of the western western the of one frontier. As the across peoples Native counterpart: British his to explained chiefs This drastic transformation in Aboriginal relations with with relations Aboriginal in transformation drastic This the Europeans fostered a burning resentment amongst - of the continent altered the geo-strategic situation for Aboriginal peo- Aboriginal for situation geo-strategic the altered continent of the to failed War ples Years’ in the Seven north-eastern portions the of Northin victory America. Unfortunately for allies, Aboriginal its for and Britain create prolonged peace create in North America. Instead, Aboriginal com- munities were forced into a series of wars over the next 55 years, first against the British and later the newsurvival. their and lands freedom,their American Republic, for their The fall of New France and the end of French power in the interior Chief of the Ottawa nation, War of 1812 Depicted as he may have appeared at a formal council with British finely wears chief this war, the during Department Indian the of officers and aboriginal of mixture a with adorned is and clothing embroidered white jewelry. Painting by Ron Volstad [Department of National Defence] out out first consulting the Miami, or Ottawa, or Wyandot on whose land they settled. In other cases, shady and British by obtained were deals purchase land competing speculators. land the Thirteen Colonies, whose penetration of Aboriginal Aboriginal of penetration whose Colonies, Thirteen the fear by restricted been previously had area this in lands unchecked. in flooded now attack, Indian and French of with- cases some in farmsteads, out carve to began They In In 1760-61, with the French threat gone, British offi Aboriginal accommodate to obliged felt longer no cials This among evident was the wishes. particularly west- that valley Ohio the and Lakes Great the of nations ern from France. settlers with British allied traditionally had Shifting Relationships In Defence of their Homelands their of Defence In 60

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL of this resentment. He warned the Britishwarnedcommander-the He resentment.thisof Aboriginal affairs in British North America, was aware Department, the Crown agency created in 1755 to manage Indian the of superintendent the Johnson, William Sir ditional practiceHe viewedof givingthis gifts. practice reduce expenditure in North America by stopping the tra- to determined was Amherstbut serious, was situation the thatJeffrey Amherst,Major-General Sir in-chief, 61 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE The Pontiac 1763 Rebellion of reports and rumours widespread 1763, of spring the By suggested that the Aboriginal peoples were planning frontier. British rumours the These against offensive an was 1763 of Rebellion true. were Pontiac so-called The Aboriginal desperate by struggles of series a in another calculated calculated that a scarcity of supplies and ammunition British firm a with combined nations, western the among quiet. them keep would hand, as as mercenary; furthermore it was not his intention ‘to gain the of friendship Indians by presents.’ he Instead, Costume of Domiciliated Indians, c. 1807 of peoples aboriginal shows Heriot George by drawing 1807 this camp, fishing and hunting temporary a in Depicted weapons. and tools the clothing, By European and traditional of mixture a using and wearing century 19th early the in eastern of 1812 many of the aboriginal groups in fixed locations. Canada had chosen to live time of the War Library and Archives Canada (C-012781) 62

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 63 In Defence of their Homelands - This This CHAPTER THREE American American colonists, covetous of the rich lands of the light. same the in territory new this view not did interior, They saw it as an arbitrary attempt by Great Britain to limit their westward expansion. Britain Effectively, found itself fulfilling the role previously occupied by France as the barrier to American colonial expansion. across move to pressures settlement the out, turned it As and great, too were Territory Indian the into border the the ability to British government’s control the frontier Pontiac the followed limited. that too decade was the In restore restore the traditional distribution of presents. More shocked by the importantly, death and expense of war continental the of people Aboriginal potent still the with the interior, British crafted the Royal Proclamation of the established colony This document 1763. important rules and regulations establish to sought and Quebec of trade fur the in Indians the with dealings for conduct of deals. land in and between a boundary set it Moreover, the British colonies and a designated Indian Territory trespass. to forbidden were settlers White which into 1768, in Stanwix Fort at signed treaty, subsequent a and a established line from Oneida Lake, in northern New southward to York, the Pennsylvania border and then to southwest, and along the Ohio as River, the bound ary between non-Aboriginal and Aboriginal peoples. of nations the protect to intended were measures These gradual and peaceful a for provide and Lakes Great the frontier. the of expansion and and cohesion of his alliances dissipated. Sir William connected and York New northern of resident a Johnson, League Iroquois the of leadership the with marriage by the joined having people Tuscarora (the of Nations Six League in the 1720s), was able to conclude peace and killing up to two thousand in raids on farms and villages villages and farms on raids in thousand two to up killing summer. deadly that valley Ohio the in failure to seize Despite Pontiac’s elsewhere, successes power the and prestige his undermined gradually Detroit Michilimakinaw to the Ojibwa; Fort Edward Augustus Augustus Edward Fort to the Ojibwa; Michilimakinaw Venango, Forts and Ojibwa; and Wyandot Ottawa, the to La Boeuf and to Presque’Ile the Seneca and others. In midst, their in settlers the at out lashed warriors addition, results results stunned Aboriginal the British. Unexpectedly, British every almost overwhelmed and attacked warriors fort in the area: Fort fell Sandusky to the Fort Ottawa; Miami; the to Miami Fort Potawatomi; the to Joseph St. Fort Illinois; and Kickapoo Miami, the to Ouiatenon Fort signal for the warriors of all the allied Aboriginal people people Aboriginal allied the all of warriors the for signal across the Great Lakes-Ohio region to strike, and the culture culture against the pressure of European intrusion. In under together came nations western of alliance an May, was Pontiac. chief, target Ottawa primary the Pontiac’s Detroit. at Alerted region the in fort British principle the to his danger, the British commander managed to foil by subterfuge. fort the to take efforts Pontiac’s Pontiac siege. lay to but choice little with the left was was This peoples peoples to preserve their independence and territory, Sir William Johnson (1715-1774) was Johnson Department, Indian British the of Superintendent first The the and crown British the between alliance an securing in instrumental stead good in interests Six British of stood League that Iroquois Nations and American Revolutionary Wars. during the Seven Years Library and Archives Canada (C-005197) Rebellion, settlement continued to expand into what the Americans considered the Northwest, despite the Royal Proclamation. British efforts to control the frontier were the first of many measures, including increased taxation, which provoked widespread resentment and ultimately resulted in American civil unrest. American Revolutionary War, 1775-1783

The Thirteen Colonies moved toward an outright breach with the British in the 1770s. Initially, both sides hoped and intended that the Aboriginal people should remain neutral. Soon both were competing to recruit Aboriginal allies. Throughout the American Revolutionary War, Aboriginal military power in the Great Lakes area became a major consideration for British military lead- ers in the northern theatre. The major diplomatic efforts were directed at the League of Six Nations Iroquois, which had largely remained neutral in European conflicts since 1701. Although the League attempted to maintain its neutral stance, it was dragged into the conflict and torn asunder in its own civil war. Warriors from both the Iroquois League and the Seven Nations of Canada were instrumental in holding up a rebel offensive against a weakly defended Canada in the autumn of 1775. The delay forced the Americans to prolong their campaign over the winter and ultimately to face defeat at the gates of Quebec City. In the summer of 1777, a force of British regulars, Loyalists and warriors won a notable success at the battle of Oriskany, but Aboriginal allies Thayendanegea or Joseph Brant (1742-1807) A war chief of the Mohawk nation, Thayendanegea led aboriginal forces in northern New York during the Revolutionary War. Following the British defeat he brought his people to Canada to settle along the banks of the Grand River and was prominent in aboriginal diplomacy in North America until his death. Library and Archives Canada (C-011092)

64 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 65 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE As an officer of the Indian Indian the of officer an As Grounds. … … [They] look upon our conduct to them as never they me told they cruel: and treacherous could believe that our King could pretend to was what not his own America to to give cede … own their or Just they defend Rights would were they man, last the to attempt the in perish but a handful of small People but they would to preferable thought they which die men, like Hunting their of deprived if distress and misery This resentment was so strong that for a considerable period after 1783 British authorities feared that their former allies would attack them. Fortunately for the happen. not did this British, weary war of- British The the to compensation financial and Canada in land fered Loyalists. non-native to did they as Loyalists, Iroquois Brant, the Mohawk war chief, and Tekarihogen, the Six other and Cayuga Mohawks, 1,800 led chief, peace Nations people to a large tract of land on the Grand River north of Lake Erie, while John Deserontyon Europe by European and American statesmen, this treaty treaty this statesmen, American and European by Europe did not include a single reference to the Aboriginal it although conflict, the in participated had who nations Britain with allied been had who those of lands the ceded republic. American new the to Department reported to London, the Indians rightfully treaty: the of terms the by betrayed felt possessions and her former colonies. Negotiated in Licks – after the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown in in Yorktown Cornwallissurrenderatofthe after – Licks losses. 1781.fearsome suffered also peoples Aboriginal devastated were League Iroquois the of homelands The perhaps and 1779, in campaign punitive American an by the worst on depredation either side was the massacre by American troops of more than a hundred Christian Gnadehutten the at children and women men, Delaware 1782. in country Ohio the in Mission warriors his and Brant battle, of field the on Undefeated were appalled to learn of the terms of the 1783 Treaty inter- new a established and war the ended that Paris of national border between Britain’s NorthAmerican Pennsylvania. Little quarter was given on either side. conflictshiftedto largerthe offocus main the Although thesouthAboriginal in1780, Britain’sallies won two of their most notable successes – Sandusky and Blue For For the next five Aboriginal allies years, in Britain’s the north, led by the Mohawk chief or Thayandenaga, and campaigns of series a in participated Brant, Joseph raids against the border settlements of and New York led by Major-General John Burgoyne up the Champlain Champlain the up Burgoyne John Major-General by led at surrender and defeat Burgoyne’s autumn. that Valley the of side the on war the into France brought Saratoga rebellious colonies and the conflict broadened into a war. European general were were less decisive in assisting the doomed offensive 66

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 67 In Defence of their Homelands - One One CHAPTER THREE Instead Instead of being humbled by the Fort Washington (modernWashingtonCincinnati)Fort 1,400withregu lars and militia to invade the Miami nation. Within threeweeks,havingsuffered casualties,200thanmore he was back at his base, with nothing accomplished but the burning of a few abandoned villages. shattered. were victory a for quick hopes American brooded congressman ‘a horid [sic] Savage war Stairs [sic] us in the face.’ ditermined ‘appear Confederacy the expedition, Harmar [sic] on In a the early general War.’ summer of 1791, force, a larger assembled Clair St. Arthur Major-General viewed this region as its birthright, its inheritance, and needed the revenues from the sale of these lands to pay its substantial war debts. The stage was set for further conflict. The nations of the Northwest (the modern states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and Ohio) formed a new confederacy in 1786, which they American called ‘Theinfant The United land. their defend to Nations,’ Indian government, caught between a flood of settlers who intractability the and area Ohio the into move to wanted of Aboriginal peoples who wished to preserve that forcedwastheirmilitaryintoboundary,riveras action after the Native Confederacy attacked illegal settle- ments on their side of the river. In September 1790, Brigadier-General Josiah Harmar was orderedextirpate, ‘toif possible,’ the attackers. He set out from - The John John American officials imposed severe treaties on defending Canada against American invasion. Warriors in the field were often accompanied by officers of the British Indian Department who spoke their language and knew their customs, and who who and customs, their knew and language their spoke who Department Indian British the of officers Department Indian This commanders. military Britsh and leaders aboriginal between liaison as served uniformpatched and old and hat, slouch felt a wears and field the for practically dressed is officer boots. riding high than but rather action laced in and coatee,sword his for use little have would He retains it as a symbol of his rank. Painting by Ron Volstad [Department of National Defence] Officer, Indian Department. 1812 of During 1812, the the War aboriginal people of the Great Lakes area played an important role in defenceoftheir territory,and further from thecentres of White population, these Aboriginal communities refused to accept any change in the boundary of the establishedbeenhadthatRiver,Ohio1760s. the in victorious,nearlybutAmericanbankrupt, government Algonkian and Iroquoian-speakingAlgonkianand westfurtherpeoples Morenumerous,Ohiovalley. themoreunitedtheinin the war were conqueredwerewarthe peoples theirterritoryand was forfeit. the Iroquois still resident in the United States, forc ing them off their traditional land onto reservations. Ironically, those who suffered worst were the Oneida who and Tuscaroras had supported the revolutionaries during the war. Americans The had less luck with the the restraints stipulated in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix of 1768 were Americanremoved,governmentattitudethethe of was that those nations who had fought for Britain during Trouble in the Northwest, 1783-1794 Some of theAboriginal peoples who had been allied with Britain elected to remain in the new American republic, a choice many came to regret. As soon as Canada (created in 1791), hoped that these new Aboriginal Aboriginal new these that hoped 1791), in (created Canada possible against barrier active an provide would settlements south. the from aggression American established a smaller and separate Mohawk community community Mohawk separate and smaller a established on at Tyendinaga Lake Bay Ontario’s of Quinte. Upper of colony new the of governor the Simcoe, Graves 68

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL beyond measure,’ simply pulled back to reorganise: point, one witness recorded, the Ohio warriors, ‘irritated sited camp, the initial attacks were twice repulsed. At this badly the around pickets proper post to neglected had Wabash River. Although, St. Clair, old, sick and feeble, the of banks the on camp Clair’s St. attackedTurtle), the Miami under their warrior chief Michikinikwa (Little Confederacy’s war chiefs, the Shawnee, Blue Jacket and sunrise on 4 November 1791, 2,000 warriors led by the by a lengthy procession of Shortly camp after followers. Clair began to creep forward in September, accompanied St. Vice.’of species every andDebaucheries Idleness, offscouringsoflarge TownsandCities; enervated– by ing of recruits who one of his staff characterized as ‘the His militia. was advance delayed while 800 he trained an army consist- and regulars 1500 of consisting … a little distance, where separating into their Miles & many fell Victims to their Fury. Six for disorder,follow’dutmost Indians the the in universal,& becamenow Rout the fell, Men bravest their ofHundred a whichround Cannon, theirfrom driven were & confusion Command, being kill’d, the Americans fell into repuls’dlengthGeneralButler,at – secondin often as were but Bayonets, Fixed with times heavy fire, the Americans charg’d them several work, from behind which kept up a constant & & bags of Stores, which serv’d them as a Breast the Camp – they found it in a row of Flour Bags, almost&instantly possessiongot nearhalfof Leaders, they returned like Furies to the assault different tribes and each conducted by their own proposal, which Forit regarded as unwanted meddling. prisingly, the American government firmly rejected this the Mississippi, the Ohio and the Great Lakes. Not sur of an independent and neutral Aboriginal state between to mediate in the contest and suggested the establishment had retained its posts south of the border. Britain offered active military support were denied, even though Britain for requests their but Detroit, at officers Department the Confederacy received advice from the British Indian struggle,territory. itsAmerican Throughout attacking from refrained but years, two nearly for boundary ravaged the White settlements on their side of the 1768 Confederacy Northwest the triumph, that Following against the armed forces of the United States. peoplesAboriginal by victory greatest single the was warriors killed and wounded. The Battle of the Wabash Aboriginalartillery casualtieslost. were estimated at 50 wounded and all St. Clair’s camp stores and 21 pieces of When it was over, 647 American soldiers were dead, 229 the battle of Fallen Timbers in August. When British When August.inTimbers Fallen of battle the at victorymajor American the in culminatingattacks, Aboriginalof series a defeated and territory their into Major-GeneralWayneunderAnthonyadvanced army well-trainedAmerican and new a when 1794 in tered The Confederacy’s desires for independence were shat- continue to be the dividing line. River Ohio the that adamant remainedNorthwest the of peoplesAboriginalthe but conferences, of series a triedtoend the controversy over the boundary through eracy, and the Six Nations of Canada under Joseph Brant nearly three years, Britain, the United States, the Confed - - 69 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE Their 12-year 12-year Their Some fled to Canada, but most signed a signed most but Canada, to fled Some over over the border. For the the Aboriginal Confederacy, for them abandoned had British the despair: was result time. a second the ceded that 1795 in Wayne with treaty peace general government. American the to valley Ohio provided it but failed, had States United the against stand to Canada of Upper province for the infant time ample prosper. and root take ameliorated ameliorated with the signing of Treaty in Jay’s 1794. The British turned over the posts they had retained on American territory in return for guarantees that Brit- ish subjects and Aboriginal peoples could pass freely military commanders refused aid military commanders military to retreating disinte- to began Confederacy the warriors, Aboriginal between Britain and the United Tensions States, grate. which had come close to the point of troubles in the were seas, high the on matters maritime and Northwest The 1844 Snow-shoe Dance, Library and Archives Canada (C-006271) Tecumseh, His Confederacy and the Road to War

For nearly a decade after the battle of Fallen Timbers, there was relative peace in the Northwest. White settlers flooded into the area and the new American territories of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan and Ohio were established. By 1810, some 200 000 Americans lived in Ohio alone. The Northwest nations had not forgotten their humili- ation, however. They began to pay greater attention to an impressive young Shawnee named Tecumseh, who urged the creation of a single native confederacy stretching from the Canadian border to Spanish ter- ritory in Mexico that would be strong enough to resist the encroachment of the ‘Big Knives,’ as he termed the Americans. Tecumseh travelled ceaselessly, spreading his message to the Aboriginal peoples from the Great Lakes to the mouth of the Mississippi river. But while Tecumseh gave his listeners hope for the future he also advised them not to engage in warfare with the Ameri- cans until the time was right.

Not surprisingly the popularity of the charismatic Tecum- seh worried American frontier officials. Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory met with Tecumseh

Tecumseh (1768-1813) twice in vain attempts to reduce the increasing ten- The Shawnee Chief Tecumseh dreamed of forming a con- sion between the Aboriginal peoples and White settlers, federacy of all the aboriginal nations from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. He brought his followers to the British and he was both impressed and concerned: side in the War of 1812, but military reverses led to his death in battle in 1813. There is no known picture of Tecumseh but most The implicit obedience and respect which the specialists agree that this sketch, drawn from an eyewitness followers of Tecumseh pay to him, is really description of the man, is the closest likeness. Library and Archives Canada (C-000319) astonishing, and more than any other circum- stance bespeaks him one of those uncommon geniuses which spring up occasionally to pro- duce revolutions, and overturn the established order of things. If it were not for the vicinity of the United States, he would, perhaps, be the

70 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 71 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE the south, he moved a force of regulars and militia near near militia and regulars of force a moved he south, the Indi- Lafayette, modern (near Tippecanoe of village the Tenskwatawa brother, ana) established by Tecumseh’s or the Prophet. The Prophet was unable to restrain his warriors and sniping between sentries escalated into a pitched pitched battle that was won by the Americans. Many of the defeated fled to to theout set safetyhe 1812, in ofearly area Canada. the to returned When Tecumseh authori- American placate to and Confederacy his rebuild British of assistance the ties.sought he time, same the At officers of the Indian Department who listened to him partly because they were convinced that war between hand. at was States United the and Britain founder of an empire that would rival in glory glory in rival would that empire an of founder For him. deter difficulties No Peru. or Mexico You motion. constant in been has he years four see him to-day and on in the a Wabash, short or Erie Lake of shores the on him of hear time Michigan, or on the banks of the Mississippi; impression an makes he goes he wherever and He the is upon now to purposes. his favorable work. his to stroke finishing a put to round last In the autumn of 1811, Harrison decided to make a pre- a make to decided Harrison 1811, of autumn the In emptive strike against this latest Confederacy. In early to journey a on absent was Tecumseh while November, Which is Tecumseh? Pictured above are two varying depictions of Tecumseh. Theversion this but sketch sketch former at the on basedleft was Lossing depicts 1808. Benson in by Tecumseh drawn right in was at and painting traditional 1848 The dress depicts Tecumseh in the uniform of a British general as was the popular (but untrue) belief of the time. Also note that is pictured sporting a “nose Tecumseh ring” which was usually not depicted in drawings of aboriginal peoples of this period. 72

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL First NationsmightsubsequentlysupporttheCrown militarilyduringwarandconflictsotherthanwar. frontiers with the U.S., and their economic adaptations arising from these situations, influenced the manner in which and routes, communication and transportation garrisons, military centres, population and government to relation in proximity Their 1837-1838. of Rebellions the during again and 1812 of War the in interest Crown the in mobilized successfully were fighters River Grand groups, Anishinabeg neighbouring with As east. the to frontier Niagara the Metropolitan Toronto Reference Library (971.3-C4) Library Reference Toronto Metropolitan from or west, the to frontier Detroit-Windsor the military either a from invasion provided potential tract checked River effectively Grand which corridor original the 1784, in founding its of time the from do to designed was it As February, 26th,1828. Lugger, RT Reverend by the settled found as Indians, of Nations Six of River andLocation Plan oftheGrand 73 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE tensions tensions between the two were, as usual, to be found in Europe. In France had 1793, declared revolutionary war on Britain, initiating a struggle that would ensue, brief a intermission, with for 23years. Both countries the forbidding policies, maritime restrictive hadadopted belligerent one with traded that nations neutral of ships from trading with the These other. measures severely curtailed the profits American of merchants. Since the Nelson’s after particularly sea, at supreme were British resent- American 1805, in Trafalgar at victory naval great for penchant Navy’s Royal the by exacerbated was ment Throughout this period, the Indian Department had continued to provide annual gifts, including weapons and shot, to Aboriginal peoples in the United States and shelter for refugees from the struggles below the border. Such activities were regarded with great suspicion by American officials. AlthoughAboriginal warriorsresiding Canadianin someterritory had participated in the fighting in the Ohio valley, their leadersin Canada encouraged the peaceful resolution ofthe differences between the Northwest nations and Americans.the TheSeven Nations of Canada and the Iroquoian peoples in Upper Canada had seen enough conflict in the previous century and preferred to stay outAnglo-American of quarrels. however, difficult, became neutral remain to desire This as Britain and the United States drifted toward war in the first of decade the 19th Century. The of origins the As one officer put put officer one As He expressed to the Indian Department officers officers Department Indian the to expressed He mediately send to all the Nations on or towards towards or on Nations the all to send mediately as rise will Island and all this the Mississippi, man. one if We hear if of We any of our people being hurt by against advance unprovokedly they if or them, we be will de- assured us in a manner, hostile men. like ourselves fend any of hear we if And of our people having been will killed, We im- If we hear of the Big Knives coming towards our our towards coming Knives Big the of hear we If but them, receive will we peace, speak to villages signal.’ signal.’ agreed with this advice, but warned Tecumseh that: British the up; be you ready, but do not strike until I give the Tecumseh also stated that his followers were determined determined were followers his that stated also Tecumseh to defend their land and, although they did not expect expect did they operations, military in engage to Britain – support logistical ‘you will push us towards forward what may be For to necessary their supply our wants.’ Confederacy the cautioned Department Indian the part, declared. was war until attack to not it, your eyes ‘Keep fixed on me; is my now tomahawk lieved that war was imminent and promised his Confed- his promised and imminent was war that lieved eracy would ally itself with Britain in the forthcoming contest. that ‘if their father the King should be in earnest and him.’ by fast hold would they force, sufficient in appear Although Tecumseh still counselled peace, still he counselled also be- Tecumseh Although 74

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL rti.This cautious defensive strategy wasBritain. opposed by if necessary, Quebec, until he could be reinforced from and, Montreal to back pullterritory, Americanby and sides three on surrounded was which Canada, Upper to be more than seven million, his plan was to abandon populationestimatedenemy an by Faced upper.the in 11,000and province lower the in militia 60,000 some larsoldiers Upperin andLower Canada, backed byup regu- 5,600 about had Prevost reinforcements.troop massive expect not could he Europe in commitments in North America, knew that because of British military general and commander-in-chief of the British colonies governor- Prevost, George Sir Lieutenant-General ofWarin1812 Coming The military option: an attack on Canada. practical one only had States United Navy,the Royal Given againstthe overwhelmingBritain. strength of the hostilitiesforprepare armour’and ‘in republic the put that his country could resolve its grievances, decided to way only the was war that convincedStates, United the of Madison James President1811, Tippecanoe in of battle the after weeks Afew concerns. to American pre-occupied with the war in Europe, seemed oblivious porting the nations of Tecumseh’s Britain, Confederacy. was promoting trouble in the Northwest by actively sup- ers, into Many Britishalso service.suspected that Britain impressing their sailors, some who were British desert- stopping American vessels on the high seas and forcibly Painting by Ron Volstad [Department of National Defence] National of [Department Volstad Ron by Painting Farm. Crysler’s at appeared This warrior is depicted as he may have disproportional of their numbers. role a played they where November,1813 in Farm the Crysler’s at for battle rendered was service prominent most Their 1813. in peninsula Niagara the in and Harbor Sacketts at action seeing 1812, of War the Kingston, although few in numbers, participated in much fighting during near Tyendinaga at community Mohawk small the from warriors The 1813 Autumn Tyendinaga, from Warrior Mohawk be able to call on the support of as many as 10,000 10,000 as many as of support the on call to able be and American territory, where they estimated they might secretly active among Native peoples on both Canadian were officers Department Indian 1812, June in war of declaration the American preceding months six the In our policy, that we are earnestly engaged in war.’ conceive themselves to have been sacrificed in 1794, to who people, that convince mustMichilimackinac and Indians,thepartofreductionthe tiononDetroit of that before the British could ‘expect an active coopera- recognized,however, Brock plans.invasionAmerican the frontier settlements in that area, disrupting possible nal nations in the Northwest were encouraged to attack province could be successfully defended if the Aborigi- upperarguedCanada.theBrock Upperthat inmander Major-General Isaac Brock, Prevost’s subordinate com- Canada proved more equivocal. more proved Canada in peoples the the with British, Aboriginal themselves to ally prepared were mostly nations the While western men. 550 contribute only could peoples, Ojibwa and Mississaugas the at and and Tyendinaga, River Grand the on people Iroquois the Canada Upper in while strong, 1,040 only be to estimated were Canada of Nations Seven The territory. Canadian on available were far warriors There fewer to the Cause.’ ‘amicable them made Americans the with conflict own whose nations come from the would western the Department, to according 8,410 proportion, largest The warriors. CHAPTER THREE 75 This uncertain response was particularly evident in the Grand River nations, the strongest Aboriginal force in the Canadas, who adopted a neutral stance toward the forthcoming conflict at the urging of their fellow Iroquois who lived in American territory. The Six Nations had longstanding grievances against officials of the British Indian Department, whom they suspected were prof- iting from the sale of their lands to the whites. Even Brock’s promise to investigate these grievances and, if appropriate, adjust them in their favour failed to change their stance. More persuasive to the Six Nations was the argument made by a delegation of Cayuga and Onondaga chiefs from the United States who visited the Grand River in June 1812 to advise caution:

We have come from our homes to warn you, that you may preserve yourselves and families from distress. We discover that the British and Americans are on the Eve of a War, – they are in dispute respecting some rights on the Sea, with which we are unacquainted; – should it end in a Contest, let us keep aloof: – Why should we again fight, and call upon ourselves the resentment of the Conquerors? We know that neither of these powers have any regard for us Teyoninhokarawen or John Norton, the Mohawk War Chief … except when they want us. Why then should (1760-1830) The product of a Cherokee father and Scots mother, Norton was we endanger the comfort, even the existence of adopted by the Grand River Mohawks and rose to become a our families, to enjoy their smiles only for the war chief of that nation. Between 1812 and 1815 he proved to be, after Tecumseh, one of the most loyal and effective ab- Day in which they need us? original military leaders in Canada. Educated in white schools, he not only translated the Gospels into Mohawk but also wrote one of the most complete and literate personal memoirs of the War of 1812 from either side. Note the turban, another popular form of headgear among the Iroquois peoples. Library and Archives Canada (C-123832)

76 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 77 In Defence of their Homelands - CHAPTER THREE Although Hull had crossed crossed had Hull Although the Detroit River with the bulk of his command on 12 capturing July, the village of Sandwich, this early the that Northwest the of peoples the convinced victory British were serious and they began to threaten Hull’s and Canada from withdraw to him forcing lines, supply August. 8 on Detroit at position By defensive a up take leadership Tecumseh’s under contingents August, early actively prowled around the American position and nerve. his to lose began Hull columns. supply attacked The victory at Mackinac had given Brock one of the two objectives he regarded as necessary to secure the support of the Northwest peoples, and it was already dividends. paying as a dangerous Aboriginal threat in the Northwest, and in the Northwest, threat Aboriginal as a dangerous deflected from the more decisive objective – the vul nerable St. Lawrence waterway. When war broke out, Detroit at stationed was Hull William Brigadier-General and forces regular American with part the of better the did policy This his command. under militia substantial not the change throughout war and was, perhaps more contribu- major the victories, and prowess military than defence successful the to peoples Aboriginal the of tion Canada. of On 17 a July, small British force consisting of a few regulars, fur traders, and 130 Winnebago Menominee, and Sioux warriors surrounded the American fort on Mackinac Island which guarded the water passage to commander American the persuaded and Michigan Lake fight. a without surrender to - American leaders were confident: ‘the was influenced by the need to reduce what was perceived perceived was what reduce to need the by influenced was the Northwest concerned about preserving their frontier frontier their preserving about concerned Northwest the Ameri- the allies, his and Tecumseh against settlements area. Detroit the Thus, in thrust main their planned cans thinking strategic American war, the of outset the from critical battles that stopped the Americans in their tracks tracks their in Americans the stopped that battles critical for that year and consolidated the Anglo-Aboriginal country. Lakes-Ohio Great the in alliance in governors territorial from requests urgent by Impelled Great Britain. of matter mere a be will year this Canada of acquisition Jefferson. Thomas President former boasted marching’ Reality proved different. In 1812, the of outnumberedseries a won fighters Aboriginal and Canadian British, threatened threatened by American invasion, ‘I have no doubts faithless.’ be to as depraved so not are they 1812: A Year of Victories On 18 June 1812 the United States declared war on leader leader amongst the Six Nations, and by 1812 was a prominent war chief. The Grand River nations were report to forced was Norton and neutral remain to going to Brock that the community was divided, but that, if felt felt that this was sound reasoning for keeping out of the quarrels, despite the white of man’s exhortations a Teyon Norton, by led John faction pro-British smaller father Cherokee a Snipe.of the son or The inhokarawen, had a Norton become and respected a mother, Scottish The majority of the Six Nations living along the Grand Grand the along living Nations Six the of majority The 78

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL to overwhelming enemy strength. of whom had assumed that the province would succumb UpperCanada and the Great Lakes-Ohio region, many electrifiedboth the European and Aboriginalpeoplesof at Detroit, coming on the heels of the success at Mackinac in the American army marched into captivity. The victory mand. Brock’s bluff had paid off and the only field force com his underandfighters Aboriginal militiaBritish, 1,300well-entrenched2,000thehis andBrock to men after British artillery opened fire, he agreed to surrender blood.’ preventunnecessaryorder‘totherenderin effusion of commences,’sur-contestshould theHull moment the attached themselves to my troops, will be beyond control hint that, since ‘the numerous body of Indians who have when he received a letter from Brock containing the grim became increasingly distraught. He was even less happy warriors, and regulars British of numbers superior by surrounded was he convinced Hull, where Detroit on Canadian militia and Aboriginal warriors then advanced believe exist.’ Their combined force of British regulars, I not ‘does chief Shawnee the Warrior’ than gallant Brock wrote to Prevost that ‘a more sagacious or a more outset. the from other each trusted and liked men two 13 metAugust,Tecumsehhe thetime, andfirstthe for militiatojoin some 600Northwest warriors. There,on moved west to Amherstburg with a force of regulars and Brock’s other objective was Detroit. In early August, he The American commander at first refused, but but refused, first at commanderTheAmerican - outnumberedBritishsometimewouldforces beitand heights above Queenston. The Americans at Queenston the on position strong a in were invaders the that and way that Brock had been killed leading a counterattack the on learning spot,threatened the to move and riors He sevenwas milesordered south.to assemble his war- and established themselves in the village of Queenston, that the American forces had crossed the Niagara River informationOctoberwhencame13 morningof the on Newark at was Norton Canada. of defence the in role active an take todecided hadwest, the victoriesin the by buoyed who, warriors River Grand of force a and Norton by there joined was Niagara-on-the-Lake).He (now Newark near George, Fort to forces his of part greater the moved Brock threat, thisfrontier. Tomeet October, American troops began massing on the Niagara early and September late easily.In up give not would Americansthe defeats, early their by shaken Though his ‘Comrades and Brothers’ to: urgedwarriors his of one but hesitated,Norton’s men arrive. would troops regular ofreinforcements before Coats, will soon support us. Red the friends gallant Our fate. our decide shall who above He is it up, Look …. fight to remainsonly it – are,they there … for came Wenumber;– we ofwhat oddsfound have by daunted neverWarriors,wereBreasts whose ancient of fame rememberthe – Men; be … 79 In Defence of their Homelands - CHAPTER THREE on 22 January. January. on 22 In the wake of the Procter victory, neglected to guard Pottawatomiprisonerspartyof Wyandot a and and his warriors killed Americans. about thirty wounded War newcom- and peoples Native between frontier the on fare the andviciousness characterisedby been long had ers was war this and sides, both by terror of use calculated no different. The Americans, particularly the frontier as determined quarter, expected nor gave neither militia, area. the in threat Aboriginal the annihilate to were they 1813: Triumphs Disasters and The tide of British Aboriginal and victories continued into early 1813 on the western frontier. The loss of Detroit was a major setback for the United States and government Madison’s immediately began planning a counter-attack. William Henry Harrison, the popular and effective governor of the was Indiana Territory, militia and regulars 6,000 of force a of command given nations Northwest the of power the break to orders with retakeDetroit. and hissubordinates, Oneof Brigadier- General James Winchester, became impatient and on the of on Frenchtown to pressed outpost the British River Raisin, about forty kilometres southwest of Detroit. The new British commander on the western a assembled Procter, Henry Brigadier-General frontier, warriors 600 about and militia and regulars 550 of force from the Northwest nations and defeated Winchester [in the water], until checked by repeated com- repeated by checked until water], the [in the from Flag Fire.” White “Stop The of mands American General then met General Sheaffe to proposing to [the successor British Brock], those of remainder the Discretion at Surrender who had us. invaded amounted The Prisoners Hundred. Nine about to Bank Bank of the River; – the Enemy disappeared River. the into plunging many Bank; the under them at fire to continued still inconsiderate The We rushed forward, & saw the Grenadiers led Grenadiers & the saw forward, rushed We the along right the from coming Bullock Lt. by The Battle of Queenston Heights was an overwhelming overwhelming an was Heights Queenston of Battle The remembered, Norton as Brock, of death the but victory, this brilliant which a ‘threw over the gloom sensations raised.’ have might Success invaders that pushed them back to the edge of the cliffs cliffs the of edge the to back them pushed that invaders overlooking the Niagara gorge. John Norton recorded battle. the of moments final the path, flanking the American position and position American path, to proceeded flanking the ‘cool- with behind from Americans the harass and snipe arrived. reinforcements British until Spirit’ & ness At that point a general attack commenced against the The The war party ascended the heights by a little known 80

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL him for not restraining his warriors’ excesses in battle. officers of the Indian Department who had admonished the to addressed speech a in chief, Ottawa an Bird, conflictbyaptlysummedwas up Assiginack,Blackor forsurvival, responded inkind. Thecruel nature ofthe Northwestpeoples, who regarded the war as astruggle We have listened to your words, which wordswords,which your to listenedWe have hi xml. They have themselves theirto example.blame. without hacking them to pieces, we will follow after they kill people of our colour, leave them Knives, Big the If father. our of wish the to attention of deal good a with listened have I return them to the ground. to themfind could never thrownwe andaway wereancestors our of bones the and graves, their up dug They rest. to dead the allow not fair,brother,wasbut, did This they corn. our destroyedall Knives Joseph’s Big St. the and came up Lastand didyear mischief. at Chicago us behind scalp,’those andbut kill to burnt, words to my people were: ‘As long as the powder This made us into pieces. small very angry. My satisfiedhavingwithkilledthemcutthem, but Big Knives got some They of wereour dead.not Whenweretired the someofour people there. lost we and Knives, Big the fought we spring last Rapids the of foot the At you. to words few a say now Wewill father.our fromcome of proof, greatly exaggerated accounts of the Frenchtown substantiate either on one Side or Regardlessthe other.’ asserted, & as bluntly contradicted, – without proofs to crueltiesendlessrepeatnumbertheofbeentohad that as well as useless be ‘would it felt Norton John type, major offensives. At the end of April 1813, an American successfully mobilized its superior manpower to launch States United the as turn to began tide Thereafter,the can village of Ogdensburg after a short but sharp battle. thetheicefrozenof St.Lawrence andtookthe Ameri- crossed warriorsTyendinagathirty Mohawk included that British/Canadianforce combinedFebruary, a 22 of morning the On winter.that gained Canada Upper of defenders the victory only the not was Frenchtown of vengeance. massacre circulated in the United States, stoking the fires Although there may have been isolated incidents of this Thewaythey treat ourkilled, andthe remains h epepeet I do not tell a lie. the people present. all to known is say I What dead.their disturb example.Webetter a not usdo show to ought We thought white people They were Christians. small pieces. into meat like them cut they hands their into people our of any get they Whenever Knives. makes our people mad when they meet the Big west, the in graves their in are that those of Voltigeurs on the march, 1813 Canadian voltigeurs on the march in 1813. An aboriginal amphibious expedition attacked York, overwhelming the scout (left) accompanies the soldiers. Reconstitution by G.A. Embleton [Parks Canada] defenders who included forty Ojibway and Mississauga warriors. The Americans captured and burned the capital of Upper Canada. during the night action fought at Stoney Creek on 6 June, however, caused the invaders to withdraw to the fortified In Defence of their Homelands A month later, the Americans made another successful camp they had constructed near Fort George and it was landing at Fort George, at the mouth of the Niagara not long before British regulars and Canadian militia, River, forcing the British and their Aboriginal allies together with their Aboriginal allies, closed in around in the Niagara peninsula to retreat west to where the the American position. modern city of Hamilton stands. A British victory

CHAPTER THREE 81 Two Ottawa Chiefs who with others lately came down from Michillimackinac, Lake Huron to have a talk with their Great Father, the King or his representative. Watercolour depicting a group of Aboriginal Chiefs, possibly at Bois Blanc Island near Amherstburg, Ontario. Circa 1813-20. Library and Archives Canada (C-14384)

82 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The American commander, Major-General Henry Dear- later Lieutenant FitzGibbon carried a flag of truce. He born, responded by mounting an expedition against informed Boerstler that the Americans were surrounded, De Cew’s House. This post was known to be the not only by warriors from the Canadas but also those forward supply depot for the aboriginal warriors from the Northwest who were ‘by no means as easily harassing his positions and was garrisoned by about controlled,’ and, as they ‘had suffered very severely fifty British soldiers under the command of Lieutenant they were outrageous and would commence a general James FitzGibbon. Unbeknownst to the Americans, a massacre’ if Boerstler did not immediately yield. The contingent composed of 200 Grand River warriors, Americans surrendered. FitzGibbon later wrote: 180 Seven Nations warriors, and 70 Ojibway and Mississaugas from Upper Canada, led by Dominique With respect to the affair with Captain [sic] Ducharme and John Brant, were encamped about two Boerstler, not a shot was fired on our side by kilometres east of FitzGibbon’s post, near an area of any but the Indians. They beat the American ponds and streams known as the Beaver Dams (close to detachment into a state of terror, and the only what is now the modern city of St. Catharines). share I claim is taking advantage of a favour- able moment to offer them protection from the On 23 June, a force of 600 American regular infantry tomahawk and scalping knife. and cavalry with three pieces of artillery, marched out of Fort George for De Cew’s House under the command of The Battle of the Beaver Dams was one of the most Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Boerstler. Contact was made notable Aboriginal victories of the War of 1812 – for just after dawn the next day, when Ducharme and Brant a cost of not more than twenty killed and wounded, sprung an ambush from the woods lining both sides of the warriors had killed, wounded or captured 600 the road through the Beaver Dams. The allied warriors American soldiers. devastated the American advance guard of regular cav- The twin victories at Stoney Creek and Beaver Dams In Defence of their Homelands alry, and then advanced through the cover of the woods blunted the American campaign in the Niagara peninsula, on the American main force that was deploying. Though but to the west, Procter and Tecumseh, after a deep, but American musketry and cannon inflicted casualties, unsuccessful, offensive into the Ohio Territory, were the warriors sniping and ‘their horrible yells terrified forced back to Amherstburg. Even this position soon the enemy so much that they retired precipately’ into proved untenable as the British supply lines depended a hollow where they were then surrounded. Two hours

CHAPTER THREE 83 84

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL disgust at what they saw as On another British betrayal. in home gone not had who followers his of those and LakeOntario, accompanied reluctanttheby Tecumseh towards retreat a commenced army small his tember Procter’s mind was made up, however, and in late Sep- its legs and runs off.’ tail upon its back; but when affrighted, it drops it between animalcarriesthatfatits‘a likeningProctor toby him known as the ‘yellow dog’ speech, Tecumseh castigated became later what In conflicts.European in involved became peopleswhenAboriginal occurred regularly that summarized the disappointments and disasters that Tecumseh delivered a stinging rebuke to his British ally 1813, September 18 on held leaders, Aboriginal the a retreat. for wagons into ammunition and suppliesloading and saw the British dismantling the fortifications of the post Theirsuspicions becamearoused, however, whenthey andtheir families camped andaroundin Amherstburg. ever,informTecumsehto warriorsthousands ofthe or neglected,how- He HamiltonHarbour).(nowBay ton Burling-towardretreat to decided Procter, hereached disaster this of news Whenbattle. in squadronBritish wrestcontrol of the Lake after sinking or capturing the mount In earlya challenge.September, they managed to to lake that of shore southern the on Presque’Isle, at warships of squadron a constructingfeverishly been on theirThe naval controlAmericans of hadLake Erie. At a council between Procter, his officers and The last months of the year brought renewed success success renewed brought year the of months last The Upper Canada until the end of the conflict. of portions southwestern the of control in remained Americans The Themselves.’ conceal or escape, to Cruelty to the Families of the Indians who had not Time ‘peculiardisplayed whofrontiersmen Kentucky many Harrison’san unknown grave.victorious troops included his body was spirited away by his warriors to be placed in Tecumseh was not with them – killed during the battle, escape before they stubbornly retired through the woods. allies British their of many let to enough well fought British general fled Tecumseh the battle.and his warriors down by Harrison’s mounted troops, at which point the run were they and badlyinfantry regular hisdeployed Procter River.Thames the on missionMoraviantown WilliamHenry Harrison, caught upwith them near the October,Tecumseh’sMajor-Generalopponent,5 old the United States or fled United to Britishthe territory. with peace separate a made either nations the of most 1814, in Mississippi upper the on Chien du Prairie at success some achieved and on, fight to continued nations the of some Although peoples. Northwest the of power military the of end the marked Tecumseh, of death the and Thames, the at defeat disastrous the But actions. both in participated warriors Aboriginal Farm and and Crysler’s at Chateauguay twin victories the by stopped were Montreal on moving armies can and two In November, arms. to October British Ameri - Battle of Moraviantown on the Thames, 5 October 1813 The defeat of the British and aboriginal force in this battle took place near modern London, Ontario. Tecumseh was killed in the fighting but his followers spirited his body away to be buried in an unmarked grave. Library and Archives Canada (C-041031)

CHAPTER THREE 85 Deputation of Aboriginal Nations from the Mississippi, 1814 In the spring of 1814, a delegation of aboriginal leaders representing the nations of the west travelled to Quebec City to meet Sir George Prevost, the commander-in-chief, British North America. Note the sword worn by one of the warriors. Also note the black warrior. The adoption of strangers was much more commonplace in Aboriginal than in white society. This man was perhaps an escaped slave. Library and Archives Canada (C-134461)

86 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 87 In Defence of their Homelands - CHAPTER THREE the the United States of America, their Citizens, present the of ratification the upon subjects, and Nations, or Tribes such to notified being Treaty accordingly. desist so shall and The The United States of America engage to put the of ratification the after immediately end an Tribes the all with hostilities to Treaty, present be may they whom with Indians, of Nations or forth and ratification, such of time the at war at respec- Nations or Tribes such to restore to with privileges, and rights possessions, the all tively which they may have or enjoyed been entitled hostilities. the to previous 1811, in to always, Provided that such or Tribes Nations against hostilities all from desist to agree shall There is little doubt that the contemplatedAboriginal by the authors of this draft article were peoples those particularly territory, American on residing those Northwest nations of Tecumseh’s Confederacy. The broke conflict when 1811, year the to reference specific out in the northwest, and not 1812 when the United States had declared war on Britain, makes this clear. accepted delegates American the discussion much After Treaty the of IX Article as appeared it and proposal this of Ghent, which was signed on Christmas Eve, 1814. all all persons, red as well as white, in the enjoyment of war.’ the of The commencement the at possessed rights British negotiators rejected this but, after consultation to drop the they demand were instructed with London, state. a barrier of creation the for propose they Instead, treaty: the in inclusion for article following the a result. result. a del- American the subject, the on discussion much After ‘a that the include final treaty instead suggested egates of and covering amnesty stipulation general reciprocal right to purchase, or acquire any part of the territory thus thus territory the of part any acquire or purchase, to right recognized, as belonging to the Indians.’ The British position was to totally unacceptable the United States, who had about a hundred thousand citizens living in the proposed Indian Territory. Negotiations stalled as our western settlements, and the adjacent British province,’ province,’ British adjacent the and settlements, western our and that neither nation ‘should ever have hereafter the had ended the Revolutionary War, the British negotiators negotiators British the War, Revolutionary the ended had came to the allies table Aboriginal that demanding the ‘a and treaty the in included be should Britain Great of definite boundary to be settled for their territory.’ The learned they when shocked more even were Americans the that was, government of British the object ‘the that Indians should remain as a barrier permanent between In August 1814, negotiations to end the war began in the the in began war the end to negotiations 1814, August In omission disastrous Ghent.the of of city Mindful Dutch which Paris, of Treaty the from peoples Aboriginal the of plain valley. plain valley. nations from Aboriginal the Although the participated Canadas the from allies their and Northwest auxiliaries as so did they engagements, these of some in of outcomes the to crucial less were activities their and battles. the By 1814, the third year of the war, military campaigns By campaigns 1814, the military third year of the war, and British of numbers increasing by largely waged were American regular troops who engaged in a number of Cham- Lake and peninsula Niagara the in battles pitched The of End the the War and Treaty of Ghent 88

In Defence of their Homelands ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL from region to region and from decade to decade. to fromdecade region and fromregionto – participate in various domestic or imperial military undertakings in support of the Crown varied to were permitted Archaeological Resource Management in a Lands Claim Context, Parks Canada, 1997 Canada, Parks Context, Claim Lands a in Management Resource Archaeological or – to attempted peoples Aboriginal which to extent the era, this During otherwise. or legislation treaty, by lands their of attainment the and peoples Aboriginal of assimilation the upon premised was confederation Canadian Nations as impediments to agricultural and industrial development. The subsequent to expansion regard of First the economic partners in as peacetime, nor courted as longer military No allies during war, American colonial governments British came North dramatically. Aboriginal increased immigration non-Aboriginal and while decline to somewhat continued stabilized populations tensions border U.S. and American North British 1812, of War the Following Treaties Indian Historical 89 In Defence of their Homelands CHAPTER THREE Yet 1815 would notbe Yet played by Aboriginalplayedwarriorsdefencebythatbeen in had substantial. Indeed in some of the early battles it had been decisive. Unfortunately, the outcome of the war was less positive for the Aboriginal peoples of the GreatLakes-Ohiotheir ofmarkedregion,enditthe as long efforts to defend their autonomy and homelands from the European Americanand settlement frontier. Thereafter, the Native peoples of the Northeastern portions of the continent would not be able to defend themselvesbymilitary means. the last time that Aboriginallasttimethethatpeoples were calledupon to defend Canada. The War of 1812 secured the continued existence of BritishAmericaNorthunder British rule, andtherole separate separate peace treaties with American the government ‘as we could not be justified in offering them further Hostilities.’ in persist should they if assistance Aboriginal peoples living in the United States to conclude conclude to States United the in living peoples Aboriginal was was told to assure them that the Crown ‘would of States not United the with peace make to have consented taken had which tribes or Nations those unless America part with us, had been included in the Pacification.’ He was to use his ‘utmost endeavours’ to induce the Three days later, the British government sent a copy of of copy a sent government British the later, days Three and drew the Prevost to his treaty attention Sir George be may ‘that peoples Aboriginal to relating articles the to Prevost parties.’ contracting two the of either with war at Throughout Throughout the remainder of the 19th century the personal example and high local profile of veterans like these ensured the survival of the military service tradition in Aboriginal communities across eastern and central Canada. ninety-two), (aged Warner Jacob veterans 1812 of war River Grand are 1882 in Brantford in right to left from Pictured John (aged ninety-one) and John Smoke Johnson (aged ninety-three). Tutlee Library and Archives Canada (C-085127) Studio photo taken in July 1882 of the surviving Six Nations warriors who fought with the British in the War of 1812 of War the in British the with fought who warriors Nations Six surviving the of 1882 July in taken photo Studio Chapter Four

90 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY 91 Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 More CHAPTER FOUR Aboriginal peoples lived as they wished, subject only to to only subject wished, they as lived peoples Aboriginal trade. fur the of realities military and social political, the distant this Century, 19th the of half latter the Through presence was increasingly replaced by colonial settle- ment on the Pacific coast and in the Prairies. significant for the Aboriginal peoples of the west and adminis- and authority state of extension the was north the point, 1869. that after At region the to control trative Rupert’s of control over handed Company Bay Hudson’s The end of the War of 1812 marked the end of an era in Canadian history. From 1815 onward, Aboriginal peoples in the Eastern portions a beneath power political and military their lost quickly country the of Canada Upper of inhabitants European immigration. of 60,000 tide The prior to 1812 had exploded to more than 400,000 disease by continued to whittle away theat the indigenous population. 1830s, as This demographic reality gave the European residents the confidence to disregard the look to military began authorities potential colonial British of the tribalInstead, warriors. or nationalAboriginal contingents of at Aboriginal communities as administrative challenges profound rather brought Century 19th The thanallies. military potent of sources as Canadians, later and British, the between relationship the in alterations and Aboriginal peoples. an aloof and somewhat indifferent governing agency for for agency governing indifferent somewhat and aloof an trademonopolyterritoriesagrantedbeen hadas it the – (essentially Territory Northwest the and Land Rupert’s most of Western and Northern Canada). In reality, Another important historical process underway was the the was underway process historical important Another colonial and authority Imperial of expansion progressive settlement into the west and the north. This occurred the of auspices the under trade fur the through gradually Bay Hudson’s Company. The company functioned as Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 Relationships, Transforming Nicholas Vincent Isawahoni, a Huron Chief, holding a wampum belt, 1825 Even if colonial or subsequent Dominion governments were unwilling or unable to do so, Aboriginal groups steadfastly retained the knowledge of their unique relationship with the Crown during peace and war throughout the 19th century into the 20th century and beyond. Library and Archives Canada (C-38948) 92

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL T 14386) T Library Toronto (Metropolitan Ware Hibbert Titus by Watercolour 1840. 1830 and between occasions – mobilized in Toronto support of Crown forcesof on many east and north the to groups including – Canada Upper Several hundred Anishinabeg at numerous locations across in 1844 area) Simcoe (Lake Coldwater Anishinabeg menat to The this treatytransformation. process grew out of the nations and the imperial/colonial authorities were critical to legal wards Treatiesof the betweenCrown. Aboriginal recast the indigenous population from independent allies the northern part of the continent occurred gradually, and Consolidation of the British, and later Canadian, grip on Pacific. tightened from steadily the was Atlanticpeoples to the indigenous over authority 20thCentury, government thedawnof the By state.thewingofthe underpeople thousandhundredAboriginal a than morebringing by Land to the new dominion government in Ottawa, there - agreed to pay small annuities to each member of a band exchange,In theCrown traditionallyof occupied land. ofwhat isnow termed ‘Aboriginal title’ towidea tract treatieswould generally provide for an extinguishment (Anishnabeg) in 1850. Based on this model subsequent Robinson-Huron and Superior treaties with the Ojibwa the Century,inhowever, coalescing19th the of half first the through evolvedagreements the of form The land exchanged for a lump sum of goods and/or money. cession treaties were usually one-off arrangements with early Theland between Aboriginalpeoplesettlers.and conflictsinto escalate could they beforeresources and for both parties as a means to resolve disputes over land Treatieswereimportant LoyalistsNations.Sixlikethe settle the United Empire Loyalists, including indigenous thorities sought land from the Mississaugas on which to au- Imperial as Revolution American the of wake the in prevalentbecame and 1763, inProclamation Royal ciplethereserve wasintended protectiveasa measure. from free peoples to administered wards, though in prin- The movement onto Indian reserves symbolised the shift education and support in the transition to agriculture. negotiators including government-supplied medical care, additional obligations were conceded to adept Aboriginal the Northwest from the 1870s to the early 20th Century, ernment concluded the eleven numbered treaties across held in common for each band As the as gov-a reserve. allland surrendered, and set aside apiece of land to be to rights hunting and perpetuity,fishing guaranteein Lone canoeist on the St. Lawrence River, with the Windmill and Fort Wellington in the background, c. 1840 Riverine and inshore smallcraft operations were a First Nations speciality. A principal employment of First Nations militias in 1837-38 was to patrol the water frontiers of Upper and Lower Canada. In addition to giving advance warning of suspicious activity, they were useful in apprehending deserters of British Army garrisons. While such deserters were a perennial problem for military commanders, the bounties paid for their return provided casual but steady income to First Nations located near British outposts. Library and Archives Canada (C-11863)

In practice, reserves were turned into social laboratories consolidated in a single piece of Canadian legislation, where the language and values of Christianity and the the Indian Act. Thereafter, Canadian Indian admin- Western world were to be inculcated into the inhabit- istrators became increasingly forthright in pressing ants. In 1876, the transition to administered peoples was the agenda of assimilation as the logical solution to

CHAPTER FOUR 93 94

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL what happened: Rising in French Canada 1837 dinal, came in search of weapons. In his 75 strong, under the command of Joseph-Narcisse Car of group a when 1837,November 4 on fray drew the Caughnawaga (Kahnawake) Mohawk into the Canada Lower in Rebellion the of act overt first The in Upper Canada. present not were that ethno-linguisticdimensions and religious added the of because part in affairs,violent more the provedultimately Canada Lower in clashes ment with American-style Therepublican governments. replace- their and systemsadministrativedemocratic patronage-riddled,eliminationofthe non- forCanada, labelledreformers,radical by calls were there instance, each In provinces.respective the rhetoric from small but vocal minorities of agitatorsinflammatory increasingly within of years followed protests politicalviolentthoseoutbreak of The provinces.both support the British efforts to suppress the Rebellions in actively to or neutral, remain to either chose Canada the majority of Aboriginal peoples in Upper and Lower This military connection was renewed in 1837-38, when Rebellions a military connection persisted. Euro-Canadian state had altered profoundly since 1815, the and peoplesAboriginal between relationship the though Yet problem.’ ‘Indian the termed was what , Joseph Schull recounts patriotes Rebellion: The in Lower in patriotes - , brawls between gangs of lated, beginning in the streets of Montreal with running esca CanadaLower in violenceweeks, next the Over adso u okoktepso sd. A aside. pistol the knock to out shot hand chief’s The gesture. warlike last his was It pointing it at the chief’s head. replied,whipping pistola from hispocket and this,’‘Byrequest made?Cardinal a such was asked, chief authority,the what By weapons. the Cardinalof by informed pose of this unannounced visit? He was gravely What was the pur- alone, grave and inquiring. appearedchief The Indians. with thickwere side either on woods the village, the to road the time the By church. promptfromexodusthe a been there hadand Shefound himatearly mass, informthechief. seentheapproach thepartyofandhadrunto cow,had stray a chasing woman, Indian An Lachine volunteer cavalry…. the torebels sixty-four deliver to Lachine to warriors from Caughnawaga had crossed over disposition of the others…. By mid-morning the eleven escaped, and the chief was prompt in his the calm, and a hundred armed braves were around blood-curdling war-whoop shattered the Sunday patriotes . Of the seventy-five who came, only patriotes patriotes , known as patriotes entered theentered need of need Les Fils de - 95 Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 CHAPTER FOUR in Lower Canada. Watercolour by W.H. Bartlett (McCord Museum collection, McGill University) com- the Toronto. under rebels in There, Streets Dundas take to south marched Mackenzie Lyon William of mand control of the provincial capital in A early December. initial the from fled sides both followed: comedy tragic Montgom- around skirmishing before fire, of exchange in resulted north) further kilometres few (a Tavern ery’s twice of wounding the and rebels dozen a of deaths the Rebellion the Canada Upper in Elsewhere number. that played out in a number of relatively minor and brief Indian village St.at Regis Iroquois and other First Nations groups – including those – Kanesatake and Kahnawake, (Akwesasne), Regis St. at government, Crown of stability the ensure to wishing also Rebellions the during cause Loyalist the supported likewise patriote leaders. patriote , and the loyalist Doric Club. The Riot Act was Act Riot The Club. Doric loyalist the and , and loyalists at what is now and the vicinity Yonge of the Lower Canadian rebellion only a week after that in that after week a only rebellion Canadian Lower the prin- the were, they as Such begun. had Canada Upper in word) a strong too be would (clashes incidents cipal Upper Canada were the of encounter laughable rebels British regulars clashed with rebels in the first major November. 23 on Denis St. at engagement ini- Though tially rebuffed, the British soundly defeated a mid-December in and later days two Charles St. at force ending effectively Eustache, St. at force rebel a thrashed read and British troops quickly restored order, but civil but order, restored quickly troops British and read conflict open and countryside the in growing was unrest seemed imminent. On 16 November, the authorities issued warrants for the arrest of 26 la Liberté la 96

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL day Sarnia, Ontario) told their people: Pazhekezhikquashkum at the St. Clair Mission (present- man’sbattles. white the fighting on keen that were peoplesAboriginalUnderstandably,all not that directed colonial officials: 1838 November in order an circulatedCanada, Upper munities in the crisis. John Macaulay, civil secretary for The government expected the support of Aboriginal com- abortive raids on Pelee Island and Windsor. supplying the Navy Island rebels, by white loyalists; and steamer American the of burning and capture the Thorold; of west escarpment Niagara the on John’s St. at Hills, Short the of Battle seizure of Navy Island, in the Niagara river; the so-called rebel the rebels;District London the of all) at fighting any (withoutdispersal rapid the including:episodes, in any part of the province. the of part any in or of insurrection in of expectation foreign aid, foreign a enemy by invasion actual receive of may you which notice, first the on command your under effect & promptitude with act & in neighbourhood readiness to take to the field request, that you in will hold the your Indians to directed am I Governor Lt. the to known their ing invad- of purpose the for Frontier U.S. the within force a of organization extensive The [sic] Province having become fully fully become having Province Caroline , which had been been had which , Disciples of Disciples As a result, there were numerous examples of Aboriginal style republic might have on their status and well-being. government and were fearful of effects that an American- existing the preferred peopleAboriginalmost fact, In 7 December. to be unfounded,’ diarist Catherine Parr Traill wrote on seems this … inhabitants the of number a slaughtered and Torontoon down come had Indians 400 that us reached has report ‘A rife. was Rumour behalf. own their on rise might they rebels the join not did Indians the if even that feared Loyalists some Nevertheless, who has authority to make you take up arms. you are free men & under the control of no one that should you be called on you may know that fight for any party, we mention this fact in order & go compelledto be cannot we thatobserve Wejust would arenow.we thanwhites the by whites of any party, we should all be more hated … foolishinducedbe commenceto wartheon mayloseeverything but Should… suchareas fighting by nothing gain can we as so, do will Indians the all that hope we and quiet remain to agreed all are we & us around Indians the with counselled ago time some have We who like powder & ball fight their own battles. downsmoke& our pipes andlettothe people … we consider it best to spread our matts to sit- 97 Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 CHAPTER FOUR in the event of a reform seizure of power – including pos- including – power of seizure reform a of event the in were FirstBlacks – and U.S. Nations the by annexation sible government Crown the of continuity the support to willing in Upper Canada during the rebellions of 1837-38. In so reform by attacks racist of subject the became they doing propagandists. Library and Archives Canada (C-40831) domestic rebels and American-based Kerr ‘Patriots.’ proudly reported that, ‘the turned Indian Warriors out with and alacrity, joined their Brethren the Militia in defence of the Country, its laws and institutions, at a Country the in troopsregular no were there whenperiod “Give me plenty rum, Gubner Head” peoples respective their for outcomes likely the Foreseeing - - of welcome from the … band of Volunteers greeted the the greeted Volunteers of band … the from welcome of un Iroquois, River Grand Warriors.’ Indian the of arrival (Deseronto) Tyendinaga and Kerr, Johnson William der both suppress helped Culbertson, John under Mohawks, about 200 Caughnawaga Mohawk joined loyalist forces forces loyalist joined Mohawk Caughnawaga 200 about Caugh in Warrior ‘Every Lachine. and Montreal around nawaga was crossing to join the cheer Lachine ‘A members. Brigade,’ white its of one Fraser, John recalled contingents offering their support to British authorities authorities to British support their offering contingents A Canadas. the both in commanders militia loyalist and day or so before the fight at St. Eustache, when it still seemed that there might be much fighting to be done, 98

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL of Aboriginal warriors: employmentjustifyingtheexplainingand England, in Secretary Colonial the Glenelg, quently to Lord wrote subse Canada, Upper of lieutenant-governor the as GeorgeSir Arthur,succeededHeadwhoFrancisBond lent, by the fears they entertain [of Indian warriors].’ than a Regiment of Regular Infantry to reduce the turbu- the Indian Rifle Company. Such a company will do more bertson as their captain …. I beg you think favourably of my Regiment as a Volunteer Rifle Company under Cul Chief John Culbertson … have expressed a wish to join FitzGibbon explaining that ‘a band of Indians here with thony Manahan, a militia officer, wrote to Colonel James although whether it was actually formed An- is unclear. offered to provide enough men to form a rifle company, Radicals Tyendinaganor Indian Rebels amongst them.’ … to their honor be it they spoken, have neither Indian their conduct was perfectly unexceptionable. their services were required by my predecessor, and on that occasion, as well as on others when ers, who had taken possession of Navy Island; adventur-American and Refugees,Canadian of assemblage armed the by menaced was it protectthe Niagara Frontier last winter, when to forcelarge a furnishedCountry. They the Indianshavethebeen calleddefence inout of Autumn last since instance one than more In - - rebellion. In all, more than a dozen rebels went to the to went rebels dozen a than more all, In rebellion. Canada Upper the in fewer far andcampaign, Canada 27 soldiers and nearly 300 rebels were killed in the Lower failed Canadian rebellions. these modestly,by albeitreaffirmed, was relationship still sought by TheirBritish militaryand loyalists alike. Aboriginal warriors saw little combat, but their aid was end, the In pardoned.eventually were States, United wellassome ofthe key leaders that had escaped tothe as men, those of Australia.of All shoresouth-eastern Vanin colonyTasmania)Diemen’s(now the Landoff gallows, with dozens more banished to the British penal In employingIn themthemonthinJuneoflast, I ful rules of civilized warfare …. order and a scrupulous observance of the merci- injunctionsfor the maintenance of the Strictest human leaders who readily enforced my earnest obeyed my summons, were under the guidance of promptly who tribes, these of Warriors The which they were peculiarly well qualified …. IndiansThewere fordutyemployedthus a on Talbotfugitives.interceptallto Districts,and disaffectedtheandLondon andtheportion of insurgents, who were in arms at the Short Hills, cation between the mixed band of brigands and had it for my Chief object to cut off the communi- Militia

Despite the relative peace and stability in Canada through the rest of the 19th Century, a military dimension was never absent. It was evident in the treaties that the Crown negotiated with the Aboriginal peoples of the west. They were encouraged to cease all fighting with Europeans or other Aboriginal nations and to live in peace. Importantly, several Aboriginal groups expressed concern that signing a treaty would obligate them to being compelled to fight for the Crown. Crown negotiator Alexander Morris assured the Saulteaux at the negotiation of Treaty 3 (also known as the North-West Angle Treaty) in 1873 that ‘The English never call the Indians out of the country to fight their battles.’ Similarly at Fort Pitt in 1876, the Cree were told, ‘In case of war you ask not to be compelled to fight. I trust there will be no war, but if it should occur I thing [sic] the Queen would leave you to yourselves. I am sure she would not ask her Indian children to fight for her unless they wished.’ These verbal assurances would prove significant in the conscription crises of the World Wars of the 20th Century. At the time, such examples demonstrated that the military capacity of indigenous warriors, though latent, had not become irrelevant, either to Aboriginal peoples or to the state.

Coloured tin type portrait of Cornelius Moses But neither the imperial nor the Canadian government Cornelius Moses was one of the Grand River band of Delaware who formalised a role or structure for indigenous people in the organized a Home Guard for local defence at the time of the 1866 Canadian defence establishment during the 19th Century. Fenian incursion at Ridgeway in Canada West. Their subsequent efforts to formally incorporate as a volunteer Militia company would, By 1855 the old, unpaid, Sedentary Militia had fallen however, remain unsuccessful for another quarter-century. In the mid- into desuetude. The government of the Canadas – Upper 19th century, colonial officials in some regions were initially suspicious of Natives who sought to organize themselves militarily, although the and Lower Canada had been re-united as Canada East Confederation-era volunteer militia movement did have its supporters and Canada West in 1840 – felt it necessary to introduce and patrons within specific communities having strong United Empire Loyalist ties. T hese surfaced again during the South African War and a new Militia Act, retaining the principle of universal the First World War, with calls for units composed entirely of Native Canadians. J. Moses collection.

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Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL villages, but most were established at battalion strength were a few rural units, with companies based in different key words in that quotation are ‘towns and cities.’ There in towns and cities all across British North America.’ The soon 18,000 of them happily parading in their spare time Maritime colonies had followed suit, ‘so that there were the 1862 By dinners.regimental for paying or ments, unit, to be used for purchasing trophies or uniform adorn- Often, men were ing. expected to donate their pay to the They competed with each clubs. other in drill and shoot- exclusivemen’sachievedconsiderableasstatus social increasingly fashionable and the new militia units soon became service Militia, Active the of expansion and reorganisationthe After forwarriors.Aboriginal place societyduring the Victorian Agealso worked against a The very structure and function of the militia in Canadian the same need for such forces. incidence of conflict in the Canadian West did not create units or In scoutingpart, thisunits. was because the lesser to the American example of segregated indigenous regular Aboriginal militia units, there was no corollary in Canada strength. Canadianthe government soondoubledauthorized the year.Facedthreatwiththeof Americanexpansionism, equipped by the government and paid to train ten days a new a Active orcreating Volunteer also Militia, 5,000 Act strong, who The would be emergency. of times in upon called be could whichservice military unpaid Yet, outside a few local instances of small small of instances local few a outside Yet, in the larger centres of population where it was easier to inhabitants, either the First Nations or the mixed-heritage existing the consult to neglected it jurisdiction,its to Northwest the and Rupert’sLand of handover the for 1869-70, as the young government of Canada prepared In originalpeoples19thCenturythe in were amicable. Ab- and state Canadian the between dealings all Not Resistance Métis in the 1870s and 1880s. exertsome influence over Canada’s western expansion the Prairie West during the efforts of the Métis people to or Thisnational process contingents. would be evident in Aboriginal men as generalist fighters, especially in tribal beginning of a shift away from prior practices of seeking the demonstratedalso t I nature. in rural mostly were marginaliseto communities Aboriginalwhosepeoples gather This togetherurban-elite men. organisation tended fMntb. Canadian of authorities,Manitoba. however, dispatched colleagues secured guarantees his to create a and new province Riel negotiate. to leadership Canadian the Fort Garry to demonstrate their determination and force The Métis declared a provisional government and seized secure a political role in any new provincial government. rightsto their religion, language and land, as well as to to ensure the protection of their individual and collective the residents of Red River blocked the transfer of power leadership of a young, dynamic man named Louis Riel, the Under region. River Red the in community Métis Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 101 - . One CHAPTER FOUR voyageurs and a number of of number a and At the order of Riel’s Riel’s of order the At bowman and steersman. canots de maître de canots voyageur negotiations between the Métis and Canada were com- were Canada and Métis the between negotiations hiding. into fled had Riel and pleted by Orangeman pro-Canadian a government, provisional many and executed, been had Scott Thomas of name the hanged.be to RielProtestantsOntarioforhowled in Al even grievances, their have to continued Métis the though turned still they in 1870, of Manitoba creation the after out in force the year to following oppose a potentially no yet, as province. was, new There the to threat serious that south the from incursion an resist to militia organized in 1871.materialised as labelled a Usually raid Fenian created brotherhood American Irish an were Fenians (the of the British 60th (The King’s Royal Rifle Corps) noted noted Corps) Rifle Royal King’s (The 60th British the of boat his for secured who officer the was ‘Fortunate that: The Canada.’ in boatmen finest the Iroquois, skilful the each ‘brigades,’ 21 into divided was force expeditionary consistingof about 50 men. Each boat carried ten or 12 soldiers, with a three also were There smaller birchbark canoes manned by of these canoes, manned by Aboriginal paddlers, was he it In transport. of choice personal Wolseley’s Colonel to march of line the of end one from rapidly move could voyageurs Aboriginal these with experience His other. the in later years services their for request his to lead would Expedition. Nile the By the time the Canadian force arrived in Red River, their indigenous chauffeurs. their indigenous chauffeurs. Lieutenant Henry Riddell . voyageurs and supplies from Collingwood, on Georgian Bay, and to on from Bay, supplies Collingwood, Georgian Fort Garry – without the loss of a single man – was a logistical triumph. During the arduous voyage, the kilo- 82 some ran and portages 47 traversed Expedition for praise but nothing had rapids. of soldiers The metres some 140 Indian and Métis Métis and Indian 140 some La Prairie, across the St. Lawrence from Montreal and from Montreal the St. across Lawrence La Prairie, upon called he Now reserve. Kahnawake the to adjacent Simon Dawson, a Dominion land surveyor and civil engineer, to make the transportation arrangements for the expeditionary force, including the recruitment of regulars British 400 some of movement successful The and with 700 all equipment militiamen their necessary arrival in Manitoba. Wolseley had become familiar with with familiar become had Wolseley Manitoba. in arrival 1862 in boatmen Mohawk Kahnawake of capabilities the he had when, as as been assigned a lieutenant-colonel, an instructor to the Militia training officers’ school at and their equipment. their and Aboriginal experienced of participation and presence The Expedition’s the of ranks the in voyageurs and boatmen corps transportation was fundamental to its successful of British regular officer, Colonel Garnet Wolseley, the the Wolseley, Garnet Colonel officer, regular British of authority. Crown assert to sent was Expedition River Red considerable a and Cree, Swampy and Plains Mohawks, the among were Métis, Quebec and Ontario of number nearly 400 civilians contracted to transport the troops an expeditionary force to Red River. Under the command command the Under River. Red to force expeditionary an 102

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL He managed to secure the support of a number of Fenians, de-stabilize Canadian and British control over the region. short-lived provisional government, and was intended to by William O’Donahue, the one-time treasurer of Riel’s organized and inspired was It it. approved never hood Brother- Fenianthe councilof becausethethathardly to secure Irish independent from Britain), this attack was this. of example documented best the is 1851 July in Coteau Grand the at Sioux Dakota with herds. battle buffalo The dwindling same the to access over competition in were Métis the whom with opponents Nations First neighbouring in defeating successful were tactics Such carts. River Red of encircled barricades beneath dug pits rifle camouflaged of construction the included tactics Gabriel Other elected by 1885. in again rebellion with used Northwest was the during hunt, Dumont organization buffalo same This Métis each. from “soldiers” ten of adapted squads methods mounted on leading based “captains” units were small infantry in under mounted as defence tendered acting local was horsemen for Métis 1871 in armed mobilized of units Manitoba in Irregular Riel. threat Louis of Fenian the leadership political countering the in assistance Métis of offer formal A Museum Glenbow Randolph, R. by Photograph Right: AnunidentifiedMétishunteronhorsebackc.1890. (NA 22-33) Museum Glenbow Archibald acknowleging Left: Riel’s and Royal’s offer of Métis assistance against the Fenians, 8 October 1871. Canadian government in quashing any Fenian challenge. the assist to offer formal a tendereddeliberation, due however,Métis,dissatisfactionOttawa.afterThe with O’Donahue, of course, was relying on Red River Métis giving the movement some status. Ridgeway) at victor ‘General’(the includingO’Neill Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 103 - CHAPTER FOUR namic and charismatic individual. charismatic and namic government, Canadian the from hearing a gain to Unable 1869-70, of that to course similar a follow to sought Riel seizing arms and declaring a provisional government to undertake negotiations with Ottawa. Unfortunately in this instance, the process provoked violent conflict horsemen, Métis of force a and immediately. Riel almost Duck in store the from ammunition and weapons seeking Lake, collided with a column of Mounted North West Carleton. Fort The of out volunteers mounted and Police but thereafter, clash was ensuing a clear Métis victory, con- to abilities Riel’s beyond snowballed rapidly events not was government federal the 1870, Unlike them. trol Qu’Appelle and Saskatchewan valleys gradually evolved evolved gradually valleys Saskatchewan and Qu’Appelle into permanent settlements, where Métis families re- established themselves on farms in their traditional French style of long, narrow plots. Once again they to confirm the officially government federal petitioned economic greater for and lands these of possession their success. little with met they but autonomy, political and the by strain economic increasing under and Frustrated, of residents European some and Métis the 1880s, early Riel. Louis hero, old their to appeal to decided region the and Montana, in teacher school a was Riel time this At the lead help and return to 1884 November in agreed he asylums in decade last the of Métis. much spent had He dy a remained he but States, United the in exile in and the shrinking herds of buffalo. the buffalo. in of camps herds shrinking the Temporary - The raiders immediately dispersed and fled upon upon fled and dispersed immediately raiders The none of the raiders were ever brought to trial. to brought ever were raiders the of none In the years that followed, the Métis began to leave Manitoba, partly pushed out by the tens of thousands of pursuit in westward drawn partly and settlers new of hearing news of approaching American troops. American American troops. American approaching of news hearing and some authorities, by the Fort Garry subse- militia, quently arrested many of them, and Métis volunteers prisoners Canadian himself. the All O’Donahue captured though Americans, the to over handed subsequently were count for].’ The actual raiding force, perhaps 75 strong, strong, 75 perhaps force, for].’ raiding count actual The Canadian the occupied October, 6 on border the crossed Customs House and looted a Bay Hudson’s Company store. each. ‘Generally I hear it said that the English are really really are English the that said it hear I ‘Generally each. reported a frightened,’ St. Boniface ‘If clergyman. the horsemen Métis the only 1,500, number really Fenians count Métis the that said have them. English stop The can do they [what out find to going are they now nothing; for shall give.’ Irregular units of Métis horsemen, acting as as acting horsemen, Métis give.’ of shall units Irregular adopted and units small in mobilized infantry, mounted methods from the hunt, with buffalo elected ‘captains’ ‘soldiers’ ten of platoons or squads mounted their leading the the Red River decided that ‘… being subjects of Her obey to duty our it believe we Victoria, Queen Majesty representa her through received, having that [and] her, are and so do we Fenians, the fight to meet to orders tive, authorities competent which order the follow to resolved In a formal declaration of loyalty, the Métis parishes of of parishes Métis the loyalty, of declaration formal a In 104

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL A Military History of Canada, Desmond Morton (Department of National Defence) National of (Department Morton Desmond Canada, of History Military A North-Westcampaignof1885 The Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 105 - CHAPTER FOUR Most Métis communities also stayed clear of the fighting. fighting. the of clear stayed also communities Métis Most The dominion government recruited units of mounted the patrol to regions other from scouts and riflemen Métis com of lines the guard to States, United the with frontier against security as act to and transport, and munication movement possible the and smuggling arms cross-border Riel. of support Jean in reinforcements Indian or Métis of Louis Legare, originally from Quebec, was the chief resident trader for the the Hudson’s Bay Company in the Dewdney, Edgar to explained area. He Mountain Wood the that Territories, North-West the of lieutenant-governor grievances with the federal government. Similarly, the Similarly, grievances with government. the federal southern now is what of Confederacy Blackfoot powerful re- and commitments treaty its honour to chose Alberta estimated the of all hostilities. Had the from aloof mained region the in living people Nations First 35,000 to 25,000 thrown (as to opposed 2,000 Euro-Canadians) roughly gov- Canadian the Métis, the and Riel behind weight their situation military a with faced been have might ernment Cree Plains some out, resources. turned its it As beyond and other under became chiefs Big Poundmaker Bear, warlike by either incited usually fighting, the in involved or Massacre) Lake (Frog population own their of elements Canadian by attacks from themselves defend to having by was This Butte). Frenchman’s and Hill Knife (Cut militia and Stonechild Blair as rule: the than rather exception the in their book, demonstrate most remained Bill Waiser death.’ till ‘loyal The Wolseley The expedition in Wolseley 1870 Riel claimed to speak in their interests and the level of and the level interests in to their speak claimed Riel anger and despair among the Plains peoples was high, prominent Plains Cree and Assiniboine leaders like spent had Piapot and Pine Little Poundmaker, Bear, Big working years for a political resolution to their treaty the militia and some of the Plains First Nations the region.in that however, emphasize, to important is It wanted Prairies the in population Aboriginal the of most adventure. Métis Although a as saw they what in part no of Batoche in May 1885, and the surrender of Riel a few few a Riel of surrender the and 1885, May in Batoche of was it though resistance, the broke effectively later, days occur. to fighting only the not There were several skirmishes between Mounties, Dumont, Dumont, the roughly 350 experienced Métis fighters concentrated in Batoche could not withstand the on- Canadian larger, much but inexperienced, the of slaught Major-General British the of command the under force Battle the at Métis the of Middleton. defeat Frederick The the Northwest. Furthermore, the existence of telegraph of telegraph existence the Furthermore, Northwest. the that meant Ottawa to link rail near-complete a and lines and information troops could travel very rapidly to re- spond to the crisis. had taken months to their complete voyage arduous to Manitoba. In 1885, the lead elements of the Canadian militia were marching north from Qu’Appelle, behind Lake Duck the of weeks two within scouts, Aboriginal clash. of Gabriel leadership the military Despite crafty constrained by any legal ambiguities over sovereignty in in sovereignty over ambiguities legal any by constrained 106

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL West Mounted Police found this arrangement perfectly undertakings The with North the Canadian government. other Aboriginal involvement in military or paramilitary often one of the premier motives motivating Métis and be the case in the 20th Century, economicwas necessity Thus,ment’ asthat might give them some wouldrelief. employ- any of glad be would they that and rebellion, the with way any in implicated be to not as so there, remain to wished they that [and] condition starving a MétisWillowof Branchand Wood Mountain‘in were West Mounted Police (left) and the British North American Boundary Commission (right) routinely engaged local local engaged routinely (right) Commission Boundary American North British the and (left) Police Mounted West surveyors in 1872-1874. in surveyors self- Commission to Boundary escort mounted anarmed provided Métis, River Red of composed “49th Rangers” styled The translators. and outfitters trackers, guides, scouts, civilian as women, and men both people, Aboriginal North the like organizations paramilitary government, Dominion of expansion northward and westward the During (N14060) Archives Manitoba Rangers. 49th the 1872-74: Commission Boundary the for working men Right: Métis (PA-195224) Canada Archives and Library 1890. c. Nation, Blackfoot the of members wife, andhis scout, Police North WestMounted a Child, Dog Left: Telegraph Company’s cable to Ottawa: American-born general manager of the Great North-West his defeat at Batoche, according to Harvey Dwight, the aftersurrendered Riel whom to patrolthree-man the Aboriginalmilitiaunits. Indeed,themserved ofinone non- primarily in individuals as served also Métis the countrythoroughlywatched.’ purpose of finding work for idle hands to do, and having satisfactory, since the Métis patrols ‘fulfilled the double Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 107 - CHAPTER FOUR he would be shot by the troop…. He was assured assured was He troop…. the by shot be would he want to seemed he all was which trial, fair a of …. avoid To the main body of the scouts Riel while hidden and by near coulee a to taken was him. for horse a corral to off went Diehl Thomas Hourie (not Howrie) was a Métis serving with with serving Métis a was Howrie) (not Hourie Thomas French’s Scouts attached to Middleton’s column. Wheth column. Middleton’s to attached Scouts French’s historical intense to subject still is fair was trial Riel’s er debate, but he was found at ‘guilty’ the time and was adjutant Riel’s Dumont, Gabriel treason. high for hanged States. United the to fled commander, military and - . . The scouts had [sic] conversation in which they expressed surprise surprise expressed they in which conversation at finding him Riel there, that declared he in that was fear only His up. himself give to tended been been out in the morning to scour the country, and body, main the from spread three these but on brush some of out coming were they as just they Batoche’s to leading trail unfrequented an He was un- companions. three with Riel spied No armed but effort they shot-guns…. carried brief a after and escape to part his on made was named Armstrong, D.H. Diehl and Howrie four four Howrie and Diehl D.H. Armstrong, named miles north of Batoche’s Riel was captured today at noon by three scouts scouts three by noon at today captured was Riel Scouts (right) in Middleton’s column, was one of three civilian trackers credited with the actual apprehension of Riel. Prarie First Nations leaders like Crowfoot chose to respect the spirit of numerous treaty relationships previously ratified with the Crown. UnitedThomastransport. and communication of lines the French’s guard with to serving and Métis States, a Hourie, Local Métis attached and Scouts First Mountain Nations supportWood the for including Louis scouts, Riel and and riflemen his Métis followers mounted of during units the raised 1885 Specially Northwest complete. Rebellion was not to the North Mounted Police (left), were recruited by theDominion government West to patrol the frontier with the Left:jacket, A Métis man, wearing a decorated who was a scout for the North West Mounted Police c. 1885. Photograph by Fred A. Russell, Kalamazoo Public Museum Right: French and his men Library and Archives Canada (C-18942) Imperial Adventures in Africa

While some Aboriginal people were clashing against Canadian military forces in the Northwest, others were embarking on adventures in aid of British Imperial military operations far beyond Canada’s shores. The first such excursion was the famed Nile Expedition of 1884-85, organised to save a British garrison under General Charles (‘Chinese’) Gordon which was trapped in the city of Khartoum by forces of the Mahdi – an Islamic holy leader who sought independence from Egypt and the establishment of an Islamic republic. Major-General Sir Garnet Wolseley, of Red River fame, commanded the relief expedition. One of his first acts was to ask the Governor General of Canada ‘to endeav- our to engage 300 good voyageurs from Caughnawaga, St. Regis and Manitoba as steersmen in boats for Nile expedition.’

Much had changed in fourteen years and it was simply not possible to recruit 300 voyageurs. By 1884 the canoe men who had long made a profession of transporting people and supplies over great distances had mostly yielded to the railway. Expert rivermen of a different type were, however, readily available. In the woods of Quebec and Ontario, men felled trees and stacked logs on the river banks all winter; in the spring, when the ice broke, and thereafter all summer long, these ‘shantymen’

The Upper Nile Valley drove great rafts of logs downstream, through many rap- Department of National Defence ids to the waiting sawmills. They had a broad knowledge

108 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 109 CHAPTER FOUR Canadian boat crews aboard, are the specially constructed whalers used to transport the Expedition up the Nile. Pictured on the right, from the frontispiece and title page of his memoir the of foreman and captain Jackson, Louis is expedition, the of contingent of Kahnawake Mohawks. In 1884-85, Canadians serving as a unit took part for the first time time first the for part took unit a as serving Canadians 1884-85, In in a military action overseas. Of the 367 civilian boathandlers constituting the Canadian Contingent Voyageur with the Nile ReliefQuebec, Expedition,Indians were from fewer 86 no than Ontario and Manitoba. An unspecified number of Métis also served. Depicted above, with British Army regulars and their Right: Frontispiece and titlepage of Louis Jackson,Right: Frontispiece and titlepage of Louis 1885, “Our Caughnawagas in Egypt: A narrative of what was seen and accomplished by the Contingent of North American Voyageurs who led the British Boat Expedition for the Relief of Khartoum up the Cataracts of the Nile.” By Louis Jackson, of Caughnawaga, Captain of the Contingent Above: “The Canadian Voyageurs’ first touch of the Nile”, Above: “The Canadian Voyageurs’ first C.P. Stacey, The Nile Voyageurs, 1884-1885 The Graphic, London, November 22, 1884 The Red River Expedition, 1877 Kahnawake Mohawk boatmen, some Manitoba First Nations, and an unrecorded number of Ontario and Québec Métis were among the nearly 400 civilians contracted to transport troops and material during the Red River Expedi- tion in 1877. Aboriginal employment as boatmen in the lumbering industry of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa River watersheds was one early example of Native participation in the emerging wage economy in central Canada. Later Kahnawake Mohawk economic pursuits included high steel construction as well as professional military service. The process by which Aboriginals undertook paid individual employment in support of colonial and Dominion military projects was complex and occured over time as Native peoples and communities gained ever greater exposure to the mainstream wage economy. Initially hired at the time of the Red River Rebellion and the Nile Expedition as civilian labourers possessing specialized skills in boat handling and other tasks having a military spplication, only toward the end of the 19th century did Natives begin to consider enrolment as private soldiers in Crown military forces. Library and Archives Canada (C-134480)

110 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 111 CHAPTER FOUR The Nile Valley Department of National Defence . Alto- . They They were voyageurs Our Caughnawagas in Caughnawagas Our . As the anonymous preface noted, ‘There is some- is ‘There . noted, preface anonymous the As fallen to the Mahdists and Gordon was dead. Wolseley’s dead. was Wolseley’s Gordon and Mahdists the to fallen arrived expedition 56 hours too late. the Subsequently the by guided ably Nile, the down back returned British rivermen. Canadian path. They succeeded in transporting the British troops troops British the transporting in succeeded They path. to the upper Nile by January 1885, when they made Gordon. by Khartoum of out sent steamers with contact On 24 January these steamers found that the city had Toronto militiaman Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Charles Charles Frederick Lieutenant-Colonel militiaman Toronto Denison and his men disembarked from the foot of the Second Cataract on 26 October 1884. approximately halfway to Khartoum, with 1300 kilo- metres, four cataracts and many lesser rapids in their Halfa would prove long, exhausting and dangerous. Egypt thing unique in the idea of the aborigines of the New pass to how Egyptians the teach to for sent being World the of Cataracts the Nile, which has been in navigated ….’ years of thousands for them by way some Wadi at railhead the from Nile long the up passage The the the small boat and of canoe skills the status were 86 whom of recruited, were men 367 gether, Indians from Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba. Fifty-six captained Caughnawaga, from Mohawks were them of book little a wrote subsequently who Jackson, Louis by entitled experiences their about of river work, which was of some value, but they lacked lacked they but value, some of was which work, river of 112

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL concluded that the best of the voyageurs were: Finally,Butler aid.’valuable their without done have hardly could expedition The marked. most was water bad in boat a handling in skill Their rapids. many the working to adapted best were Indians the opinionthat communications, fully endorsed ‘I Grove’s am of view. Nile of charge in F.W. Grenfell, Brigadier-General adjutant-general for boat services, recorded that: Coleridge Grove, the commandant at Gemai and assistant success of the Canadian contingent. Lieutenant-Colonel doubtingthe no wasKhartoum,there garrisonat fated Although the military operation failed to relieve the ill- … French-Canadians, Iroquois from Lachine, most a wasvoyageurs the employmentof The at Korti. rendezvousthe atforce fighting the of tration mighteasily have been effected intheconcen- entireanweek of saving great the that indeed so great– very been have would time in gain realour of voyageurs, dredclass morethis of nipeg. Could we have obtained a couple of hun- and Swampy Indians and half-breeds from Win- greater than has been the case…. much beenhave would life of loss the and so, had, they would have been far longer in doing at all, and it may, be taken as certain that if they up got havewould boats the whetherdoubted be to is it Withoutthempronounced success. defeats to the determined and well-armed Boer fighters, extremity against the AfterBoer someRepublics. initial other colonial conflict in Africa, this time at the southern an- in engaged themselves found British the 1899, In their traditional homelands. from far Crown the of support to force,expeditionary Canadian a of part as upon, called were men original a significant role. playedoperation Nile the in thevoyageursAboriginal huge, not were numbers their Thoughcauses. natural of diedeightEgypt,and intrain a fromfellthey when killed were two cataracts, Nile the in drowned were Six Caughnawagas,lives. theirtwolost Saulteauxand one including Canadians, Sixteen medal. (1884-85) origin in enlistment papers. Those who joined did so as on an individual basis and no account was taken of racial theCanadian troops in South Africa,as enlistment was the exact number of Aboriginal recruits that served with few hundred strong. Unfortunately, we will never know tiny regular component, the Permanent Force, was only a volunteers were ‘amateur’ soldiers, given that Canada’s these of all Nearly force.expeditionaryinternational major Canada’sfirst in enlistedCanadians 8,000 than more all, In SouthAfrica. in serve to contingentstary droveWilfrid Laurier’s governmentcommit volunto for men. Pressure from the Anglo-Canadian community dominionsitsuponcalled and Cape, theforcements at the British Empire began concentrating substantial rein- awarded the KIRBEKAN bar together with THE NILE Thoseboatmen, whoactually reached Khartoum, were Nor would it be the last time that Ab - - Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 113 CHAPTER FOUR en masse masse en unit unit in the Canadian expeditionary force. As early as 37th the of company Nations) (Six Ohsweken an 1892, However, mustered. was Rifles of Battalion Haldimand transferred company militia the have to efforts in fight to recruited contingents Canadian the of one to There There was at least one effort to include an indigenous though this remains conjecture. remains this though individuals, and some had militia experience. experience. militia had Canadian some and individuals, militia units may have welcomed some because their them suit ideally to believed was upbringing and heritage to such necessary roles as scouts and sharpshooters, South Africa 1899-1902 (Canadian War Museum) 114

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL last shown on the monument pictured right. monument at the on shown last killed in action in South Africa in 1900. His name is the the is name His 1900. in Africa South in action in killed was Militia, Canadian the in Fusiliers Essex 21st the of Canadian Regiment (above right), late colour sergeant Walter White, (Anderdon band of Wyandot) of into a British unit on grounds, he felt, of racial bias. Private entry refused was Mohawk, River Grand a left) (above Canadian Dominion and British Empire. John Brant-Sero the of forces military the in soldiers individual as enlist to efforts concerted made time, first the for originals, Ab- War that Canadian African It was during the South PA-18142) (NA Collection Association’s Memorial African South Canadian 1900) 18th, BloodySunday’sfatalities(Feb. listing Association’s officiallystyledgranitemonument, African Memorial South Canadian The Right: Illustrated Sandwich of Township The Neal, Frederick EssexFusiliers 21st Right: SergeantWalterWhite, Above Report,1898 Archaeological Ontario Boyle, David Brant-Sero Above Left:PortraitofJohnOjijatekha T he Royal Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 115 CHAPTER FOUR pointed in many respects, but I do not wish these these wish not do I but respects, many in pointed to went I grievance. a as understood be to lines I that hoping might Canada from that country enlist in one of the mounted rifles; however, not being a man of descent, European I was refused to do active service in Her Majesty’s was I … Canada in forefathers my did as cause Canadian. a genuine too I have just returned from I Africa, South disap- have from just returned dead’ during dead’ the Battle of Paardeberg on 18 February spared were Canada in enlisted who those least At 1900. the frustration of John Brant-Sero, enrol to tried a and GrandAfrica South River to travelled who Mohawk unit: British a in Boer trenches and much in advance of any other British British other any of advance in much and trenches Boer year old was killed in action ‘within twenty yards of the the of yards twenty ‘within action in killed was old year Regiment of Infantry, after previous service as a colour colour a as service previous after Infantry, of Regiment sergeant with the 21st Battalion Essex Fusiliers. Like many other African South White volunteers, willingly dropped in rank to enlist. the Unfortunately, nineteen enfranchised Anderdon band of Wyandot (Hurons), near near (Hurons), Wyandot of band Anderdon enfranchised with Contingent First the in Ontario. enlisted Sarnia, He the 2nd (Special Service) Battalion, Royal Canadian the the government concern that the provision of modern would Aboriginals, to organization and training military itself. state the against utilized be somehow White of the One of the Walter was volunteers Private South Africa were unsuccessful. Perhaps, Indian agent Indian Perhaps, were Africa unsuccessful. South that in of ‘Reports circulating the rumours West North caused Transvaal’ in force Boer the join to wish Indians South African War. Separate attempts in 1896 to raise an entire regiment exclusively from among Grand River Iroquois Iroquois River Grand among from exclusively regiment entire an raise to South 1896 in attempts African Separate War. volunteers had likewise been unsuccessful – despite the eclectic uniform proposed (right). Left: Six Nations Militia in front of the Council House, c. 1880. Warriors, A Resource Guide, the Woodland Indian Cultural Educational Centre, 1985 Right: A Six Nations Regiment The Indian Magazine, Vol. III, No.4, January, 1896 Canadian (left), Rifles Haldimand 37th the of Company Nations) (Six Oshweken the 1892, as early as raised Although Militia, were unsuccessful in their attempts to have their number transferred for active service overseas during the 116

Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL and legislative regime, as legal wards of the Crown. the of wards legal as regime,legislative and administrativetight a withinconstrained increasingly now were peoplesindependent politically Once tury. been fundamentally transformed over the preceding cen- between the state and Aboriginal relationship peoples in the Canada had Century, 20th the of dawn the By regiments was re-established. precedent of enlisting Aboriginal individuals in Canadian Dominion,the the of parts infeelings similarsome be initially would there althoughwar, Canada’snext In military service remained. service military of traditions but changed, had service of forms The or field craft marksmanship. at ist skills boat handling, or for special- their as sought individuals, increasingly were men Aboriginal progressed, years the As gents. or contin in tribal own their national fighting warriors battle. of fields far-flung in Crown the of enemies against and home, to close Fenians and rebels against arms, to call the answer to continued had peoples Aboriginal Nevertheless, Initially they had done so as as so done had they Initially - Transforming Relationships, 1815-1902 117 CHAPTER FOUR cooperated with colonial authorities authorities colonial with cooperated com- were Aboriginals other against from ranged These varied. and plex traditional against act to desire the the that conviction the to enemies, would hegemony Crown of advent be a stabilizing influence on - inter tribal relationships. Royal British Columbia Museum photo (PN 5935) From the 1840’s to the end of the 19th century, from the praries to the Northwestcoast,localhoc ad volunteers, Métis and Indian ofunits variously styled Home Guards, Na- tive Constabulary or Militia, were raised periodically in response to particular circumstances. These ranged from providing aid to the Indian apprehending in power civil and other fugitives from colonial law, to countering feared Russian, American or Fenian invasions. Pic- uniform militia colonial in here tured is Chief Lo-Haar (1824-1899) of the Comiaken band of Cowichan. In 1856 he worked closely with civil, ap- in authorities naval and military at- in sought individuals prehending tacks against settlers in the Crown Island. mo- The Vancouver of colony who groups and individuals of tives Chief Lo-Haar of the Comiaken band of Cowichan (1824-1899) Chapter Five

118 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The World Wars 119 CHAPTER FIVE (1906). ‘While Geneva Geneva Convention British troops would be proud to be associated with their their with associated be to proud be would troops British fellow official subjects,’ logic held, ‘Germans might war- civilized of privileges the them to extend to refuse was Canada in Indians’ ‘status of fare.’ recruitment The taking were discussions prohibited. these therefore While place, however, many enthusiastic and dedicatedAb- recruitment to way their made already had men original stations and begun their training for overseas service. some Obviously, militia units were either unaware of decided simply or recruits Indian against prohibition the it. ignore to scalping, practices quite unacceptable under the rules of of rules the under unacceptable quite practices scalping, war laid out in the During the First World War (1914-1919) and Second World War (1939-1945), (1939-1945), World War Second and (1914-1919) First World War the During thousands of Aboriginal men and women voluntarily enlisted in Canada’s Canada’s in enlisted voluntarily women and men Aboriginal of thousands armed forces. Indian every in and Canadians, other status with units in served They 500 than More part. took forces Canadian which in theatre wars, world the during battlefields foreign on lives their lost servicemen and the number of casualties – including those injured – was much higher. Their notable contributionswarthe effort to source becamea communities their to themselves, to self-confidence and inspiration of and to Canadians in general. introduced him to the workings of a wage economy which was still unfamiliar to many; and often civilian pre-war his of function a as proficient already was he which with skills utilize to him permitted performance The tracking. and scouting hunting, or navigation, river lumbering, in whether livelihood, many within passage of rite significant a considered still is service military of period some least at of Canadian Aboriginal communities today. Library and Archives Canada (PA 5424) of the day, ‘Red Indians’ were associated with torture and and torture with associated were Indians’ ‘Red day, the of An Indian in the Canadian Forestry Corps with serviceman Aboriginal the provided simultaneously service military War, Great the of era the By home; back communities and cultures Native many in esteemed much was which status warrior the Canadian officials contemplated the role Aboriginal contemplated of officials Canadian peoples in the war almost literature from popular its the onset. In hesitation. was Ottawa The in initial response empires to mobilize their resources on an unprecedented unprecedented an on resources their mobilize to empires too so beginning; the from part its played Canada scale. Canada. in peoples Aboriginal did The First World War (1914-1919) Dominion the 1914, August in war declared Britain When of Canada – as a colony – at was war. also legally The to remained however, commitment, Canada’s of extent that horrors the foresee could one no and determined be or lay as the ahead. War, The ‘Great War’ First World and nations force would generation, its to known was it The World Wars World The 120

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL Department of National Defence National of Department WesternFront,1914-1918 The Some members of Canadian society did not give sub- actively recruit Indians appears to have been a response stantive weight to the worries of differential treatment to Prime Minister Robert Borden’s efforts to replace and were eager to recruit Indians for service. The role the increasingly high number of casualties in front-line of Indian agents in recruiting and Indian Affairs policies units by 1916. Recruitment efforts, however, did not regarding enlistments from reserves fluctuated during necessarily bring the desired results. The Deputy Super- the First World War, which reflected the contradictory intendent General of Indian Affairs, Duncan Campbell mandate of the Department of Indian Affairs: it was Scott, supported some Indian Councils and local Agents expected to protect the rights of status Indians as well as that objected to the tactics used by recruitment officers to act in the interests of the federal government. Historian on their reserves. In one case, when Blackfoot elders James Dempsey has charted the apparent inconsistencies requested that 15 enlisted Blackfoot men be discharged in how government administrators and recruiters applied from the army, Indian Affairs instructed the military the rules. In large part, the government’s decision to district’s commanding officer to release them.

Three Left Above: he Petition of the Six Nations Clanmothers to King George V, 1917 Library and Archives Canada, RG 10 Indian Affairs, (Volume 6767, File 452-15, Part 1)

Right: The Six Nations Veterans Petition, D.C. Scott, Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, 1919 Library and Archives Canada, RG 10 Indian Affairs, (Volume 7930, File 32-32, Part 2) As would again be the case in 1939-1945, Aboriginal support for Native military involvement during the First World War was by no means universal, and the pressures to participate or not divided communities and families. Many Aboriginal cultures assign significant leadership roles to women, and in 1917 a group of clanmothers from the Six Nations of the Grand River petitioned King George V, invoking the Two-Row and Covenant Chain wampum belts which record the condition of sovereignty association existing between the Crown and the Six Nations Confederacy (three left above). The clanmothers demanded that the King release forthwith from his military service a number of their sons who had enlisted underage. Following the war, newly returned veterans on the same reserve organized politically to help depose the traditional system of hereditary chiefs, which they claimed had not been supportive of them and their families during the war (right).

CHAPTER FIVE 121 For the most part, recruitment activities tried to encour- battalion comprised solely of Six Nations warriors. Nei- age rather than coerce Indians to enlist. Private Canadian ther Ottawa officials nor the local Indian Council of citizens also joined in the effort. In various parts of Can- Chiefs accepted the offer, albeit for different reasons. ada, priests, missionaries and residential schoolteach- Official government policy still restricted Indian par- ers encouraged and influenced individuals who were ticipation and, in this light, Defence officials found the considering voluntary enlistment. In Southern Ontario, offer ‘inconvenient.’ The Six Nations Chiefs’ response one prominent figure offered to fund and back an entire reflected larger political issues. Based on past treaties

Left: 107th Battalion, “A” Company, Subalterns J. Moses Collection

Above: Badge of the 107th Battalion Canadian War Museum The fortunes of war; Subalterns of “A” Compa- ny, 107th “Timberwolf” Battalion, France, July 29th, 1917 (left). Pictured at front row, sitting at left, is Lieutenant Oliver Martin, a Mohawk from the Grand River Reserve; and back row standing at right, Lieutenant James Moses, a Delaware from the same Reserve. Both were later seconded to the Royal Flying Corps. Mar- tin survived the war as a pilot, stayed active in the Canadian Militia during the interwar years, and was appointed Brigadier during the Sec- ond World War. Moses was reported missing, later confirmed killed, on April 1st, 1918 while serving as an air observer. A third Indian junior officer from the 107th, John Randolph Stacey, a Mohawk from Kahnawake, also became a pilot, but was killed in a flying accident in England a week after Moses. Pictured above is the badge worn by members of the 107th “Timberwolf” Battalion.

122 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The World Wars 123 CHAPTER FIVE - cer, the late Colonel Hay, who was killed, stated stated killed, was who Hay, Colonel late the cer, were Indians the that occasions frequent upon among his very best soldiers. Their gallantry is testified by the fact that the name of every list. casualty the in appeared unit this in Indian The fine appearance of these Indian soldiers in press the by upon commented specially was the various which cities through the battalion Indian the front. of the One to way its on passed members of the 52nd, Private Rod Cameron, competition shooting a in honours premier won battalions. twelve of marksmen best the among Special Special mention must be made of the Ojibwa bands located in the vicinity of Fort William, which sent more than one men hundred over- two of population male adult total a from seas hundred and eighty-two. Upon the introduc- tion of the Military Service Act it was found first-class the of Indians two but were there that left at home on the Nipigon and reserve, but Indian The reserve…. William Fort the on one en- part most the for district this from recruits listed with the 52nd, popularly known as the Battalion. Moose Bull offi commanding Their the the battle for Hill 70, just north of Lens. The Deputy particular drew Affairs Indian of General Superintendent attention to Anishnawbe men the who served with the Battalion: 52nd - - Indian officers commanded two ‘Indian’ ‘Indian’ two commanded officers Indian More than 500 Aboriginal soldiers filled its its filled soldiers Aboriginal 500 than More ions. Another unit with a high proportion of Aboriginal Aboriginal of ions.proportion high a with unit Another raised Battalion, Wolf’ ‘Timber 107th the was members Winnipeg. in England, in battalion pioneer a to converted was It ranks. then embarked to France in 1917 and participated in ties in Quebec. in ties companies of the 114th. Like many other battalions it individual and England in arrived it when up broken was soldiers were dispersed amongst other fighting battal contributions difficult. Nevertheless, several regiments regiments several Nevertheless, difficult. contributions soldiers. 114th Aboriginal The of numbers large boasted Rangers, Brock’s as known commonly more Battalion, drew extensively from the Six Nations of the Grand River and the Caughnawaga and St. Regis communi- Indian’ units Indian’ during the world wars. This makes any systematic analysis and generalizations about Indian areas areas around Brantford (Six Nations) and Tyendinaga (Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte) became the highest Canada. in enlistment Indian of sources units ‘ethnic’ form not did government the principle, In ‘all- no were there Century. result, 20th a the As during ernment could support. Nevertheless, Iroquois reserves reserves Iroquois Nevertheless, support. could ernment the effort: war the for support of bastions active proved and alliances, the Six Nations considered themselves to to themselves considered Nations Six the alliances, and be and a nation, thus felt that they separate were due a nation one from Crown, British the from request formal This would gesture have and political legal to another. and ramifications, was not one that the Canadian gov He rendered valuable service at the front as a scout and sniper and was subsequently killed in action.

Private Joseph Delaronde, another Nipigon Indian, of the 52nd Battalion, won the Military Medal for gallantry in action. His cousin, Denis Delaronde, who was killed in action, was the first man of the 52nd to enter the trenches of the enemy. Two other members of this fighting Indian family, Charles and Alexander Dela- ronde, also served with the 52nd. The latter was wounded, returned home, and discharged, re-enlisted and went back to the front. Another Nipigon Indian of the 52nd to be decorated was Sgt. Leo Bouchard, who was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal. Private Au- gustin Belanger, another Indian member of the 52nd Battalion, who was killed in action, was awarded the Military Medal. Alexander Chief, a Fort William Indian of the 52nd Battalion, returned to Canada after two years’ service with no fewer than twelve wounds. Although he was an Indian of remarkably fine physique, he fell a victim to tuberculosis as a result of the hard- ships he endured and died in December, 1918.

Lance-Corporal John Shiwak Geographical isolation limited, but did not preclude, Inuit enlistments during the First and Second World Wars, and in Korea. John Shiwak (Sikoak), a Labrador Inuit from Rigolet, served with the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. He was killed on Nov. 20, 1917 during fighting at Cambrai. Frederick Freida was another Great War Inuit volunteer from the Labrador coast. During the Second World War, the presence of Inuit along the Labrador coast complicated the efforts of German U-boat crews in landing autotmated weather stations. Presently across the Canadian north, Inuit members of the Canadian Ranger Patrol Groups of the Canadian Forces reserve are an integral part of our military presence in the Arctic. Royal Canadian Legion, Happy Valley, Labrador

124 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The World Wars 125 - - CHAPTER FIVE tario, tario, all but three eligible men of Algonquin from the An- 100 approximately and enlisted, band Lake Golden ishnawbe (Ojibwa) men from isolated in communities percent of their adult male population overseas. More Reserve Cote the on males adult eligible the of half than in served Saskatchewan overseas. Only Alberta In 29 dians served, but 17 men volunteered from the Blood Reserve. In British Columbia, every male member of the Head of the ages the of Lake band between twenty and thirty-five enlisted. These cases are exemplary by any measure. Men who lived in North the Territorial subsistence a pursued they because volunteered seldom or connection about information little had and lifestyle John as such – few a but developments, international to miles by who three thousand ventured trail, Campbell, estimated fifteen men from Labrador with Inuit ancestry ancestry Inuit with Labrador from men fifteen estimated the in Regiment Newfoundland Royal The with served somewhat are Quebec from Army. statistics The British rate. enlistment a high suggest also but sketchy, On In Bay) (Thunder Arthur Port to travelled Ontario northern Grand the of Nations Six the earlier, up. stated sign As to River Reserve provided more soldiers than any other 300. approximately In country: the in community Indian 20 Manitoba, men from the Peguis band saw frontline total the that considering statistic impressive an – service never eleven 118. only Sadly, was population male adult at Band Sioux Band, Pas The Similarly, it home. made twenty than more sent all Band Peter’s St. and Griswold, remained remained a separate colony during the world wars, an - Maliseet men in Atlantic Canada enlisted. enlisted. eligible Canada Every Atlantic in men Maliseet Sco- Nova Sydney, near reserve Mi’kmaq the from male tia, volunteered. New Brunswick bands sent 62 out of PEI eligible 64 of 30 and front, the to males eligible 116 Indians joined. and Although Newfoundland Labrador In several Aboriginal communities the enlistment record record enlistment the communities Aboriginal several In was impressive. Nearly half of eligible Mi’kmaq and ments ments among the Indians is fully equal to that among and indeed far above of other sections the community, these instances.’ Furthermore, of number a in average the statistics did not include non-status Indians, Métis, or Inuit, so Aboriginal peoples served more in the armed provide. can record official any that forces ans had enlisted for service – approximately thirty-five thirty-five – approximately service for enlisted had ans age. military of males Given Indian status all of percent highlighted Scott recruits, these faced that challenges the how remarkable it was ‘that the percentage of enlist- The Department of Indian Affairs, and in particular Dun- particular in and Affairs, Indian of Department The can Campbell Scott, trumpeted the wartime achieve- explained report Indians. annual 1919 status His of ments Indi 4,000 than more records, official to according that, individually within the various battalions,’ historian Fred Fred historian battalions,’ various the within individually way traditional their with keeping ‘in concluded, Gaffen of life and culture where individual heroism in battle esteem.’ high in held were By war’s end, Aboriginal soldiers had soldiers served Aboriginal through- By end, war’s out the army. ‘Many soldiers of native ancestry shone 126

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL the Prairie Indians motivated young men to join. alsosuggested thatpersistenta ‘warrior ethic’ amongst to Aboriginal identities and culture. James Dempsey has that ever lived, Queen Victoria.’ Such patriotism was tied England;this loyalty was created by the noblest Queen struggle in Europe. The Indian Race as a rule are loyal to to provide ‘help toward the Mother Country in its present Sarniawrote toD.C. Scott that hispeople were willing F.M.of JacobsChiefOntario, In upon.’called if men at this crisis, and offer to send numbers of their younger expressed their desire to be allowed to serve the empire ‘theleading mennumberofa ofwest coast tribes have within their communities. According to one Indian agent, status topatriotism fromreasons, ofmultitude a were the desire to follow friends and family into service.’ There of the call to adventure, the attraction of regular pay, and original veterans – not unlike other war veterans – speak Ab- works, published other and biographies, histories, Summerby has explained. ‘In newspaper interviews, oral singlejoin?they‘NoanswerdidWhysuffices,’ Janice Aboriginal enlistment even more remarkable. the war, its cause or This effect.’made the high levels of therefore, not in a position to understand the character of were unacquainted with the English language and were, population, located in remote and inaccessible locations, Indian the of partlarge a ‘that end,war’s at explained Scott mind,’D.C. in borne be … must ‘It effort. war theVancouver joinedin enlist– to steamer and canoe For thoseForserved,who experience the broughta withit them. Semia eventually mastered English and fought in Aboriginal recruits with basic training who could assist city for the first time – had the fortune of meeting other the in himself found and enlist to kilometres 400 than more travelled who – Ontario Northern from Semia largerthe centres.asSome,such Anishnawbe William in train to off went they when barriers language faced the First World Recruits War.from isolated communities during enlistees Aboriginal plagued differences temic familiar.and equal moresys wereOther warriors and chiefs war between relationships traditional whereas sharply distinguished between officers and other ranks, Corps Canadian the in hierarchy military rigid The observed. life,’Gaffen army to adjusting of problems been raised in the traditional way there were some unique had who Indians ‘For shock. culture of brand unique unusually susceptible to sicknesses such as tuberculosis man’swhite werethe soldiers enlisteddiseases. These and men white with contact little had had they where country the of parts remote more the from those for working against Native people was health, particularly Dogrib and several dialects of Inuktitut. Another factor manding officer, who himself spoke Cree, Chipewyan, unit which had sixteen interpreters – including the com- Alberta an in or men, his of several of tongue native the spoke Campbell Glen Lieutenant-Colonel where Battalion, 107th the in themselves found individuals Passchendaele. at fortunateA trenches few muddy the - The World Wars 127 CHAPTER FIVE Front lines of the Western Front, 1914-1918 Department of National Defence teers, they did not believe that they should be forced into into forced be should they that believe not did they teers, Canadian spectacular the service. after 1917, military In Corps victory at Ridge, Vimy the federal government decided and overseas shortage manpower severe a faced so so many had communities enlisted willingly as volun- Voluntary contributions were one thing; compulsion was was compulsion thing; one were contributions Voluntary another. The most contentious issue Aboriginal facing conscrip- was wars world the during Canada in peoples of service. members military While compulsory or tion, greatly, greatly, from $7.35 donated by the Children on John Agency. Hills File the by $8,000 over to Reserve Smith’s Even the smallest donations were The heartfelt. Sioux the to directly $101 of donation their sent River Oak of King stating ‘nobody asked us to do this we are doing doing are we but much not is this will free our with this hearts.’ our all with it lead. Reserve communities donated to the Red Cross, fundraised by selling native crafts, and knitted socks overseas. serving those for sweaters and Ab- Although original people were often poor, government officials such as Scott D.C. proved through statistics how they generously gave to The the amounts varied war effort. Many Many Aboriginal communities eagerly contributed in whatever ways they could. Their donations to the posters a of became Fund propaganda; source Patriotic promoted the idea that Aboriginal peoples were so their follow to had people non-Aboriginal that generous tibility was also used as a reason for requesting the de-enlistment of men serving overseas by their elders Alberta. of Blackfoot the of case the in as home, back and and pneumonia, and many of those who were enlisted suscep- This careers. military their in early down struck 128

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL thus did so as volunteers. Indians who served overseas during the First World War claim deferrals for industrial or Status agricultural work. in Canada, but this legislation made it easier for them to performcalledcouldstilltouponbenon-combat roles exempted Indians from the order-in-councilan (P.C. 111) Januarythat191817 on passed Cabinet successful.proved government the of sustainedthis Aboriginallobbyingend, the In people? enfranchised responsibilitiesas same the assume and serve to them compel to be it would fair how status, this Given ‘wards’‘minors.’as treatedor legally were and example, for vote, not could theycitizenship: of rights full have not did Indians status that noted ters let- Numerous will.their against arms up take to have bal treaty promises that assured them they would never this a grave injustice, reminding the government of ver- consideredcommunities Indian Many Canada. in else theywouldcalledbe forconscription up likeeveryone service,’D.C. Scott initially claimed, which meant that I know of for relief or exemption of Indians from military Indian ‘ThereAffairs are unprepared.no general grounds caught conscription from exempt be Indians status thatdemanding agentsIndian and Indiansfrom letters of flood a swiftly,however,andreacted communities ndian Indians.theconsiderspecialnotof thecasedid Service Act the When necessary. was conscription that was originally drafted, government officials Military Service Act Indians . Military Military particularlydistinguished dangerousthemselvesbutin thatsoldiersAboriginalmaintains war the of lore The suggests that many relished and excelled in these tasks. ous jobs that the Anecdotalarmy had evidenceto offer. sometimes placed Aboriginal soldiers in the most hazard- ing extraordinary stealth and cunning to Native people) attribut-stereotypeslongstanding with concert in ing (act-livelihoodrugged andbackground anAboriginal vation powers, stamina, and courage. Correspondingly, were seen to be adaptable and patient, with keen obser- hunter and warrior came to the Aboriginalfore.’ soldiers Gaffenconcluded that inbattle ‘the skills ofthe Indian scouts. and sniperseffective as lauded were soldiers foremost,Aboriginaland First emerge.clearlythemes Dempsey’sJames and Janice Summerby’s aboundstudiesin Gaffen’ssuch as essential Accountsinfantry ofroles. individual gallantry that distinction. Métis marksman Henry Norwest also Norwest Henry marksman Métisdistinction. that achieve to CEF the of members 39 only of one was he – services his for Bars two and MedalMilitary the Front.ernbravery wereawardsfor many Amongst his Westthe on sniperanyAllied ofimpressive most the Amiens. Credited with 378 kills, his record was amongst andPasschendaele, Somme,Ypres, at the serve to on He hisenlisted marksmanship.in August 1914 and went agencyinOntario, wasperhaps themost renowned for Francis Pegahmagabow, an Ojibwa from the Parry Island Native Soldiers, Foreign Battlefields Warriors of the King theWarriors of ForgottenSoldiers . Several . - , , displayed remarkable prowess as a sniper. ‘On one occasion he waited two days for two enemy snipers who had heard his rifle, as he accounted for another of their friends, knowing they were suspicious of his post,’ one of his comrades recalled after the war. ‘At last he caught them off guard and one went down followed by the other in fifteen minutes.’ Lance Corporal Norwest amassed 115 confirmed kills and a Military Medal before falling to an enemy sniper in August 1918. In all, at least 37 Aboriginal infantrymen were decorated for gallantry. Aboriginal soldiers also served in other important roles, and by Armistice Day they could be found in pioneer, forestry, and labour battalions, and amongst the Rail- way Troops, Veterinary Corps, Service Corps, and the Canadian Engineers.

Formal educational restrictions meant that few Aborigi- nal soldiers had access to commissions as officers, but many became non-commissioned officers: corporals, lance corporals, and sergeants. These leadership roles built confidence and demonstrated that they were just as capable and intelligent as their non-Aboriginal comrades. A few managed to secure commissions, often by virtue of their performance in the field, including Lieutenants Cameron Brant and Oliver Milton Martin, and Captains Alexander Smith and Charles D. Smith, all from Six Nations, and Hugh John McDonald from the Mackenzie

Valley. A small number also served in the Royal Flying Henry Norwest gravesite Corps/Royal Air Force, including Lieutenant James An Aboriginal serviceman’s civilian livelihood, in combination with longstanding stereotypes attributing extraordinary stealth and cun- ning to Natives, in both World Wars and Korea often had the effect of placing such individuals in the most hazardous jobs the Army had to offer. Henry Norwest, a Cree-Métis saddler, cowboy, trapper and hunter from Alberta, served as a sniper with the 50th Battalion C.E.F. Officially credited with 115 confirmed kills, the highest “score” recorded in the armies of the British Empire to that point, Norwest was killed in action August 18th, 1918 near Amiens. Glenbow Archives

CHAPTER FIVE 129 130

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL the Indians of Canada may look with just pride upon the tributions to victory. ‘Now that peace has been declared, and Aboriginal peoples remembered their patriotic con- fices alongside their comrades from the rest of Canada, sacri-deepmade had They 1919.countryin theswept with them the influenzacarried deadly unwittingly that to isolated communities at the end of the war, also they tions on the Western When some Front.soldiers returned eases that they had amidst the contracted horrid condi- Some veterans returned with tuberculosis and other dis- War. Hundreds more were wounded, in body Great theand in indied Indians mind.status 300 than more all, In Nations who lost their lives during the conflict. and he lost his life. He was one of 88 volunteers from Six Moses wrote home: 1918, March late In Kahnawake. of John Stacey Randolph Lieutenant and Oshweken of Moses David On 1 April, his plane was shot down by anti-aircraft fire our machine was pretty well shot up. when we got back to the aerodrome found that prettyand ithot got we say Needlesstotions. They simply scattered and tumbled in all direc- gun. machine my with them of masses dense intorounds of hundreds shooting of pleasure the had and height low very a from troops experiences just lately. We bombed the German thrilling very some had have I and pilot My ewan Cree clergyman proclaimed in 1920: battle,’EdwardSaskatchof Ahenakew, field a the on part played by them in the Great War, both at home and J. Moses Collection Moses J. African) was 23. South (a Trollip Price Douglas Lieutenant 2nd Circus. Lieutenant Moses was 28, and his pilot, Flying the as known popularly Richtofen, von Freiherr eschwader Jagdg- of Wolff Joachim Hans Ltn. by down shot was observer the was Moses which in aircraft DH4 Squadron 57 RAF the that documents Force Air German through revealed subsequently was It telegram. dreaded The missing. is Force Air Royal the of Moses J.D. Lieutenant - Not in vain did our young men die in a strange land; not in vain are our Indian bones mingled with the soil of a foreign land for the first time since the world began; not in vain did the Indian fathers and mothers see their son march away to face what to them were ununderstandable dangers; the unseen tears of Indian mothers in many isolated Indian reserves have watered the seeds from which may spring those desires and efforts and aspirations which will enable us to reach sooner the stage when we will take our place side by side with the white people.

For this sacrifice, changes were necessary to better the Indian way of life in Canada. Interwar Politics

In the Indian Affairs’ 1918-1919 Annual Report, Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs Duncan Campbell Scott wrote that:

In this year of peace, the Indians of Canada Portrait photo of Charlotte Edith Anderson Monture, AEF Demonstrating the Iroquois woman’s traditional inde- may look with just pride upon the part played pendence of spirit, Edith Anderson from the Six Nation’s by them in the Great War both at home and on of theGrand River reserve was living and working as a the field of battle. They have well and nobly registered nurse in New York City when the U.S. entered the First World War in 1917. Joining the American Expe- upheld the loyal traditions of their gallant ditionary Force as an army nurse, she served overseas ancestors who rendered invaluable service to in France until demobilized in 1919. She returned home to the reserve to continue nursing, and to raise a family. the British cause in 1776 and in 1812, and have Aboriginal women on the homefront during both World added thereto a heritage of deathless honour, Wars were heavily involved in charitable work, and with various forms of war relief and soldier’s support. During which is an example and an inspiration for the Second World War, a number of Aboriginal women their descendants. served in the women’s branches of the three services. J. Moses collection

CHAPTER FIVE 131 There was, however, more continuity than change in the administration of Aboriginal peoples after the war. ‘In contrast to the country which made political and eco- nomic gains,’ Gaffen concluded, ‘the lot of the Indian people remained much the same. The sacrifice of killed and wounded achieved very little politically, economi- cally or socially for them.’ Historian James Dempsey has described the disappointment felt by many Prairie Indian veterans when they returned home. Their exposure to the broader world had changed them profoundly, but they returned to the same patronizing society that they had left. Although eligible for the vote overseas, they lost their democratic rights after the war. Furthermore, the inequitable eligibility requirements and dispensa- tion of veterans’ settlement packages (money and land) disadvantaged many Indian veterans. Although they had fought overseas, their legal status had not changed; they continued to be wards of the Crown. Portrait photo of Lieutenant F.O. Loft “As peaceable and law-abiding citizens in the past, Armed with increased political awareness following and even in the late war, we have performed dutiful service to our King, Country and Empire, and we their experiences at war, veterans began to organize have the right to claim and demand more justice politically. Fred Loft from Six Nations spearheaded the and fair play as recompense.” Lieutenant Frederick Ogilvie Loft had served with the Ca- establishment of the League of Indians of Canada, the nadian Forestry Corps during the First World War. A Mohawk first pan-Canadian Indian political movement, in the from the Six Nations of the Grand River, in 1919 he founded early 1920s. ‘As peaceable and law-abiding citizens in the League of Indians of Canada, the first national Native political organization in the country. The League’s political the past, and even in the late war, we have performed activities (which were entirely self-funded) in agitating dutiful service to our King, Country and Empire,’ Loft for Indian rights and political reform soon became an irritant to the federal government. In the Bolshevik scare explained, ‘and we have the right to claim and demand of the 1920’s in Canada, some government officials were more justice and fair play as a recompense.’ T he treat- concerned that the fledgling Native political organiza- ment of First Nations veterans was amongst the primary tions were somehow affiliated with communist leagues and militant trade union movements. The 1927 Indian Act amendments attempted to limit Indian political activity. Although never fully successful, these restrictive Indian Act clauses remained in force until 1951.

132 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The World Wars 133 CHAPTER FIVE deemed by Indian Affairs to have achieved an acceptable acceptable an achieved Indianhave by to deemed Affairs level of self-sufficiency. By definition this category tended to include many newly returned veterans. Earlier Indian Act amendments had for a time stipulated the compul- sary enfranchisement of any Indian person in receipt of a university degree. overseas, there were few improvements Aboriginalto peoplesthe in lotCanada following of the War (right). upon especiallyhard were Depression the of impacts The Native communities. Indian Act amendments introduced enfranchisement compulsary the mandated briefly 1920 in (loss of legal Indian status) of more “advanced” Indians Right: Notice to trespassers on Indian Reserves c. 1922. Canadian Museum of Civilization (# 56862) As in towns, villages, hamlets and cities across all parts of Canada, during the interwar years, Aboriginal communi- members fallen their of sacrifices the recalled likewise ties (above left and above right). Despite their recent service Canadian Museum of Civilization (# 78927) Above Right: Order of service for the Unveiling and Dedication of the Six Mississaugas Nations and Indian War Memorial…Sunday, November 12th, 1933. J. Moses collection Above Left: Indian soldiers’ war memorial Wekwemikong Indian Reserve concerns of Loft and other Aboriginal leaders. Aboriginal soldiers had fought in the war as equals, and even voted for the first time in 1917, but when they returned home they found that they had unequal access to veterans’ benefits compared to non-Indians. The Soldier Settlement Acts of 1917 and 1919 were the cornerstone of the federal government’s attempt to look after Great War veterans, providing access to land and farming implements at a low rate of interest. When status Indian veterans ex- pressed an interest in farming on their own reserves, however, Indian Affairs took over administration of the act from the Department of Soldiers’ Civil Reestablish- ment. Complications regarding ownership of lands both on and off reserves made it nearly impossible for Indian veterans to receive reestablishment loans. Allegations that returned soldiers were being forcibly enfranchised (losing their Indian status), were denied War Veterans’ Allowance Act benefits, that the application of the Last Post Fund was inequitable, and also that 85,000 acres of allegedly ‘surplus’ Indian reserve land were surrendered for non-Aboriginal veteran settlers, further frustrated Aboriginal veterans during the 1920s and 30s.

The Indian Act, 1938, sections 140-141. By the eve of the Second World War, status Indians in Canada had among the most severely limited range of civil, political and legal rights of any group of people anywhere in the Commonwealth. Successive Indian Act amendments in force between 1884 and 1951 (thus span- ning the era of the two World Wars and Korea) variously placed restrictions on status Indian travel, the raising of funds in payment of legal advice, and the perpetuation of cultural practices including spiritual observances and the wearing of traditional dress. Painting by David Rickman [Department of National Defence]

134 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The World Wars 135 - CHAPTER FIVE crusade to defeat totalitarian aggression. Aboriginal service personnel were among the casualties at Hong served Sicily, and Italy in fought they Dieppe, and Kong flew and Atlantic, the of Battle the in escorts convoy on They world. the around crews fighter and bomber with D-Day, on Division Infantry Canadian 3rd with landed and fought through the campaigns in Normandy and Europe. Northwest between partnership a was war The to lives their sacrifice to willing were who Canadians all turmoil. in world a to security and peace restore Commonwealth Air Training Plan and to gearing up for for up gearing to and Plan Training Air Commonwealth ‘Canada’s this made soon events production. war Fearful their poured Canadians years gruelling six for and War,’ demo Western uphold and protect to fight a into energies ideals. cratic of only out of end, a By population war’s men Canadian million one than more people, million 11 uniform. military a donned had women and Despite Aboriginal veterans’ discontent during the interwar years, there remained an undeniable sense of War World across Canada when the patriotism Second broke out. When the German armies swept through May in France and Belgium Holland, Norway, Denmark, and June of 1940 the Canadian government dropped its ‘limited liability war effort’ for one of ‘total war.’ called were Canadians, other all like peoples, Aboriginal upon to make sacrifices and contribute to the national - In 1936, government policies policies government 1936, In government devoted the bulk of its attention to the British British the to attention its of bulk the devoted government that appeasement was no longer a viable strategy. Nazi Nazi strategy. a viable no was longer appeasement that had aggression to be and countered, Canada could not Britain. Great involving war great another in aside stand was King Mackenzie Lyon William Minister Prime Yet commitment. an unlimited to make war loath Canada’s modest A liability.’ as began one thus of ‘limited effort the and overseas, sent was division one of force military The Second World War (1939-1945) declared Parliament Canadian the 1939, September 10 On invaded had Germany. armies Nazi Hitler’s against war Poland, and the leaders of world the realized Western point, however, point, ominous however, clouds had begun to gather in the Far East and in Europe. When the storm broke found again peoples Aboriginal Canada’s thereafter, soon the free to comrades their alongside fighting themselves tyranny. dictatorial from world short-changed, and passed resolutions demanding equal equal demanding resolutions passed and short-changed, Indians. status for benefits this By recommendations. these reflect to revised were the interwar years (1919-39) ‘no factual account [of the the [of account factual ‘no (1919-39) years interwar the was Great War] complete without a salutary reference historian at “braves war,”’ to of the Canada’s gallantry tran camaraderie of ties The observed. Vance Jonathan scended cultural lines. The Royal Canadian Legion acknowledged that Aboriginal veterans were being The The veterans generated sympathetic attention. During 136

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL school prepared him for military life: residential at experiencesNorthAfrica.’ His in killed in London, Scotland and brothers and cousins who were their family or loved ones had been killed in the bombing some of the staff mention that the fact that a member of Residential School in Sardis, British Columbia. ‘I heard reason he served was his experience at the Coqualeetza SecondtheservedWorldin who War, recalledthethat of it.’ Russell Modest, a member of the Cowichan band See I get my food, I get my clothes, so therefore I thought doing. I’m what thanbetter be would day a half a and dollar a figuredlabourer, I farm‘so a asworking time the at money little making was army,’He recalled. he soIthought it was good experience for me to go in the katchewan, joined the army ‘I in was single April 1941. Gordon, who grew up on the Gordon’s Reserve in Sas- Sidney Europe. in RegimentSuperior Lake the with duty.’yourshirk not do war to go to [have] you ‘if him to said father His WorldFirstWar. the in twice wounded was father his andPasschendaele, at bers who served in both world wars. His uncle was killed Rock band in northern Ontario, had many family mem Lawrence Martin,participated. an Ojibway with the Red who peopletheAboriginal as diverse as were reasons As in theof FirstCanada andWorld Britain. War, these defence the forvolunteer to reasonsmany were There fast, lunch, supper, church…. So when I entered We lined up every morning for whatever, break- He served He - Europe, it’s a European War, it has nothing to do withEuropeanit’s War,do a toEurope, nothing has it in War’s the But country. the help and done you’ve what do to you expectwould I Canada in Waron was it’snone ofyou’re business,’ Modest explained. ‘Ifthe ‘Hefather saidwas I upset. know what you’ve done and bit.’His his ‘do to wanted he Germans: the stop help Mountain House, Alberta encapsulated this sentiment thisencapsulated House,Alberta Mountain Chief Walking Eaglethe King from and Rocky Queen. adventure, an opportunity to demonstrate their loyalty to an was service militarysoldiers, Aboriginalsome For vineyards, and small towns of Italy. mountains, the through fighting Regiment, Scottish RenfrewandLanark the with linesfront the onserved Modestit.’ Overseas,with through go to have I oath I said dad it’swhat you’ve too done.late I’ve given my appreciatedon’t I and business your of noneit’s you, Like others, he joined out of patriotism and a desirepatriotismto ofajoined others,out andLikehe joined up. and recruitingoffice the to went I industry… loggingthe in … work togoing insteadof 18, turned I day the … and years of couple a for worked and 16 of age the at school the left I prepared.partlywas military,I Sowill. you if ieswho had noinkling ofany discipline inthe some of the white boys who came out of the cit- than easier little and it with in right blended justmilitary Ithe me,nothingwasthisto new The World Wars 137 CHAPTER FIVE barred barred any Aboriginal participation. There were three outlined policy, discriminatory this for reasons primary Coast: Pacific Officer, Commanding the from report a in positive to themselves lend not do spaces confined that Indian on restrictions legal were there that mixing; racial arm of was the only navy defence (the to liquor access that still distributed a grog ration to its enlistees); and that Indians would have to be messed separately. The March 12 until policy this upheld government Canadian 1943, when it was finally The changed. application of this was however, policy, not universal. The 1942-43 Affairs report Indian already listed nine status Indians Navy. the in services noted that it was possible to identify the health health the identify to possible was it that noted services recruits of number the on based community reserve a of enlistment Aboriginal to barriers Additional enlisted. that were set up through individual prerogative. In certain areas, despite letters Aboriginal lauding achievements from were officers local Ottawa, disinclined recruiting In some volunteers. Aboriginal from to applicants take preconceived the from stemmed refusals these instances, de- the handle not could recruits Aboriginal that notion mands of the program training and the of confinement quarters. military The Royal Canadian Navy was more selective in its recruitment policy than the Army. At the onset of the war, the standing policy held that only a person ‘of pure European descent and of the white race’ would be admitted for naval service. This policy effectively lation.’ In lation.’ fact, an assistant superintendent of medical and and other infectious diseases that Aboriginalravaged peoplewereexcessincom- those ofnon-Aboriginal in the listed that report Branch Affairs munities. Indian An war the during Indians among tuberculosis of incidence popu- white the among as high as times ten than ‘more as on average, a substantially lower level of education than than education of level lower substantially a average, on enlist- from Canadians.many other excluded most This tuberculosis of cases of number The war. the in early ing who they chose to enlist. In the Army there were general general were there Army enlist. to the chose In they who for standards minimum and health good for requirements Across the education. country many more men volun- Ab- to barriers racial the and accepted, were than teered First the during evident were that participation original were War still World in place. Aboriginal people had, allowance. After the declaration of war, there was no queues. enlistment the in men eager of shortage Early in the war, the Royal Canadian Canadian Navy, in selective were Force Air Canadian Royal and Army, reserve communities, and like other Canadians, Aborigi- Canadians, other like and communities, reserve nal men looked to support their families in whatever meant soldier a become to chance The could. they way dependents a of benefit additional the and salary good a King George.’ For others, it was the chance to perpetuate perpetuate to chance the was it others, George.’ For King stifling from freedom represented or tradition, warrior a conditions on reserves. For a large number of hopeful recruits it represented a welcome relief to unemploy- many devastated had 1930’s the of depression The ment. when he declared, ‘every Indian in Canada will fight for for fight will Canada in Indian ‘every declared, he when 138

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL convoy duty in search of German U-boats. flyingConsolidatedwarthe of Canso‘flying-boats’ on served with He the was RCAF.in Iceland for the last year agricultureUniversitytheGuelphwar,atbefore ofthe studied had who Ohsweken from Delaware a Moses, servicemen in the RCAF. Nevertheless, men like David Affairs Branch report listed only twenty-nine Aboriginal Indian1942-1943 the result, a 3. As to 1 grade to lent peoples in Canada attained a level of education equiva- hopefuls:more than seventy-five percent of Aboriginal Aboriginalmost eliminatedeffectively This 12. or 11 grade to equivalent thematriculation’ ‘junior– pleted com-haveapplicantspilot,required towerea become To infantry.the in thanforce air theresentationwithin this apparent opening, there was far less Aboriginal rep- American Indians were an exception to this rule. Despite ofStaffNorth Chiefindicatedactingthat Air the from whom are … British In 1939,subjects.’ correspondence of both parents of ‘sonsspecifically alsodescent,’ but European ‘pure only not was standard the war, the to to follow the same codes of behaviour and policies. Prior ish counterpart, the Royal Air Force, and it was expected Royal Canadian Air Force was closely linked to its Brit- standards and also did not accept ethnic applicants. The education high had Force Air Canadian Royal The to highlight the Itinequities of Aboriginal life at home. formative: it was liberating to some; for others it served experience Thiswas soldierotheroverseas.any of life of Indian agents, discovered English pubs and lived the constraintstheIndianthe of watchfultheandeyesAct from dance.’free wouldsoldiers, Aboriginal they yes ‘We’d go reminisced.to a dance and anyone you asked, different,’sohe was it England in landed we ‘When change from the discrimination that he faced in Canada. reception for Native people in England to be a refreshing the found Modeste Russell Britons. with socializing The troops alsopreparing spent time for active service. furthermonths spent they There, Britain.todeploying before Canada in training months spent – Aboriginal Enlisteesboth– Aboriginalnon-and camaraderie.and the Canadian forces, inspired in part by shared training numbers and once again a sense of equality developed in high in enlisted peopleaside,Aboriginal Regulations observed that: McGill H.W. Director Branch, Affairs Indian the of had during In thethe previous1940 one. Annual Report effort through military service grew during the war,war as the it to contributions direct Peoples’ Aboriginal the post-war years. called‘war brides,’ to increased Aboriginalactivism in self-confidence,Britishmarriagecitizens,withlaterto left lasting impacts, which ranged from growing personal The World Wars 139 CHAPTER FIVE Native Native Enlistment 266 27 10.2% 3,816 0 – 1,531 7 0.0% 2,364 117 4.9% 2,047 203 9.9% 32,421 1,324 4.1% 15,182 31615,892 2.1% 12,754 175 144 1.1% 1.1% 125,946 3,090 2.4% Total Total Native Population Northwest Northwest Territories Ontario SaskatchewanQuebec British 14,158 ColumbiaManitoba 443 25,515Alberta 3.1% 334Yukon 1.3% Nova Scotia Prince Edward Edward Prince Brunswick New Island Province Table 1: Table Indian enlistments during the Second World War, by by War, World Second the during enlistments Indian Branch Affairs Indian 1945-46 on Based Province. Report Annual $1,300. slow to come forward with offers of assistance assistance of offers with forward come to slow in both men and About money. one hundred Indians had enlisted by the end of the fiscal the to Indians the of contributions the and year Red Cross and other funds amounted to over Always Always loyal, [Indian communities] were not Canadian census). As was the case during the First World World First the during case the census). was As Canadian undoubtedly was soldiers Aboriginal for figure the War, were Métis and Indians non-status because higher much count. this from excluded 1,801. But mid-1943, the number of Indian service per- service Indian of number the mid-1943, But 1,801. 1944. in 2,603 to swelled then and 2,383 to grew sonnel At the war’s end, the Affairs Indian Branch officially the in participated had Indians status 3,090 that reported the in identified Indians status 125,946 the of (2.4% war Aboriginal Aboriginal men and women were drawn to high pay- ing war Enlistments industry employment off-reserve. were still recorded in all in provinces Canada, and the to enlistees in increase an indicated Report Annual 1942 As laudable as this initial participation was, McGill sub- McGill was, participation initial this as laudable As was participation of rate the 1942 by that noted sequently not as high as it had been during War. the First World 140

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL Photo courtesy of Denis Lainé Lainé Denis of courtesy Photo war. the brothers survived four All Jean-Baptiste. and Robert Fernand, army), American the with served (who Joffre are: right to left From unknown). (date group photograph this take to opportunity the took mother their again, together alive sons her see would she if knowing Not Quebec. in Wendake, Reserve Huron-Wendat Lainébrothersfromthe The The World Wars 141 . CHAPTER FIVE Our Women Our in Women Uniform In the Canadian Women’s Army Corps, Aboriginal Aboriginal Corps, Army Women’s Canadian the In was involved in such pettiness. I don’t think you you think don’t I pettiness. such in involved was buddies’ your of colour the at look to bothered in involved were who guys the especially skin, “Who said, mine of cousins couple A warfare. were We colour? at look to stopped ever hell the to place a get could you that glad darned all so duck into; who gave with a you? damn who’s two were We there my together, lives. That’s feeling; everything was too serious to think that. like petty noted the prospect noted of the 65 prospect earning cents a day (less than travel, to opportunity the recruits), male to paid wage the jobs, non-traditional in trained were They patriotism. and supportive. RCAF as The seen was role primary their but men may that serve was ‘We motto Division Women’s fly.’ women learned first aid, military clerical duties, and motor mechanics. In 1943, 16 of the Aboriginal 1,801 people in military service were women. A 1950 gov- ernment memorandum indicates that 72 status Indian wars. world the during overseas served women P. GayleP. McKenzie and Ginny Belcourt Todd have of the of some memories the recorded and interviewed Aboriginal servicewomen in their that indicated women these reminiscences, their In those from different very not were up joining for reasons commonly cited by Aboriginal men. Several women Discrimination? Everybody was so involved in in involved so was Everybody Discrimination? nobody that war the with happening was what Asquith, Asquith, a Métis who served in the RCAF Women’s recalled: Auxiliary, Canol oil pipeline, which dramatically transformed their their transformed dramatically which pipeline, oil Canol homelands. Aboriginal women also served and noted a spirit of camaraderie that transcended ethnic lines. Dorothy of of their communities, as well as their involvement in other wartime activities such as remote airfieldand road construction connected to theAlaska High- the and Routes, Staging Northwest Northeast way, and served overseas. TheJapanese the increased of demandinternment the for following British fishers Columbia low helps to for Canadians account this comparatively rate of participation. The tiny number of enlistments isolation relative the reflects North Territorial the from Indians served. Nearly 1.8% of were all rates Prairieparticipation Saskatchewan Indians although enlisted, or Alberta higher than Manitoba. those in significantly Columbia British in living Indians status of 1.3% Finally, the the highest per capita rates with of 7.4% participation, enlisting. population Ontario Indian status overall the of had the highest number of Aboriginal recruits, which just registered over 4% of the status Indian population in that province. Slightly more than 2% of Quebec Enlistment rates differed by region. The Maritimes boasted boasted Maritimes region.The by differed rates Enlistment 142

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL numbers. In British Columbia, the interior agencies ofagencies interiorColumbia,the British In numbers. Canadian Women’s Army Corps. bersofthe VeteransGuard; andseven women with the in uniform with the army, navy, and air force; nine mem- Croker Reserve – total population of 471 – had 43 men October 1943, the sacrifices. its in alone not was family McLeod The who lost their children to the wars. National War Memorial in Ottawa on behalf of mothers she was the first Canadian Indian to lay a wreath on the was named Silver Cross Mother of the Year in 1972, and acknowledgment In of her family’s sacrifice, Mrs.wounded. McLeod were others two and action, in killed enlistedbetween 1940and1944: theboystwoof were intheSecond. Sixofhis sons andone ofhis daughters in the Great War and with the Veteran’s Guard of Canada in the military.tation John McLeod, an Ojibwa, served represen substantial had also Ontario, south-western from the Cape Croker Reserve, on the Bruce Peninsula in and two daughters The servedMcLeod overseas.family War he joined the Veteran’s Guard while three of his sonsWorld Second the In wounds. his from died later who another and action in brother one lost had he conflict a Military Medal at Ypres in the Great War; during that Joe Dreaver from the Mistawasis Cree Band had earned Veteran’stheinstance, with For defenceGuard. home Older men not eligible for overseas service enlisted for Aboriginalservice alsotranscended generational lines. Globe and Mail These were exceptional reported that the Cape In - Kamloops, Stuart Lake,WilliamsKamloops,Stuart Kootenayand Lake, (in Nova Scotia) contributed the highest numbers of numbers highest the contributedScotia) Nova (in agencies of South West (in New Brunswick) and Kings the coast East the On agencies.Lorette and Regis St. Most Indian recruits in Quebec came from Restigouche, dinagaagenciesproduced volunteers.numbershigh of Six Nations, Manitoulin Island, Parry Sound and Tyen- In the well-populated provincegrounds. of Ontario, the la Prairie and Norway House proved to be solid recruiting Lake and In DuckManitoba, Lake. Fisher River, Portage Crooked Hills, File Carlton, were enlistmentshighest the with agencies the Prairies; the forrepresentation average than higher had Saskatchewan recruits. most the providedagencies Blackfoot the and Lake Saddle than the other provinces, the Blood, Lesser Slave Lake, lower much were numbers overall the where Alberta, In enlistment. of rates highest the had Okanagan the as Rangers in isolated communities from Dawson to the 1943,15,000 British Columbians and Yukonersserved By invasion.enemy of case the in tacticsguerrilla ing reporting any findings of a suspicious nature, and adopt area, local their patrolling by Province’ ‘Pacific the defend to helped ‘citizen-soldiers’ voluntary These CoastMilitia Rangers were formed in British Columbia. protection from possible attack. demanded residents Coast West 1941, December in Harbor Pearl on attack surprise Japanese the After young men and women to service overseas. In response, the Pacific - The World Wars 143 - CHAPTER FIVE National Resources Mobilization Mobilization Resources National (NRMA) on 21 June 1940 to intensify Canada’s Act men The Canadian required war and legislation effort. could government federal the that so register to women assured it but resources, country’s the manage rationally defence home for be would conscription that Canadians band and leaders Aboriginal several Nevertheless, only. expressing Ottawa, to petitions and letters wrote councils their concern with and enlistment compulsory service. Aboriginal most defence; home about not was issue The effort. war the to contribute to willing were communities The choice of whether to serve overseas was one of clothing clothing and other articles were made, the monetary value of which has not been calculated.’ One commu nity in particular received international recognition air London the by orphaned children the forsupporting sent Yukon the in Indians Crow Old the 1941, In raids. The children. these for clothing and boots buy to $432.30 and the British Press Old noted their Crow generosity, community continued to support various war funds in conflict. the of years subsequent the of fall the with mid-1940 in worsened fortunes Allied As government Canadian the Countries, Low the and France in Late conscription. of question difficult the faced again Indi- status excluded had 111 P.C. War, World First the legislation This services. overseas compulsory from ans broke out, was War repealed before the Second World more. once with dealt be to had issue the therefore and the passed Parliament - The The Pacific Coast Militia funds funds for the Red Cross and other war charities. By the end of 1945, Indian bands officially had donated $23,596.71. A note found in Indian Affairs records indicated that many donations went directly to local furs, of donations ‘substantial the that and organisations Home front contributions went beyond military service. service. military beyond went contributions front Home women’s War, As had been the case in the World First raised and donated groups community and clubs service Service. The members from Aboriginal communities mili- the to intelligence operational important provided (such and phenomena activities unusual reporting tary, as sighting Japanese balloons) bomb-carrying through 1945. September in end war’s to in in the defence of their communities while continuing activities. and their traditional daily employment They made a vital in contribution several areas, particularly along the extensive – and vulnerable – Pacific coast Active on soldiers for scouts and guides as serving line, a a province … against the impregnable yellow menace through manning intelligent, understanding of its con- tours and natural barriers.’ serve to chance a B.C. in men Aboriginal gave Rangers the the demographic and geographical realities of remote Rang- ‘natural’ made peoples Aboriginal areas, coastal ers. with ‘Indians, of knowledge trails that are charted 1942, March 6 on noted Sun Vancouver the imperfectly,’ were ‘given a chance to do heroic work in defense of Queen Charlotte Islands to the American border. border. American the Given to Islands Charlotte Queen 144

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 1942 released the federal government from its obligation more common after a national plebiscite held on 27 April became evasions These down. them track to attempts ing to report to medical examinations or evading police refus- by provisions its resisted Several conscription. domestic with complied many and overseas sent be not would they that men Indian status most reassured NRMAthe of wording the and promisesGovernment war’ footing. transition from a ‘limited liability’ war effort to a ‘total then for the duration of the war. This reflected Canada’s and servicemonths four to extendedterms mandatory these Canada,throughout slowed enlistments Asing. groups of men were only conscripted for 30 days of train- upon the young single men of this reservation.’ Initially, training military days 30 of imposition the protested ‘strongly OntarioBrantford, at Nations Six the part, arm and halt all the functions of government.’ For their long a out ‘stretch IndianAgent their that demanded and conscription,denouncingresolutions passed also Several whites.’ tribal councils in north-western Ontario the with terms peaceable on live and fighting, cease down, settle to Indians the upon urged was [it] them with signed treaties the at and Canadians native born were they as that principles the ‘on 1940, October in explainedagent service,’Indianmilitary the for liable be not should Indians the that views the ‘expressed headmen and chief Peigan the Alberta, In principle. Proclamationconfrontation1763.aof issueto Theled the from conscripted service, citing their inferior status under Committee’ maintained that status Indians were exempt Aboriginal rights organization known as the ‘Protection an Quebec, In men. Canadian other likeconscription The government responded that Indians were liable for correctedwouldonlybe theyreceived if franchise. the injusticeKing.’ Thisthe of subjects and citizens full be to fortunate are who those withresponsibility take and children like submit ‘to asked be not should they vote, to right the have not did whogovernment the of in Albertaquestioned. emphasizedThey wards that,as Reserve Blood the from chiefs go?’ to asked be we should fairness.‘Whyof issues raisedleaders Nations First necessary. if service overseas for conscription limitconscriptsto homedefence.to authorized Bill 80 duration of the war. This remained the government’s official position for the the National War Service Regulations, 1940 (Recruits).’ ‘Indians, being British subjects, are subject to Section 3 of wentto court, the Department of Justice explained that of 1850. When several objectors, who failed to register, of the Robinson-Huron and Robinson-Superior treaties reserve communities argued exemptions under the terms Indian Ontario, northern In Montreal. near reserve who opposed conscription on the Caughnawagaresidents (Kahnawake) Aboriginal the and police between Indian Act Indian and their sovereignty under the Royal the undersovereignty their and In practice, the enforcement of the NRMA proved nearly impossible, particularly in remote areas. The case of Edward Cardinal of Whitecourt, Alberta, typified the problems facing NRMA registrars. When the post office returned a notice ordering Cardinal’s medical examination prior to military training, the Edmonton registrar asked the postmaster why it had not been picked up. He replied that Cardinal frequented an area twelve miles north and only picked up his mail twice each year. Other Indians who pursued a trapping, hunting and fishing lifestyle were even more difficult to contact, and the registrar admitted that it was ‘practically impossible’ to locate many of them. In lower mainland British Columbia, for example, the Native peoples tended to treat the notices ‘with apparent indifference,’ according to the Vancouver registrar. This made administration very difficult, and therefore the government inconsistently applied the regulations regarding Aboriginal men. Furthermore, language barriers and persistent health problems on many reserves meant that many status Indians who registered were never compelled to serve. As a result, any success in conscripting Aboriginal peoples was limited at best.

By 1943, some of Canada’s volunteer soldiers found themselves in sustained operations in Europe. Henry Italy and Sicily 1943-1945 Department of National Defence Beaudry from Sheepgrass First Nations was a young man who left his reserve to work for a farmer in the spring The World Wars

CHAPTER FIVE 145 146

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL used to come around the floor you know by the time the by know you floor the around come to used grenades infamously known as ‘potato mashers.’ ‘They German of stream continuous a faced he night, the kept on fighting. Pinned down in a building throughout Beaudry was again injured in hand-to-hand combat but going.’ on kept we then me beside right killed got he Métis, a was he Saskatchewan, Lake, Meadow from were all icy, we had cross two canals. One of my friends the other side we were all ice it was so cold. Our clothes Myclothes were past these canals and when we got on up. guns know.our Weyouhad necks our to up deep had to cross two canals to take a town. ‘They were pretty supply lines.’ In one of their more harrowing tasks, they to in front of infantry to … cut off communications and Dragoon Guards (a reconnaissance unit) that ‘used to go pital a month later, he transferred to the Princess Louise Beaudry was hit by sniper fire. When he got out of hos lowerthepart.’onkindtown ofwas Duringbattle,the attackgunner. Ihad agun on the top of the hill and the an was I line. defenceHitler’s of one Ortona, called place this to came we ‘and recalled, Beaudry along,’ way the all front the in was ‘I Campaigns. Italian ewan Light Infantry and participated in the Sicilian and transferredSaskatch-Scotland,hetoin corps forestry the Saskatoon.’with servingto After going train a in I was andevening same justThat name. my … signed office post the to went ‘I so. do toworld.’ decided He saw a sign at the Post Office: ‘Join the army and see the and Paynton of town the to went May,he In 1941. of - The main Allied invasion of Europe came in mid-1944. had to spend time in hospital to recover. spring of 1945. When he finally returned to England, he march’‘deathlongmonth thetwo inparticipating a in beforeGermany and Italy in camps war ofprisoner in his captors that he did not speak English. He spent time told hadcountry.’ he becausereply not couldBeaudry yourallfight? tookandguys comeThem you do Why fighting.stillyou’re] [andyears, 500 forfighting been Brave. You guys are the best fighters in the world. You’ve a capture to honoured ‘Weare said and earlier years later.Saskatchewanfewdays tofewbeen a hada One and he was taken prisoner. Two officers questioned him buildingplayeddead.theheproddedawakeThey him munitionbymorning, and when the Germans captured He of out ran am- reminisced. explode,’ they Beaudry and them to back them throw to used I us reach they landed at Juno Beach. Charles Bird recalled: ing morning, D-Day, the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division background, should be come very valuable.’ The follow- Aboriginalan with Métis, a as skills my thought they patrols because I was a Métis,’ Anderson explained, ‘and leading and job this for picked was ‘Ibattalion. his of on 5 June 1944 to set up the drop zone for the remainder midnightbeforeparachutedjustFranceinto talion. He overseas1943inwith the 1stCanadian Parachute Bat- Raymond Anderson, from Sandy Hook, Manitoba, went Early on the 6th of June … we got into these The Canadian fighting in Normandy and Northwest … Landing Craft Assault, now we were going Europe took its toll: 18,444 casualties in the Normandy into the real thing now… We were getting close, Campaign. Canada was given a significant role in the oh about a mile off the beach when the shells ensuing pursuit of the retreating Germans through start coming. From the beach now they were Belgium and the Netherlands. Harry Lavallee, a Métis shelling but they weren’t landing right here from Stonewall, Manitoba, avoided the fate of several where we were in that boat. Then we hit the relatives who ended up at Hong Kong with the Winnipeg beach and there was a big pillbox right on the Grenadiers. He joined the Royal Canadian Ordnance left of us a big in there. The gun was down and Corps, and eventually served in Northwest Europe as a we figured we were all coming in on the beach rifleman with the Queen’s Own Cameron Highlanders. now. When the big door opened at the front then ‘We marched, marched and marched, but the first night the machine guns started. That was rough.… going into the front line I nearly got killed [by] bomb- They bombed the beach before and there was ing,’ he remembered. ‘We walked to the front line so we a bomb that kind of hit the ground and five of had to go there and all of a sudden there were bombs us got into that hole there. Just got there and coming all over and we had to dive for the ground and there was a wall about ten feet high, we just got ended up going up into a trench, and that’s where I was to that when a grenade came flying in amongst nearly shot.’ He felt the breeze of shrapnel or machine us. Right in amongst us all you could do was gun bullets as they passed near his body. ‘If I’d have just swing around and turn around so we swung went over a foot or something I could have been split around. That grenade exploded in there. One in half.’ George Myram also fought through Northwest guy got pretty badly hurt I got in the leg. I got Europe. He explained that ‘when there was a war on shrapnel in the leg…. we knew you were going over there to kill or be killed but we still volunteered.’ They fought ‘with rifles and George Myram of Edwin (Long Plain), Manitoba, bayonets’ and ‘didn’t wait for the heavy guns to soften remembers landing and ‘seeing the dead, the wounded up the enemy or bombard a position before we went in. and the suffering. I think that was the longest day of We went in, we fought our way in.’ By late November, my life…. All these bombers coming over bombing, the Canadian Army was deeply engaged in the clearing and artillery and the heavy artillery from the battleships the Scheldt Estuary. Facing stiff resistance in difficult The World Wars just roaring and planes flying all over – some are on fire polder country, Canadian casualty rates quickly out- – and, fireworks. Like fireworks but this was for real, paced enlistments. this was for victory.’ The liberation of Western Europe had begun.

CHAPTER FIVE 147 148

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL to the army, regardless of his physical condition, as as condition, physical his of regardless army, the to unacceptable deemed recruit Indian any record to and issue orders to any Native person living in remote areas, to not French, nor English neither spoke who Indians up call to not registrars Indian federal directed Affairs ond World War 1945, In February Indians. status were Sec- the in overseas sent conscripts Canadian 13,000 the of any if few but service, overseas for liable were Canada in conscripts Aboriginal other all Officially, overseas. serve to compelled be not would to in homes their defend expected North and America, be only would Canada in remained who communities treaty these from conscripts The overseas. serve to viduals from these treaty areas had already volunteered have to fight in future wars. By 1944, at least 324 indi of signatories Treaties 3, 6, 8 and 11 that they would not justification.’ Verbal promises were made to the Indian ‘exemption where cases find did they but treaties, the of texts written the in conscription to references any find not could fairs WorldFirst the in had it as exemption War. Indian Af blanket a grant not did Cabinet service; military for liable were all that Indians it 1944, decided December dealt with the unique case of service. Aboriginal In late ships boarded for the Europe, Cabinet War Committee conscripts first the As overseas. conscripts NRMA send to 1944 November in decided King Mackenzie With much consternation, Prime Minister William Lyon undertreaty could be claimed with with claimed be could - - Victory in Europe on 8 May 1945. side other Canadian and Allied soldiers, they celebrated job,” he reminisced. “But somebody had to do it.” Along- dirty a was “It houses.clearing or half-tracks on time the Maas River and into Germany. He spent much of his alongRegimentSuperior Lake the withfought Martin Lawrence Europe. in on foughtvolunteers Aboriginal on all outstanding cases before the courts. Concurrently, the registration process, and granted suspended sentences furtherprosecution of fought hadAboriginalwho men any drop to decidedwar.Officials the of months final conscriptattemptto statusthe Indian population thein concentrated any abandoned government the result, a As high. ran tensions and however, continued, tion council opposition and grassroots resistance to conscrip- most status Indian men who remained in Canada. Band excluded Reasons.’ This Medical for ‘Not Acceptable Calgary Highlanders, The Edmonton Regiment, The Regiment, Edmonton The Highlanders, Calgary Infantry,The Light Canadian Patricia’s Princess the as such personnel, Aboriginal of numbers significant had that battalions infantry many were there However World Warformed. units specific ethnic no were there First the in found structure the infantry.to the Similar in served recruits Indian status 3,000 the of Most els. lev- communal and individual on peoples Aboriginal shadow the important voluntary contributions made by over-to allowed be war,cannot the it during concerns significant generated issue conscription the Although Cecil Ace, Ojibway from Aird Island, Ontario in the Canadian Army, reclining at left somewhere in Germany, the morning after the peace was signed. “We went to Caen which we helped to liberate … We started our push and we moved up to the Falaise Gap … We fought in the Scheldt Estuary also, a lot of fighting there [against] a pocket of Germans. [We] lost a lot of soldiers there … We were there quite a while in the Scheldt. We had a hard time there. The weather was so bad … cold [and] muddy … We had to dig [the guns] in all the time too. [And there were a lot of German 88s]. And then when we got to [the] other side were in Germany, then we really started to move … After that the war was just about finished … We could see big columns of Germans marching back home … and we were there to watch where they were going … That was it.” Photo provided by Cecil Ace

CHAPTER FIVE 149 150

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL grenade,’ killing both the occupants. For his bravery he classification]type[the36 hurled dug-outait intoand enemy soldiers.’ In response, Byce ‘charged the German … but they did serve to reveal the location of two more harmlesslyexplodedFortunately, theythem. towards across the dyke several grenades hurtled through the air and silenced them with grenades. ‘As the patrol hurried positions. Corporal Byce personally located two of them landed it came under attack from three different enemy ture German prisoners for intelligence. When the patrol cap- to River Maas the across group five-man a led he time, the at acting-corporal Netherlands. An the in serving was WorldCharles 1945, War. January 21 On joined TheLake Superior Regiment during the Second militaire the Distinguished Conduct Medal and France’s Aboriginal man from Westmeath, Ontario, had won both Moose Factory, Ontario. His father Henry Byce, a non- Charles Byce’s mother, Louisa Saylors, was a Cree from introduction to their noteworthy achievements. earned multiple decorations. Three anecdotes provide an wartimecontributions, including courageouswho men their and individualsspecific of sketchesbiographical additionalprovide Gaffen Fred and Summerby Janice by Books training.infantry to adaptablereadily were peacetime in them served that skills The Rifles. nipeg WinRoyal The and Regiment Rifle Regina try,The Infan- Light Hamilton Royal The Regiment, Edward South Saskatchewan Regiment, The Hastings and Prince during the Great War. At his urging CharlesWar.urging Great his the Atduring Médaille - was awarded the Military Medal. Six weeks later, Sum- from overrunning his men. His citation reads: them prevent to infantry enemy the at sniping retreat, bullet-strewn escape alley.’ Byce personally covered the the through back way his made he him about find to able was he men gatheringfewthenwhatcould; he as geant Byce took over the command and ‘fought as long casualties,officer.heavyincludingevery Ser Acting sustained and fire severe under ‘C’was CompanyHis to win the Distinguished Conduct Medal during the war. Canadians162 of onebecame HochwaldByceForest, Rhineland’sthe for battle the during explains, merby force. Martin attained the highest rank ever by an Indian, Grand River, made his mark in both the army and the air the Nationsof Six thefrom Mohawk Martin,a Milton During a long and distinguished military career, Oliver Medal. Military the and Medal Conduct Distinguished the both won who Canadians few the of one was Byce Charles beyond all praise. His gallant stand, without stand, gallant His praise. all beyond areodds insuperable almost with faced when played by this N[on] C[ommissioned] O[fficer] The magnificent courage and fighting spirit dis the Regiment. of ranks all to exampleoutstanding an time, menagainst hopeless odds will remain, for all bareadequatea withhandfulweaponsofand - - The World Wars 151 - CHAPTER FIVE overseas before being returned to Canada in February 1943 for officer training. officer for 1943 February in Canada returnedto being before overseas Lieutenant a as Britain Returningto Armyoverseas”. Canadian the in serving is who blood Indian of officer only the be to believed was “he 1943 July in war. the “Coun afteridentified captionand during recruitingTribune Winnipegfor The used was right at image The cillor Harry Bull, of the Piagut Indian community near Regina who lost a leg at Vimy Ridge in the ‘giving Great War into accepted Canada…was in enlist to girl Indian first blessing. the his ” mother his that later recalled Reid Stephen the as a cook and was posted overseas to England in the Laundry Unit”. CWAC Two other brothers also served. Left: Lieutenant David Greyeyes, Cree from Muskeg Lake, Cree Nation, 1st Infantry Division Support Battalion (The Saskatoon Light Infantry), September 21 1943. Department of National Defence Right: Private Mary Greyeyes, Cree from Muskeg Lake, Cree Nation, Canadian Women’s Army Corps. Library and Archives Canada (PA-129070) Sergeant of rank the attained and 1940 in enlisted Greyeyes that noted affairs public Defence National of Department 152

The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL 1,400 metres of telephone wire, Prince radioed updates some by battalion his to Connectedlines. enemy the from metresapproximatelyfarmhouseabandoned 200 occasion, he was ordered to maintain surveillance at an cial Service Force, took Prince to Italy in 1944. On one ‘Devil’s Brigade,’ as the Germans came to call the Spe- paratrooper.The a became and Force Service Special CanadianEngineers. trainedHe with Canadianthe1st andbegan his military career assappera with the Royal War.Prince wasbornlargeintoafamily Manitoba, in inbattle inItaly andin France during theSecond World tury is Thomas George Prince, who distinguished himself Perhaps the best-known Aboriginal soldier of the 20th Cen- and a proud spokesperson for the Aboriginal cause. from active service. He eventually became a magistrate October 1944, at the age of 53, Brigadier Martin retired Westthe InfantryBrigadeson In 16thCoast. and 14th promoted to brigadier and subsequently commanded the he was promoted to colonel. The following year he was Rifles from 1930 until 1939, and at the outbreak of war wars he taught school and commanded The Haldimand following year he earned his pilot’s wings. Between the 1917.The in CorpsFlyingRoyal the observer with an sevenmonths inFrance andBelgium before becoming ary Force with his two brothers. As a lieutenant he spent years later, he volunteered for the Canadian Expedition- he joined The Haldimand Rifles as a bugler in 1909. Six ending his wartime service as a brigadier. Born in 1893, wore the Military Medal. Prince was in elite company. CanadiansawardedSilver theStar, onlyandthreealso 59 States.UnitedonlyweretheThere President ofthe and awarded him the Silver Star and ribbon on behalf of finished, King George VI summoned Prince to London decoration for gallantry in action. After the fighting was an American– Star Silver recommendationthe his for receivedPrince bravery this For report. their make to kilometres70 backwalked then Theyarea.campment wentbehind enemy lines locateto gunsites anden-an soldieranother and He France.Southern in stationed theMilitary Medal. Sixmonths later, Prince’s unit was four German positions were destroyed and Prince earned his24-hour posting. Withtheinformation heprovided, damaged lines a number of times in this manner during severedthecontinuedlineand reports. hisrepaired He his field. Slowly making his way down the line he fixed on civilian clothes and pretended to be a farmer hoeing was cut by enemy shelling during his watch, Prince put about artillery placements. When the communication line Aboriginal peoples gave their lives, assuming similar assuming lives, their gave peoplesAboriginal sion on Aboriginal Peoples extrapolated that about 500 Commis-Royal the and 220, at number thereported killed in action or died in uniform. Historian Fred Gaffen Branch reported that 200 status Indian soldiers had been IndianAffairs the war, the cost.After a at came also participationWorldimpressive.This War Second was the during service Aboriginal of extent the told, All The World Wars 153 CHAPTER FIVE Brotherhood pictured at a convention in Ottawa in 1945 was another of these organizations. Right: Francis Pegahmagabow, Anishinabeg of Parry Island, during a 1945 visit to Ottawa. Canadian Museum of Civilization (# 95292-3) councillor from 1933-36. In 1943, he was named Supreme Chief Chief Supreme named was he 1943, In 1933-36. from councillor of The rights native Native early an Government, Independent Canada of Indians of League the as such groups Other group. (led by another Great veteran, War F.O. Loft) pushed for the recognition of aboriginal rights. The North American Indian served as a sniper with the Medal 1st Military Canadian the awarded was and War InfantryWorld First Battalion the during for bravery three times. Treated as an equal bysoldiers, his he wasfellow disillusioned upon his return to the Reserve where he was treated as a second-class citizen. He would peacefula campaignthrough aboriginalrights champion of letter writing and court challenges for the rest of his life. He presided as band Chief from 1921-25 and served as a band features of the modern welfare state. As had been the case veterans Aboriginal Firstreturned the newly following World War, and their supporters were active in promoting the rights and interests of their people throughPegahmagabow various was emblematicmeans. of thoseFrancis veterans who assumedleadership roles within their respective communi- Pegahmagabow years. post-war and tiesinterwar the during Above: North American Indian Brotherhood convention, Ottawa, 1945. Kahnawake Cultural Centre embarked nation a as Canada War, World Second the Following prosper- growth, economic of period unprecedented an upon ity and social reform, as the government implemented the 154 Department of National Defence National of Department Europe, 6June1944-08May1945 Victory in The World Wars ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL provisions of the Veterans Charter, the generous benefits looked forward to starting a new life with the help of the they duty, active from home returned personnel vice and different.’ser over Aboriginal was war the When the in were same Army.we] the back came [we When problem was. We could never be the same yet we were the where That’spart. hard the was that back coming the was ‘it that Punnichy,explained of Saskatchewan, brother to you that’s the way it was.’ Howard Anderson tered ‘no such thing as discrimination… Everybody is a encoun-military.Birdthe Charlesin equals as treated Mosttheof Aboriginalsoldiers recalled thattheywere the ideals and values for which it was fought. – and sacrifices – testified to their support for the war and the number, Aboriginal people’s voluntary contributions percentages for non-status Indians and Métis. Whatever the Veterans’ Land Act for status Indian veterans who Veterans’veterans the Indian status for Land Act in provisions special were exceptions formal only The benefits. veterans’ and allowances dependents’ same nal veterans. In theory, all veterans were eligible for the differences proved a source of dismay for many Aborigi- Second World War. Unequal access and administrative the during government federal the by up set package - The World Wars 155 CHAPTER FIVE Veterans’ Land Act loans – after all, reserve lands were were lands reserve all, after – loans Act Land Veterans’ individual hold not did veterans and owned communally not could parcels their that meant which land, the to title be used as collateral. Instead, they received a grant of and their hence capital their up This limited to $2,320. some determination, and energy With options. business their case presented before Parlia- veterans Aboriginal Aboriginal formed and war the after committees mentary Their associations. veterans’ search for compensation century. next the into extended one sought they that stressed veterans Aboriginal Many thing above all else: acknowledgement for their con- tributions. They had participated in the national war They 1945. to 1939 from and 1919 to 1914 from efforts from comrades-in-arms their with equals as fought had They home returned all of segments society. Canadian ‘second-class’ not were they that self-awareness a with democ- of principles same the sought they and persons, had Canadians all which for equality and freedom, racy, per- air and soldiers sailors, Aboriginal died. and fought to would continue when sonnel serve their the country its bring to failed 1945 in envisioned order’ world ‘new peace. promised had had to have a permit. That was Status rotten.’ Indian veterans on reserves did not have access to $6,000 in section section in Saskatchewan. But they couldn’t sell their produce or livestock without permission. ‘If you had from permit a get to had You it. sell couldn’t you cattle the had You agent. to have a permit for everything…. you it sell to town to wood of load a took you …if Even after after the war regarding what they saw as unequal and give they and Europe from came ‘We treatment. unfair for a grant got we then and a while for money some us Agent,’ Indian the by run think, I was, grant the $2,320, used Gerry, brother his and He, explained. Bird Charles quarter a farm to started and tiller, and tractor a buy to it details and advice on programmes. Other veterans dealt veterans Other programmes. on advice and details different These counsellors. Affairs Veterans with directly ample room for inequity. administrations left years the in mounted frustration veterans, individual For factors inhibited Aboriginal veterans’ access to informa- to access veterans’ Aboriginal inhibited factors the faced veterans Indian benefits. and counselling, tion, unique difficulty of having to deal with three federal bureaucracies with overlapping jurisdictions, and they were reliant upon their local Indian agent for accurate wished to settle on reserve lands. In practice, systemic systemic reserve lands. In practice, on settle wished to Chapter Six

156 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The Last Six Decades 157 CHAPTER SIX tion to the plight of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. in peoples Aboriginal of plight the to tion fear,’ and hope of a ‘time was world post-war early The wartime large Canada’s explained. Holmes John diplomat Soviet-American as but significantly, down cut were forces rebuild to began Canada 1940s late the in cooled relations personnel had service forces. armed its Aboriginal Few served in the Regular services of the Royal Canadian Navy, the Active Militia or the Royal Canadian Air Force prior to the war but some remained on strength and and to highlight the need for mutual respect.atten- Change necessary drew efforts their but slow, prove would before Parliamentary before hearings to Parliamentary articulate their rights - Aboriginal veterans spoke spoke veterans Aboriginal . Through the last half of the 20th Century and into the new millennium, new the into and Century 20th the of half last the Through Aboriginal peoples of Canada have continued to don uniforms and commit- international and domestic Canada’s of support in arms bear ments. This perpetuates a tradition of service begun by their forbear- ers, in some cases continuing a family tradition that spanned several to continue Forces Canadian the of members Aboriginal generations. contributions valuable make and diversity, rich country’s the represent in an uncertain world. to our peace and security Department of National Defence photo Robert Carriere, Métis from St. Boniface, Manitoba in the Canadian Army. Pictured here with Lee Enfield (issued) and his U.S. built M2 rapid-fire carbine. guy this [of] Hills… The On Blood called book a [in] picture, a saw] [recently I Korea.… to l952 25, March in] went “[I place some him seen I’ve me to seems It familiar. looks guy that “Jeeze said I 303… a and carbine a rifles, two with for] asked [photographer this and infantry, the in was I you!”… “it’s said she and] me at looked friend [my before,” a picture of the guy with the two rifles. I said “what do you want me to do?”… He said “just where.” sit … I down don’t know there [how, but any- I brought my hand to grab my rifle and] bang ….cut myself [and still have] the scar…. Some rifleman I am, killed myself checking my rifle. [Then I sat] down with the carbine [in one hand, rifle in the other]…. Snipers were bad, we had our own snipers, too…. I know one time I was in the OP (observation post) and there was a bee or something went by, I guess a sniper must have known our position and he shot … maybe 3-6 feet over our head, but you could hear the bullets going by….” overseas service carried with them the dreams of a more more a of dreams the them with carried service overseas as peoples Aboriginal recognized that society equitable ‘wards’ than rather partners economic development, social justice, and fundamental fundamental and justice, social development, economic human rights and freedoms. Having fought to defend to hoped Canadians wars, world the during values such had home. peace at that Now order’ world ‘new a create been Aboriginal peoples achieved, who returned from Canada’s signature on the United Nations (UN) on Char Nations the United signature Canada’s ter at the end of the reaffirmed War its Second World commitment to international co-operation and peace. nations all that belief UN’s the in vested was hope Much security, and peace promote to interest common a shared The Korean Conflict, 1950-1953) The Last Six Decades Six Last The 158

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL Department of National Defence National of Department Theatre Korean The The Last Six Decades 159 - CHAPTER SIX ‘I ‘I was a as chief torpedo torpedo chief as when it sustained sustained it when , back from her first Ko first her from back , Iroquois Iroquois Nootka RCN RCN to learn a Lowry trade,’ later reflected. and [Ontario] Oshawa in apprentice plumber’s two-year I went with him When we for company…. got there, I tests. the try to would it wanted I told if was I asked was be about a two-hour wait, so I tried them…. I passed August 1951 Lowry In and it just from evolved there.’ HMCS to assigned was and was serving aboard HMCS HMCS aboard serving was and when instructor anti-submarine that ship was assigned pro- was he later, years Three 1952. in waters Korean to most Navy’s the Class, 1st Officer, Petty Chief to moted from also Moses, Russ rank. non-commissioned senior the aboard was Nations, Six 13 casualties during a firefight with a North Korean coastal battery on 2 October 1952. ‘I was glad to get with years five served he all, In recalled. he there,’ of out Royal the with more ten and Navy Canadian Royal the Force. Air Canadian Ronald Lowry, a Mohawk from the Bay of Quinte, the in navy 1949.joined to the join wanted ‘My friend she when aboard was he later months six and tour, rean forsailed a second tour in Far Eastern waters. Lowry demolition received also he but technician, sonar wasa training. Korean South with worked he months six For on North raids and in commando-style British marines Navy during the Korean Conflict. A Second World War War World Second A Conflict. Korean the during Navy of Battle the during convoys escorted had who veteran navy in the peacetime remained Jamieson Atlantic, the Nootka, Nootka, Cayuga, Atha- Cayuga, followed them. These names names These them. followed . Later in the war, HMC Ships Ships HMC war, the in Later . Sioux , and and , all bore the names of Indian tribes, and Aboriginal sailors sailors Aboriginal and tribes, Indian of names the bore all Chief decks. their on personnel naval the amongst were Petty Officer, 2nd Class George Edward Jamieson, a member of the Six Nations Upper Cayuga Band, was Canadian Royal the in Indian highest-ranking the likely destroyers sailed for the Far Eastern theatre in July 1950: 1950: July in theatre Eastern Far the for sailed destroyers (HMCS) Ships Canadian Majesty’s His baskan Haida and Huron Iroquois, Operations – Korea, 1950-1953,’ led to a reordering of a to reordering led 1950-1953,’ – Korea, Operations Canada. in life economic and social national were theatre Korean the in serve to Canadians first The Navy. Canadian Royal the tribal-class of Three members other other allied countries to contributed the multi-national se- collective of principle the support to assembled force action’, ‘police UN a called technically Although curity. the Korean Conflict, officially called ‘United Nations collective collective security provisions and highlighted that the Cold would War not be without bloodshed. The UN Korea’s South to to support pass a managed resolution mas- committed soon Americans the and efforts, defence many and Canada conflict. the to resources military sive or rejoined as the Cold War set in. They would be called called be would They in. set War Cold the as rejoined or of communist fears when East Far in the to serve upon founded. well be to proved aggression Korea South of invasion Communist Korean North The on 25 June 1950 represented a major test of the UNs’ 160

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL five sons have since served in the navy. Canadian Navy during the early 1950s and four of their Joan, a Mi’kmaq from Nova Scotia, also joined the Royal wife, his family: naval a was His service.submarine Navy’sRoyal the to attached service of years ten his of three spent he officer,and petty of rank the taining at- war,the after navy the in remained Lowrytargets. Korea, blowing up bridges, railways and other strategic Navyuniform. Canadian Royal his in air force(1961-1971).Picturedhere Reserve, Ontariointhenavy,armyand Left: FrankMichon,MétisfromFortWilliam I wanted to be a sailor.” a be to wanted I yes so, thinking of way his liked of kind I quick. be will it sunk get you If lad. night at bed warm nice a have will you Navy the in least at – beef bully and mud mud, ‘mud, was said he all and War World First the in served also had grandfather tish Scot- My yourself… hide and hole a dig could you – Army the for all was he grandfather, native My sailor. a be to wanted I so RCN the in served who and Navy Royal the in been had who side Scottish the on uncle an had I twelve… was I when “My grandfather went into the Navy and I joined the sea cadets Smith V.C. “Smokey” Ernest Sergeant with seated pictured Michon Right: Frank Photos provided by Frank Michon Michon Frank by provided Photos five thousand, and was built around a cadre of Second of cadre aaround builtwas thousand, andfive roughlynumberedbrigade infantry This out. was year theoverseasbeforearrived unit first the andrush, a in recruited organised, was (CASF) Force Special Army Canadian obligations.The UN of support in Korea to and announced that Canada would commit ground forces Minister Louis St. Laurent responded to public pressures Canada’s contribution grew in August 1950, when Prime World War veterans. It is unknown how many Aboriginal soldiers fought in Korea, but the Indian Affairs Branch reported the names of 73 status Indians who enlisted for service in the first year. In 1952, it reported that 175 Indians had joined the CASF. This number was never updated, but estimates suggest ‘several hundred Natives served on the battlefields and also at sea in an area that had been known, in more peaceful times, as the Land of the Morning Calm.’ In all, Canada sent more than 20,000 personnel to the UN forces in Korea – a small number compared to the world wars, but still a significant force. Amongst these personnel were several hundred First Nations and Métis service personnel who had either served in the Second World War or saw service as a means to broaden their life experience and improve their economic circumstances.

Sergeant Tommy Prince, the much-decorated veteran of the Second World War, re-enlisted with the 2nd Bat- talion, Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry to serve in Korea. There he earned another three campaign medals, bringing his total to 11 in all – the most ever held Prince on field exercises at Camp Borden by a Canadian Indian. His previous service provided The outbreak of the Korean Conflict saw the return to war service of him with important experience, but had also taken its dozens of Aboriginal veterans of the Second World War, as part of the newly raised Canadian Army Special Force. Pictured here at Camp toll physically: at 35 he was developing arthritis in his Borden circa 1953, Sgt Thomas Prince had earned the Military Medal and knees, made all the more painful because of cartilage United States Silver Star while serving with the joint Canadian-American Special Service Force during the Second World War. He served again damage from his days as a paratrooper. Patrolling in the with the Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry regiment in Korea. rugged Korean hills caused him great discomfort, and The 2001 purchase of his war medals at auction for $75,000 and their he was assigned, against his objections, to less arduous eventual return to his home province of Manitoba were widely reported in the media. Photo from Manitobans in Profile: Thomas George Prince by D. Bruce Sealey and Peter Van de Vyvere, 1981

CHAPTER SIX 161 162

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL and enfranchise as a Canadian citizen: status Indian his up give to him advisingagent Indian could have. While overseas, he received a letter from his registeredhowever,Indian,a war. asstatus of Hisalty day we die.’ Thankfully, Simon did not become a casu- happened and … the rest of us continue fighting until the recalled, ‘the shell … blew his head off. Things like that out,’Simon head his popped he time third the was it think ‘I down. head his keep to warnings to heed pay enemy position. One of the field medical officers did not the observe to came officers where 133 Hill of front in bunker a in was he 1952, June situations.In gerous As an infantry radio operator, he experienced some dan- talion, The Royal Canadian Regiment, in the fall of 1951. wick, reached the front lines in Korea with the 2nd Bat- Stephen Simon, a Mi’kmaq from Big Cove, New Bruns- a disability pension. He died in 1977 at the age of 62. able limp and was discharged from the army in 1954 with By the time the war ended, Prince walked with a notice- approved, and he returned to the battlefield one last time. Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry. His application was PrincessBattalion, 3rd the with duty of tour second a for apply to sufficientlyimproved had knees his that Borden,CampOntario.atwarrior, theEver Princefelt duties before being posted to an administrative position endedupin the artillery. Althoughhewas wounded by to join the army.’ With a grade nine education, Blondeau Regina at six o’clock in the morning in 36-below weather ‘hitchhikedwork,hefind Qu’AppellenotFortfrom to had been trained as a motor mechanic, but when he could SpecialMauriceForce.Blondeauthe inenlist to some Korea. Poor economic prospects and poverty encouraged in represented well also was community Métis The I didn’t know what to do; there was not other not therewas do; didn’t to I what know did sell my status. never I andanotherform get didnever I that. rememberedalways I this.” with ahead go to wish you if form another get always can you status – maintain your status, this is my advice, your take or steal anyone let not Do status. basket, and said, “I advise you do not sell your and tore it up in shreds and threw it in his waste form the took he so do, to want I what is this [at] me for a while. “You asked me for advice, would do. He looked at my form and he looked got an interview with him. I asked him what he I so and advice of kind some for look to had I anyway but himself,Indians aboutanything wouldn’the manknow army an beingmyself, commandingthoughtmyof I officer. saidto I advice. for to turn to around people Indian The Last Six Decades 163 CHAPTER SIX Photo provided by Russ Piché escort patrols going in and out through the minefields. Also finding and destroying any enemy bunkers and ammunition ammunition and “My job in Pioneers was bunkers laying out mine fields enemy and barb wire in any front of the lines. And part destroying of the Pioneer’s and job is to finding Also minefields. the through out and in tunnels going little-crawl patrols enemy escort or bunkers enemy find would you occasion On of…. bit a did we which found be could that and one of the jobs that we did was to go in and find out if was there any ammunition or anything in the tunnel so it could be destroyed so it couldn’t be used against you at a later date. And of course the tunnel.”destroy Russ Piché, Métis from Vankleek Hill, Ontario, in the Canadian Army. Here with the 1st Battalion, Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry, destroying enemy bunker-tunnel and ammunition supply in no man’s land, Korea. Piché is pictured fourth from left. 164

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL the Regular Force, with the 2nd Armoured Regiment,Armoured 2nd the with Force, Regular the inre-enlisted, timehethis later monthsEight 1946. of spring the untilCanada in served and soldier boy a as re-enlistedheauthorities butwhen age,discovered his tificate and joined the Army in 1942. He was discharged At 16 years of age, Ron J. Camponi forged his birth cer proud. Still am.’ any way people were getting killed…. I was proud, very tradition of service: family proud a continued also Heget.’ to hard were ‘jobs because 1950 in army the joined also Whitford Saskatchewan Indian and Native Friendship Centre. Wes the of director executive became eventually he and 1957, until army the in stayednevertheless he Korea, in ligamentsankle his damagedseverely that shrapnel really a war,’ he replied to them ‘the bullets were and were bullets ‘the them towar,’ replied a he really Although his uncles later teased him that Korea ‘wasn’t I wanted medals. and get some experience and of course medals. country some see to chance my was this well thought I WarKoreanstarted the with Then time. the at young too was I but it of part be landand Holland stuff like that sowantedI to stories about what a good time they had in Eng- these all tellingwere They like. be to wanted that’sI and what WWII in uncles nine had I - He recounted: regiment. the of ‘B’Squadron with Korea to went he 1952 In Canadians).(Royal Strathcona’s HorseLord forces. Nevertheless, the 1952 Indian Affairs annual AffairsIndian 1952 the Nevertheless, forces. difficult for northern Aboriginal peoples to join the armed especiallyDifferencesitlanguage madecultureand in a tank in Korea. atop brothersCamponi three ofphotograph a featured Legion) Canadian Royal the of magazine official (the served: in August 1952, the front cover of alsobrothers His tank.damaged the backbrought and replacement a out took CamponiSergeant fire, Under turrets. the of one out knocked and 159 Hill on tanks On 13 On August1952,Chinesemortars‘B’hit Squadron Korea was something like the First World War. you and shelling you and people being killed. targets…. It was a bloody war; people shootingthe on shells at the layinginstruments, the with targets during the day and we would fire at night register We would tanks. our couldn’t move couldn’twebecause nerves,anywhere; gowe as support. The shelling was really hard on the tanks, our in in, dugwere we patrols,and on shelling and a lot of patrols. The infantry went was like the WWI trenches…. There was a lot of Everyone was dug in at the 38th Parallel and it The Legionary The Last Six Decades 165 CHAPTER SIX Ottawa Valley, he joined Ottawa the Valley, Army Canadian Special Force in 1952 under the name of He Eddie Vital. saw action with the Princess Patricia’s Canadian Light Infantry in Korea, and upon his return to Canada took parachute and arctic warfare training with the Mobile for responsible cadre Army Regular the Force: Striking tours two served subsequently He Canada. of defence the to military the leaving before Germany West in duty of return to (Great Poste-de-la-Baleine Whale River) on Bay. James Left: Privates John Wheeler, Father and Son “The Legionary” magazine, April, 1952, page 34 Right: Brother Trio in Korea “The Legionary” magazine, August, 1952, cover and page 3 Fromthe 1950’s onward, new generations of Aboriginal Canadiansfound themselves donning uniforms and bear- ing arms in support of Canada’s committment to the United Nations charter and in fulfillment of our partnership in many in affair family a become had century 20th the during military Canadian NATO.the in participation Aboriginal twoPPCLI, the of Jr. Wheeler, John and Sr., Wheeler, John of team son andfather the are left at Pictured instances. Métis infantryman from western Canada who served together in Korea. Pictured at right are the three Camponi Strathcona’sLord Horse. mins, Ontario, and in various lumber camps in the upper upper the in camps lumber various in and Ontario, mins, enlisted enlisted was Eddie Weetaltuk, born near East Main River, Quebec, and raised at residential schools in as a cook working After and Ontario. Quebec northern and labourer in pulp and paper factories around Tim- ‘including ‘including a fine representative group from the Hare received reports Early Indians. of the Loucheux Bands on this group of young men indicate that the majority are doing well in their new One vocation.’ Inuk who report listed that ‘a number of young Indians’ from the from Indians’ of young ‘a number that listed report Northwest Territories had enlisted for active service, brothers, also Métis from western Canada: Ron, Tony and Len.and the with Tony armouredcrewmen Ron, as Canada: western Korea from in Métis served also They brothers, 166

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL was ‘definitely a cultural shock’: instinct in us,’ warrior she the suggested. Nevertheless,been have actual servicemust ‘It navy. the in another she had one younger sister who joined the air force and Mary’sofboth But army, thebrothersin been had and women.’for place a was it think didn’t ‘She recalled. it,’Wuttuneelike didn’t mother ‘My 21. of age the at Saskatchewan,of joined theairforce theinmid-1950s Band Pheasant Red the of member Wuttunee,a Mary edented peacetime expansion. formed as the Canadian armed forces underwent unprec- continuousforEurope. battalionsserviceNewin were wing air an infantryand of groupbrigade a provide to Atlantic Treaty Organization (founded in 1949), agreed North the of member a as Canada, time. that at lived conflict in Europe loomed large in the minds of all who remained. Indeed, the fear of a more severe superpowerWar Cold the but 1953, in ended War Korean The War Cold The sacrificed their lives in the dark days of war.’ fulness to all the veterans, in general, that had fought and participates in Remembrance Day: ‘We show our grate alwayslives.’Simon our why ofis restThat the … us with stays … it there, end doesn’t it us, of most [for] ‘Like the Korean War, they say it was over in 1953, but there,’endnotdoes war the StephenSimonexplained. ‘It’s not easy, when a soldier goes to war and comes back, - We went to a place where we had never been,never wherehadWeplace we a to went everybody is yelling. And that was a shock. I shock. a was that And yelling. is everybody squareand parade a on get you and Québec, yelling. Then all of a sudden you go to St. Jean, didn’the us, yelledatnever just He believein father.our by not butmother our maybe men, werenotusedbeingto yelled at,especially by a rope to keep them up with everybody else. We ening that they were going to tie them two with march nor my aunt. So they were always threat- how to march, and my sister didn’t know how to commissioned officer] because you didn’t know [non- NCO little some by at yelled getting Montrealbut the fact that you were on parade wereyouwhathatedknow talking I about.So didn’t they something them asked you when Montreal.So in didn’tEnglishpeople speak resign. I was in there. my letter to prove it.” I didn’t realize I couldn’t can’tI meanthere youdid is doresign? just I He said “Mary you can’t resign.” I said, “What he finished laughing I said, “what’s so funny”. when and him watched I and laughed just he floor laughing. And every time he looked at me of resignation and he rolled around all over the it.saidHe“sure.” gaveISohimme lettermy with mehelp something;you youcan show to teacher who was a corporal. I said to him I want a resignation letter and I passed it to the phys-ed disliked it so much that after three weeks I wrote The Last Six Decades 167 CHAPTER SIX Photo provided by Irene Hoff “When I got into the army… when I got my commission,… I was businessworking…college… Colonel Patrick… thecolonel oftheGovernor in General’s FootGuards… askedwouldIndian Iifme like Affairs… I was still going to to join the I CWAC… said sure… This was all women, you see they opened it up in ’51, so that they could employ females … in the armoured corps… I always worked in the Orderly Room, which was all administrative work, and I When there. down wastime there spare because of to, lot have a didn’t spend I to used out.Iget gladwasto I But Irene Hoff, Abenaki from Odanak, Quebec in the St. John Ambulance and the Canadian Army. Seated second row to the left of Lieutenant-Governor Paul Comptois the day she was presented to him c. 1962. used to go to 30th around Field Regiment [and all report] their files for them.… I was well trained. I was a sergeant- AndPrivate. a Whenas business… out the my started all knew I ranks, I … my all’51, earned in I off… major. started I way up, until I … became And sergeant-major. that would be just before I got my commission. Second lieutenant and lieutenant the same day… I looked after anything administrative… Sometimes I had to work until four morning… had in You aboutthe 400 people in camp… and everything has to be done… While I was in it, I enjoyed it. so much work involved.” Wuttunee served with the air force at Cold Lake for three years analyzing flight runs of missiles and fighter jets, and then worked there as a civilian with Computing Devices of Canada (CDC) until 1960. ‘I think it gave me a very positive attitude because no one ever said “Mary you can’t work on the computer because …,” she later reflected, “When you got into the armed forces; into the air force base … you were just a person the same as everyone else and that was different. People accepted you for who you were”.’

Military statistics compiled during the Cold War did not differentiate between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal members, and therefore no reliable number of Aboriginal service personnel can be offered for this era. Anecdotal evidence suggests that Aboriginal peoples continued to volunteer to serve their country as they had during the world wars. Infantry units like The Algonquin Regi- ment, The Royal Winnipeg Rifles, and The Regina Rifle Regiment, which recruited from rural areas with a size- able Aboriginal population, reflected this participation. The Indian News, a monthly Indian Affairs publication produced from the mid-1960s to the early 70s, high- Warrant Officer Ernest Nadjiwan, Ojibway from Cape Croker, Ontario, RCAF (1951-1986) lighted Aboriginal involvement in various aspects of “We moved to Cape Croker [when I was young] did some farming Canada’s national life, including military service. It until the Second World war broke out. My father was wounded often included brief profiles of men and women such as in Italy…. We had five [from the reserve] that were killed… in the Second World War. Eight from the First World War…. we had a Leading Aircraftman K.N.B. Bannab, a photo-technician history of military service in our community and everyone here is with the Royal Canadian Air Force’s 1 Wing at Marville, very proud of that…. I wanted to follow in my family’s footsteps; France; Sergeant John Martin from the Six Nations, I guess that was the main reason [I joined in November 1951] and I wanted to see the country, which I did. [I preferred the Air Force] of the 1st Battalion, The Royal Canadian Regiment, I thought that was the best. I didn’t feel like marching around with who was serving with his battalion in Cyprus in April the infantry or joining the navy…. [My experience in the military helped me to] organize and discipline myself, when I finished the service I was a councillor here on the reservation for several years and I was chairman of our education trustees.” Photo courtesy of Ernest Nadjiwan

168 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The Last Six Decades 169 - - CHAPTER SIX – – flies, filth and Joe famine.’ Meconse served Well, Well, I had several friends there … I had a and go, I’d where valley the in place favourite bring to used he so there, in farmer a was there like mornings of couple a after and coffee, a me then I’d that, my leave at jeep parked the side I’d and it, see could drivers the so road, the of go in and help him in the field, cut you know, that. enjoyed I good. was It .… that all and grain up came sun the ‘til hours, of couple a for Just hot! too got it and keep keep the Bob peace.’ Ducharme of Nanaimo, British good the recalled and Cyprus in served also Columbia, locals: the with enjoyed he that relations in in a domestic ‘aid to the civil power’ capacity during unfortunate… quite was ‘It 1970. of Crisis October the one of the saddest parts of my Meconse army career,’ country, own my in weapon loaded a carry ‘to explained, done.’ be to had it but people, own my against and servicemen Aboriginal women served over Other seas. Ernest Nadjiwan ‘wanted to follow my family’s when he footsteps’ joined the military in 1951, and in his in go’ to place a ‘terrible Yemen, in served he 1963 eyes because it was by dominated the ‘three Fs in that country March to 1964 September from Cyprus in duties UN on 1965. ‘I was doing outposts, … making sure that the the and side, on their Cypriots[stayed] Greeks the and on the Turks he middle their ‘We’re side,’ explained. separated, them keep to function main our was That man. - Churchill, Manitoba, joined the militia in 1960 and two two and 1960 in militia the joined Manitoba, Churchill, served He force. regular the for volunteered later years atomic atomic attack. Thankfully there was no nuclear catas- trophe, but Hurricane Hazel ravaged southern Ontario in 1954 and his regiment was called out to assist the survivors. and bodies for looking in authorities civilian near trapline father’s his on born was who Meconse, Joe mer dealt with protecting infrastructure like water works works water like infrastructure protecting with dealt mer from biological attack, and the latter trained reservists needed people if operations rescue and control crowd with to be evacuated from cities or towns in the case of an of drew me like a magnet.’ As a reservist, he took various various took he reservist, a As magnet.’ a like me drew of chemical ‘atomic, including courses, training War Cold for- The lashes.’ and ‘knots and warfare’ biological and alization. Harvey Horlock of who Toronto, traces his the to back participation military of history long family’s in Regiment Scottish Toronto The of joined 1812, War and along come had War Korean ‘The 1952. September he explained. wanted to everybody be naturally army,’ kind it army in serving uncles my of most having ‘And Alberta), with the Royal Canadian Army Service Corps, Service Army Canadian Royal the with Alberta), Company in who were both Transport serving with 13 Alberta. Edmonton, Again, the breadth of experience defies easy gener Restoule, an Ojibwa from the Dokis Reserve in northern in Reserve Dokis the from Ojibwa an Restoule, from (Okanagan, Simpson Ernie Sergeant and Ontario; Vinfield, British Columbia) with The Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers and Anne, Ste. Lac from (Cree L’Hirondelle Dolphus Private 1967 as drum major; Leading Aircraftwoman Geraldine Geraldine Aircraftwoman Leading major; drum as 1967 170

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL and King Ludwig’s castle. about in history books,’ such as the Rhine River, Munich, read only you’ve that ‘things saw andtravelled he off trainingmorerealistic,’… remembered.he timehisIn your made just it and country foreign a in ‘Youwere in Lahr, West Germany, to be the highlight of his career. considered his time with 4 Combat Engineer Regiment Gerard Joe, a Mi’kmaq from Conne River, Newfoundland, Bolton Cliff by provided Photo time.” the of most things positive experienced Schools now, there’s some pretty bad things that happened…I just happened to be Residential a lucky person that at happened that things and the all us…With behind along safe, came that ones younger the be instruct to how learned to I and properly it then handle to how learned I and much, so rifle, a fired really I ever time that first School, the Residential was the at was I When shotgun. a or rifle, a fire to how learn really British didn’t whole Commonwealth…I the against shooting was that us…and beat English the point one by second, came Canada…We “We went to England, to Bisley, in 1959. I was the captain of the Canadian rifle team…the cadets Army from across 1959. Team, Bisley withthe Cadet Army right. from second row, front seated here Seen Columbia. British Essington fromPort Tsimsian Bolton, Cliff Lafferty of the Northwest Territories felt that the ‘long, Bill field. the in well them served background their from Saskatchewan… he just fit right in there.’ For others,‘nativesgroupofveryforeign,a bemet after to buthe the strict discipline, morning inspections and shoe shining Joe John Sanipass of Big Cove, New Brunswick, found offerpossibilityadventurethepersonalgrowth.andof The adjustment to military life could be difficult, but did The Last Six Decades 171 CHAPTER SIX if you were an aboriginal person, or if you were were you if or person, aboriginal an were you if a black person, or a purple person it didn’t was about cared ever we thing only The matter. you your doing job. When you got were in the trench the in guy the for responsible was I trench shoulder fought We protection. his and me with no was there and brothers our with shoulder to soldiers all were we race, no was there colour, excellent. was it and Borchert’s service gave him ‘great pride in our military military our in pride ‘great him gave service Borchert’s present.’ and past both Ed Borchert, who was born in Red Deer, Alberta, joined joined Alberta, Deer, Red in born was who Borchert, Ed into ‘Going 1995. until served and 1964 in military the the army just meant a steady pay cheque and one less mouth for my mother to worry about he at ex- home,’ from rank ‘every in served he career his During plained. in then and major,’ sergeant company to corporal lance 1983 he was commissioned asmilitary ahow captain,described eventuallyBorchert major. to promoted being service ‘taught me self-reliance, leadership. It taught me that the was soldier component the most important of our military and to respect them and to ensure that of the aims the meeting while for cared well were they One of organization.’ the best things about the he CF, that: was explained, other family members. I it guess is members. of part family my other heritage our help to and country, our serve to honour family and assistance.’ of need in are they when people - thing of myself, so joining the military seemed the right right the seemed military the joining so myself, of thing path to take…. The military taught me valuable skills Corporal Master teamwork.’ and self-discipline as such he and adventure, the for military the joined Innes Brian on influence an had has military the ‘… acknowledged, my family for My generations. father served in Korea with along II, War World in served grandfather my and explained Major Robert E. Crane (retired), who served served who (retired), Crane E. Robert Major explained Alert, Germany, as places such in Corps Signal the with and the Persian Gulf. His father was a veteran of the Korean Conflict, and Crane ‘want[ed] to make some more confidence I believe. I enjoyed it.’ it.’ enjoyed I believe. I confidence more between connection a saw strong CF members Several predeces- Aboriginal their of those and service own their warriors,’ awesome were Blackfoot, the people, ‘My sors. out of birch bark to boil water and caught a rabbit. Wes Wes rabbit. a caught and water boil to bark birch of out in time his that believes Alberta, Ashmount, of Whitford land to and more himself respect to him helped army the better jobs afterwards. ‘I was able to cope pretty well me gave it ‘and explained, Whitford discipline,’ the with took took away all our canvas and said everything…I “just stick with me, if you are willing to work hard we are going to have an enjoyable time, we are going to be they Together made a comfortable.”’ tepee and a pot to service in the Sinai Desert. Stephen Simon remembers remembers Simon Stephen Desert. Sinai the in service to a field training exercise in 1955; he had been talking ‘they day one and friend curious a with culture his about long sunlight in the summer months’ and the long, dark dark long, the and months’ summer the in sunlight long him allowed accustomed was he which to nights winter adapting trouble no had He anywhere. almost function to 172

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL with the Royal had engaged in des Indiens. » Indiens. des opinion« bonnen’avaient une pas nécessairementtous provincial police and the Canadian Forces, some soldiers complex than any one stereotype could accommodate. c’était vraiment encore la guerre », he explained. « Çaexplained. he« c’étaitguerre»,vraiment encore la from October 1993 to April 1994. « La Croatie, la Bosnie Paul served as a lieutenant in the Krajina sector of Croatia in conflict zones around the world. For his part, Jocelyn serve tocontinued women andservicemenAboriginal of peacekeeping and peacemaking operations increased. through a period of retrenchment in the 1990s, the tempo went Forces dividend.’Canadian ‘peacethe Although anticipatedthe bring WarnotCold didthe of end The ( Montreal. After working for the Attikamek- of University the at degreeMaster’s his on working JocelynPauljoined thereserves 1988,in while was he WarWorld Post-Cold The Aboriginal people military per military after the Oka the after regular force in force regular Montagnais sonnel who were prone to generalizeabouttoprone were who sonnel ) Council, he decided to transfer to the to transfer to decided he Council, Crisis, when Mohawks and their supporters With time, however, he noticed that the that noticed however,he time,With 22e Régiment. It was not an easy time: easy an not was It Régiment. 22e a lengthy standoff with the Quebec 1991 and became a platoon commander learned that the situation was more Innu mines partout, les gens qui étaient affamés, les gens qui champsde guerre,lesla ravages deles vu j’ai que fait lot of little ones, and I changed their diapers or helpeddiaperschangedortheir I andones,little of lot orphanage,‘taking care of the babies that were there, a elections.’fairlocaland free avolunteered alsoat She ing the UN polling stations and ensuring that there was country.theanythingsupply-of couldbefromthat So west of the country, to the port cities, to the northern part explained. ‘From the north to the south and the east and other,’thecountrytheto of suppliespart onefrom she supporting that country’s elections. ‘We transported the Cambodia, to deployed Battalion, Service 2 with ing from Pinamootung First Nations in Manitoba), then serv- 1993, Corporal Corena Letendre (an Anishnawbe woman General Roméo LeBlanc from 1995 Governor to 1997. In for 1992 and aide-de-camp became Paul Captain Croates.» Afteranother tourthetoformer Yugoslavia, bombardaient les Serbes et les Serbes bombardaient les Croates lesbombardements, les par terrorisés peu un étaient qui gens nourrir,les se quoi de pas n’avaient little ones there’ provided her ‘baby fix.’ bodia,sothese visits ‘togoand help take care ofthose Cam- to deployed she when baby a still was daughter with the medication, or gave them ointment.’ Letendre’s The Last Six Decades 173 CHAPTER SIX Department of National Defence photo “I was through Cambodia… in ‘92-’93…we went there as a contingent to go and support the elections… I worked I elections… the support and go to contingent a as there went ‘92-’93…we in Cambodia… through was “I care taking were] [We there… was that orphanage the to them introduce to over Camp Canadian the brought had of the babies that were there, a lot of little ones… I changed their diapers or helped with the medication, or gave them ointment. It was quite interesting because when I had left to go to Cambodia my daughter was not a year Corena Letendre, Saulteaux from Fairford, Manitoba in the Canadian Army and Air Force. at Canada House during the days that I had time off. …There was a picture that was taken during a time when I old when I left. So to have, what I call my baby fix, I would go there. [It had been] kind of hard to leave my baby one. little the holding myself picture…with The ones… little those behind.of care take help and Sogo to there went I Canadianthe what anyplacesymbolizes anywhere, me go to to there able one being little … That about: is Forces and anytime and to be able to lay your heart on the line for that very aspect of caring and nurturing those around those nurturing and caring of aspect very that for line the on heart your lay to able be to and anytime and us.…It’s protecting and nurturing that is the closest to us.” 174

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL during their annual Spirit of the Bear Ceremony. NationOjibwaythe of ClanBear the by nameSpirit a theWoundedwithoured Warrior conferredandDance hon- was he home, rehabilitation.returning Afterfor shrapnel wounds in the arm and was sent back to Canada tack on the Canadian base in Panjwaii. Tizya took severe was injured in a rocket grenade and propelled mortar at- days after arriving for his second tour in August 2006, he Patricia’sCanadian LightInfantry inAfghanistan. Only Princess Battalion, 2nd the with served Nation, First Valour. Corporal Doug Tizya, a member of the Old Crow Military of Medal the awarded was Funnellexploits, his For fire. heavy under platoon his of withdrawally professionalactionsallowedsavedlivesorder-and the and brave His effectivereturningfire.while comrades killed and injured his of evacuation and treatment the – successfully Haidaassisted from in British Columbia – Funnell Corporal fire, enemyeffective by covered ground crossing twice by safetypersonal his Ignoring rades trapped in a disabled vehicle in an enemy kill zone. intense enemy fire to come to the assistance of his com braved Regiment,Canadian Royal TheBattalion, 1st Corporal Jason Funnell of 7 Platoon, Charles Company, Afghanistan, in MEDUSA Operation during 2006, September 3 On abroad.missions Canadian other and The tradition of overseas service continues in Afghanistan - sents 2.3% of the Regular Force and 1.8% of the Primary persons were serving in the Canadian Forces. This repre- In 2002, official estimates suggested that 1,300 Aboriginal early eras, are collective efforts. of thoseCentury, like21st the of warsKandahar. The troops during the Task Force Afghanistan Show Tour in month, ing Aboriginal rocker Gary Sappier entertained follow- The themselves.” defend cannot who children and womenthosedefend to to goAfghanistan gowho cannot defend themselves,” Bear explained. “Our warriors “A warrior in our society is one who defends those who rior roaring a battle cry to deployed troops in Kandahar. donated a reproduction of a print of an Aboriginal war- Ice Bear, a Chippewa artist from Cape Croker, Ontario, comes in various forms. For example, in October 2006, Aboriginal support for warriors and peacekeepers overseas with persons of Aboriginal ancestry. filled are ranks its of percentsixty formation:military unique a Rangers,Canadian the with serving persons includeAboriginal not doesstatistic thisFurthermore, nificant interest in and commitment to national defence. is sig there that affirms still of participation level this Aboriginal peoples in the general Canadian population, Reserve. Although these percentages are below those of - The Last Six Decades 175 - CHAPTER SIX of of part-time, unpaid volunteers who would carry out duties military on a daily basis their alongside civilian than Rather to lives. being limited the as coast, Pacific the PCMR had been, the Canadian Rangers extended Lee-Enfield a calibre only .303 with Armed nationally. arm an and year each ammunition of 100-rounds rifle, They peacetime. in roles several had Rangers the band, in exercises on troops southern for guides as act would of knowledge intimate their upon drawing region, their the PCMR, the Canadian Rangers would be comprised comprised be would Rangers Canadian the PCMR, the - from afrom CH-146 Griffon helicopter during Operation NARWHAL 07. Photo by Sgt Brad Phillips [The Maple Leaf, 13 June 2007] Canadian Rangers unload from Griffon Helicoter during Operation NARWHAL 07 Flight engineer Corporal Pat Audet, of 430 Tactical Helicopter Squadron, assists Canadian Rangers as they unload been disbanded in 1945, but this force helped inspire the the inspire helped force this but 1945, in disbanded been Like of two Rangers years later. creation the Canadian The onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s drew unprec drew 1940s late the in War Cold the of onset The edented attention to the Canadian North. If the United States and the Soviet Union went to the war, northern bat- likely a as serve would continent the to approaches steps took military Canadian the light, this In tleground. coastal and isolated, northern, in footprint a establish to areas. The Pacific Coast Militia Rangers (PCMR) had The Canadian Rangers 176

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL in the early 1970s when arctic sovereignty became an becamesovereignty arctic when 1970s early the in The importance of the Rangers drew renewed attention in support of Canadian sovereignty and security. exercises in the north, and provided a permanent presence Rangerswiththeguided advised and regular forces on culture.hunting a Aboriginalservingpeoplesin assets significantwerebullets and rifle a recognizedthatand intelligentand wouldhonest andmakegoodRangers,’ ‘reliable, were Inuit the that stressed official senior that Ranger service would also be good for the Inuit. One in 1951, officials responsible for Eskimo Affairs believed authorized the formation of companies on Baffin Island andenvironmentcultures. Whenthemilitary local the of knowledge intimate an with Rangers havingfrom benefited military The 1950s. the in arctic the across spread force the as role important an played people Aboriginal–Territorial theNorth in particularly and Givendemographicsthe isolatedof remoteandareas – or saboteurs. viding local defences against small enemy detachments pro-watchingandincludecoast alsowould roles their wartime, In required. when parties rescue and search seemed logical. Furthermore, the Rangers could provide roledetection this basis, daily a on areaslocal their in Rangers, in their civilian jobs, would be out on the land with police and report suspicious activities. Because the the local area, and would prepare local defence schemes sharing of invaluable survival skills. contributedgreatertocross-cultural awarenessthe and Rangers’ interactions with regular and reserve force units and represented every Aboriginal group in the North. The breadth of the arctic, from Broughton Island to Aklavik, the spanned Patrolspersonnel. and spendingmilitary erations at a time when the government was cutting back tion of sovereignty at minimal cost – important consid- Forces,Canadian the Rangers provided a visible asser- the For Ranger. a as serving time same the at while the Rangers could remain in and serve their communities undertaken. Northern Aboriginal persons who served in Rangers seemed to represent the most successful activity the armed forces, and the reconstitution of the northern peoples’increaseAboriginalin representation to tives important issue once again. The military launched initia- promoting sovereignty and security. in role symbolic and prominentincreasingly an play Bay, and along the British Columbia coast. The Rangers James and Hudson along Quebec),(northern Nunavik and Labrador in formed were Units one. northhadfar almost every community that could sustain a patrol in the expression of sovereignty,’ and by the end of the century important‘an themdeemedDefenceNational of ister enhanced.Min-continuedandThebe would gramme pro-Rangerthethegovernmentthat 1987indicated in theWithAboriginalbackingstrongfrom community, The Last Six Decades 177 CHAPTER SIX those sparsely settled northern, coastal and isolated areas areas isolated and coastal northern, settled sparsely those economically or conveniently cannot which Canada of be provided by other components of the Canadian Forces.’ They watch for unusual activities along the warn- early provide and communities, their in and coasts ing, territorial surveillance, ground search and rescue, Forces Canadian the to capabilities reconnaissance and indigenous traditional and geographic local their on based Ranger,’ to be a proud Canadian very ‘I’m knowledge. part-time part-time reservists only consists of a red sweatshirt, ball T-shirt, cap, brassard, safety vest and toque. The am- of 200-rounds member each issues now government skidoos as such equipment, other provide They munition. on use its for compensated are but themselves boats, and no also is there groups, patrol most In exercises. Ranger Rangers some that means This age. retirement mandatory Forces. Canadian the of members serving longest the are Sanikiluaq from Iqaluk Johnassie and Tookalook Johnny were enlisted in 1947, the year the force was created, from Irqu Abraham since. ever Rangers been and have Akulivik and Peter Kunilusie from Clyde River were Rangers. as service continual of years 52 for recognized serving still was Inlet, Rankin from Ranger a Ittinuar, Ollie with the Rangers at the age of 87. So long as Rangers can still perform their duties on the land, they are not members. active as down step to forced Rangers, the of role the reservists, Forces Canadian As in presence a is ‘to military provide and first foremost, - local local cultural and political norms. They are not issued with typical military uniforms. Instead, the military their in survive to able are enlist who those that assumes local environment by virtue of their civilian ‘typical’ these for uniform the result, a As equipment. and clothing bership, bership, and decision-making within patrols respects are of Aboriginal descent and patrols are representative representative are patrols and descent Aboriginal of are diver- linguistic and ethno-cultural Canada’s northern of majority vast the example, for line, tree the of North sity. of Rangers are Inuit and many speak Inuktitut as their language. only) sometimes (and first They elect respects. in are unique several The Rangers mem- local their amongst from leaders patrol own their of British Columbia, northern Alberta, Saskatchewan and and Saskatchewan Alberta, northern Columbia, British of in patrols Ranger 29 includes CRPG 5 Lastly, Manitoba. While Rangers. 743 with Labrador, and Newfoundland official statistics do not break down the membership Rangers all of percent fifty than more lines, ethnic along group, with 1,575 Rangers. 2 CRPG includes 23 Quebec Quebec 23 includes CRPG 2 Rangers. 1,575 with group, in patrols 15 has CRPG 3 Rangers. 696 totalling patrols, en CRPGnorthernOntarioRangers. numbering4 422 coast Pacific the on patrols 38 in Rangers 695 compasses 4,200 Rangers in 163 patrols across Canada, organized organized Canada, across patrols 163 in Rangers 4,200 in five Canadian Ranger Patrol Groups (CRPGs), and this number is expected to increase to 4,800 in 2008. 1 CRPG encompasses 58 patrols in the Northwest and It Nunavut. is the patrol Yukon largest Territories, According According to a 2007 report, there are approximately 178

The Last Six Decades ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL structured youth programme began in 1996, provides 1996, in began programme youth structured communitymembers.JuniorCanadian TheRangers, a knowledge on to the Canadian Forces, but also to other the bush, and to help with the military.’ They pass their in skill my with help to … knowledgenorthern the of well as my people. It’s important for me to pass on some Territories explained. ‘It’s a way to serve my country as Northwest the in Wha’ti, of Mantla, Nick Sergeant Bolton Cliff by provided Photo good.” very were that bands bugle had also we and marching the and drill, rifle [weapons], handle to how things, precision of lot a how to handle rifles radiophones and submachine and guns… the the Morse young code boys and had we to learned learn the about lot a learned we parades, having marching, the drills, military the all things: of lot a you taught cadet] a “[Being Indian George’s St. the with here Playing cadets. Army in Columbia School band,affiliatedwiththeRockyMountain Rangers. Residential British Essington, Port from Tsimsiam Bolton, Cliff Rangers regularlyserve as guides and survival Rangers experts the coasts, the along and north far the In rescue. and search to gathering intelligence from impressive, and varied are achievements operational Rangers’ The across generations. Everyone benefits as a result. tunity to share local cultural values and traditional skills Rangers and youth in their communities with an oppor- The Last Six Decades 179 - CHAPTER SIX ipated in Operation Nunalivut and, working with a team team a with working and, Nunalivut Operation in ipated of found scientists, that the ice remaining largest shelf in the northern hemisphere was deteriorating quickly. If ships can transit the Northwest Passage year-round forecast, estimates some as decades, two next the within in north. its of a challenges host face new may Canada security and sovereignty Arctic on emphasis recent The ensures that the Rangers will continue to provide an future any in presence practical and symbolic important context, and as the number of patrols and individual Rangers expands so too will their contributions to the objectives. defence Canada’s of attainment recognition of their unique and outstanding contributions contributions outstanding and unique their of recognition to of and homeland. the the security defence Canadian com remote in military the of ears and eyes the are ‘You support the and military help she said, ‘You munities,’ knowledge, your skills, Your sovereignty…. our protect Canadian the You, unparalleled…. are know-how, your and north the to contributions great made have Rangers, you continue to do so – and to our journey as fellow you.’ thank I Canadians. com- their to assets valuable are Rangers Canadian The munities, to the military, and to Canada as a whole. that affects the about concerns and Current projections northern on have may warming) (global change climate Canada suggest that the Rangers will be even more critical in the near future. April In 2008, for example, partic- north territorial the across from Rangers Canadian Excellency Excellency the Right Adrienne Honourable Clarkson, Commander-in-Chief and Canada of General Governor of the Canadian Forces, was pleased to bestow upon Special the Rangers, Canadian the of members selected Service Medal, with the special clasp, ‘RANGER’ in lessness lessness were of tremendous help in dealing with the Group this of members The event. sad this of aftermath CF.’ the of traditions proudest the of worthy are On 14 February 2000, at Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Her General General Maurice Baril it explained. ‘Were not for the CRPG 2 of Rangers Canadian the of response immediate would disaster this Nunavik, throughout work their and surely have cost more lives. Their discipline and self- ofthe Defence Staff. ‘The members of 2CRPG have become known across the country for their efforts,’ inhabitants died and some 70 were injured. The 28forty than more and patrol Ranger local the of members to immediately responded CRPG 2 from Rangers other For their 2 the efforts, CRPG emergency. received the Chief of from Defence Staff Commendation the Chief fosters fosters mutual learning and Although understanding. as rescue and search ground vital perform often Rangers their tasking, military official an as than rather civilians com- their to vital is organization and knowledge military no other where regions in remote particularly munities, exist. groups When a organized devastating avalanche nine 1999, January 1 on Quebec, Kangiqsualujjuaq, hit for southern units operating in their local areas, and this this and areas, local their in operating units southern for Recruitment and Retention Initiatives

The ongoing contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the Canadian military make them a valuable part of the Defence team. As a result, the military has introduced a number of initiatives to promote increased Aboriginal participation in the Canadian Forces. Several notable programmes and policies have been designed to increase awareness of military career opportunities and to make the military environment more comfortable for Aboriginal peoples.

In the early 1970s, the military began to undertake spe- cial recruiting efforts to encourage Aboriginal peoples’ enlistment. The Northern Native Entry Programme was introduced in 1971 to attract Aboriginal peoples living north of the 60th parallel to the Canadian Forces. A special recruiting organization was established to visit communities across the arctic on a regular basis. Inter- ested Aboriginal candidates then attended pre-recruit training to help them meet the potential challenges of service life. The success rate was poor, however, as few recruits met the required educational standards, even

Tribute paid to Aboriginal Veterans The provisions of the Veterans’ Charter – that package of benefits and entitlements bestowed upon newly returned veterans by a grateful nation following the Second World War – were in some cases unequally applied to the newly returned status Indian servicemen and women. Geographic isolation, communications dif- ficulties and bureaucratic confusions arising from split jurisdictions to which Indian veterans were subject (Indian Affairs, Veterans Affairs, National Defence) in numerous instances prevented individuals from receiving the full range of benefits to which they may have been entitled. The resolution of such claims remains an outstanding issue today among Aboriginal veterans and their families. On June 21st, 2001, Aboriginal veterans gathered in Ottawa for the unveiling of the National Aboriginal Vet- erans Monument (above). Photo by Victoria Fulford, Legion Magazine, Sept/Oct 2001, page 72

180 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The Last Six Decades 181 - CHAPTER SIX accommodates Aboriginal recruits from all regions of the the of regions all from recruits Aboriginal accommodates It of consists courses: two training country. pre-recruit the first is held Northwest Territories, in Yellowknife, for recruits living in the far north; and the second in pro- the in recruits Aboriginal all for Quebec, Farnham, can candidates course, the of completion Upon gramme. apply to join the regular force and begin basic recruit but training, they are not obliged to do At so. the time National of Minister the announced, was programme the Defence hoped that it would double the proportion of the in serving personnel Métis and Inuit, Nations, First three-percent. to Forces Canadian combat arms trades. Recruiting them in platoon strength strength platoon in them Recruiting trades. arms combat that indoctrination specialized with them providing and accom- values and views Aboriginal account into takes this. plish was Programme Entry Aboriginal Forces Canadian The in introduced 2000 people so Aboriginal that qualified could force learn regular training more about full-time join actually they before opportunities employment and the Whereas the military. Northern Native Entry Pro people young recruiting on exclusively focussed gramme from remote northern areas, the present programme Bombardier Kisha Potts, a graduate of the programme, programme, the of graduate a Potts, Kisha Bombardier Afghanistan. in served since has and reserves the joined Army Prince Tommy Sergeant the programme, Another is Initiative, Training designed to increase the number related and infantry the in serving people Aboriginal of Howard Anderson, Anderson, Howard Grand Chief of the Saskatchewan First Nations adds Veterans, that the kids come out of the Bold Eagle Programme with ‘their heads up in they truly and Really hell. as proud are they the and air are really a proud bunch of kids when they are done.’ course, course, but they have the In opportunity. 1999, ten of and reserve primary the join to on went participants the returned have more Many force. regular the join to three to their communities with newfound self-confidence. received a general familiarity with life and service in the the in service and life with familiarity general a received For success.’ ‘soaring a proved has It Forces. Canadian example, 58 of 59 candidates in the 1999 Bold Eagle exercise graduated. Graduates have no requirement to join the primary reserves after the completion of the provided by FSIN and conducted by elders. Participants Participants elders. by conducted and FSIN by provided tary. The tary. Bold Eagle programme began in 1990 as a of of Defence, the National joint initiative Department the Affairs, Indian Federation of Indian Saskatchewan Veteran’s Indian Saskatchewan the and (FSIN), Nations Its amongst goal was to self-esteem Association. build program The provinces. Prairie the in youth Aboriginal consisted of six-weeks of basic militia recruit training activities awareness cultural Nations First with coupled New New enlistment initiatives have followed and reaped mili- the and participants Aboriginal for rewards better fewer completed basic training, and only a tiny fraction fraction tiny a only and training, basic completed fewer pursued a career in Accordingly, the Canadian Forces. 1999. in hold on placed was programme the In 2007, Chief Military Personnel announced ‘The Aboriginal Leadership Opportunity Year (ALOY)’ as a one-year programme that will be offered at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario for ap- proximately 30 Aboriginal candidates. The first intake will commence at the beginning of the 2008 academic year. This programme, under the direction of the Canadian Defence Academy, is ‘an important step in providing opportunities for Aboriginal candidates to socialize, interact in a bilingual environment, learn in a multi- cultural environment, and to develop and foster leadership skills in a uniquely diverse context.’ The aim of the programme is to expose selected Aboriginal candidates to an environment where they will have opportunities to undertake academic education, acquire military skills, develop leadership abilities and engage in athletics. This program seeks to foster leadership and personal growth in a supportive and challenging learning environment, contribute to Canadian Forces outreach to Canadian communities, and provide Aboriginal individuals with the opportunity to serve Canada in a leadership role, potentially through employment in the Canadian Forces. ALOY candidates are selected from all regions of Can- ada by a Senior Review Committee that is composed of senior departmental military and civilian members with advice from an Aboriginal Advisory Council of educa- tional advisors from four major Aboriginal groups (Assembly of First Nations, Métis National Council, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatomi and National Association of Friendship Centres) and cultural support activities will be conducted in consultation with the Council.

Corporal Joceylne Bauman, Jingle Dancer Corporal Jocelyne Bauman is a traditional Aboriginal jingle dancer. A clerk, she is with The South Alberta Light Horse, attached-posted to the 1 Military Police Unit in Edmonton. Photo by Pte Melissa Spence [The Maple Leaf 6 June 2007]

182 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY The Last Six Decades 183 CHAPTER SIX environments environments for Aboriginal people. The military has also taken steps to accommodate religious beliefs by braids in hair their wear to members Aboriginal allowing compromised. not is safety as long so uniform, in while The Forces recognizes that they derive much strength Aboriginal and of society, from the Canadian diversity remain to strategy future their of part vital a are members peoples of a Canada’s representative proud institution, aspirations. and values common their and Own) during Operation SUMMIT DUKE. Maggie Davidson collection of two former Commanding Officers. installed instead In were an agreement plaques two the Canada Parks with trailheadUpperthe at Kananaskis at Lakeoverlooking the two peaks. Mounthonour in named Hart-McHargis Worthington Mount of1915. April 24 LColYpres of Battle Second the Williamat action in killed Hart-McHarg Frederick honours LCol killed in action during the Battle of Normandy, Donald Grant Worthington 09 August 1944. Sgt Ronald R. Leblanc of the The British Columbia Regiment Regiment Columbia British The the of R. Ronald Leblanc Sgt expedition unit small a organized Sgt(BCR). Leblanc 2006, In to scale two Rocky Mountain peaks located at Peter Alberta. Kananaskis, in Park Provincial Lougheed aim The memorial two SUMMITplace to “Operation was of DUKE” honour in named peaks Mountain Rocky the atop plaques Sergeant Ron Leblanc (crouching) with Veterans of of Veterans with (crouching) Leblanc Ron Sergeant Connaught’s of (Duke Regiment Columbia British The Canadian today’s with Forces abroad serving Aboriginals heritage. do also military They rich their to add to continue they which in units the of heritage the preserve to much is home.veterans at with here serve (crouching) Pictured and and serving members of the Department of National retention improving Forces, Canadian the and Defence working productive and comfortable providing and rates, significant steps to make the Canadian Forces a more and peoples their Aboriginal place for accommodating unique cultures. The Defence Aboriginal Advisory Group supports the Aboriginal-military relationship by identifying Aboriginal employees issues that affect Over the last decade, the military has taken other Conclusion

184 ABORIGINAL PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY Conclusion 185 CONCLUSION precedents precedents for the substantial service that Aboriginal soldiers rendered to Canadian arms during the World and Wars the Korean Conflict. Through the latter half of the 20th Century and into the present new century, generations of First Nations, Métis and Inuit men and reserve and regular Canadian the in served have women abroad. and home this at And both Rangers, and forces, today. on lives tradition proud Captain Catherine Askew, instructor at the Canadian Forces Chaplain School, CFB Borden pictured pictured Borden CFB School, Chaplain Forces Canadian the at instructor Askew, Catherine Captain at left, with the Chaplain-General of the Canadian Forces, Brigadier-General Stanley Johnstone. Captain Askew delivered a prayer in both Cree and English during the held re-dedication at ceremony the Vimy Memorial tocommemorate the 90th Anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge, 09 April 2007. Photo by MCpl Jill Cooper Captain Catherine Askew, Cree from Moose Factory, Ontario, Canadian Forces chaplain fulfil the primary role as ally to the Aboriginal peoples of the northeast. northeast. the of peoples Aboriginal the to ally as role primary the fulfil Indigenous warriors fought for their own lands and homes through to 1815. Their efforts and with coordination British military actions helped save Canada from conquest by the armies of the new United States of America. pattern was disrupted following the destruction When of Rebellion. Pontiac the French and War power Years inSeven the during Canada the American colonists rebelled against the crown, Britain came to tribes and confederacies built lasting alliances with built alliances New lasting tribes and That France. confederacies of alliance with the Crown, of loyalty in times of trial, and of military ser- military of and trial, of times in loyalty of Crown, the with alliance of was process The abroad. interests its and nation the of defence in vice indigenous many when era, French the of stages earliest the in begun This This study has the demonstrated long and proud traditions Aboriginal unrest in the Northwest. The military relationship evolved evolved relationship military The Northwest. the in unrest their for individually out sought were men indigenous as interests crown of defence in serve to skills specialised andwith Canadian expeditionary forces overseas. The the provided War African South the and Expedition Nile Though shifting demographics decreased the geo-strategic geo-strategic the decreased demographics shifting Though importance of Aboriginal peoples’ military role, the 19th the during renewed were They continued. traditions Century in the Rebellions, the Fenian threat and the Conclusion 186

Conclusion ABOR I IA PEOPLE IN THE CANADIAN MILITARY GINAL and a government offer of compensation in 2002. vantaged in their access to veterans’ benefits, an apology, that First Nationsrecognition veterans had been disad-the to led process The grievances. their investigate to Affairs Northern and Indian and Canada Affairs Assembly of First Nations, National Defence, Veterans the associations, Veterans Nations First of together Round Tableon First Nations Veterans’Issues, a coming veterans’ efforts bore fruit in the creation of century,the new National the of part early and 1990s late the In four centuries. some of span the over maintained and achieved been have peace sovereignty,and Canadiansecurity which and reflect upon the cost to Aboriginal peoples through that provide all Canadians with an opportunity to pause Day Remembrance on and Day NationalAboriginal Another acknowledgment is the annual observances on interest.increased that of symbol and outgrowth an is history This service.military Aboriginalof profile the raising in crucial was it but years, for strain of source a was matter The fought. they which in wars the after tious issue of the treatment that they as veterans received on behalf of the nation. interestappreciationand theirforsacrifices effortsand It was ties. Aboriginal veterans themselves that reignited community, and even within many indigenous communi- peoples went largely unnoticed in the broader Canadian Aboriginalof service and loyalty the time, long a For The flash point was the conten - Veterans Monument Her speech in Ottawa. book, summarized by the words on the Monument itself: of allied nations, in addition to supporting the cause the supporting to addition in nations, allied of liberty and sovereignty the defend to overseas fought They Brigadier.to Private fromappointment and rank every in and service the of branches all in distinction War. Korean the and WorldSecondWars and First the in hardshipendured and action saw peopleAboriginal of thousands Many presided at the unveiling of the Clarkson, Adrienne Her the Right-Honourable Excellency 2001, 21, June Day, Aboriginal National On peace and inherit freedom. know might Canadians all that so lives their of fully HundredsacrossfromCanadagave comradesarms.in as well as the respecttheir of friendshipandenduring braverydecorationsmanyforearned actsheroic Their operations in faraway lands. peacekeeping in continuesdedication Their home. at with warm appreciation for the history Canadians in war and peacekeeping operations. inghonour theofcontributions allof Aboriginal everlast-andsacred inraised monumentisThis They served with honour and and honour with served They National Aboriginal recorded in this was filled Conclusion 187 CONCLUSION puh ki te nan kee kis ske see yak / may koch nan kee kis ske see puh ki te noo koom muk / gitche Manitou Ni moo shoo muk / kak she kee kah noch ah / mah oh / nan te meen kee kay win oh mah / ah yum chi pi shik ki tah yun eh kway chi mi tak kwa yak may koch eh may tay kay chik na peh wuk oh kik kah mah shi kah nee kan tay chik soot ki koo sis kah kee shi ni kah kah kee pah chi pam moo tat oh tay meeg-wetch. Chi meeg-wetch, chi meeg-wetch, chi Hi, hi. Grandfathers, grandmothers, Good Creator. today in this place of honour to gather here We your children. remember In the face of the impossible, the war. they fought a battle which helped to win that without their sacrifice, Let us remember our lives would not be as they are. Grandfathers, grandmothers, good Creator. hand over to you this day our prayers We and ask that you always be with us us. before as we honour these warriors that went among us. In the name of your Son who walked Amen. - Anglican chaplain from the Moose Factory Cree Nation, Nation, Cree Factory Moose the from chaplain Anglican in Ridge Vimy at ceremony lying wreath a over presided battle, famous that of anniversary 90th the on 2007, April have “We Cree. and English in prayer her delivered she willingly made they sacrifices the all for thanks give to she to today,” our lives and how contributed have they young of thousands the honoured words Her explained. country: their served had who men Aboriginal Eyam ahatauw Manitou Ni moo shoo muk / noo koom muk / gitche kee see kak Ni mah moo he too nan / ah nooch / kah Oh tah eh may tay kwa yak muk Ki keh ski see tee tak / ki chi wa shi she ti si win Kee nah kah tah mook / oh ski ni pi mah un ni mah Eh koo mah kah / kee mis kah mook / Kah ki stat ti kook tek kah chi too kee kah ah / mah ni ah skuk keh nuk Eh Kee mah si kewk / kah she mas kan nuk Puh ki te nan / kee kis ske see yak ah kah kee chi too tah kik / moo lah kah / she nah koon ni pun ni pi ma ti soon ah nooch tude of their sacrifice and inspired by the depths of their their of depths the by inspired and sacrifice their of tude resolve. owe We them a debt of gratitude we cannot repay. to hope soon an Askew, Catherine Captain When on. lives legacy Their We who follow in their path are humbled by the magni the by humbled are path their in follow who We Related Reading CHAPTER 1 LACKENBAUER, P.Wwhitney, Craig Mantle and Scott Sheffield, eds.,Aborigina l Peoples CHARTRAND, René, Canadian military and military participation: Canadian and heritage: Volume I (1000-1754), (Montreal : international perspectives Art Global, 1993). , (Kingston, Ont. : Canadian Defence Academy Press, 2007). RAY, Arthur J., I have lived here since the world began: an illustrated history MILLER, James R., Skyscrapers hide the heavens : a history of Indian-white relations of Canada’s Native People, Rev. ed., in Canada (Toronto: Key Porter Books, 2005). , 3rd ed., (Toronto : University of Toronto Press, 2000). TRIGGER, Bruce G., The children of Aataen- tsic : a history of the Huron People in 1660 : CHAPTER 3 (Kingston, Ont. ; Montreal : McGill-Queen’s ALLEN, Robert S., His Majesty’s Indian allies: University Press, 1987). British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774-1815, (Toronto : Dundurn Press, 2008). CHAPTER 2 The Iroquois in the War of 1812 BEAULIEU, Alain, Les autochtones du BENN, Carl, , Québec: des premiéres alliances aux (Toronto : University of Toronto Press, 1998). revendications contemporaines, MACLEOD, D. Peter, The Canadian Iroquois (Québec : Éditions Fides, 2000). and the Seven Years War, (Toronto : Dundurn CHARTRAND, René, Canadian military Press, 1996). heritage: Volume II (1755-1871), (Montreal : MORTON, Desmond, A military history Art Global, 1995). of Canada: from Champlain to Kosovo, DICKASON, Olive Patricia, Canada’s First 5th ed., (Toronto : McClelland & Stewart, 2007). Nations: a history of founding peoples from earliest times, 3rd ed., (Don Mills, CHAPTER 4 Ont. : Oxford University Press, 2002). BERNIER, Serge, Canadian military heritage: HAVARD, Gilles, The Great Peace of Mon- Volume III (1872-2000), (Montreal : Art Global, treal of 1701: French-native diplomacy 2000). in the seventeenth century, (Montreal : GRAVES, Donald E., Guns across the river : McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001). the battle of the Windmill, 1838, (Prescott, Ont. : Friends of the Windmill Point ; Toronto : Robin Brass Studio, 2001).

188 AborgGinal peoPle in The canadian military STACEY, Charles P., ed., Records of the Nile CHAPTER 6 Voyageurs, 1884-85: the Canadian Voyageur CANADA, Royal Commission on Aboriginal Contingent in the Gordon Relief Expedition, Peoples, Report of the Royal Commission (Toronto : Champlain Society, 1959). on Aboriginal Peoples, Volume 1. Looking STANLEY, George F.G., Toil and trouble: forward, looking back, Chapter 12: Veterans, military expeditions to Red River, (Toronto : (Ottawa : Royal Commission on Aboriginal Dundurn Press, 1989). Peoples, 1996). STONECHILD, Blair and Bill Waiser, Loyal till LACKENBAUER, P. Whitney, Battle grounds: death: Indians and the North-West Rebellion, The Canadian military and aboriginal lands, (Calgary : Fifth House, 1997). (Vancouver : UBC Press, 2007). MACFARLANE, John and John Moses, CHAPTER 5 Different drummers: aboriginal culture and GAFFEN, Fred, Forgotten soldiers, (Penticton, the Canadian Armed Forces, 1939-2002 B.C. : Theytus Books, 1985). (Canadian Military Journal, Vol. 6, no. 1, Spring 2005). DEMPSEY, L. James, Warriors of the King: Prairie Indians in World War I, (Regina : Canadian Plains Research Center, University of Regina, 1999). HAYES, Adrian, Pegahmagabow: legendary warrior, forgotten hero, (Huntsville, Ont. : Fox Meadow Creations, 2003). SHEFFIELD, R. Scott, The redman’s on the warpath: the image of the ‘Indian’ and the Second World War, (Vancouver : UBC Press, 2004). SUMMERBY, Janice, Native soldiers, foreign battlefields, (Ottawa : Veterans Affairs Canada, 2005).

related reading 189

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Canadian Ranger Mary-Jane Kunkel, Operation NARWHAL 07 Canadian Ranger Mary-Jane Kunkel reacts with glee after her first flight in a Griffon helicopter. Ranger Kunkel is one of many Canadian Rangers who participated in Operation NARWHAL 07. Photo by Sgt Brad Phillips [The Maple Leaf, 13 June 07] ȨȽ  ǸȽǸȇȨǸȽ4ȨȵȨɜǸɑɴ