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The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities (JIABU)

Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Aims and Scope The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities is an academic journal published twice a year (1st issue January-June, 2nd issue July-December). It aims to promote research and disseminate academic and research articles for researchers, academicians, lecturers and graduate students. The Journal focuses on , Sociology, Liberal Arts and Multidisciplinary of Humanities and Social Sciences. All the articles published are peer-reviewed by at least two experts.

The articles, submitted for The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, should not be previously published or under consideration of any other journals. The author should carefully follow the submission instructions of The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities including the reference style and format. Views and opinions expressed in the articles published by The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Universities, are of responsibility by such authors but not the editors and do not necessarily refl ect those of the editors.

Advisors The Most Venerable Prof. Dr. Phra Brahmapundit Rector, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, The Most Venerable Xue Chen Vice President, Buddhist Association of China & Buddhist Academy of China The Most Venerable Dr. Ashin Nyanissara Chancellor, Sitagu International Buddhist Academy,

Executive Editor Ven. Prof. Dr. Phra Rajapariyatkavi Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand ii JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Chief Editor Ven. Phra Weerasak Jayadhammo (Suwannawong) International College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Editorial Team Ven. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Prof. Dr. D. Philips Stanley University, USA

Prof. Ven. Dr. Khammai Dhammasami University of Oxford,UK Prof.

Dr. Tamas Agocs Gate Buddhist College, Hungary

The Most Venerable Dr. Ching Hsing Ching Cheuh Buddhist University, Chinese-Taipei

Ven. Prof. Chisho Namai Koyasan University, Japan

Ven. Prof. Jinwol Lee Dongguk University, Korea

Ven. Prof. Dr. Yuanci Buddhist Academy of China, China

Prof. Dr. Takahide Takahashi Rissho University, Japan Prof. Dr. Le Mahn That Vietnam Buddhist University, Vietnam

Senior Prof. Sumanapala Galmangoda University of Kelaniya,

Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somboon Vutthikaro Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Thailand

Dr. Rabindra Panth Deemed University (Nalanda Mahavihar), JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) iii

Assistant Editors Ven. Dr. Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Ven. Dr. Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University H.E. Janos Jelen Dharma Gate Buddhist College, Hungary Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya Universit Dr. Soontaraporn Techapalokul International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Dr. Pintong Mansumitrchai (Chatnarat) International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University

Staff Phramaha Prayuddha Bhūripañño Phra Sitthichai Khampeero Ms. Naowarat Bhurahong Ms. Orawan Topathomwong Ms. Sudtida Padrit Ms. Sirinad Pimsanao Mr. James Featherstone Samaneri Daria Mikheeva

Cover Design Ms. Ubonwanna Klinjuy

Content Designer Mrs. Bussakorn Sabpakijjanon

Owner International Association of Buddhist Universities

Offi ce International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC) Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University IABU Offi ce, IBSC Building, MCU, 79 Moo1, Lamsai, Wang-noi, Phra Nakorn Si Ayutthaya 13170, Thailand Tel: (6635)248-000 ext.7210 Email: [email protected] Editorial Message

At the International Association of Buddhist Universities, we have several principles that we take as our guidelines in moving forward in our engagements. Here is a reminder of how we progress:

IABU Vision: • Motivate future generations to gain and apply profound understanding of the Buddhadhamma in every aspect of life • Raise the quality of scholarly work within Buddhist Studies and across other academic endeavors • Contribute to meeting the challenges that face human society worldwide

IABU Mission: • Support and collaborate with members to ensure humanity can benefi t from the richness and variety of the multi-dimensional Buddhist traditions • Provide a framework towards better understanding diverse policies and activities • Collaborate in administration, teaching, research and outreach • Recognize each other’s qualifi cations

IABU Goals: • Propagate the Buddhadhamma through collaborative academic channels • Eliminate Buddhist sectarian, national, and institutional barriers • Raise the academic standards throughout the Buddhist world • Maximize academic potentials and abilities JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) v

Volume XI Number II:

This publication of volume 11 No.2 could not have been possible without the persistence, hard work, and dedication of MCU’s scholars, Buddhist’s Scholars worldwide and IBSC staff. Ven. Prof. Dr. Phrarajapariyatkavi and his team supervise communication and collection of the paper. Director of the IABU Secretariat Office, Venerable Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso and his team produce a decent format and design. We wish to also thank all members of the Executive Council and the Editorial Committee for their devotion. We are also grateful to our many sponsors of the last Conference during 25-26 May 2018, the IABU Executive Secretary Venerable Khammai Dhammasami, the academic team of IABU- MCU for their assistance, particularly Ven. Phra Weerasak Jayadhammo – for his kind dedication and editing,we would also like to welcome James Featherstone and Samaneri Daria Mikheeva who joined the team for an Internship in Academic Works at JIABU.

Editorial Team vi JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Table of Contents

Editorial Message iv

Kathina Robe In Theravāda Tradition 1 Ven. Nguyen Hoang Phuc, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

The Development And Impact Of Buddhist Schools To Vietnamese Society During Ly And Tran Dynasties 14 Ven. Nguyen Ngoc Minh, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

The Way to Good in Buddhism 27 Pyan Nyan Won Tha, Soontaraporn Techapalokul, Ph.D., Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarayattana, Dr.

A Study of Physical Cleanliness Management in Buddhism 41 Ashin San Di Mar, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanoong

Development of Monastic Robe (Cīvara) in The Buddha’s Time 57 Ven. Paññā , Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

The Meaning and Signifi cance of Kāyagatāsati in Theravāda Buddhism 72 Rev. Jyotisar Shraman, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

An Application of Buddha’s Teachings for Healing Traumatic Mental Disorder 89 Ven. Laka Mitra , Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr., Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) vii

Organ Donation after in Mahāyāna Buddhist Perspective 104 Jing Liu, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr.

An Analytical Study of The Seven Factors of Enlightenment in Bojjhaṇga Sutta as a Protection Against Sickness in Theravāda Buddhist Perspective 120 Punnyakami, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

A Study of Vicikicchā in Theravāda Buddhism 137 Ven. Acchariya, Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr., Dr. Veerachart Nimanoong

An Analytical Study of Concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism 151 Ven. Vo Van Hoi, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull

An Analytical Study of Action (Kamma) in Theravada Buddhism 161 Kula Vati, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji

A Study of Effect on the Brain and Emotional Happiness by MRI Scan 178 Dr. Thunnawat Wattanaseth, MD, Asst. Prof. Dr. Siriwat Srikhruedong, Dr. Sompoch Srivichitvorakul

An Analytical Study of Buddhist Social Roles of Citizen Based on 200 U Ja Ti La, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr.

Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) and Development of Lao Society 219 Ven. Ekalad Phuthavong, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr.

Mind Wave: How the Mind Builds Life 231 Dr. Samart Sukhuprakarn

A Philological Study of Some Pyu Words through Inscriptions 244 Swe Swe Mon viii JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Relationship Between Internal and External Conflict: Buddhist Way to Discover Peace 257 Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury

Female Practitioners at the Crossroad: The Organization and Identification of Bhikkhunis in Taiwan 263 Meilee Shen

Sociology of Indian Buddhism 283 Ven. Vajira

The Problem of Incomprehensibility of Vipāka: A Solution 294 Prof. Dr. Watchara Ngamchitcharoen

The : The Movement to Great Schism 303 Phyu Mar Lwin

Right Thought: A Noble Pathway to World Peace 315 Ven. Rangama Chandawimala , Asst. Prof. Dr

ASEAN Integration: Human Dignity and Responsibility to Humanity from a Buddhist Perspective 319 Lim Kooi Fong

Evaluating the “Unconscious in Dream” between Sigmund Freud and the Buddhist Tipitaka 325 P.B. Tan

The “Holy Mans” Uprisings in the Thai Political Dynamics: Merits Counted 341 Venerable Yuande Shih

A Comparative Study between Quantum Mechanics and Yogācāra Buddhism on Properties of Material Objects 352 Ven. Hui Chen

Mindfulness Message: Compassionate Communication For Effective Interpersonal Relationship 361 Pintong Mansumitrchai, PhD JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) ix

The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature in Buddhism 388 Tony Sin-Heng See

Buddhism and Disability: Toward a Socially Engaged Buddhist ‘ Theology’ of Bodily Inclusiveness 403 Bee Scherer

A Case Study: Transition of Rãmañña Dhammãcariya Association from A Traditional Hierarchy to A Modern Decentralized Organization 419 Ven. Arlawka

Kathina Robe In Theravāda Tradition

Ven. Nguyen Hoang Phuc, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro,Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper takes a deep aim to discern the practical meanings and vital importance of Kathina robe (cīvara) in Theravāda tradition. According to Vinayapiṭaka, Kathina practice of early Saṅgha was just simple monastic acts and the monk who spread the Kathina and who rejoiced in the Kathina are entitled to enjoy the fi ve Kathina privileges (kathinānisaṃsa). The characteristics of Kathina robe are offered to the Saṅgha (Saṅghikadāna) and the time to offer the Kathina (Kāladāna). However, the Kathina robe was allowed by the Lord Buddha for the convenience of the monks in their daily lives, mainly for their Dhamma tours and used of robes.

Keywords: Kathina, robe, cīvara, Theravāda, Kathina privileges. 2 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

In the early establishment of the order (paṭhamabodhi1), the early monks had to make their own robe by themselves using pieces of cloths mostly collected by their own effort. Later on, the request of physician Jīvaka, monks were allowed to accept ready-made robes prepared by lay devotees (gahapaticīvara). The Buddha gave an allowance as follow: Anujānāmi, bhikkhave, gahapaticīvaraṃ. Yo icchati, paṃsukūliko hotu. Yo icchati, gahapaticīvaraṃ sādiyatu. Itarītarenapāhaṃ, bhikkhave, santuṭṭhiṃ vaṇṇemi.2 I allow you, monks, ’s robes. Whoever wishes may be a rag-robe wearer; whoever wishes may consent to (accept) householders’ robes. And I, monks, commend satisfaction with the one or the other.3 As for early ceremonies too, the monks had to make the Kathina robe by themselves. And the early Kathina were simple acts of the monks. Actually, with the flexible and active meaning and uses of Kathina is suitable to its final gold. As the five Kathina benefits are allowed the monks are free from practicing five Vinaya rules. And this benefits are adaptable pertinence to robes and other requisites for the daily need of the monks. The Kathina benefits gave relaxation to the monks who could not be released from practicing the related Vinaya rules by no alternate means other than enjoying the Kathina benefits and for whom robe and robe materials were not ample. However, now no special relaxation is enjoyed by most of today’s monks even when they are entitled to enjoy the Kathina benefits. Because, for the monks, there are lesser and lesser conditions to practice the related Vinaya rules and readymade robes are also available in abundance. Regarding the issue of Kathina, the community of Saṅgha has developed much depending on time and proportional situations. The life style of early monks and that of today’s monks are very different from one another. As a consequence, the first four benefits are not very useful for today’s monks when concerned the related rules, despites being greatly beneficial and supportive to the monks. However, the fifthKathina benefit is different, despites the change of times, it has been giving material support to the monastic community throughout centuries.

1 Paṭhamabodhi that was a period of twenty years after the attainment of the Buddha. 2 Vin.I.280. 3 I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinayapiṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: PTS, 2000), p. 397. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 3

Fundamentally, the aim of this research refer to highlight a new perspectives of Kathina in the Buddhist communities. And the researcher refers to focus on the subject of Kathina and related subject with the Kathina.

The Meaning and Origin of Kathina in Theravāda Buddhism

When we talk about Kathina, it is the first important thing to know what the word Kathina actually means. Unfortunately, it seems that there is no definition of the wordKathina in the Pāli commentaries in the sections on declaration of the Kathina event in Mahāvagga of Vinaya, nor even in the related portion in . Kathina is a Pāli word. According to Pāli - English Dictionary, the word Kathina has three meanings: hard, firm, stiff; the cotton cloth which was annually supplied by the laity to the for the purpose of making robes; also a wooden frame used by the Bhikkhus in sewing their robes.4 The Cullavagga says: Anujānāmi, bhikkhave, Kathinaṃ Kathinarajjuṃ tattha tattha obandhitvā cīvaraṃ sibbetuṃ.5 I allow you, monks, a Kathina-frame and strings for the Kathina-frame and to sew robe-material having tied it down here and there.6 The Cullavagga-Aṭṭhakathā by Mahāthera said that: the frame for sewing robe is called Kathina and the mat placed on the frame is also called Kathina as mentioned in Pāli Canon that: Kathinanti nisseṇimpi tattha attharitabbakaṭasārakakilañjānaṃ aññatarampi. Kathinarajjunti yāya dupaṭṭacīvaraṃ sibbantā kathine cīvarampi bandhanti. Kathina is in fact a ladder, there for spreading the screw-pine stalk mats, fiber mats or even other things. Kathinarajju is the strings fixed in the wooden-frame in order to tie the robe when stitching.7

4 T.W. Rhys Davids, William Steden (eds.), Pāli - English Dictionary, (London: PTS, 1952), p. 196. 5 Vin.II.115. 6 I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. V (Cullavagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1963), p. 158. 7 VinA.VI.1206. 4 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

In the Vimativinodanī-ṭīkā by Kassapa Thera, it is said that Kathina organizes the five Kathina benefits, not letting them go to other as saying: Kathinan’ti pañcānisaṃse antokaraṇasamatthatāya thiranti attho. The Kathina has meaning of the hardness of ability to include the five privileges.8 From the texts mentioned above, Kathina is a kind of frame for sewing robes what the monks who successfully observed their rains- can be received from the lay people. Why did the Lord Buddha allow the Kathina robe for monks? According to Mahāvagga9, the Kathina was allowed by Gotama Buddha while He was residing at Great (Jetavana Mahāvihāra) in Sāvatthi, referring to the thirty monks who were practicing the Dhutaṅga in the forest at Sāketa. At that time, those thirty monks were staying in , a small town. They wished to see the Lord Buddha and went from Pāvā to Sāvatthi. Before they got to their destination, the time to begin the rains-retreat had arrived. Therefore, they had to spend the rains-retreat Sāketa, a small town between Pāvā and Sāvatthi. After the lapse of three months and the Invitation (Pavāraṇā) had been carried out, they went to Sāvatthi. Because of heavy rain, their journey was full of dirt and mud. It was very difficult to go on journey with wet, heavy and muddy robes. When they arrived at the Jetavana Mahāvihāra, they related what they experienced on their journey. On hearing their difficult journey, the Lord Buddha allowed the Kathina:

Anujānāmi, bhikkhave, vassaṃvuṭṭhānaṃ bhikkhūnaṃ Kathinaṃ attharituṃ.10

I allow you, monks, to make up Kathina-cloth when monks have completed the rains.11 Description of the Kathina ceremony is not found in this story. But from this story, it can correctly be deduced that the tradition of the Kathina was rooted in the Buddha’s wise and kind concern for the appearance of the monks. Kathina was allowed for the benefit of the monks. And it is also a special occasion of robe making for the early monks who unitedly

8 SpṬ.II.193. 9 Vin.I.253; I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1962), pp. 351-352. 10 Vin.I.254. 11 I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1962), p. 352. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 5

participated in the robe making process when it was an occasion for lay people to offer robe or robe materials to the monks. So, there are two possible purposes why the event of Kathina was allowed: - Either to encourage monks to sew robes for a selected friend and thus train in loving-kindness, and generosity. - To make monk’s rain and winter season more comfortable if monks sewed their robes.

The Five Kathina Privileges (Kathinānisaṃsā) for Monks

The monk who spread the Kathina and who rejoice in the Kathina are entitled to enjoy the five Kathina privileges: going to families without informing another monk (anāmantacāra), staying away from determined three robes (asamādānacāra), having group meal (gaṇabhojana), using as many robes as one without determined them and without sharing them with other monks (yāvadatthacīvara), sharing the Kathina privileges (Kathinānisaṃsā) robes among the particular monks who are entitled to enjoy the Kathina benefits (yo ca tattha cīvaruppāda).12 The first Kathina privilege is called anāmantacāra in Pāli and this word may be divided into two words: anāmanta (not informing) and cāra (going round here and there). Thus, the combined word means to go round about not informing. When the Kathina privileges are not effective, monks may not visit to the lay people’s house before or after their meal, even in the morning without informing another monk, having accepted an invitation of a meal. If they visit so, they are guilty of an offence of expiation according to the forty-sixteenth Pācittiya rule (Cārittasikkhāpada).13 The second Kathina privilege is called anāmantacāra, means freedom to stay apart from one’s set of three robes at the break of dawn. This benefit is a chance to go round about here and there (cāra) not carrying (asamādāna) the set of determined three robes. According to the second Nissaggiya Pācittiya rule (Udositasikkhāpada).14 This rule expressed that a

12 Vin.I.254; I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1962), pp. 352-353. 13 Vin.IV.100; I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. II (Suttavibhaṅga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1949), p. 365. 14 Vin.III.200; Ibid., p. 15. 6 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

monk who wears a set of three robes determined must bring his robes wherever he goes. The set of three robes must be in his arm’s length, at least at daybreaks or at dawns. If he cannot practice this rule he commits the offense of expiation and his robe should be forfeitures. The third Kathina privilege is called gaṇabhojana means a group meal. This benefit is a chance of having a group meal. In this regard, a group meal may be one of five meals (bhojana) that are rice (odana), sour gruel (kummāsa), parched flour (sattu), fish (maccha), meat (maṃsa).15 The five kinds of food are called group meal (gaṇabhojana) when they are wrongly offered to a group of four or more monks. This meal is not allowable for a group of four or more monks. If the monks have the unallowable foods, they are guilty of an offence expiation, as the thirty-second Pācittiya rule (Gaṇabhojanasikhāpada).16 The fourth Kathina privilege is called yāvadatthacīvara means robes as many as one wishes. This benefit is a chance for monks to keep as many robes as they wish. According to the first Nissaggiya Pācittiya rule (Kathinasikkhāpada)17, a monk who keeps extra robes for a limited period in excess of ten days, is guilty of an offence of expiation with forfeiture that is his extra robes are given up at dawn on the eleventh day. However, the monks who entitled to enjoy the Kathina benefits may keep his extra robes more than ten days without offence this Kathinasikkhāpada. The fifth Kathina privilege is called yo ca tattha cīvaruppāda means that a certain robes accrue to a monastery. This privilege is a chance to share the Kathina benefit robes (Kathinānisaṃsacīvara) that are offered during a Kathina ceremony among the monks who are entitled to enjoy the Kathina privileges. In a Kathina ceremony monks usually receive a Kathina robe (Kathinacīvara) and many Kathina benefit robes (Kathinānisaṃsacīvara). The Kathina robe may be one of three robes namely lower robe (Antaravāsaka), upper robe (Uttarasaṅga) and double-layered robe (Saṅghāṭi); out of three these robes cannot become Kathina robe.18 And it is belonged to the worthy monk who is received this robe. And any other robes besides the Kathina robe donated in Kathina ceremony are called Kathina benefit robes(Kathinānisaṃsacīvara). Those robes cannot provide the Kathina privilege. They belong to all members of the Saṅgha. Every

15 Vin.IV.86; Ibid., p. 337. 16 Vin.IV.74; Ibid., p. 311. 17 Vin.III.197; Ibid., p. 4. 18 Vin.I.255; I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1962), p. 357. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 7

member of Saṅgha receives those robes as a privilege of Kathina.

The Five Benefits of Kathina Donation for Donors

The Kathina donation is fruitful for monks (receivers) and lay people (givers). But the Kathina benefits for Kathina donors are not mentioned in Pāli texts and even in their commentaries (Aṭṭhakathā) and sub-commentaries (Ṭīkā). The Buddha did not preach the Kathina benefits of the donors but he preach benefits for the donors of different donations. Anyway, in Buddhist tradition, to do the good deed is go gain the good result. So, the good deed of Kathina robe donation must not be fruitless as mentioned in Pāli Canon that:

Puññañce puriso kayirā, kayirā naṃ punappunaṃ; Tamhi chandaṃ kayirātha, sukho puññassa uccayo.19 If a man does what is good, let him do it again; let him delight in it: the accumulation of good is delightful.20

In Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha, it says that: “Janeti sadisaṃ pākaṃ - Produces similar results”.21 So, when the devotees donate the Kathina robe, their action is a wholesome of the sense sphere (kāmāvācarakusala) and the wholesome deeds of sense sphere (kāmāvacaravipāka) can produce similar results. This is also the law of action (kammaniyāma).22 The good and evil deeds are similar to seeds as they beget similar results. If a mango seed is sown, mango tree will grow but not any other trees. Similarly, if a donation of food or cloth is made, its result will be something good related to food or cloth. The receivers receive food or cloth, by enjoying them, will get bold usefulness and deep impact of strength, life, beauty, happiness and wisdom; Similarly, the donors will get energy and influences of strength, life, beauty, happiness and wisdom too as saying:

Yādisaṃ vapate bījaṃ, tādisaṃ harate phalaṃ; Kalyāṇakārī kalyāṇaṃ, pāpakārī ca pāpakaṃ;

19 Dh.118. 20 Max Müller, Friedrich, (tr.), The : A Collection of Verses, 2nd Ed., (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1898), p. 34. 21 Abhidh-s.37. 22 DhsA.273. 8 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Pavuttaṃ tāta te bījaṃ, phalaṃ paccanubhossasi.23 Whatever sort of seed is sown, That is the sort of fruit one reaps: The doer of good reaps good; The doer of evil reaps evil. By you, dear, has the seed been sown; Thus you will experience the fruit.24

Kathina donation is robe donation. And Kathina donors will also gain the benefits robe donation. And what are the benefits of robe donation? According to the , the Elder Pilindavaccha remembered his past life when he had offered the cloths to the Paduma Buddha. In that time, Pilindavaccha was a very wealthy gatekeeper (dovārika). He took many precious gifts to Ānanda King, Padumuttara’s father, and won from him a boon. He asked, as his boon, that he should be allowed to entertain the Buddha. The king refused to grant this, but the Pilindavaccha appealed to the judges and they gave the verdict in his favor. Thereupon he held a great almsgiving of unparalleled splendor for seven days and gave away all manner of gifts. As a result, he was born one thousand times as king of the devas and one thousand times also as king of men. By the offering good cloth to the Buddha, he also received eight benefits from the cloth offerings (dussānisaṃsa): beauty with golden fair complexion (suvaṇṇavaṇṇa), clean body (viraja), brightness of body (sappabhāso), splendid body (patāpava), soft body (siniddhagatta), one hundred thousand of white clothes (setadussasatasahassa), one hundred thousand of yellow clothes (pītadussasatasahassa), one hundred thousand of red clothes (lohitadussasatasahassa).25 Moreover, as a result of robe donation, women may have the chance to wear Mahālatāpasādhana - a very costly ornament of gold like Visākhā in the Buddha’s time. The making of Visākhā’s ornament took four months, with five hundred goldsmiths working day and night. In its construction were used four pint pots (nāli) of diamonds, eleven of pearls, twenty-two of coral, thirty-three of rubies, one thousand nikkhas of ruddy gold, and sufficient silver. The thread work was entire of silver, the parure was fastened to the head and extended to the feet. In various places, seals of gold and dies of silver were attached to hold it in position. In the fabric itself was a peacock with five hundred feathers of gold in either wing, a coral beak, jewels for the eyes, the neck feathers and the tail. As the wearer

23 S.I.227. 24 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (tr.), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the , Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 328. 25 Jonathan S. Walters, (tr.), Legends of the Buddhist Saints, (USA: Jonathan S. Walters and Whitman College, 2017), pp. 534-535. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 9

walked the feathers moved, producing the sound of music. Only a woman possessed of the strength of five elephants could wear it.26 In the time of the Buddha it was possessed only by three persons: Mallikā (Bandhula’s wife), Visākhā and Devadāniyacora.27 For men, if they expect to be ordained by “Ehi Bhikkhu”, when offering the robe or eight requisites to monks, they should determine (adhiṭṭhāna) in their mind. With the result of robe donation, they may become “Ehi Bhikkhu”. In the future, when he meets the Lord Buddha and request permission of the Buddha to become a monk. The Buddha accepted his request with “Ehi Bhikkhu formula” what is called Ehibhikkhupasampadā. The complete formula is recorded in the Mahāvagga as follows:

Ehi, bhikkhu, svākkhāto dhammo, cara brahmacariyaṃ sammā dukkhassa antakiriyāya.28

Come, monks, well taught is Dhamma, fare the -faring for making an utter end of ill.29 According to the Commentary, with this call “Come, Bhikkhu” even lay people in their lay costumes become fully ordained monks and appeared as well-trained monks as the sixty-vasa monk with necessary monastic requisites.30 In this connection, the Sāratthadīpanī-ṭīkā31 mentioned that to receive higher (Upasampadā) by way of “Ehi Bhikkhu”, it is natural for a person to have met the following three conditions: – Being a person to had offered either eight requisites (aṭṭhaparikkhāra) or three robes and bowl (pattacīvara) to either one of eight noble persons (Ariya) or even to a worldly person who is virtuous (puthujjana sīlasampanna) in one of his previous existences.

26 DhA.I.395; Burlingame, Eugene Watson, Buddhist Legends: Translated from the Original Pāli Text of the Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. II, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921), p. 76. 27 DA.II.599. 28 VinA.I.13. 29 I.B. Horner (tr.), The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka), Vol. IV (Mahāvagga), (London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1962), pp. 18-19. 30 DhA.II.62; Burlingame, Eugene Watson, Buddhist Legends: Translated from the Original Pāli Text of the Dhammapada Commentary, Vol. II, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1921), p. 136. 31 SpṬ.II.52. 10 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

– Having had an expressed aspiration while he is performing good deeds, thus: “Idaṃ parikkhāradānaṃ anāgate ehibhikkhubhāvāya paccayo hotu – May my accrued from this deed be weighty support for receiving the monkhood by way of Ehi Bhikkhu Upasampadā in the presence of future Buddha”. – Being the one in his last existence (before attaining Nibbāna). Only when these three requirements have fulfilled, he will definitely be ordained by this Ehi Bhikkhu Upasampadā in the future. As mentioned above, the Kathina robe is to be donated to the Saṅgha. Thus, it is believed that Kathina donors will also gain the benefit donation to the Saṅgha, apart from the above mentioned benefits. According to , there are five benefits of giving (dānānisaṃsa): one is dear and agreeable to many people (bahuno janassa piyo hoti manāpo), good persons resort to one (santo sappurisā bhajanti), one acquires a good reputation (kalyāṇo kittisaddo abbhuggacchati), one is not deficient in the layperson’s duties (gihidhammā anapagato hoti), with the breakup of the body, after death one is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world (kāyassa bhedā paraṃ maraṇā sugatiṃ saggaṃ lokaṃ upapajjati).32 A donor is one who is happy before, during and after giving. Before giving he is happy anticipating the opportunity to exercise his generosity. While giving he is happy that he is making another happy by fulfilling a need. After giving he is satisfied that he has done a good deed.33 The Buddha compares the man who righteously earns his wealth and gives of it to the needy to a man who has both eyes, whereas the one who only earns wealth but does no merit is like a one-eyed man.34 Thus, Kathina donors are the people to practice the Buddha’s teachings and will get many benefits because of their generosity. The Kathina donation is not only a normal donation but also the gift of a good man (sappurisadāna). Generosity is included among the essential attributes of the sappurisa, the good or superior person, along with such other qualities as faith, morality, learning and wisdom. Viewed as the quality of generosity, giving has a particularly intimate connection to the entire movement of the Buddha’s path. For the goal of the path is the destruction of greed, hate and delusion, and the cultivation of generosity directly debilitates greed and hate, while facilitating that pliancy of mind that allows for the eradication of delusion. So a good man

32 A.III.41; Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (tr.), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2012), pp. 660-661. 33 A.III.336; Ibid, p. 899. 34 A.I.129; Ibid, p. 224. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 11

or noble person will donate with eight ways: to give clean things (suciṃ deti), to give choice things (paṇītaṃ deti), to give at fitting times (kālena deti), to give proper things (kappiyaṃ deti), to give with discretion (viceyya deti), to give repeatedly or regularly (abhiṇhaṃ deti), to calm one’s mind on giving (dadaṃ cittaṃ pasādeti), to be glad after giving (datvā attamano hoti).35 The Kathina robe donation is called giving at fitting time(kāladāna) . Thus, whenever the result of giving ripens, wherever he go, he will be rich with much wealth, with many possessions; And his goals are fulfilled on time.36 More than what is given, it is the manner of giving that makes a valuable gift. One may not be able to afford a lavish gift, but one can always make the recipient feel cared for by the manner of giving. According to the Saṃyutta Nikāya, no one can measure the benefits of donation to the Saṅgha. The Blessed One said to Sakka that: “Saṅghe dinnaṃ mahapphalaṃ - A gift to the Saṅgha bears great fruit”.37 And donation to the Saṅgha like the donation of Kathina robe is much appreciated by the Lord saying that if one donates to monks who are with bad conduct, on half of the Saṅgha, he might enjoy immeasurable benefits.38 From the texts mentioned above, the Kathina practice benefits for the both of monastic and lay community. The Kathina benefits for monks release them from practicing the five Vinaya rules and let them administer the Kathina offerings. This is why the Kathina ceremony demands more determination, firmness and stability, and the sponsors, receivers, and makers accumulate immeasurable merits. The ceremony is far more special than other offerings. It is the most important and beneficial skillful deed that cultivates all that is good within us. And from that, we gain all the blessings toward the highest goal known as Nibbāna.

Conclusion

The early Kathina ceremony is not found in the Vinaya texts but from those texts, the Kathina can correctly be deduced that the tradition of Kathina was rooted in the Buddha’s wise for the benefits of his disciples. However, the practice of Kathina has yet never been looked down but it has always due to its religious and social values. The Kathina was a

35 A.IV.244; Ibid., p. 1172. 36 A.III.173; Ibid., p. 763. 37 S.I.233; Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (tr.), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya, Vol. I, (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2000), p. 333. 38 M.III.257; Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu, Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the , (Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009), p. 1105. 12 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

simple Vinaya act of the early Buddhist monks but now it has been an internationally well- known activity participated by both of monastic and laity community. And the practice of Kathina provides an occasion when the laity community can display its admiration to the monastic community which is worthy of support. This practice can be brought the Buddhist monks and lay devotees together. Mutually fi rm, stable and effective relationship between the lay devotees and monastic communities is formally acknowledged within the Kathina rite. This relationship is essential for the strength, unity, solidarity and the longevity of Buddhasāsana.

References

I. Primary Source

1. Pāli Canonical Text Sources:

Anuruddha, Bhadantācariya. (1989). Saddhātissa Hammalawa (ed.). Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha. Oxford: PTS. Chalmers, Robert (ed.). (1994). The Majjhima-Nikāya. Vol. III. Oxford: PTS. Feer, M. Leon (ed.). (1998). The Saṃyutta-Nikāya. Part. I. Sagāthavagga. Oxford: PTS. Hardy, E. (ed.). (1994). The Aṅguttara-Nikāya. Part III. Pañcakanipāta and Chakkanipāta. London: PTS. Hinuber, Von. O, Norman K.R. (eds.). (1995). Dhammapada. London: PTS. Muller, Edward (ed.). (1979). The Atthasālinī – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammasaṅgaṇī. London: PTS. Norman, H.C. (ed.). (1993). The Commentary on the Dhammapada. Vol. I. Oxford: PTS. Oldenberg, Hermann (ed.). (1997). The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ. Vol. I. The Mahāvagga. Oxford: PTS. . (1977). The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ. Vol. II. The Cullavagga. Oxford: PTS. . (1993). The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ. Vol. III. The Suttavibhaṅga, First Part. (Pārājika, Saṅghādisesa, Aniyata, Nissaggiya.). Oxford: PTS. . (1993). The Vinaya Piṭakaṃ. Vol. IV. The Suttavibhaṅga, Second Part. (End of the Mahāvibhaṅga, Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga.). Oxford: PTS. Sāriputta, Thera. (1960). Sāratthadīpanī-Ṭīkā - A Commentary on Samantāpāsādikā of Buddhaghosa. India: Vipassana Research Institute. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 13

Stede, W. (ed.). (1971). Sumaṅgalavilāsinī – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dīgha- Nikāya. Part II. London: PTS. Takakusu, J; Nagai, Makoto (eds.). (1975). Samantapāsādikā – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the . Vol. I. London: PTS. . (1982). Samantapāsādikā – Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Vinaya Piṭaka. Vol. VI. London: PTS, 1982.

2. Translations of Pāli Canonical Sources

Bodhi, Bhikkhu (tr.). (1995). The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. USA: Wisdom Publication. . (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya. Vol. I. Boston: Wisdom Publications. . (2012). The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Aṅguttara Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. Buddhaghosa. (1920). The Expositor (Atthasālinī) - Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammasaṅgaṇī. tr. by Muang Tin. London: Oxford University Press. Burlingame, Eugene Watson. (1921). Buddhist Legends: Translated from the Original Pāli Text of the Dhammapada Commentary. Vol. II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. I.B. Horner (tr.). (1949). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka). Vol. II (Suttavibhaṅga). London: Luzac & Company Ltd. . (1969). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka). Vol. III (Suttavibhaṅga). London: Luzac & Company Ltd. . (2000). The Book of the Discipline (Vinayapiṭaka). Vol. IV (Mahāvagga) London: PTS. . (1963). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Piṭaka). Vol. V (Cullavagga). London: Luzac & Company Ltd. Max Müller, Friedrich (tr.). (1898). The Dhammapada: A Collection of Verses. 2nd Ed.. Oxford: The Clarendon Press.

II. Secondary source

T.W. Rhys Davids, William Steden (eds.). (1952). Pāli - English Dictionary, London: PTS. Jonathan S. Walters, (tr.). (2017). Legends of the Buddhist Saints, USA: Jonathan S. Walters and Whitman College. The Development and Impact of Buddhist Zen Schools to Vietnamese Society During Ly And Tran Dynasties

Ven. Nguyen Ngoc Minh, Phramaha Somphong Khunakaro,Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This paper presents the development of Buddhism during Ly and Tran dynasties as the golden age of Vietnam Buddhism through the establishment and development of Buddhist Zen schools such as Ty Ni Da Luu Chi Zen sect, Vo Ngon Thong Zen sect, Thao Duong Zen sect, and especially Truc Lam Zen sect. Under the contributions of Zen masters, the country as well as Buddhism developed in many aspects such as politics, culture, economy, education, etc., On the Buddhism side, at the beginning of the Phap Van Zen school belonged to Ty Ni Da Luu Chi Zen sect, Kien So Zen school belonged to Vo Ngon Thong Zen sect, and Thao Duong Zen school belonged to Thao Duong Zen sect, they were merged gradually into the unique Vietnamese Zen sect at that time called Truc Lam Zen sect.

Keywords: Development, Impact, Buddhist Zen schools, Ly Dynasty, Tran Dynasty JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 15

Introduction

Buddhist Zen schools is unique in the unusual emphasis that it places on meditation. Zen Buddhists generally believe that a Buddha nature resides within each person. There is no need, consequently, to seek enlightenment outside oneself. To disclose one’s own Buddha- nature, one need only focuses one’s attention inward, through the meditation techniques prescribed and/or perfected by a . Meditation enables the Zen practitioner to escape the cage of discursive thinking and to explode the conventional boundaries of ego consciousness. Therefore, the Vietnam Buddhist Zen schools during the 13th-14th century played a vital role in spreading the teachings of the Buddha to the people. In referring to Buddhism in the Tran dynasty one needs to mention the Truc Lam (Bamboo Grove) Zen school. At the beginning of the 13th century, there were three major Zen schools were Phap Van, Kien So and Thao Duong. Additionally, they were merged gradually into one big school named the Truc Lam school under the strong influence of the two Buddhist scholars Tran Thai Tong and Tue Trung Thuong Si.

The Establishment and Development of Three Buddhist Zen Schools Before Truc Lam School.

1. Phap Van Zen School In term of Phap Van Zen School, this school was founded by Indian Zen master Vinitaruci who was a southern Indian, belonging to the caste, which was the intelligentsia in the Indian society. When he was a little boy, he travelled all over India and abroad to seek enlightenment and arrived in Truong An, a province of China. During his trip across India, master Vinitaruci had an occasion to reach northern India, where there had been a small country named Ujjyana and this became his second homeland. During his residence of six years in the Quang Chau province, Vinitaruci translated the two such as Discourses of Monastery of Elephant Head and Discourses of Different Kamma. After that, Vinitaruci left Quang Chau and came to stay in the Phap Van temple in Vietnam in 580.1 The philosophy of this school is manifested in Discourses of Monastery of Elephant Head. In this , enlightenment means going beyond the three words, letters, and having

1 Le Manh That. (2006). in Vietnam, (Vol. II) TPHCM: Ho Chi Minh Publising House, p.535. 16 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

no bases or spaces. Language and intellectual knowledge are indirect tools and they are not the heart of Zen, thus all writings of the various Masters and patriarchs even the teachings of the Buddha are skillful means. Therefore, one should not depend upon them solely nor cling to them. The more important method of teaching in Zen is direct experience, direct looking into oneself to discover the Buddha nature and attain . This statement sounds similar to the Zen gatha of the Chinese Zen patriarch :

A special transmission outside the scriptures No dependence upon words and letters Direct pointing at the mind of man Seeing into one’s nature and the attainment of Buddhahood.2

A remarkable features of the Phap Van Zen school was the combination of the Zen school with Buddhism and Buddhism. As for the actuality of , Phap Hien, the second patriarch, arrived at the mount Tien Du in Bac Ninh province in order to establish the in 594. From the onwards, the followers of the school recited the Amitayurdhyana sutra and the Amitayus sutra. The Amitayus sutra records the previous life of the Amitabha Buddha and 48 of his vows while the Amitayurdhyana sutra primarily talks about 16 methods of contemplation associated with the Buddha Amitabha’s realm along with the Avolokitesvara and , who is an important Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism.

2. Kien So Zen School The second school of Zen influencing the general course of Vietnamese Buddhism is Kien So and the Master who found out this school was Vo Ngon Thong.3

2 D.T Suzuki. (1996). Zen Buddhism, New Delhi: Books Internationalp, p.174. 3 According to the Vietnamese genealogical history, Thien Uyen Tap Anh, Vo Ngon Thong originally came from Guangzhou, China and entered the Buddhist order at Shuanglinsi in Whuzhou. Because he was known for his ability to silently comprehend and realize the nature of things, his contemporaries called him “Wordless Realization”. He is reputed to have studied under Huahai. In 820, Vo Ngon Thong came to Kien So monastery in northern Vietnam and took up residence there to practice meditation. He generally sat facing the wall, without uttering a word. A disciple, Cam Thanh, served him for many years and received the transmission of his full teaching. See Robert E. Buswell Jr., Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013).The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton, Princeton University Press, p.984. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 17

Vo Ngon Thong was born in the Quang Chau province of China and surnamed Trịnh. Since childhood he admired the Buddhist teaching and did not care about the worldly life. His character’s peculiarity was to be of few words, calm and intelligence. Whatever he understood was deep and great, so the people at that time called him Vo Ngon Thong (one who is very rare to talk).

Afterwards one Zen visitor took him to learn the essence of Zen from Zen master Ma To. Unfortunately, Zen master Ma To had passed away before he arrived. For this reason, Vo Ngon Thong came and asked to be the disciple with the Zen master Bach Truong Hoai Hai . At that time a Bikkhu asked Bach Truong: “What is the immediate method of Mahāyāna Buddhism?” Bach Truong replied: “If the earth of the mind is not covered, the sun of the wisdom naturally illuminates the earth of the mind.” Hearing this sentence, Vo Ngon Thong suddenly got enlightened. He returned to the province of Quang Chau, where Vo Ngon Thong was the abbot of the Hoa An temple. One day a person asked: “Are you a Zen master?” Vo Ngon Thong answered: “I have never learnt Zen at all.” After a while, Master Vo Ngon Thong called the personal attendant. The latter replied: “Yes”. Vo Ngon Thong points out a tree, saying nothing. One day Vo Ngon Thong called his disciple Nguong Son who was a novice: “Tich! Carry a chair for me!” After Nguong Son had carried a chair to the Vo Ngon Thong’s position, he asked Nguong Son to move it to the old position. Nguong Son obeyed his words. 4

In September of the year 820 Vo Ngon Thong came and dwelled in the Kien So temple in the Phu Dong village. In addition to meals, he enjoyed the joy of meditation, got used to turn his face towards a wall, and saying nothing. Spending many years and as such was not known by anybody. Only master Cam Thanh in that temple whole-heartedly looked after and respected him. Thanks to this intimate relationship, the master Cam Thanh received the Zen essence from him One day he was in a healthy condition, taking a bath, changing clothes, and saying to Cam Thanh: In former times, my master was the master Nam Nhac Hoai Nhuong5, After teaching Cam Thanh this Zen verse, Vo Ngon Thong joined palms together and passed away.

4 Le Manh That. (2005). A Study of Collected Prominent of Zen Garden, TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research, p.234. 5 Ibid., p.348. 18 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Cam Thanh cremated his dead body, building a to worship the relics in the Tien Du temple. In the year of 826 Vo Ngon Thong died at the age of 68.6 The Zen philosophy of the school is demonstrated in Vo Ngon Thong’s words to his disciple Cam Thanh before his passing away: “Bodhidharma is said to have been spread rumours that my progenitor of Zen has derived from India. My progenitor (the Buddha) transmitted the eye dharma-storehouse that is called meditation. I think a so-called Zen school is based on the inherently pure nature. The Western heaven is this place and that place is western heaven too”.7 According to the Zen master Vo Ngon Thong, the origin of Zen was not in India. This was a virtually new idea of Zen at that time. In that case, we may ask from where Zen commenced. Vo Ngon Thong showed that this country (Vietnam) is the origin of Zen. Making such a statement implies that Zen springs from a pure nature of each individual. Human beings, wherever they stay and whenever they live they possess that pure nature. For this reason, everywhere there are human beings and such places therefore are the origin of Zen. Because what is Zen if it is not looking for that pure nature which means searching for the Buddha nature or the potential of enlightenment. Therefore, Vietnam could be the Buddha’s land, the land of enlightenment. The Buddha’s land has not only been in India. From what we have analyzed above, saying that the origin of Zen being in India is “truly a false rumour”, since the Buddha land has constantly been Vietnam and has sprung from this place. In summarizing we can say the Zen philosophy of this school is typical for the Mahayana teaching which says that the Buddha nature exists everywhere. The difference between the Mahayana teaching of the Buddha nature in general and this school’s philosophy of Zen is just only the style of presentation. The Kien So school did not put emphasis on Vajrayāna, but Vajrayana’s impact on this school is also rather important. The influence is clearly manifested through Masters Minh Khong, Giac Hai. The master Minh Khong is said to have treated an incurable disease of Emperor Ly Nhan Tong that all the best doctors at that time could not do. Emperor Ly Nhan Tong is said to have admired Giac Hai for his miraculous power.8 And Master Giac Hai performed plenty of miraculous things, including conquering wild beasts.

6 Ibid., p.95 7 Le Manh That. (2006). History of , (Vol. II), (TPHCM: Ho Chi Minh Publising House, p.242. 8 Ibid., p.323. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 19

Over four hundred years, like other Vietnamese schools, the Phap Van school masters like Sangha Raja Khuong Viet and the National master Thong Bien made a lot of contributions to the as diplomatic and political advisors to Emperors.

3. Thao Duong Zen School The Thao Duong Zen School This is the third Zen school in the history of Vietnamese Buddhism. The school was created in a very difficult background. The founder of the Thao Duong School had an interesting biography. He was a prisoner monk who was detained and taken to Vietnam by Emperor Ly Thanh Tong from the Champa capital during the war between Vietnam and Champa one day in 1069. Afterwards Emperor Ly Thanh Tong assigned Thao Duong to assist the Vietnamese royal head monk (僧录) as a servant. This monk wrote a book, which was a collection of sayings of the Buddha and Zen masters, which one day was on a table out on a visit. Thao Duong read the text and made corrections in the text. The head monk unexpectedly saw this and being surprised about his servant and supporting what he saw spoke about it to Emperor Ly Thanh Tong. Emperor Ly Thanh Tong recognized Thao Duong’s talent and appointed him as the national master.9 The highlight of the school was during the reign of the three emperors Ly Thanh Tong, Ly Anh Tong, and Ly Cao Tong. Some of the masters were court officials such as Ngo Ich, Pham Dang, Nguyen Thuc and one of them, a layman, named Ngo Xa. Half of the eighteen masters of the school were laymen. This suggests that the position and influence of Buddhism at that time was gradually handed over from the monastic type to a lay structure. Buddhist monks no longer played an important role in spreading and teaching. Buddhist monks and laypeople shared the responsibility for spreading Buddhism. Spreading Buddhism is not only the duty of monks, but also that of laypeople. Buddhist monks not only made religious ceremonies such as teaching and translating Buddhist scriptures, but also took part in social activities. In general, Buddhists at that time regardless of being monastic or lay followers worked together to build a powerful and rich nation. Thus, it is possible to say that Buddhism of the time might be called secularized Buddhism. The Zen philosophy of the school very much influenced Vietnamese Buddhism in the Tran dynasty in the 13th century with the so-called known under name of Taking Delight in While Dwelling in the Worldly Life (居塵樂 道, Cu Tran Lac Dao).

9 Le Manh That. (2006). History of Buddhism in Vietnam, (Vol. III), (TPHCM: Ho Chi Minh Publising House, p.58. 20 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The following lines are the generations of the Thao Duong Zen school:10 The founder: the monastic Zen master Thao Duong in the Khai Quoc temple in the Ha Noi capital. The first generation: Emperor Ly Thanh Tong, monastic Zen master Bat Nha in the Tu Quang Phuc Thanh, monastic Zen master Truong Canh, lay Zen master Ngo Xa, and monastic Zen master Long Chuong. The second generation: Government official-lay Zen master Tham Chinh, monastic Zen master Hoang Minh, Vinh Hung, monastic Zen master Khong Lo in the Nghiem Quang temple, monastic Zen masters Hai Thanh and Dinh Giac. The third generation: Government official-lay Zen master Do Vu, monastic Zen masters Pham Am and An La, Emperor Ly Anh Tong, monastic Zen master Do Do. The fourth generation: monastic Zen masters Truong Tam Tang and Chan Huyen, government official-lay Zen master Do Thuong. The fifth generation: monastic Zen master Hai Tinh, Emperor Ly Cao Tong, two government officials-lay Zen masters Nguyen Thuc and Pham Dang.

The Origin and Development of The Truc Lam Zen School

1. Foundation of The Truc Lam Zen School In referring to Buddhism in the Tran dynasty (13th century) one needs to mention the Truc Lam (Bamboo Grove) Zen school. At the beginning of the 13th century, the three major Zen schools were Phap Van, Vo Ngon Thong and Thao Duong. However, they merged gradually into one big school named the Yen Tu. Under the strong influence of Buddhist thinkers Tran Thai Tong and Tue Trung Thuong Sy, the merger of these three schools led to the Yen Tu Zen School’s development into the Zen Truc Lam School; the only Zen school in the Tran dynasty. This period was considered the age of the Mono-school Buddhism.11 According to several historical accounts,12 there were in total 23 patriarchs in the tradition of the Yen Tu School. King Tran Nhan Tong was the sixth patriarch. Shortly after

10 Ibid., p.65. 11 Nguyen Lang. (2000). History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Hà Nội: Literature Publising House, p.205. 12 Ngo Thoi Nhiem. (1992). Meditation in Tran dynasty, TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research, p.397. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 21

being ordained as a Buddhist monk, he renamed Truc Lam School and thereby becoming the first patriarch of the Truc Lam School, but he still considered himself to be the sixth patriarch of the Yen Tu School.

2. Philosophy of The Truc Lam Zen School The spirit of entering into the life of the Truc Lam school is mentioned in detail in the work Cu Tran Lac Dao (Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the Worldly life, 居塵樂 道). It is the Zen philosophy of the Truc Lam school. What is the philosophy of Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the Worldly life? The characteristic of the philosophy is engaged Buddhism or Buddhism that has been established to serve for the benefit of the people. Therefore, the philosophy of “Taking Delight in Religion while dwelling in the Worldly life” set forth by Tran Nhan Tong was compatible with the social and historical background at that time. According to my personal opinion, Buddhism needs to make a local adaptation to each new culture it encounters. Buddhism accommodates itself to indigenous and philosophies before it is accepted locally. In fact, the mentioned-above philosophy was suitable for the Vietnamese culture in the days of Tran Nhan Tong. Analyzing the work “Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the World” will give us a general of the Truc Lam School. Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the World was a long verse of the first patriarch Tran Nhan Tong, which included 10 sections. This long verse demonstrates the Zen philosophy of Tran Nhan Tong. His Zen philosophy is summarized in the four lines of the verse:13

Let’s take delight in religion in whatever condition we may live Let’s eat when hungry and sleep when tired, The gem lies within ourselves, so let’s give up searching elsewhere, When our mind is detached from the surroundings, there is no question of concentration.

From what is said in the four above sentences, it is evident of Master Tran Nhan Tong’s point of view, Buddhism is a way of Life without any distinction between a secular

13 Le Manh That. (2006). A Complete Work of Tran Nhan Tong, TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research., p.364. 22 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

life and a monastic life. For what does Buddhism mean if it is not merely a process in quest of the truth? And being the truth, it surely does not lie within Buddhist teachings but exists in the heart of life.14 Zen Buddhism of the Truc Lam School was very much influenced by Chinese meditation. The first, Tran Nhan Tong’s lectures of meditation were often Zen dialogues of master-disciple. A student raised a question to which the master would accordingly give his answer. At times, the master answered his student by gazing at, shouting at or striking15 a student. Because of the style of Zen teaching, a master’s answers appear not to be corresponding to a student’s questions. Answers could only be grasped by insiders (students involves a dialogue) only. The aim of striking and shouting is to awaken the inherent potential of enlightenment in each student. On the other hand, they also imply that the ultimate truth or enlightenment can not be expressed by words and languages. The second patriarch Phap Loa usually expounded the greatest work of Ch’an in China The Blue Cliff Records (碧巖錄, Bich Nham Luc). The Blue Cliff Records is a collection of 100 of the best dialogues in Chinese meditation16. Therefore, the practice of Koan meditation must play an important role in the technique of the Truc Lam School.

Impact of The Truc Lam Zen School on Vietnamese Society

1. Impact of The Truc Lam Zen School to Politic In the work the True Record of Three Patriarchs, we cannot deny the great influence on the political life of the court, at that time, particularly in the case of the first patriarch Tran Nhan Tong. In the year of 1294 the emperor Tran Nhan Tong handed over the imperial to his son Tran Anh Tong and made up his mind to be ordained as a Buddhist monk. However, when he already had become a monk, Tran Nhan Tong kept on taking actions for the sake of the country and he was often consulted by officials for crucial decisions of the court, too.17 This is proved by the following events:

14 Ibid., p.237 15 Chan Nguyen. (1999). Buddhist Dictionary. Hue: Thuan Hoa Publising House, p. 230. 16 Chan Nguyen, op. cit., p.57. 17 Le Manh That. op. cit., p.165. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 23

In the year of 1295 the Emperor-father Tran Nhan Tong received a Mongolian delegation headed by Lihsin and Chiao T’ai-teng to debate withdrawal of troops and the end of wars. After the Mongolian delegation’s departure, the government officials Tran Khac Dung and Pham Thao, by the Emperor-father Tran Nhan Tong’s order, went to the Mongolian court with his letter of request for the The Emperor-father Tran Nhan Tong made a journey to Champa in on March of 1301. On this journey, Tran Nhan Tong promised to marry his daughter, the princess the Cham King Che Man, to the Champa king in return for the two districts O and Ly of the Kingdom of Champa to be annexed to the map of Vietnam. The Champa king accepted the proposal of marriage. The two districts O and Ly then became a well- known area under the name of Thuan Hoa, and was the imperial capital of a unified Vietnam for more than one hundred years. As a result, the annexation of the districts O and Ly to Vietnam was peacefully accomplished. Indeed, the Zen master and Emperor-father Tran Nhan Tong’s peaceful diplomatic policy actually brought about unexpectedly great achievements in politics and the security of Vietnam.18 The remarkable point is that never before in the history of Vietnam or any other country has a Buddhist monk been capable of extending his country’s boundaries.

2. Impact of The Truc Lam Zen School to Culture In the field of culture, two greatly significant developments occurred in Vietnamese culture during the reign of the Tran Nhan Tong. The first is the usage of the Vietnamese language together with Chinese as official scripts of the imperial court. The second is that the Emperor Tran Nhan Tong himself founded a new line of development of the Truc Lam Zen School holding that the way to enlightenment may be cultivated peacefully right in a worldly life.19 In addition, the Emperor-father and Zen master Tran Nhan Tong himself also had writings in Vietnamese that have been completely preserved so far. These writings are Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the Worldly Life and Songs of the Realization of the Way. Both of which are the oldest writings still preserved in the history of Vietnamese literature. Indeed, the reason why these two works have been able to be preserved and respected by the Vietnamese people is their intrinsic value.

18 Ibid., p.180 19 Ibid., p.7. 24 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

For the past three centuries, the “Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the Worldly Life” and the “Songs of the Realization of the Way” have been widely published and studied. Tran Nhan Tong’s two poems have a huge amount of influence over not only Buddhism but also on national traditions. In short, Tran Nhan Tong opened a new period in the history of Vietnamese literature with these poems in which the national language played a major role.20 Reading these letters, the first impression with readers is that the Emperor Tran Nhan Tong always held a consistent attitude towards the Mongolian invaders. He resolutely rejected any ideas of surrendering to enemies and defended the country’s rights. All of the Vietnamese, therefore, should read the twenty-two letters, in order to see how hard and tactfully the former Vietnamese court struggled against the Mongolian invaders with diplomatic strategies. They represent the firm resolution not only of the Emperor- master Tran Nhan Tong, but also of the Vietnamese people as a whole to defend their country’s ownership. The resolution reveals that the Vietnamese people refused any compromise with invaders in any form. It is not surprising that the letters sent by the Emperor Nhan Tong to the Mongolian emperors occupy a definite place in the history of Vietnamese literature.

3. Impact of The Truc Lam Zen School to Education The most remarkable feature of the educational impact of the Truc lam Zen school was obviously demonstrated in examination questions in the sixteen century. In the history of examinations in Vietnam, Truc Lam is the only Zen school whose doctrine was applied as a topic in the court Ph.D examination under the reign of early Le.21 For instance, in the examination held in the year of 1502, there were forty- seven questions in total. Fifteen questions had contains as follows: “What teachings were taught by Tran Nhan Tong and Huyen Quang qualifying them to eventually becoming the Patriarchs of the Truc Lam School?” It is evident that the Truc Lam Zen School had been widely studied and examined before this examination took place. Thus, the doctrine of the Truc Lam School became a major subject of the contemporary curriculum and actually received much attention by the Kings of the Early Le dynasty. Another feature demonstrating the educational impact of the Truc Lam School is that transmitting the patriarchal office to Phap Loa. In the year of 1308 Master Tran Nhan

20 Ibid., p.180. 21 Ibid., p.252. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 25

Tong appointed his disciple Phap Loa to be the abbot of the Sieu Loai Temple on Mount Yen Tu, who would thus become the patriarch of the second generation of the Truc Lam School. Besides, in order to encourage the study of both Buddhist and non- Buddhist literature, the former transferred a hundred types of non- Buddhist books and the Chinese Buddhist Canon.22 This fact reflects the educational view of Tran Nhan Tong and Buddhism in Vietnam. He expected Phap Loa to have enough Buddhist and non-Buddhist knowledge to fulfil his mission as an ideal Buddhist, but not as a narrow-minded successor who would not know anything but the practice of samādhi, expounding sūtras or some other monastic affairs. Such a type of ideal Buddhists must have possessed a good all- round education in which no knowledge would be viewed as absolutely foreign to the Buddhist teachings. The educational tradition of Vietnam has since then been that of a general education. Not studying non- Buddhist knowledge was seen to deny the Buddhist doctrines or even oppose Buddhism as Vietnamese historians groundlessly criticized later.23

Conclusion

It is possible to say that the coming into existence of the Truc Lam School is the quintessence of Vietnamese Buddhism. The founder of the Truc Lam School has been the national hero who led the Vietnamese people to drive the invaders out of Vietnam’s borders twice. After he became a Buddhist monk, he merged three Zen school into a bigger one named Truc Lam School. One very crucial thing is that he called for national unity as a Zen master and an Emperor. With him Truc Lam School is believed the golden age of Vietnamese Buddhism started. The Truc Lam School with its Zen philosophy of Taking Delight in Religion While Dwelling in the Worldly Life had a great impact on the cultural and political life of the Vietnamese people. This thought set forth by the Truc Lam School was appropriate for the social background at that time.

22 Ngo Thoi Nhiem, , op. cit., p. 41. 23 Le Manh That. op. cit., pp. 229-296. 26 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

I. Primary Source

Cao Huy Giu. Tr. (2006). The Complete History of the Dai Viet (Vietnamese Version), Vol. II. Ha Noi: Culture and Information Publishing House. Le Manh That. (2006). A Complete Work of Tran Nhan Tong. TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research. Le Manh That. (2006). History of Buddhism in Vietnam, Vol. I, II, III, TPHCM: Ho Chi Minh Publising House. Ngo Thoi Nhiem. (1995). True Record of Three Patriarchs (Trans & edited by Thich Phuoc Son), TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research. Chan Nguyen. (1999). Buddhist Dictionary. Hue: Thuan Hoa Publising House. Nguyen Lang. (2000). History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Ha Noi: Literature Publising House. Nguyen Hue Chi. (1988). The Poetry and Literature under Ly and Tran dynasty, Vol I&II). Ha Noi: Society and Science Publising House. Ngo Thoi Nhiem. (1992). Meditation in Trân` Dynasty. TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research.

II. Secondary Source

Le Manh That. (1973). Study on Situation of Vietnamese Buddhism in The Time of Struggling Against The Foreign Invaders, Vo.4. Saigon: Hai Trieu Am, Press. Le Manh That. (2005). A Study of Collected Prominent of Zen Garden. TPHCM: Institute of Vietnam Buddhist Research. Paul, Williams. (1989). Mahāyāna Buddhism. London & New York: Routledge. Donald, S.Lopez, Jr. (2001). Buddhism. Allen Lane, New York: The Penguin Press. D.T Suzuki. (1996). Zen Buddhism. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. The Way to Good Rebirth in Buddhism

Pyan Nyan Won Tha, Soontaraporn Techapalokul, Ph.D. Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarayattana, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Rebirth, although diffi cult to understand, is a doctrine taught in the Eastern world by many religious schools over two and a half millennia. However, there was no any school of thought discussed the way to good rebirth until the enlightenment of the Awaken One. Since then this secret has been revealed. This article is signifi cant as it helps ones to follow righteously the way to good rebirth as well as gain a diverse sense of the rebirth concept from different points of views prior to the Buddha time. The objectives of this research article are twofold: 1) to explore the origin of rebirth concept and 2) to discuss the way to good rebirth in Buddhism. The methodology of this research article is documentary, with a focus on the origin of rebirth concept and on the Buddhist way to good rebirth. The data analysis involves books and journal data as the prime source. The content analysis categorizes by the rebirth concept in the Pre-Buddha time and in the Buddha period in regard to the Buddhist concepts of kamma, Dependent Origination, and the as the way to good rebirth. The results answer the question why we were born. We were born for not to be reborn. Normally, we may hope for the next good life. But according to the Buddha, we should have faith (saddhā) the way not to be born again— the highest truth of rebirth idea.

Keywords: Rebirth, kamma, Dependent Origination 28 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Rebirth normally is understood to be the transmigration of a soul to another body after death. There is no such teaching in Buddhism. The fact that surprises many people, even some Buddhists, is that the most fundamental doctrines of Buddhism is , or anatman - no soul or no self. In other words, there is no permanent essence of an individual self that survives death, and thus Buddhism does not believe in reincarnation in the traditional sense, such as the way it is understood in . Nevertheless, Buddhists often speak of “rebirth.” If there is no soul or permanent self, what is it that is “reborn”?

The Meaning of Rebirth

In the Buddhist dictionary, Venerable Ñanatiloka described the meaning of rebirth as paṭisandhi as follow:

Patisaṇdhi: reunion, relinking, rebirth, is one of the fourteen functions of consciousness (viññāna-kicca) It is a kamma resultant type of consciousness and arises at the moment of conception with the forming of new life in the mother’s womb. Immediately afterwards it sinks into the subconscious stream of existence (bhavaṅga-sota) and conditioned thereby ever and ever again corresponding states of sub-consciousness arise. Thus, it is really rebirth-consciousness that determines the latent character of a person. “Neither has this consciousness transmigrated from the previous existence to this present existence, nor did it arise without such conditions, as kamma, kamma-formations, propensity, object, etc. That this consciousness has not come from the previous existence to this present existence, yet that it has come into existence by means of conditions included in the previous existence such as kamma” (Ñanatiloka 1956, 163).

In Theravāda Buddhism, rebirth means to‘re-become’. According to the Theravāda Buddhism, rebirth means that the actions of a person lead to a new existence after death, in endless cycles called saṃsāra (Peter Harvey 2012, 32-3). But the concept is generally referred to as ‘rebirth’ in Buddhist writings. The term rebirth could be defined differently with Theravada Buddhism and the religions in the Pre-Buddha’s time. Moreover, the understanding of the concept of rebirth sometimes is very complicated. Venerable Ñānatiloka has mentioned this: JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 29

­­­“The theory of rebirth envisages that all sentient creation is endowed with consciousness and this consciousness transmigrates at the time of death to a new birth. This transmigration is regulated by the accumulated kammas which have yet to mature and fructify. The cycle of rebirth and the process of thought-for-motion are one and the same thing” (Kor Khao Saun-luang 1993, 26-30).

In theory of kamma regarding rebirth is complex to make the person to believe in. Actually, this fact may be illustrated by various similes, such as the echo, the light of a lamp, the impression of a seal, or the image produced by a mirror. Furthermore, in this continuous process, no sameness and no otherness can be found. Venerable Ñānatiloka, in his Buddhist dictionary, has stated this:

“Further discusses that for if there were full identity (between the different stages), then also milk never could turn into curd. And if there were a complete otherness, then curd could never come from milk. If in a continuity of existence that any kamma result takes place, then this kamma result neither belongs to any other beings, nor does it come from any other (kamma), because the absolute sameness and otherness are excluded” (Ñānatiloka 1956, 163).

The theory of rebirth is very attractive and interesting issue nowadays for more scholars worldwide but the works devoted mostly to philosophical aspects and to the texts itself. Questions, for instance “how can we realize Rebirth?” or “Who else could explain this out of the canon as the theory itself?” or “What is the way to good rebirth?” still need the answer, especially, in the psychological arena. Besides, the doctrine of rebirth which is the key to understand what kinds of psychological analysis benefits to people. Moreover, this analysis tries to explain in an easy way in order to understand the basis of the concept for interested people as a persuasive way for provable results for good rebirth self-welfare to one’s own practice and others’ in the future. The highest benefit of understanding and realizing true doctrines of the rebirth taught by the Buddha and his followers for more than two thousand and five hundred years ago will not be limited in the text itself, but spread out widely for benefits of all beings according to the founder’s intention. Prior to develop the way to good rebirth, it is important to identify such the teaching as the Law of Kamma, and Eightfold Paths which can make fuller understanding the rebirth view point. This paper will discuss clearly the meaning of rebirth, its significance, and end up with the way to good rebirth pertaining to the Theravāda Buddhist teaching. 30 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Origin of Rebirth Concept

The concept of rebirth has its root back to the Pre-Buddha Time, the time before the Buddha’s enlightenment. When concerning the religious thought of that time, many kinds of schools of thought and belief can be seen. Among those, the Hinduism and were famous ones.

1. Rebirth in Hinduism Hinduism is one of the oldest known organized religions in Indian, or a way of life, widely practiced in South Asia. Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This “Hindu synthesis” started to develop between 500 BC and 300 BC, following the (1500 BC to 500 BC) (Tyler 1990, 43). The main texts of Hinduism are the , , and the Mahābhārata. These writings contain hymns, incantations, philosophies, rituals, poems, and stories from which base their beliefs. According to the Hindu conception of transmigration or rebirth, the circumstances of any given lifetime are automatically determined by the net results of good and evil actions in previous existences. This, in short, is the law of kamma, a universal law of nature that works according to its own inherent necessity. Reward and punishment are thus not decreed by a god or gods or by any other supernatural personage. It is a person’s own actions, in conformity to the moral and cosmic law that is determinative. The law of kamma finds synoptic expression in the Upanisadic assertion: “By good deeds one becomes good, by evil, evil.” As early as the Upanisads, human destinies are assigned to two divergent pathways: the pathway of the ancestors, which is traversed by those persons who follow worldly pursuits, and the pathway of the gods, which is taken by those who meditate with faith and austerity in the forest. The former path leads to rebirth; the latter, toward and liberation. After the “worldling” has resided in the postmortem realm until the effects of his previous deeds has been consumed, he returns along the same route by which he departed the world to be reborn. By contrast, those who depart by the pathway of the gods reach brahman, the Ultimate, and are released from the rule of samsara forever. For them, say the scriptures, there is no returning (Jones 2005, 7676-7). The Bhagavadgītā, one of the most highly revered texts of Hinduism, asserts that the eternal self (ātman) is unaffected even to the slightest degree by the vicissitudes of finite existence. According to this text, the universal soul, or self, in its essential nature neither comes to be nor passes away, for “of the nonexistent there is no coming to be; of the existent, JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 31

there no coming not to be” It is rather the body or the embodied form of the self that is subject to the changing conditions of life: creation and destruction, good and evil, victory and defeat. As the eternal, unchanging and imperishable spiritual essence of humanity, the self is invincible to alteration of any sort, whether on this side of eternity or beyond. Thus, according to the Mahābharata, the ātman is affected by the bonds of finite existence only under the conditions of metaphysical ignorance, but once a soul is enlightened, the self is freed from the consequences of its good and evil deeds and thereupon becomes indistinguishably identified with the Brahman.

2. Rebirth in Jainism Jainism is an ancient teaching that the way to liberation and bliss is to live a life of harmlessness and renunciation. This ancient school of thought began in the 6th century as a reformation movement within Hinduism. Jains traced their history through a succession of twenty-four victorious saviors and teachers known as , with the first being , who was believed to have lived millions of years ago, and the twenty-fourth being, the Mahāvīra, around 500 BC. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the Tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the . Jainism has two major ancient sub traditions, and Svetambaras; and several smaller sub-traditions that emerged in the 2nd millennium CE. The Digambaras and Svetambaras have different views on ascetic practices, gender and which Jain texts can be considered canonical. Jain mendicants are found in all Jain sub-traditions, with laypersons supporting the mendicants’ spiritual pursuits with resources. Present life is nothing more than a link of the great chain of transmigratory circuit. The doctrine of kamma is meaningless in the absence of a fully develop1ed doctrine of transmigration. The soul that runs through various stages of birth and death is not to be understood in the shape of a collection of habits and attitudes. It is in the form of an independent entity to which all these habits and attitudes belong. It is a spiritual and immaterial entity which is permanent and eternal in the midst of all changes. To put it in psychological form, personal immortality is indeed impossibility. But individual immortality is one of the deepest truths of life (Head and Cranston 1971, 49). When a soul enters a new birth, it is born into a body and life according to the kamma it has gained in previous lives. The soul can be born in one of the following conditions (gatis): 1). a human being – manussagati, 2) a heavenly being, living in the heavens – devagati, 3) an infernal being, living in the hells – nirayagati, and 4) an animal or plant – tiricchanagati (O’Flaherty 1980, 136-7). 32 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Activities and thoughts during a lifetime create kammas, which may be positive or negative. Positive arise from behaviour where Jains consider meritorious, such as giving alms to mendicants and avoiding violence. Negative kammas are generated by conduct condemned in Jain scriptures, such as lying, being greedy or committing deliberate violence. Gathering positive kammas may lead to birth as a god or human being. Having lots of negative kammas may result in birth as an animal or even an insect, plant or hellish being. This makes it difficult to follow Jain principles and gain enough positive kamma to be born in a better condition in the next life. However, even a soul born as a god is trapped within the cycle of births. The best condition to be born into is that of a human, because it is the only one in which the soul can be liberated.

The Essence of rebirth in Buddhism

Buddhists understand life as samsara, meaning perpetual wandering, and describe the transition like a billiard ball hitting another billiard ball. While nothing physical transfers, the speed and direction of the second ball relate directly to the first. So the term most often used is rebirth, rather than reincarnation. Reincarnation implies the transfer of an essence, or a soul, while rebirth follows the law of causality, or dependent origination, where this arises because of circumstances which happened before. A primary aim of Buddhism is to break free of the wheel of samsara, and to reach a new level called .

1. Dependent Origination and Rebirth Roots The process or cycle of dependent origination is generally presented in the following formula:

Therein, dependent on ignorance arise conditioning activities. Dependent on conditioning activities arises (rebirth) consciousness. Dependent on (rebirth) consciousness arise mind and matter. Dependent on mind and matter arise the six (sense) bases. Dependent on the six (senses) bases arises contact. Dependent on contact arises feeling. Dependent on feeling arises craving. Dependent on craving arises grasping. Dependent on grasping arises action or becoming. Dependent on action arises birth. Dependent on birth arise decay, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Thus arises the whole mass of suffering. Herein this is the Law of the dependent arising. (D II 50-60) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 33

That process is generic dependent origination. There are twelve kinds of essential statement of the law. But, this section is an attempt to explain the roots of kamma and dependent origination. But the roots of twelve kinds of essential statement are only two. Ignorance and craving should be understood as the two roots as shown in the below Table.

The Two Roots Ignorance (avijjā) Craving (taṇhā)

(1) Kamma formation, (1) Grasping, (2) Consciousness, (2) Life, (3) Mentality-corporeality, (3) Rebirth in future and (4) Six sense bases, (4) Old age, death, worry, lamentation, pain, (5) Contact and grief and despair are the roots of craving. (6) Feeling are the roots of ignorance.

For the Cycle of Cessation (-vāra), the two roots of paṭiccasamuppāda are avijjā and taṇhā can be cut off. Rebirth then will be terminated. Because, rebirth is a part of the paṭiccamuppāda (Dependent Origination). By the destruction of these roots does the round cease (Nārada 1979,400). Ignorance (avijjā) and Craving (taṇhā) are the roots of the Dependent Origination and kamma, which is an apart of dependent origination. If beings can cease the roots of Dependent Origination, they can cease kamma circle of any life because kamma and lives are a part of dependent origination. If beings can cease the ignorance (avijjā), they can cease kamma- process or kamma-formation (saṅkhāra), consciousess (vin͂n͂āna), mentality- corporeality (nāma-rūpa), six sense bases (salāyatana) and feeling (vedanā). In addition, if beings cease the craving (taṇhā), they can cease grasping (upādāna), life (), kamma-process (kamma-bhava) and rebirth-process (upapatti-bhava), old age and death (cara-marana), sorrow (soka), lamentation (parideva), pain (dukkha), grief (domanassa) and despair (upāyāsa). If the ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā) are eradicated, so is the Dependent Origination (DO). If DO is eradicated, the rebirth can be ceased. This is rebirth is a part of Dependent Origination. If we need to try to cease the rebirth and their result, we need the eradicated the ignorance (avijjā) and craving (taṇhā), the root of Dependent Origination and rebirth. 34 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

A part from those, “Ignorance” is the root of rebirth formation, consciousness, mentality-corporeality and physical, six sense bases, contact and feeling. Craving is the root of grasping, life, rebirth in future and old age, death, worry, lamentation, pain, grief and despair. Therefore, the roots of rebirth formation are the root of not only Dependent Origination but also the rebirth formation and craving or the conditioning activities. In addition, kamma is an integral of life (bhava). Bhava, becoming, is explained as both moral and immoral actions which constitute Kamma (kamma-bhava) — active process of becoming and the different planes of existence (uppapattibhava), the passive process of becoming. The only difference between saṇkhāra and kammabhava is that the former pertains to the past, and the latter to the present. It is only the (kamma) Bhava that conditions the future birth. Active process of becoming (kamma-bhava) and passive process of becoming (upāpattibhava) are an integral of “life” or “becoming” (bhava). On the other hand, rebirth produces kamma and rebirth process kamma are an integral of life. As craving is the root of life or becoming (bhava), craving is the root of active process of becoming (kamma- bhava) and passive process of becoming (upapattibhava). Therefore, the roots of dependent origination and kamma are ignorance and craving.

3. The Aggregates and Rebirth The Aggregates (khandhas) of human existence is represented as the fourth factor of the Law of DO, definition of the first Noble Truth sums up the problem thus: ‘in brief, the five grasping-aggregates are suffering’ (saṅkhittena pañcūpādākkhandhā dukkhā). What exactly are these five aggregates, and how do they figure in rebirth? The basic meaning of the aggregates is well-known: physical form (rūpa), feeling (vedanā), perception (saññā), volitional activities (saṅkhārā), and consciousness (viññāṇa). These are all observable aspects of conscious experience. People are used to thinking of rebirth involving some mysterious entity such as a ‘soul,’ so the prosaic nature of these aggregates comes as a bit of a surprise. But, the Saṁyutta tells this: “Whatever ascetics or priests there are that recollect their manifold past lives, all of them recollect the five grasping-aggregates or one of them”(S III 149-151). This suggests that the aggregates are empirical realities that characterize not just these lives, but past lives as well. In other words, the unawakened individuals run and circle around these five aggregates from ones lives to the next. In the , to quote the best known example, the Self is said to be ‘formed’ (rūpī) or ‘experiencing pleasure’ (sukhapaṭisaṁvedī) or ‘percipient’ (saññī) after death. Similarly, saṅkhārā is closely associated with rebirth, and one discourse (sutta) describes JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 35

how one can use saṅkhāra to direct one’s rebirth. And consciousness is regularly spoken of as the phenomenon that undergoes rebirth, not only in a Buddhist context, but also by those who mistakenly take it for something permanent.

(a) Paṭisandhi: the Link to Saṃsāra For all living beings kamma provides a life by producing a paṭisandhi (rebirth consciousness) for each and every one at death. In uniting two lives, this rebirth consciousness provides the continuity so that the mental process is not interrupted. By its act of linking two different lives, two different mental processes – for example, a past life as a human, a new life as a dog – we wander from life to life in saṃsāra’s various planes, depending on conditions and different paṭisandhis. By means of this rebirth consciousness, the 31 realms of existence can be categorized, in the same way as these (minds) are differentiated in producing rebirth.

(b) Human Paṭisandhi For people, their rebirth consciousness can be one of nine types of kusala (wholesome), vipāka (resultant), upekkhā (equanimity), santīraṇa (investigation), and eight mahāvipākas (great resultants). Deities too are born with these mahāvipāka cittas. However, are these cittas of the same grade or class? Again, there is no similarity in producing their results. Some people are poor, others rich. Some are intelligent while others are not. Some are long- lived, others have short lives. Why is this so? It is because what they had done previously is not the same. Of the eight mahāvipākas, the first is the strongest and the best with the of alobha (disinterestedness), adosa (hatelessness), and amoha (wisdom). If the knowledge factor is not present, then the condition of birth is two-rooted or dvihetuka. Only alobha and adosa are present, unlike the three-rooted (tihetuka). Thus in an act of merit (for example, in dāna), when knowledge leads, the merit gained is called ñāṇa-sampayutta kusala. Without amoha, it is ñāṇa-vipayutta kusala, of a lesser sort. For these different grades of kusala at the time of conception, their associated cetanās will give different grades of paṭisandhi result. This is a natural law or niyāma that kammas will produce their results of similar form. This is to say that tihetuka kusala will give rise to tihetuka paṭisandhi result. A dvihetuka kusala will produce a two-rooted rebirth consciousness. So a type of kamma only gives result of the same kind. Put in another way: through the kamma carried out by you, you will receive its corresponding result. (Nandamālābhivaṃsa 2016, 39) 36 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Then whether there is knowledge or not, some people are ever light-hearted by nature. This is due to somanassa dominating the rebirth consciousness. They are happy-born on this basis. Those with upekkhā (neutral) feeling are hardly inclined to smile. Their demeanor is usually rather solemn. Rarely are there happy smiles. So through the factor of feeling, the difference among people can be seen. The Buddha was born with the first mahāvipāka citta, accompanied by pleasure, connected with knowledge, and without prompting. However, some Abhidhamma scholars in Sri Lanka maintain that the Buddha’s paṭisandhi could not be accompanied by somanassa since He was always composed and steady in everything that He did. The rebirth consciousness could only have been with upekkhā. Nonetheless many others disagree. This is why the following terms are used to extol the Buddha: piyamukha – the Buddha’s face was always lit with a happy smile. Even in talking, He had this habit of smiling first before speaking. sambhāsa: It was easy and pleasant to converse with the Blessed One. (Nandamālābhivaṃsa 2005, 65) As for people without the wisdom factor, they need time to figure out any ordinary matter, being unable to give spontaneous answers or ready solutions. Those with the wisdom factor are sharper. We call such people bright or endowed with a high IQ (Intelligence Quotient). They are able to quickly understand, being mentally nimble because of ñāṇa- sampayutta at their conception. It is accepted that only tihetuka yogis striving in meditation can realize the noble Dhamma. Those with the condition of ñāṇa-vipayutta will not be able to reach that level. However, their efforts will not be in vain. To a certain extent progress can be made. Besides the mahāvipākas, there is the rootless upekkhā santīraṇa citta. People who were born with it are physically or mentally handicapped. In the womb they were already blind, deaf, that is, with an innate defect. Unlike the mahāvipākas their paṭisandhi is produced by kamma with weak strength. So despite the advantage of human birth, it is one which is below par. What is originally given by kamma cannot be changed. For instance, a person with a two-rooted condition will not be able to upgrade to a higher level by acquiring the wisdom factor. Neither too can he change his disposition. So according to one’s kamma carried out, one will be brought to one’s destination in life by it. Those who appear in the human and deity realms had done wholesome acts like giving dāna, observing sīla and practicing meditation. Those who had committed duccarita will arrive in the woeful states. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 37

The Way to Good Rebirth in Buddhism

The Buddha always mentioned kamma together with kilesa (mental defilement) as a pair. People usually point to kamma alone. But without kilesa, kamma becomes isolated and cannot take effect. In brief, if kilesas cease, kamma will cease. If kilesas remain, so will kamma. This is the point in paṭiccasamuppāda which shows the whole picture of life. Here the Buddha specified the root of kilesa as avijjā in the cycle of birth and death. Volitional activities of saṅkhāra or kamma arise depending on ignorance. Thus “avijjā paccayā saṅkhārā”. Because of ignorance, people act according to their wishes; not knowing what should or should not be done. This saṅkhāra produces the kamma-result of viññāṇa, that is, a rebirth consciousness of a new existence. So “saṅkhāra paccayā viññāṇaṃ”. With the right conditions paṭisandhi seed will sprout, with nāma-rūpa arising with it. Thus the Buddha said, “Viññāṇa paccayā nāma-rūpaṃ”. Then “nāma-rūpa paccayā saḷāyatanaṃ”: with sense organs communication with the outside world is possible. They see, hear, and think, and so on. With communication, feeling arises. They want more and more of desirable objects. Craving appears. Hatred develops with undesirable objects. Then there is “vedanā paccayā taṇhā.” The mind with taṇhā becomes strongly occupied with grasping, that is, upādāna. With this situation, there is a for life existence. As kamma accumulates, through its birth will occur again. Consequently worry, lamentation, mental pain, despair, that is, problems will follow. Thus in the perspective of paṭiccasamuppāda: What begins again is not a permanent entity, but just phenomena which are a mass of suffering, started by . So this cycle occurs again and again with saṅkhāra accumulating, like a tree which seasonally bears flowers, fruits and seeds in a never-ending round. The Buddha pointed out the seven factors of enlightenment or bojjhaṅgas and the as kammas. These kammas are very important because they can destroy the other kammas. It is like some people who have to take anti-body medicine. But if it is produced naturally in the body, then such medicine is not necessary. It is nature to nature; here it is kamma to kamma. If ones were to develop these factors of enlightenment and the Noble Eightfold Path, we can escape from kamma. Being very powerful, these Dhammas never produce rebirth. Instead they lead to nibbāna, destroying kamma in saṃsāra.

1. The Threefold Training The usage and deployment of Threefold Training (tisikkhā) should seek to create benefits in all aspects of our daily life. The three ways to peace are morality (sīla), 38 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

concentration (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā). According to the Law of Kamma, keeping the precepts are meritorious and it acts as causes which would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence (Harvey 1990, 186). is fundamentally concerned with two themes: transforming the mind and using it to explore it and other phenomena. According to Harvey, “Whenever Buddhism has been healthy; not only monks, nuns and married but also more committed lay people have practiced meditation” (Harvey 1990, 144).

2. At Arahatta-magga Arahattamagga (The Direct Route to the End of All Suffering) is the highest kusala occurring. After that no more kusala arises. (instead, there is kriyā.) Whoever do so have become an arahanta with ignorance discarded and no kilesas remaining (kilesa nirodha). So his mahākriyā cittas are like the blooms of a flowering tree whose root has been cut. Eventually the tree will shrivel and die. As kamma cannot work anymore in him, his actions are like the flowers on the tree which will not bear fruit. His actions cannot produce the next life because he is without any mental defilement. Even though his mahākriyā cittas have alobha, adosa, and amoha which are contrary to lobha-dosa-moha, they have no more enemies to fight. In some countries, there is always peace because there are no rebels to wage war. Altough there is an army, it is only for show. In the same way alobha, adosa and amoha associated with mahākriya cittas have no more enemies to fight. Thus kammic energy cannot accumulate. Unlike us, as our mental process has both good and bad roots, such kammic energy continues to build up. An Arahant who can cultivate the Arahatta path-consciousness can eradicate all defilements. He will become a Worthy One. Arahat, literally meaning a worthy one, does not accomplish fresh kammic activities, and he is not subject to rebirth because the conditions for his reproduction in matter have been destroyed. Accordingly, The Arahatta path-consciousness will cease ten impurities. As Ignorance (avijjā) and Craving (taṇhā) are a part of ten impurities, Ignorance and Craving, the root of dependent origination ceased by the Arahatta path-consciousness. Then, there will be no more life or refresh kamma. For the arahant at death – as kamma cannot produce any vipākakamma – the result also ceases. All suffering is finished. That is nibbāna when the fire is extinguished as no fuel is left. Meanwhile in his present life without kilesas, no passions like lust and hate can arise. His mind is calm and equanimeous in freedom or vimutti. Although no new kamma accumulates, old kammas still remain. What has been done still remains? They are still online as long as there are the five aggregates. Though the old kammas are powerless to produce a JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 39

new life, they can still act to support or obstruct throughout the arahant’s present life. Even for the Buddha, the Blessed One had to suffer from evil actions done many eons ago. That is akusala kamma’s result which is unavoidable. Then there is Aṅgulimāla who had murdered hundreds of people, and who had even tried to kill the Buddha. As a monk, he attained arahantship with all kilesas cut off. Although he had killed so many, his pāṇātipāta (the killing) had no effect for the next life. Otherwise he would have been in hell. Being very powerful, arahatta magga had written off whatever akusala he had done. But in the present life he could not avoid former kamma’s result. On his alms round, his bowl would get broken, and his robes would be torn. Many stones would hit him, causing blood to flow and at times broken bones. Because people were still afraid of him, they would close the door on him. This is the kamma’s result that nobody could a void.

Conclusion

All lives are in a cycle of death and rebirth called saṁsāra. According to the Dependent Origination, the causes of suffering and the course of events lead a being through rebirth, old age, and death. The Buddha did not teach the way not to die. But the Blessed One taught the way to good rebirth through sīla, samādhi, and paññā, including the highest from of rebirth- through, mental development in this life— which is the attainment of nibbāna, the supreme happiness, or the end of rebirth. If humanity can cut out rebirth, they cannot die again. Being born as a human is seen by the Buddhists as an opportunity to work towards uprooting this cycle of saṁsāra gear toward nibbāna or enlightenment. Therefore, to practice tisikkhā or the threefold training as the way to good rebirth and to end suffering is recommended by the Buddhists. 40 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

I. Primary Sources:

Dīghanikāya: Dialogues of the Buddha. 1995. Vol 2. No.8. tr. By Rhys Davids, T.W. and C.A.F. oxford: PTS.

II. Secondary Sources:

Harvey Peter (1990). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. UK: Cambridge University Press. Joseph Head and S.L Cranston. (1971). Reincarnation in World Thought. New York: Julian Press. Kor Khao Saun-luang. (1993). Reading the mind: Advice for meditators. : The Wheel Publication. Zopa . (2014). Cutting the Root of Samsara. USA: Lama . Lindsay, Jones. (2005). “Reincarnation”, Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol.11, McEvilley, The Shape of Ancient Thought. New York: Allworth Press. Ñ ānatiloka, Thera. (1988). Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines. Ed. By Nyanapoika. Kandy: BPS. Nandamālābhivaṃsa. (2005). Fundamental Abhidhamma. Myanmar: Centre for Buddhist Studies (CBS). Nandamālābhivaṃsa. (2016). Kamma at Death and Rebirth. Germany: Abhidhamma- Forderverein e.V. Nārada, Mahā Thera. (1987). A Manual of Abhidhamma. 5th ed. Kuala-Lumpur, Malasia: Buddhist Missionary Society. Tyler, (1990). An Anthropological Perspective. India: Goodyear Publishing Company. Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty (1980). Kamma And Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions. London: University of California Press. Wendy Doniger O’Flaherty. (1973). Assceticism and Eroticism in the Mythology of Siva. Oxford: Oxford University Press. A Study of Physical Cleanliness Management in Theravada Buddhism

Ashin San Di Mar, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Dr. Veerachart Nimanoong International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

All the teaching of the Buddha can be summed up that to purify of our mental and physical defi lements. It stressed into the purifi cation of purity of action, purity of speech and purity of mentality. And the other form of cleanliness is concerning with the cleanliness of surrounding or environments. In this article, the researcher would like to emphasize on the purifi cation of bodily and the cleanliness of the environment or hygiene, as it directly support to the development of spiritual path. The results of the study indicate how the general concept of physical cleanliness correlates to other sources appearing in ; either in the Buddhist Canonical texts or in the other Buddhist texts. These were analyzed for a better understanding in a systematic and academic way. The researcher studies in detail how practitioners’ practice can be affected and provides an introduction to Theravāda Buddhist teachings. Those who follow the various practices associated with the Buddha’s teaching not only cultivated moral strength and selfl essness, but also perform the highest service to their fellow human beings. They practice physical cleanliness and gradually develop themselves through good external actions that become the foundations of inner development up until the attainment of the ultimate goal of life: Nibbāna. In the modern context, the Centers are revitalizing the practice of physical cleanliness as a means of solving problems in the family, school, society, and the world.

Keywords: Physical cleanliness in Buddhism 42 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

All the teaching of the Buddha can be summed up that to purify of our mental and physical defilements. It stressed into the purification of purity of action, purity of speech and purity of mentality. And the other form of cleanliness is concerning with the cleanliness of surrounding or environments. In my research work, I would like to emphasize on the purification of bodily and the cleanliness of the environment or hygiene, as it directly support to the development of spiritual path. While analyzing the Vinaya Piṭaka in Pāli canon, one often encounter with certain situation where Buddha instructing monks to keep the environment neat and clean. In Mahāvagga; it says ācariyo me hohi; āyasmato nissāya vacchāmi,1 Furthermore, Mahāvagga offer the relationship of mentor and students as father and son. And five categories of duties permitted to student to serve his/her mentor. They are such as;2

a) Attending to the mentor’s personal needs. b) Assisting the mentor in any problems he may have with regard to Dhamma and Vinaya. c) Wishing, making and dying mentor’s robe. d) Showing loyalty and respect to mentor. e) Caring for the mentor when he falls ill, not leaving him until he either recovers or passes away.

Attending mentor’s personal needs are further divided into 8 categories. And among five duties, 3 duties are connecting the cleanliness. Such as;

a) Arrange his mentor’s toiletries for his morning wash-up. b) Arrange his seat and food for his morning convey (if he has any) and clean up after he is finished. c) Clean his dwelling and other parts of his dwelling complex, such as the restroom and storage rooms, when they get dirty.

1 Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. Buddhist Monastic Code 1, (,U.S.A, 2001), p. 33. 2 Vi. III. 25. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 43

In Cūllavagga text exhibits the significance of keeping the toilets clean. As the monastery was dwelling of Saṇgha; Buddha was much concern of the hygiene and laid systematic method of using the toilets such as defecating, urinating and spitting. It is said that;

Adds that after one has defecated — inside a restroom or not — one should always rinse oneself if water is available.3

In , Venerable Buddhaghosa shows the importance’s on making the basis clean for spiritual growth. The cleansing of internal and external basis has been mentioned; Herein, making the basis clean is cleansing the internal and the external basis. For when his head hair, nails and body hair are long, or when the body is soaked with sweat, then the internal basis is unclean and unpurified….. Formations do not become evident to one who tries to comprehend them with unpurified knowledge, and when he devotes himself to his meditation subject, it does not come to growth, increase and fulfillment.4 If the dwellings of monks are unclean or polluted, it directly disturbs the mental development of the practitioners. Thus, the cleanliness of lodging also falls under one of the ten skills in Absorption. In modern times, dwellings of the monks are no secluded as in the ancient times. Many devotees often visit the monasteries and offer in abundant. Mostly, the dwellings of monks are unclean, toilets are very smelly and scattered with cats and dog’s defecates and stinking smells. It’s responsible of monks and nuns to keep the monasteries neat and clean. Moreover; clean environment not only provide healthy life but also helps in the spiritual progress. Therefore, strictly offered the duties of monks and nuns for the benefits of Community and Dispensation.

3 Thanissaro, Bhikkhu. Buddhist Monastic Code ,vol.2, (Metta Forest Monastery, U.S.A, 2001), p.101 4 Ñanamoli, Bhikkhu. (tr.), The Path of Purification: (Visuddhimagga), (Kandy: Buddhist Pub- lication Society, 1997), p.124 44 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Buddhist Monastic Life

A monk has to observe the rules of perfect livelihood in order to get his food (Ājīva pārisuddhasīla): and make strenuous effort to prevent sinful thoughts arising, to create good thoughts and to fertilize them, he has to resolve that either he shall die in the battle field of psychical progress or conquer and avoid all passionate and sensual longings : cast off all angry thoughts and hatred : not let the mind become indolent and slothful, and his perceptions weak: nor let restlessness and skepticism have control over him. His mind must not dwell on any other subject outside his special psychical field of activity. He should practice wakefulness by sleeping only four hours during the night that is from ten o’clock to two o’clock in the morning and from two o’clock in the morning to use the cloister. Cleanliness is absolutely necessary for the psychical student. The Lord Buddha emphasizing cleanliness declared that the observance of cleanliness is the fulfillment of the law of the Buddha. Physical cleanliness is a corollary to mental purity. If the oil is impure, and the wick not trimmed and lamp full of dirt the light could not be bright. Dirty nails, unkempt hair, ill-smelling clothes, unclean seat are hindrances to psychical progress. The object of the Bhikkhu life is to preserve the perfect life of Brahmacharya. Renunciation is the law of the Bhikkhu’s life. He must not touch gold or silver, nor be attached to his residence, his patrons, his clan, and he must not hesitate to impart knowledge to others. Concealment of knowledge a condemned, he must be always contented with whatever food he gets and be ready to share it with other Bhikkhus. He must not covet anything. He must be ready to leave his residence just as the bird readily leaves one tree to another. He should love solitude, and not be fond of society. Gossip he has to avoid and where he could not be engaged in spiritual talk, he should observe the principles of jhāna. He must keep the mind in a state of perpetual activity with perceptions of light and cultivate serenity of mind. His gestures should not show that he is restless. Buddhism has no central authority, and therefore many different varieties of practice and philosophy have developed over its history, including among monastic communities, sometimes leading to schisms in the Saṇgha. The information presented here, unless otherwise noted, characterizes only certain Buddhist monks who follow the strictest regulations of the tradition. Monks and nuns are expected to fulfill a variety of roles in the Buddhist community. First and foremost, they are expected to preserve the doctrine and discipline now known as Buddhism. They are also expected to provide a living example for the laity, and to serve as JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 45

a “field of merit” for lay followers, providing laymen and women with the opportunity to earn merit by giving gifts and support to the monks.5 In return for the support of the laity, monks and nuns are expected to live an austere life focused on the study of Buddhist doctrine, the practice of meditation, and the observance of good moral character. The relative degree of emphasis on meditation or study has often been debated in the Buddhist community. Many continued to keep a relationship with their original families. According to the Vinaya, the Saṇgha should not accept a former Bhikkhuni to retake these vows, and for Bhikkhu up to taking three or seven times in a life. Breaking some important Vinaya in manners according to the Vinaya Pitaka would not be accepted for again for a lifetime. The disciplinary regulations for monks and nuns are intended to create a life that is simple and focused, rather than one of deprivation or severe asceticism.6 Celibacy is of primary importance in monastic discipline, seen as being the preeminent factor in separating the life of a monastic from that of a householder. Depending on the tradition and the strictness of observation, monastics may eat only one meal a day provided either by direct donations of food from lay supporters, or from a monastery kitchen that is stocked (and possibly staffed) by lay supporters. Monastic practices vary significantly according to location. In part, this can be attributed to differences in the scriptural and doctrinal traditions that were received in different parts of the Buddhist world. Additionally, local concessions to social, geographical, and climatic conditions have been adopted by most monastic orders in order to smooth the integration of monks into local communities and to ensure that monks live in a safe and reasonable manner. In cold climates, for instance, monks are permitted to own and wear additional clothing not specified in the scriptures. In areas where begging rounds are impossible (due to traffic, geography, or disfavor by the lay community), monks more commonly employ a kitchen staff of monks or lay followers who are responsible for providing meals for the community.

5 Bhikkhu Ariyesako,The Bhikkhus’ Rules A Guide for Laypeople The Theravadin Buddhist Monk’s Rules (Australia: Sanghaloka Forest Hermitage 1998), p.75. 6 Bhikkhu Sujato, Bhikkhuni Vinaya Studies, (Australia: Sanipada Publication, 2009), p. 20. 46 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Vinaya Rules and Using Toilets in Vinaya Piṭaka

The aim of Buddhist code of conduct (Vinaya) was to purge society of sin, like the present day concept of purging society of crime only. Regarding to using toilets, there are many rules and regulation in Cūlavā Khandaka of Vinaya Piṭaka.7 Rules and guidelines on toilet practices appear throughout the Vinaya: while the rules of the Prātimokha as (lists of precepts) for monks and nuns focus on a clean image of the Saṇgha, explanatory chapters add a large number of practical instructions on how to make toilet facilities, and on how to use them properly. Once again, we will use the vinaya as our principal reference and compare it with the other Vinaya when necessary. Rules on toilet practices are included in the Prātimokha is recited during the Upoṣatha ceremony. As we will see, the focus is on correct behavior and decorum. In some rules, improper ways of relieving oneself are even equated with animal behavior, leaving no doubt that they are to be avoided. For instance, monks are forbidden to relieve themselves on green grass.8 1. This rule’s introductory story explains that lay followers consider such behavior to be common among animals. It, therefore, harms the name and reputation of the Saṇgha. There is a very similar prohibition in the rules for nuns, albeit in a higher category: any nun relieving herself on green grass commits a Pācittika offense. 2. Two distinct reasons are given to justify this relatively strong sanction. The first relates to the extreme embarrassment and damage to the image of the Saṇgha that will result if Lay followers find their clothes soiled with urine or excrement that nuns have deposited on a grassy spot. The second relates to the fate of the grass that dies, because of contamination by the nuns’ urine and excrement. This second point might be linked to Buddhists’ desire to respect some of the common convictions of their lay followers, such as a belief in the sentient life of plants. 3. Lay followers also compare the practice of relieving oneself in water with animals’ behavior. 4. It is unclear why this is viewed so critically, although it might have something to do with polluting the water, as this a rule describes water as ‘pure’, at one point.

7 Vi. VII. 10. 1. 8 Ann Heirman & Mathieu Torck, A Pure Mind in a Clean Body: Bodily Care in the Buddhist Monasteries of Ancient India and China, (Gent Belgium, Academia Press, 2012), p.50. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 47

5. A third and final practice that is compared to animal behavior is relieving oneself (urinating as well as excreting) while standing. 6. No further explanation is given for this prescription. One is permitted to stand only if it is impossible to remain clean while squatting. Decorum linked to a clean image and (to a lesser extent) to respect for some ideas that were common among lay followers but not adopted by the Buddhist dharma lies at the heart of the above rules relating to toilet practices. In this same vein, the rules for nuns contain one further stipulation that is not included in the rules for monks. 7. This focuses on how to dispose of excrement. As with the previous rules, this one is motivated by the desire to preserve decorum, but it also stresses the importance of not hurting or irritating others. It stipulates that a nun commits a Pācittika if she relieves herself at night in a pot. 8. And then throws the contents of that pot over a wall without looking the following day. 9. As we will see below, members of the monastic community were certainly familiar with chamber pots, although some passages seem to suggest that their use was restricted to those who were sick. This Pācittika rule for nuns, however, points to more general use. The introductory story tells how a wealthy person receives all of the filth on his head, which obviously causes considerable indignation, almost to the point of initiating legal action against the nuns. Nevertheless, the nun’s carelessness does not lead to an outright ban on throwing excrement over the wall. Instead, it merely results in a stipulation that due care must be taken at all times. So, in future, the nun does not commit any offense if she first looks around carefully during the day, or snaps her fingers or coughs loudly to warn passersby at night, before disposing of her waste. This compromise solution to avoid causing embarrassment seems to indicate that it was quite common to throw human waste over the wall. Disposal of waste is also permitted in places that are designed – or at least fit – for the purpose, such as on tiles or bricks, stones, tree-trumps and thorns (all explicitly termed ‘dirty places’), or into a pool, the edge of a pit or a dunghill. Clearly, then, the Prātimokha rules on relieving oneself are motivated primarily by a determination to avoid embarrassment, to respect lay people and to preserve a clean image of the Saṇgha. 48 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

10. Human wastes have considerable potential to damage this image. 11. In the case of nuns, the Dharmaguptaka vinaya even stipulates that new can pure dilates who are unable to control their defecation and urination, or who regularly discharge mucus and saliva, should not be ordained. 12. A nun who knowingly ordains such a candidate commits a Pācittika. 13. The introductory story for this rule focuses on the fact that such a nun constantly soils her body, robes, and sitting material. Finally, given this constant focus on a clean image, respect and decorum, it should come as no surprise that the Dhammaguptaka vinaya also contains Ṣaikṣ a rules that state that one should not relieve oneself under or towards a Stūpa of the Buddha, or even in the vicinity. 14. One should also not carry an image of the Buddha to toilet facilities (Sekhiya rule 77). 15. Although this Sekhiya a rule are unique to the Dharmaguptakavinaya, most Vinaya traditions include extensive guidelines on the proper respect due to stūpas. 16. Still, the Dharmaguptakavinaya is the only one that explicitly refers to excrement and urine in this context. It also adds that having used toilet facilities; one should always wash before carrying a small Stūpa (in one’s hands).9

The Possess of Physical Requisite to be Cleanliness

The ideal possessions of the Bhikkhu are just his basic requisites: three main robes; alms bowl; waistband; needle and thread; razor and water filter. a. Alms bowl: The alms bowl can be made from clay or iron but must be properly fired to harden it (if clay) and rustproof it (if iron). Three bowl-sizes are mentioned: small, medium and large.10 There are also several rules about begging for a new bowl before one’s old one is worn out, which entails forfeiture of the wrongly acquired bowl. b. Hair of the head: The hair of the head should not be worn long. It should be shaved at least every two months or when the hair has grown to a length of two fingerbreadths—

9 ibid. p.67. 10 In Thailand, the iron bowl has been almost superseded by the bowl made from stainless steel. EV reports that a medium-sized bowl is about 22.5 cm. in diameter. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 49

whichever occurs first, says the Commentary. In Thailand there is the custom that all Bhikkhus shave their heads on the same day, the day before the full moon, so that the Community can present a uniform appearance. Although this is not obligatory, a Bhikkhu who does not follow the custom tends to stand out from his fellows. c. Razor: A razor is one of a Bhikkhu’s eight basic requisites. He is also allowed a whetstone, a razor case, a piece of felt (to wrap the razor in), and all razor accessories (such as a strop). At present, this allowance would cover all types of safety razors as well. Unless ill—e.g., he has a sore on his head—a Bhikkhu may not use scissors to cut his hair or have it cut. The question of using electric razors to shave the head is a controversial one. Because their cutting action—even in rotary shavers—is like that of scissors, many Communities will not allow their use in shaving the head.11 A Bhikkhu may not have gray hairs pulled out. He may not arrange the hair of his head with a brush, a comb, with the fingers used as a comb, with beeswax mixed with oil, or with water mixed with oil. Hair dressing mousse and creams would also come under this prohibition. d. Beard: The beard should not be grown long, although—unlike the hair of the head—there is no explicit maximum length, unless the two month/two fingerbreadth rule is meant to apply here as well. One may not dress the beard as a goatee, a rectangle, or in any other design. The moustache may not be dressed, e.g., by making its ends stand up. Because there is no prohibition against using scissors to cut the beard, electric razors are clearly allowed in shaving the face. e. Water strainers: A water strainer is another basic requisite, used to provide clean water and to protect small beings in the water from being harmed. Three kinds of personal water strainers are allowed, although the first is not defined in any of the texts: a water strainer, a ladle strainer (according to the Commentary, this consists of three sticks tied together as a frame for the straining cloth), a water strainer cylinder (somewhat like a can with one end open, covered with straining cloth, and a small hole on the other end).12 f. Miscellaneous accessories: A Bhikkhu is allowed to own an /sunshade and to use it in the area of the monastery—although again, as with footwear, he should

11 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), p. 14. 12 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), p. 41. 50 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

lower the umbrella as a sign of respect near a stūpa. He is also allowed to use it outside the monastery when he is ill. According to the Commentary, ill here includes when he is feverish or in an irritable mood, when he has weak eyes or any other condition that might be aggravated by not using an umbrella. The Commentary goes on to say that when there is rain, one may use an umbrella to protect one’s robes; and when on a journey, one may use an umbrella as a protection against wild animals and thieves.13 g. Umbrella: The objection against using an umbrella without good reason seems to be that in ancient times it was considered a sign of rank and ostentation. Thus the Commentary goes on to say that an umbrella made out of a single very large leaf—as is sometimes used in Sri Lanka—is allowable in all circumstances, probably because it carries no connotations of rank. If the decorations are on the handle, one may use the umbrella only after scraping them off or wrapping the entire handle in thread so that they cannot be seen. The following personal requisites are also allowed: a mosquito net, a little water jar (as is still common in India; a small water kettle would also come under here), a broom, a fan, a palmyra-leaf fan (a fan with a handle), a torch, a lamp (flashlights would come under here), a mosquito whisk, and a staff (or a cane).

Cleanliness of Rules for Footwear

Footwear: The Canon mentions two kinds of footwear, leather footwear (upahana) and non-leather footwear (pāduka). Generally speaking, leather footwear—of very specific sorts—is allowable, while non-leather is not. At present, using the Great Standards, rubber is included under leather for the purposes of these rules.14 Leather footwear: A Bhikkhu in the middle Valley may wear new leather sandals only if the soles are made from a single layer of leather. He may wear multilayer sandals if they are cast-off, which according to the Commentary means that they have been worn (presumably, by someone else) at least once. Outside of the middle Ganges Valley, one may wear multi-layer sandals even if they are new. Sandals may not be worn if the soles or the straps are entirely blue (or green), entirely yellow, entirely blood-red, entirely crimson, entirely black, entirely orange, or entirely beige.

13 ibid, pp. 41-42. 14 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), p. 39. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 51

According to the Commentary, if one takes a cloth and wipes the soles and straps with dye to spoil the color, even if only a little, the sandals will then be acceptable. At present, one may use a pen to mark them to serve the same purpose. The following types of footwear, even when made with leather, are not allowed: footwear with heel-coverings (such as sandals with heel straps), boots (or sandals with straps up the calf), shoes, footwear stuffed with cotton (or kapok), decorated with partridge (or quail) wings, with toes pointed like rams’ horns, with toes pointed like goats’ horns, with toes pointed like scorpion tails, footwear with peacock feathers sewn around it, and other types of decorated footwear. Also not allowed is leather footwear embellished with skin, tiger skin, panther skin, black antelope skin, otter skin, cat skin, squirrel skin, or flying fox skin. The Commentary states that if one removes the offensive part of the footwear, one is allowed to wear what remains. It also states that the allowance for new multi-layer leather footwear in outlying areas implies that all skins (except human skin) are allowable for footwear there as well, but it is hard to understand why this would be so.15 In brief, above all mentioned possessions are a monk’s own properties to be clear and clean by physically and mental impurities attachment for those of matter.

Physical Cleanliness of ALMS-Food

As has been mentioned above, the Buddha said that there were four necessities of life: clothing, food, shelter, and medicine. The Buddha taught in the Majjhima Nikāya and Aṇguttara Nikāya16 that the basic source of food for Bhikkhus was that received on the morning alms round (Piṇḍapāta). This daily dependence on alms food reminds both the Bhikkhus and the lay devotees of their interdependence and prevents the Bhikkhu from becoming too isolated from the lay community. He ‘meets’ them every day and eats the food that they share with him. Several important rules are concerned with this as well as a major section of the Sekhiya Training rules. An alms round is not considered begging, for the Bhikkhu does not solicit anything but is ready mindfully to receive any alms that lay people may wish to give. Although alms food may sometimes be meager, the Bhikkhu is always expected to be grateful for whatever

15 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), p. 39. 16 M. I, 10; A. III, 387. 52 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

he is given.17 It is surprising how particular we can be about what food we like to eat; and what complications that can cause. This is reflected in the way rules concerning ‘edibles’ are arranged, which may seem very complex especially when the Bhikkhu’s life is supposed to be so simple. It should be borne in mind that the rules often deal with extraordinary circumstances and try to prevent them from becoming the norm.

The Maintenance of Environmental Cleanliness in Vinaya Piṭaka

Environmental pollution has assumed such vast proportions today that man has been forced to recognize the presence of an ecological crisis. He can no longer turn a blind eye to the situation as he is already threatened with new pollution-related diseases. Pollution to this extent was unheard of at the time of the Buddha. But there is sufficient evidence in the Pāli canon to give us insight into the Buddhist attitude towards the pollution problem. Several Vinaya rules prohibit monks from polluting green grass and water with saliva, urine, and feces. These were the common agents of pollution known during the Buddha’s day and rules were promulgated against causing such pollution. Cleanliness was highly commended by the Buddhists both in the person and in the environment. They were much concerned about keeping water clean, be it in the river, pond, or well. These sources of water were for public use and each individual had to use them with proper public-spirited caution so that others after him could use them with the same degree of cleanliness. Rules regarding the cleanliness of green grass were prompted by ethical and aesthetic considerations. Moreover, the grass is food for most animals and it is man’s duty to refrain from polluting it by his activities. Herein, the researcher would like to express some of Vinaya rules related to environmental cleanliness. They are as follows:18

“Whatsoever Bhikkhu shall dig the ground or have it dug--that is a Pācittiya.” “There is Pācittiya in destroying any vegetable.” “Whatsoever Bhikkhu shall sprinkle water with living creatures in it, or shall cause such to be sprinkled on grass or on clay--that is a Pācittiya.”

17 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), p. 495-504. 18 T.W. Rhys Davids and Hermann Oldenberg (trs.), Vinaya Texts: Books of the East, Vol. 17, (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1881), pp. 32. 33. 57. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 53

“‘Not on growing grass will I ease myself, or spit.’ This is a discipline which ought to be observed.” “Not into water will I ease myself, or spit.’ This is a discipline which ought to beserved.”

Noise is today recognized as a serious personal and environmental pollutant troubling everyone to some extent. It causes deafness, stress, and irritation, breeds resentment, saps energy and inevitably lowers efficiency. The Buddha’s attitude to noise is very clear from the Pāli canon. He was critical of noise and did not hesitate to voice his stern disapproval whenever the occasion arose. Once he ordered a group of monks to leave the monastery for noisy behavior.19 He enjoyed solitude and silence immensely and spoke in praise of silence as it is most appropriate for mental culture. Noise is described as a thorn to one engaged in the first step of meditation, but thereafter noise ceases to be a disturbance as the meditator passes beyond the possibility of being disturbed by sound. The Buddha and his disciples revealed in the silent solitary natural habitats unencumbered by human activity. Even in the choice of monasteries the presence of undisturbed silence was an important quality they looked for. Silence invigorates those who are pure at heart and raises their efficiency for meditation. But silence overawes those who are impure with ignoble impulses of greed, hatred, and delusion. The Bhayabherava Sutta beautifully illustrates how even the rustle of leaves by a falling twig in the forest sends tremors through an impure heart. This may perhaps account for the present craze for constant auditory stimulation with transistors and cassettes. The moral impurity caused by greed, avarice, acquisitive instincts, and aggression has rendered man so timid that he cannot bear silence which lays bare the reality of self-awareness. He, therefore, prefers to drown himself in loud music. Unlike classical music, which tends to soothe nerves and induce relaxation, rock music excites the senses. Constant exposure to it actually renders the man incapable of relaxation and sound sleep without tranquilizers. As to the question of the Buddhist attitude to music, it is recorded that the Buddha has spoken quite appreciatively of music on one occasion.20 When Pañcasikha the divine musician sang a song while playing the lute in front of the Buddha, the Buddha praised his musical ability saying that the instrumental music blended well with his song. Again, the

19 M. I, 457. 20 D. II, 267. 54 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

remark of an Arahant that the joy of seeing the real nature of things is far more exquisite than orchestral music21 shows the recognition that music affords a certain amount of pleasure even if it is inferior to higher kinds of pleasure. But it is stressed that the ear is a powerful sensory channel through which man gets addicted to sense pleasures. Therefore, to dissuade monks from getting addicted to melodious sounds, the monastic discipline describes music as a lament.22 The psychological training of the monks is so advanced that they are expected to cultivate a taste not only for external silence, but for the inner silence of speech, desire, and thought as well. The sub-vocal speech, the inner chatter that goes on constantly within us in our waking life is expected to be silenced through meditation. The sage who succeeded in quelling this inner speech completely is described as a , a silent one.23 His inner silence is maintained even when he speaks! It is not inappropriate to pay passing notice to the Buddhist attitude to speech as well. Moderation in speech is considered a , as one can avoid four unwholesome vocal activities thereby, namely, falsehood, slander, harsh speech, and frivolous talk. In its positive aspect moderation in speech paves the path to self-awareness. Buddhism commends speaking at the appropriate time, speaking the truth, speaking gently, speaking what is useful, and speaking out of loving-kindness; the opposite modes of speech are condemned. The Buddha’s general advice to the monks regarding speech is to be engaged in discussing the Dhamma or maintain noble silence.24 The silence that reigned in vast congregations of monks during the Buddha’s day was indeed a surprise even to the kings of the time.25 Silence is serene and noble as it is conducive to the spiritual progress of those who are pure at heart. Even Buddhist laymen were reputed to have appreciated quietude and silence. Pañcangika Thapati can be cited as a conspicuous example. Once Mahanama the Sakyan complained to the Buddha that he is disturbed by the hustle of the busy city of Kapilavatthu. He explained that he experiences calm serenity when he visits the Buddha in the quiet salubrious surroundings of the monastery and his peace of mind gets disturbed when he goes

21 Thag. 398. 22 Bhikkhu, Bodhi (tr.), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Saṃyutta Nikāya), (Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000), p. 352. 23 Sn. 207-221; A. I, 273. 24 M. I, 161. 25 M. II, 122; D. I, 50. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 55

to the city.26 Though noise to the extent of being a pollutant causing health hazards was not known during the Buddha’s day, we have adduced enough material from the Pāli canon to illustrate the Buddha’s attitude to the problem. Quietude is much appreciated as spiritually rewarding, while noise condemned as a personal and social nuisance.27

The Monastic Sṃmgha Duties in The Society

The main task of the Buddhist monastic community is to preserve and practice the Teaching of the Buddha. The Buddha Himself had indicated that the survival of the Teaching depended upon the existence of the monastic community, whose members can devote all their time and energy to this important task. Having accomplished this, they can use their learning and wisdom to help society as a whole.28 Although the members of the Buddhist monastic community have renounced the worldly life, they still have an important contribution to make to the welfare of the society. For instance, they help to solve the problems of the lay followers through counseling. Finally, the members of the monastic community also help to provide various social services for the lay community. The Buddhist monasteries have an important role to play in the education of the young and even today, there are Buddhist schools functioning alongside state schools. In addition, Buddhist monks and nuns help in the running of free clinics, orphanages, homes for the aged and the sick and other welfare organizations. As a conclusion remark of this chapter, the researcher tried to explain how the Buddhist monastic life related to physical cleanliness, and how a buddhist monk behave in proper way.

Conclusion

Cleanliness is about recognizing your inherent value as a human being. Cleanliness is also regarded as a sign of spiritual growth and purity. Keeping everything clean and tidy is a way of showing that you care about yourself, other people and your surroundings. It is a

26 S. V, 369. 27 Lily de Silva (ed.), Buddhist Perspective on Ecocrisis: The Buddhist Attitude towards Nature, (Kandy: BPS, 1987), pp. 9-29. 28 Bhikkhu Ṭhāṇissaro, The Buddhist Monastic Code, Vol. II. (California, Metta Forest Monastery, 2001), pp. 490-494. 56 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

good habit to keep our surroundings and ourselves clean and tidy. Some nations attach the utmost importance to cleanliness. Cleanliness of body leads to purity of mind, which elevates our moral and spiritual life.Preservation of health: Cleanliness ensures good health. If the body is regularly washed, dirt cannot choke the pores of the skin. This removes dirt through perspiration. On the other hand, if the pores are choked up, the impurities of the body cannot come out, and various diseases may follow. Exercise can do no good if we do not keep our body clean. We should. Therefore, be most careful in this respect. We should also keep our dress and clothes clean, and we should avoid dirty food. We should carefully throw the domestic waste in the garbage boxes. If one adheres to all these habits, one can be free from diseases and lead a happy life. Cleanliness is important for healthy mind, body, and spirit. Our first duty is to be clean. Every morning, as soon as you get up, you must clean your teeth, and wash your face, and your hands and feet. If possible, you may bathe and wash your whole body. If you cannot bathe as soon as you get up, you ought to do so at least later and always before you take your food. Cleanliness and hygiene are important from not only the public health point of view, but also socio and economic development of the family. There is no doubt to say in this era sanitation dictates the human life.Positivity. Keeping things clean and in order gives you and others a happy feeling, and so does being good and peaceful. Taking positive action to clear up the environment or just to spring clean our cupboards feels great. Taking positive action to be kind to others and do good deeds also feels wonderful. These feelings of positivity are not so different from each other: here, cleanliness and Godliness are very similar in terms of the effects they have on our minds. Development of Monastic Robe (Cīvara) in The Buddha’s Time

Ven. Paññā Nanda, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr., Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Having passed away of Buddha, the monks from Sāsana play very importance role as head leaders of Sāsana. To describe such image of monks, the robes also were the core value of Sāsana because a monk who wears a robe is accepted as a real monk by lay devotees. Among the Four Requisites such as robe, food, shelter and medicine which allowed by the Bhddha, there are different concepts of robe among the Buddhist monks today. Nowadays, after changing of time and location, the robes have become differently forms and styles as each of Mahāyana robes and Theravāda robes. Although each school has look similar robes such as colour, the way of sewing but there have much more different between them. The Theravāda monks from Myanmar who wear robes are not similar place and school with each others. So in this study, the researcher will be analysis the robes which related to Theravāda monks according to Piṭaka. The topic will be related monastic robe and its colour. All the data will be collected from the Buddhist scriptures. Especially, information will be searched from Vinaya Mahāvagga .

Keywords: Monastic robe and Robe colours in the Buddhist scriptures 58 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

The cloth in Buddhism is known as “cīvara, arahaddhaja, kāsāya, kāsāva” in Pāli language which usually translated as “robe, clothing, wearing, dress” in English. The monastic robes worn by monks and nuns play one of the most important symbols of the religious life. Many passages from the Vinaya show that there was a well-defined way of dressing in . In the early period of the Buddha’s career, there is no clear evidence concerning the robe style of the Buddha and his disciplines, or what kind of robe was used in those days. During the first twenty years the Buddha and his disciples wore a rag-robe called Paṃsukūla-cīvara.1 Twenty years after, having requested by Jīvaka2, a royal physician, an incident occurred for the monks to accept the robes given by house-holders.3 Then, the Buddha gave specific dimension and shape of robes step by step: cutting the robe-pattern of field.4 The Buddha permitted the use of six dyes, which are derived from roots, stems, barks, leaves, flowers and fruits.5 The colour of the robes depends on the dye used which give reddish-yellow, turmeric-saffron, vivid saffron, dark maroon, burgundy-colored. Until very recently, this would have been natural vegetable dye found in the jungle from roots or trees. Nowadays chemical dyes are more used. Therefore the robes’ color varies from one place to another. Thailand, , and Sri Lankan monks don robes dyed in bright saffron hues, Myanmar monks typically dress in dark maroon or burgundy – colored robes. In the Buddha’s times, the colour of monks’ robes was uneven. The reason was in those days, people used wood and tree rubber to dye robe. Even the colors of wood of extracted jackfruit trees varied from yellowish to brownish yellow.

1 Paṃsukūlika Cīvara means The dust-heap robe; The ‘discarded cloth’ would be thoroughly washed and possibly beached before it could be dyed. Nowadays robes made this way are rare and only probably used by a few forest monks. (Vin. I, p. 305.) 2 Jīvaka is a celebrated doctor, the personal physician of King Bimbisāra and also to the Buddha and his Community. 3 Mohan Wijayaratha (tr.), Buddhist Monastic Life, (New York; Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 32. 4 ‘Magadha-khetta’; This was probably an extensive rice-field which at once caught the eye on account of its terraces,” and size, one might add. (Vin. I, p. 288.) 5 Vin. I, p. 208. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 59

Robes Before The Used of Vinaya

Before the used of Vinaya, there is no clear-cut evidence concerning the clothing style of the Buddha and monks, or what kind of cloth was used in those days. It is informed that Prince Siddhattha left the palace, had his hair cut and partook in the priest life at the bank of Anoma River. He led homeless life among two groups of recluses, Samaṇa (priest) and Brāhmaṇa. Having taken up the priesthood, Samaṇa Siddhattha approached two hermits namely Ālara and Udaka, with a view to learn the practices and reach liberation. Then Samaṇa Siddhattha attained eight attainments; four form trances and four formless trances. There is also no evidence of the color and clothing style that the two hermits wore and used.6 Having achieved Enlightenment, the Buddha (Samaṇa Siddhattha) gave his first sermon to group of five . Koṇḍñña had become an Arahat together with eight equipments of bhikkhu including the robe. His robe was the first robe of the order of monks. Moreover, start form Vappa, Bahddiya, Mahānāma and till the sixty of monks used and wore Ehi Bhikkhu7 robes. But there is no evidence how style and color in Piṭaka dealing with Ehi Bhikkhu robes which wore by Ehi Bhikkhu monks. But, it was probably different robe from human clothes because of automatically appear of super natural power. Later on increasing the order of monks gradually, the monks wore the robes, called “Kāsāya nivattha or Kāsāva nivattha”8. But it was not the similar kind of robes wearing nowadays because of dyeing the bark of tree in those days. There was not definitely described in Pali which color and how to sew those robes in those days of monks.9 After that, it was found that the Buddha and non-Ehi bhikkhu monks wore the rag robes (Paṃsukūla)10. In other religious systems, some ascetics wore garments made of grass or of tree bark, others were clothed in hair, in owl feathers, or deer skins11. Yet others, for

6 Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Somjin Sammapanno, The Robe in Buddhist Scriptures, (Thailan d;Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Term Paper), p.1. 7 ‘ Ehi Bhikkhu’ means “Come, monk”; The first time that this, thought to be the oldest formula for leave to become a disciple of Gotama’s, is used in the Vinaya. The Order was not as yet in existence, and the ordination regulations were neither appointed nor was ordination separated by a period of probation from the time of a disciple’s “going forth”, , from home, or the household life, into homelessness. 8 ‘ Kāsāya or kāsāva’ means ‘dun-coloured dye-water’, ‘Nivattha’ means ‘cloth’. 9 Ashin Paṇḍitābivaṃsa (Myan.), Haw Kwet Pyaw Kwet, (Yangon: Aung Zabu, 2005), pp. 82-88. 10 Vin. I, p. 289. 11 Ibid, p. 305. 60 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

example the Nigaṇṭhas, disciples of Jina Mahāvīra and the Acelaka, remained completely naked12. The members of the Buddhist Community, however, and its founder, were not willing to acknowledge nudity as a virtue, nor to imitate the mode of dress of any other ascetics. This is why they adopted a costume made up of rags that they had collected. The Mahāvagga does not explain the size of this robe nor how many pieces it was made of. According to the Vinaya, two kinds of rag were used to make up the garments of Buddhist monks. Some were pieces of cloth collected in burial-grounds, others were scraps of material gathered in streets and near shops. Perhaps the people wore the clothes corpses had been dressed in, or perhaps they threw them away in cremation-grounds specifically for ascetics to gather. The Vinaya describes how traveling monks, in the first years of the Community, would collect rags in cremation-grounds which they chanced to find on their way. It is possible that people deliberately threw pieces of material there for that purpose. However, the fact that monks used rags gathered in cremation-grounds did not mean that they wore dirty garments, or saw a special virtue in doing so. Even the Buddha himself, had ever picked up from the dead body of one female slave, named Puṇṇā.13 During twenty years of the Buddha, although the monks received for food and monastery from lay devotee, they did not receive for robes directly from them. After twenty years of Buddha, there was allowance by the Buddha to used and wear the robes which donated from lay devotees due to requesting of Jīvaka14. But the monks still used the rag- robe. Until now, there are some monks who wear and practice the rag-robe called ‘paṃsukūla dhūtaṅga’15.

Robe After The Used of Vinaya

After the used of Vinaya, there were many lay devotees who donated for robes in line with amount of more monks. But, there is no clear-cut evidence concerning the clothing style of the Buddha and monks, or what kind of cloth was used. However, it probably supported that the monk of robes seem sewing the imitation people’s clothes style of those days.

12 Ibid, p. 282. 13 Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 32 – 33. 14 This celebrated doctor, the personal physician of King Biṃbisāra ministered to the king himself, and also to the Buddha and his community. 15 ‘ Paṃsukūla dhūtaṅga’ means one who has a habit of wearing clothes made of rags taken from a dust heap. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 61

According to Mahāvagga Pali, it described that such three kinds of robes: inner robe, upper robe and double outer cloak were wore by the monks. These three kinds of robes were sewn collecting piece of clothes. But there was not evidence of measurement which piece of clothe is systematically cut for size. Twenty years later when the time the used of Vinaya, a large enough number of devotees accepted that wearing a robe made up of pieces of material given by lay people was no obstacle on the path of inner progress; and so they asked the Buddha and his disciples to wear the robes they had given them, or to use material they had given. For the Buddha, the time was now ripe to change the habits of the Community and accept unused fabrics to make monastic garments. However, monks did not give up their costume made of rags completely. If he so desired, a monk could still wear rag-robes, but new rules were laid down to specify their precise dimensions and color, following those applying to robes given by lay followers.16 Just after allowance of Magadha paddy field robe by the Buddha that sewed five folds by Ānada, there was exactly appear style or shape of robe.17 Henceforth, the dress of Buddhist monks and nuns began to be governed by rules; before this declaration, according to the Vinaya, there were no specific rules about rag-robes. Later on being requested of monks, the Buddha added the rule of the corss-seam, etc. on the robe what was needed as see the style of robe today. In those days, lay devotees donated the good quality of robes for the monks due to their generosity. The monks received them not to be prohibit of their generosity. The clothes which had received were cut as piece of clothes and sewed them according to rule and regulation of Vinaya not to be in vain. To do so, the clothes were not same with lay mans’ but different style of monks’ wearing. Moreover, there can be no danger of thieve or robbers because of changing the original qualities. Once permission had been given, the Community received different kinds of material from lay people. On this subject, the Buddha was more broad-minded than the other religious leaders of his time. He allowed his disciples to make use of six kinds of material: linen, cotton, silk, wool, coarse linen and hemp.18 The first four were regarded, even in the Buddha’s

16 Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life, (New York, Cambridge University Press, 1990), p. 35. 17 Vin. I, p. 280. 18 Ibid, p. 281. 62 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

time, as valuable, and were given to the Community by wealthy followers.19 Monks were only allowed to have cloth woven for them if the weavers were devout followers of the Community or very close members of their own family.20 For the robe colour, there was no clear-colour evidence concerning the original rag-robe but it was only prohibit colour that should not be dyed in robe. Mahāvagga Pali described that the monks wore the robe colours of blue, brown, yellowish brown, pale yellow, dark yellow, crimson or even black from the beginning of the Buddha.21 As lay followers criticized these colors, the Buddha forbade monks to wear them. The Mahāvagga gives a list of permitted dyes: they were made from roots, tree-bark, leaves, flowers and stalks.22 One or more of these ingredients would be put in a big pot with boiling water, until the water became the right colour. This process of dyeing was also intended to reduce the commercial value of the original piece of cloth.

Monastic Robe Patterns as Magadha Field

The Buddha, from having achieved Enlightenment till received, the robe donated by lay people (gahapati cīvara) during twenty years, the monks wore inner robe, upper robe and double outer cloak but those robes were not same as the robes which systematically sewed the robes of monks nowadays. They are only such kind of rag-robe in those days that apiece of clothes picking up form junction of road and so on were sewed. Only after allowance of gahapati cīvara by the Buddha, there was systematically sew and use the robe.23 One day, the Buddha having stayed in Rājagaha for as long as he found suitable, set out on tour for Dakkhiṇāgiri. The Buddha saw the field of Magadha24, laid out in strips, laid out in lines, laid out in embankments, laid out in squares, and seeing this, the Buddha wished that the robe of monks would be sewn like the field of Magadha systematically. Then, the Buddha said venerable Ānanda to make and sew the robes of monks same as the field of Magadha pointing out that.

19 Vin.A. IV, p. 394. 20 Vin. III, pp.256–260. 21 Vin. I, p. 306. 22 Ibid, p. 281. 23 Ibid, p. 288. 24 ‘ Magadha-khetta’; this was “probably an extensive rice-field which at once caught the eye on account of its terraces,” and size, one might add. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 63

When venerable Ānanda retruned to Rājagaha, he cut the fabric systematically. Then he showed the Buddha what he had made and sewed systematically a cross-seam, a short cross-seam, a circular seam, a short circular seam, a central piece and side pieces and so on. The Buddha was very pleased and saying to the monks:

‘‘Monks, clever is Ānanda; monks, of great intelligence is Ānanda, in as much as he can understand in detail the meaning of that which was spoken of by me in brief, and can make a cross-seam (kusi) and can make a short cross-seam (aḍḍha-kusi) and can make a circular seam (maṇḍala) and can make a short circular seam (aḍḍha-maṇḍala), and can make a central piece (vivaṭṭa) and can make side pieces (anu-vivaṭṭa) and can make a neck-piece (gīveyyaka) and can make a knee- piece (jaṅgeyyaka), and can make an elbow-piece (bāhanta), and what is cut up must be roughly darned together, suitable for recluses and not coveted by opponents. I allow you, monks, an outer cloak that is cut up, an upper robe that is cut up, an inner robe that is cut up.’’

Venerable Ānanda was praised by the Buddha and allowed to the monks for cutting and sewing the robes systematically as following picture.25

The Perfect Robe Patterns of the Buddha’s Time

25 Vin. I, pp. 287 – 288: B.D. IV, pp. 407 – 409. 64 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Allowed Six Colours of Robe in The Buddha’s Time

Since the Order of monks was formed, the monks picked up, sewed and wore a piece of clothes which people threw away the place such as cemetery or other places. Because of that dyes are not allowed to use by the Buddha, the dung of cow (chakaṇena) and the red ochre (paṃdhumattikā) were used as a dyes. To using this, the color of robes were not well looking for the monks. The black-brown cow dung and the dark red ochre were not to be dyed very well. The color of dye was not irregularly and not good respect for lay men. So, some monks reported to the Buddha that they don’t like those robes that dyed with the dung of cow and the red ochre or yellow clay or copper-coloured clay. In this reason, the Buddha allowed six kinds of dyes. These are as follow; 1. Dye from roots, 2. Dye from stems or trunk, 3. Dye from bark, 4. Dye from leaves, 5. Dye from flowers and 6. Dye from fruits.26 To allow, the Buddha was not clearly mention that which roots, trunk, barks, leaves, flower and fruits dyes were suitable or not for the monks. Although he did not mention about it clearly, the professor of the commentary and sub-commentary explained that which roots, trunk, barks, leaves, flowers and fruits dyes were suitable for the monks’ robes. Some Commentaries Sub-commentaries were illustrated and analyzed as follows; 1. Among the dye of roots, dye of turmeric (haliddiṃ) was not suitable for the robes but others dyes were suitable. 2. Among the dye of trunks, the dyes of Indian Madder (mañjiṭṭha), Rubia Cordifolia (tuṅgahāra) and Rottleria tinctora were not suitable for robes but others were suitable. 3. Among the dye of barks, mangrove tree or Dalbergia ovata27’s bark and Muchna Pruritis’s bark was not suitable for robes but others were suitable.

26 Vin. I, pp. 286 – 287: B.D. IV, p. 405. 27 A kind of tree, the bark of which produces a mordant for indigo dye, Dalbergia ovate. This tree is also called ‘Symplocos racemosa’. , The Buddhist Monastic, Code. II, (Thailand: Free Distribution, 2007), p. 23. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 65

4. Among the dye of leaves, the dyes indigo plant or Indigofera tinctoria (nīlipatta) and henna tree or Lawsnia insemis (allipatta) were not suitable for robes but others were suitable. 5. Among the dye of flowers, coral tree Butea( Frondosa)’s flower, safflower (kiṃsuka puppha) and carthmus tinctoriu or but (kusumbha puppha) were not suitable for robes but others were suitable. 6. All the dyes of fruits were suitable to dye for robes.28 Out of the suitable dyes and unsuitable dyes, there were no evidences in the Commentaries and sub-commentaries that why was not suitable and why was suitable. It probably is not suitable that some dyes were bad smell and some were bad colour and some were too good colour. Unsuitable dyes were described at the Vinaya Vinicchaya Sub-commentary. Indian madder dye and dark original colour dye that two kinds of unsuitable dye have dark red like Indian madder colour and yellow orpiment colour. Out of two unsuitable leave dyes, dye prepared from henna tree leaf (Lawsonia inermits) has yellow colour like turmeric. Dye prepared from Indigo tree leaf has brown colour. Out of two kinds of unsuitable dye prepared from flowers, the dye prepared from kinds of flowering tree’s flower has dark red colour. According to the sub-commentary’s explanation it can consider that the commentator and sub-commentator reject that it is “unsuitable because those lady palm, yellow orpiment, swing leaf, Indigo tree leaf and kinds of flowering tree’s flower (dyes) have very dark yellow, brown, red, by explanation mainly colour.29 The Lord Buddha did not allow cīvara to be of a vivid or striking color and therefore cīvara are prohibited from having designs of animals and of flowers. A very small flower pattern which is not striking, such as pepper-flowers or a ripple pattern in a kind of silk, is allowed.

28 Vin. A. V, p. 1126. 29 Vin.vn. II, p. 258. 66 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Prohibited Seven Colours of Robe in The Buddha’s Time

If the explanations of the above commentaries and sub-commentaries are studied, the venerables of commentary and sub- commentary distinguished the dying colours allowed by the Buddha between suitable and unsuitable dyes and in that explainations, mention of the relationship (kind) and its colours of unsuitable dyes also has to be found. It may guess that the explanation about the dying colours of the venerables of commentary and sub- commentary is concerning with unsuitable dying colours from Pāḷi. It is because unsuitable dying colours from Pāḷi and some dying colours explained by the venerables of Aṭṭhakathā and Ṭīkā are same. To compare and study unsuitable colours from Pāḷi and Aṭṭhakathā and Ṭīkā, seven types of unsuitable dying colours prohibited by the Buddha in Pāḷi are mentioned together with introduction. Once upon a time, the group of six monks was wearing the dark brown color robes dealing with six dyes by the allowance of Buddha. When the lay men saw them, they censured the monks then the monks who heard about it reported to the Buddha. So the Buddha prohibited seven kinds of robe colors. These were as follows; 1. A robe dying with entirely brown colour, 2. A robe dying with entirely yellowish colour, 3. A robe dying with entirely red colour, 4. A robe dying with entirely toddy-tree (crimson) colour, 5. A robe dying with entirely black colour, 6. A robe dying with entirely brownish – yellow (Mahāraṅga30) colour, and 7. A robe dying with entirely reddish – yellow (Mahānāma31) colour. Among those seven types of colour, the Buddha prohibited not to use the robes dying with one kind of dye and to make wrong doing offence commit if they used.32 If the colour prohibited by the Buddha above is studied, it has to be found that some unsuitable colours explained by commentator and sub-commentator related with unsuitable dyes is concerning with unsuitable dyes. Here it is necessary to compare with how is brown

30 The Pali term ‘Mahāraṅgaratta’ means that it is the colour of a centipede’s back. (V.A, p. 1083) 31 The Pali term ‘Mahānāmaratta’ means that it is the colour of withered leaves a mixed colour. (V.A, p. 1083) 32 Vin. I, pp. 306 – 307: B.D. IV, p. 438. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 67

etc. that it is brown dye, and the explanation of commentary mention and that necessary can complete. It is compared the following about the colour of dye at the explanation of Vinaya commentary. 1. Brown dye is similar to flax flower or Line seed, Linum Usitatissimum (Umā puppha). 2. Yellowish dye is similar to bauhinia flower (Kaṇikāra puppha). 3. Reddish dye is similar to shoe flower or hibiscus (Jayasumana puppha). 4. Indian madderish dye is similar to Indian madder seed colour (Mañjiṭṭha). 5. Coal dye is similar to rare monkey blood or weed crow wing (Addāriṭṭha). 6. Mahāraṅga (a kind of dyes) dye is similar to the back of centipede (Satapadi piṭṭhi). 7. Mahānāma (a kind of d00yes) dye is similar to pale leaf or the sacred lotus (Paṇḍupalāsa vaṇṇa or Paduma puppha vaṇṇa).33

The seven unsuitable kinds of colour can be found mentioning compare with the colour of flower, fruit and animal. If suitable dye, unsuitable dye and colour that had said are made in brief with kinds, those five kinds of dye; 1. The turmeric root, 2. The Indian madder wood , and Jack fruit bines or Rubia Cordifolia, 3. The bark of Dalbergia Ovata tree, 4. The leaf of Henna Tree or Lawsnia Insemis and Indigo Plant or Indigofera tinctoria, 5. The parrot tree flower of small particle flower and safflowers.

These five kinds of dye are not suitable colour for robes. The remaining all root, wood, steam, flower and fruit dye are suitable and allowable colour for robe. With colour, these seven kinds of colour; 1. Dark brown colour like a flax (clematis) flower or petal flower, 2. Yellowish colour like a Bauhinia flower, 3. Reddish colour like a shoe flower or Hibiscus flower, 4. Entirely dark brown and red brown (maroon) like a seed of Indian Madder (Rubia Cordifolia), 5. Dark black colour like a wed wing of crown,

33 Vin.A, V, p. 1084. 68 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

6. Entirely dark reddish colour and gloomy colour like a hermit’s robe and the back of centipede and 7. Pale yellow colour like a pale leaf or the sacred lotus flower.

These seven kinds of colour are not suitable for robe and the remaining colours are suitable for robe.

The Buddha and His Disciple’s Robe Colours

To analyze the color of Buddha and Mahākassapa Thera according to Commentary described that “Suvaṇṇavaṇṇe cīvare”34 in Pali what means “the Buddha’s robe colour is similar to gold colour or saffron”. In addition, according to Saṃyutta Commentary, Commentary and Majjhima Nikāya Commentary defined that the colour of inner robe of Buddha was similar to coral flower color and double outer cloak was similar to the colour of banyan tree’s bud.35 Furthermore, Vinaya Commentary described that “the robe color of Buddha is red (ratta paṃsukūla).”36 After that, Dhīgha Nikāya Commentary aslo illustrated that “the color of inner robe of Buddha is red (suratta dupaṭṭaṃ) and upper robe is rain cloud colour (megha vaṇṇaṃ).”37 Herein the explanation of sub-commentary, and some translation in Myanmar version need to be studied about original Pali, “Suratta dupaṭṭaṃ, Megha vaṇṇaṃ”. Thereon, the word of ‘suratta dupattaṃ’ can be translated into “an outer cloak dyed with dyed material well” according to Sīlakkhandha sub-commentary because it explains that “Suratta dupaṭṭan’ti rajanena sammā rattaṃ diguṇaṃ antaravāsakaṃ”. The Sīlakkhandha sub-commentry defined the word ‘megha vaṇṇaṃ’ in Pali that “Meghavaṇṇan’ti ratta meghavaṇṇaṃ sañjā pabānurañji tamegha saṅkāsanti attho”.38 Then new Sīlakkhandha sub-commentary defined it in Pali “Surañjitabhāvena isakaṃ kaṇṇhavaṇṇāya meghavaṇṇaṃ”.39 Out of those two sub-commentaries, According to old

34 D.A. I, p. 58. 35 S.A. III, p. 46: Ud.A. p. 411: M.A. III, p. 20. 36 Vin.A. I, p. 240. 37 D.A. II, p. 366. 38 Sīlakkhandhavagga Ṭīkā (Old) (Myan.), (Yangon:Religious Affairs, 1988), p. 361. 39 Sīlakkhandhavagga Abhinava Ṭīkā (New) (Myan.), (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1980), pps. 194, 369. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 69

sub-commentry, the word ‘megha vaṇṇaṃ’ can be translated that “cloud colour attached with twilight colour”. Then according to the new sub-commentary, it can be translated that “having cloud colour because it is dyed well, it has a little black colour”. Even those two sub-commentaries are studied and the Myanmar ancient translated into Myanmar respectively that is “Similar cloud colour”,40 “Having cloud colour”,41 and “Having red cloud colour.”42 Based on Commentary and Sub-commentaries above, it has to consider that if the Buddha’s robe colour is studied, it has ruddy colour like the golden colour.43 Entirely red colour and dark brown colour should not be worn looking at the words that ‘suratta dupaṭṭaṃ’ and ‘īsakaṃ kaṇha vaṇṇtā’. That in, because the Buddha prohibited those two kinds of colours. So it can consider that the Buddha’s robe colour was not very ruddy (scarlet colour) and brown colours, and only ruddy colour (only suitable red colour) like red golden colour and twilight colour should be. The Myanmar translator Sayadaws gave each conclusion about the Buddha’s robe colour and the most venerable Mahā Ganddhā Yon (1899 – 1977) gives his conclusion about that although it is said, “red cloud colour”, it is not ruddy red colour and it should be only dull red colour like deep jack fruit colour, pale banyan tree herb colour.44 It has to be observed that the most venerable Pakhukku Sayadaw (1877 – 1958) and Visuddhā Yon Sayadaw (1838 – 1916) gave their conclusion about that it should be only suitable ruddy colour.45

40 U Nandavaṃsa (Nay Yinn Sayadaw) (Myan.), Sīlakkhandhavagga Aṭṭhakathā Translation, Vol. I, (Yangon: Han Thar Wadi, 1952), p. 361. 41 Visuddhā Yone Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhanda Aṭṭhakathā Translation, Vol. 1, (: Padaythar Press, 1957), p. 194. 42 Pakhukku Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhaṃ Aṭṭhakaṭhā, Translation, Vol. 2, (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1986), p. 560. 43 ‘ Ratta’ means “dyed”, “coloured”. ‘Dūratta-vaṇṇa’ means “difficult to dye or badly dyed”. Therefore, ‘suratta’ means “high red colour, more like crimson”. Sometimes it comes near a meaning like “shiny, shining, glittering” (as in ‘ratta-suvaṇṇa’ “the glittering gold”). (Pali – English Dictionary, P.T.S) 44 Mahāgandhā Yon Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhaṃ Bhāsāṭīkā, Vol. 1, (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1986), p. 263. 45 Pakhukku Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhaṃ Aṭṭhakaṭhā, Translation, Vol. 2, (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1986), p. 560. Visuddhā Yone Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhanda Aṭṭhakathā Translation, Vol. 1, (Mandalay: Padaythar Press, 1957), p. 194. 70 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conclusion

There are different believes such as Christianity, Muslim, Hinduism and Buddhism in the world. Among them, in Buddhism, there are two kinds of Buddhism: called Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. There are five Theravada countries. They are Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Lao and Cambodia and the monks from different countries have different style of wearing the robes. The Theravada Buddhist monks are not the same in characteristics such as in robes, in robe wearing style and in color of robes one another as different countries and different places although they are practicing Dhamma and Vinaya under the same title of Theravāda Buddhism. Even the characteristics of Myanmar Theravāda Monks are not the same one school to another and they are different slightly. In fact, we all are one under the Buddhism however we wear the different styles of robes. To analyze the teachings of Buddha throughout the whole 45 years, it can be found that outer appearances are not matter but only inner development is matter. To follow and practice the Buddha teaching is needed no matter how different the outer appearances are. As long as one who follows and practices the teachings of Buddha can be called the disciples of the Buddha even though how different wearing style of robes. When these mighty rivers, like the Gaṅga, the , the Acīravatī and the Sarabhu etc reach the great Ocean, they lose their former names and designations, and are reckoned just as the great Ocean. In the same way, there are many different names of monks around the world such as; the Chinese Mahayana Buddhist monks, the Japanese Shinto Buddhist monks, the Tibetan Lama Buddhist monks, the Thai Theravāda Buddhist monks and the Myanmar Theravāda Buddhist monks and so on. Although they have different names and different styles of robes wearing when they enter under the name of Buddha’s Sāsana the original names are disappeared but there is only one name remained called Buddhist monks. Then, the Buddha there said “the Great Ocean has only one taste, that of salt”. Just as the great ocean has only one taste, that of salt; even so has this teaching and discipline only one taste, the taste of liberation, Nibbāna. In the same way, they can enjoy and feel together only the same taste of Nibbāna if follow and practice the teachings of Buddha no matter how different names are, no matter how different styles of robes wearing are and no matter how existence. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 71

References

I. Primary Source

Harmann Oldenberg (Ed.), Vinaya Piṭakaṃ, Vol. I, (London: P.T.S, 1997). Harmann Oldenberg (Ed.), Vinaya Piṭakaṃ, Vol. III, (London: P.T.S, 1993). J. Takakusu & Makoto Nagai (Ed.), Vinaya Aṭṭhakathā, Vol. I, (London: P.T.S, 1975). J. Takakusu & Makoto Nagai (Ed.), Vinaya Aṭṭhakathā, Vol. V, (London: P.T.S, 1976). J. Takakusu & Makoto Nagai (Ed.), Vinaya Aṭṭhakathā, Vol. IV, (London: P.T.S, 1967). W. Stede, Ph. D, (Ed.), Dīgha Nikāya Aṭṭhakathā, Part II, (London: P.T.S, 1971).

II. Secondary Source

I.B. Horner, M.A (Tr.), The Book of the Discipline, Vol. IV, (London: P.T.S, 1993). Mohan Wijayaratha (tr.), Buddhist Monastic Life, (New York; Cambridge University Press, 1990). Assoc. Prof. Dr. Phramaha Somjin Sammapanno, The Robe in Buddhist Scriptures, (Thaila nd;Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, Term Paper). Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu, The Buddhist Monastic, Code. II, (Thailand: Free Distribution, 2007). Ashin Paṇḍitābivaṃsa (Myan.), Haw Kwet Pyaw Kwet, (Yangon: Aung Zabu, 2005). U Nandavaṃsa (Nay Yinn Sayadaw) (Myan.), Sīlakkhandhavagga Aṭṭhakathā Translation, Vol. I, (Yangon: Han Thar Wadi, 1952), p. 361. Visuddhā Yone Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhanda Aṭṭhakathā Translation, Vol. 1, (Mandalay: Padaythar Press, 1957), p. 194. Pakhukku Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhaṃ Aṭṭhakaṭhā, Translation, Vol. 2, (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1986), p. 560. Mahāgandhā Yon Sayadaw (Myan.), Sīlakkhaṃ Bhāsāṭīkā, Vol. 1, (Yangon: Religious Affairs, 1986), p. 263. The Meaning and Significance of kāyagatāsati in Theravāda Buddhism

Rev. Jyotisar Shraman, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji

Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The contemplation on the body means being ardent of with own self and as well as others the materials what constitutes the physical body. It is a great method of meditation contemplating on repulsiveness and loathsome that brings a great benefi t of beings to know about the reality of the physical forms. One should accept and consider the reality that one’s body is eventually subject to be changed. The body is made of the four materials. And this is instantly changeable. Consequently the death is inevitable so that one’s mind should not suffer through worry, fear and anxieties. Moreover, one should remember and remind oneself that one day one’s body will be decaying and dying subsequently. The mindfulness with contemplation on body teaches to be agreed with this condition of life smoothly. The kāyagatāsati is a mindfulness which bears the wisdom that is able to extinguish affl ictions and bring about mental purity and enlightenment. kāyagatāsati plays a very great role in the daily life of modern society. Because the human beings are running behind the worldly pleasures in today’s world where there is less values of loving kindness, dignity, and full of intolerant and lack of trust. Here is the dukkha peoples fail to understand. The contemplation on body effi ciently gives lessons of true nature of lives and ultimately bends to the Nibbāna.

Keywords: kāya, , body. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 73

Introduction

The meditation on contemplation on body is very common practice in Buddhism. The foulness meditation aims to reduce the desires; greed, sensual pleasures and lust and to reduce attachment (taṇhā) for the body, along with all these associated problems that these arise to such as aversion, discontent, frustration, etc. it also aims to give one insight into the true nature of the body., i.e. unpleasant, disgusting, ugly, impermanent, suffering and non self. Once desire and lust for the body subsides, the mind tends to naturally calm down allowing for clear insight into the reality of the body and also all conditioned things. In Buddha’s time many monks attained arahatship by meditating on these impure parts. Kāyagatāsati develops asubhasaññā (notion of loathsomeness) on the body just as asubhabhāvanā does. This loathsomeness of the body leads to dispassion. According to the Visuddhimagga, the meditation on mindfulness of the body had never been practiced prior to the Buddha, nor does it appear within the scope of any of the other Indian religious systems. It is praised in various ways by the Buddha in different suttas, for example: There is one state, Monks, which, being developed and repeatedly practiced, leads to great religious emotion, great benefit, great freedom from bondage, great mindfulness and self-possession, the attainment of knowledge and insight, the happy state in this visible life, and the realization of the fruit of knowledge and release. What is that one state? It is mindfulness of the body1 and again:

“Those who do not enjoy mindfulness of the body do not enjoy deathlessness (amata); those who enjoy mindfulness of the body enjoy deathlessness. Those who have not enjoyed mindfulness of the body have not enjoyed deathlessness; those who have enjoyed mindfulness of the body have enjoyed deathlessness. Those who have neglected mindfulness of the body have neglected deathlessness; those who have not neglected mindfulness of the body have not neglected deathlessness.”2

1 The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara-Nikāya), F. L. Woodward (tr.), Vol. I, (PTS: London, 1979), p. 39. 2 The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara-Nikāya), F. L. Woodward (tr.), Vol. I, (PTS: London, 1979), pp. 40-41. 74 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The meaning of kāyagatāsati

One of the distinguishing features of the Buddha’s system of meditation is the emphasis placed upon the physical body both as a foundation for practice and the means of experiencing and exploring reality. The body, the texts stress, needs to be well maintained and looked after; it then provides the basis by which the mind may be calmed; through sense impressions it provides the data for the cultivation of wisdom and it then continues, in daily life, to give a support whose care and well-being is of the utmost importance for the practice of meditation and development of insight. To this day most practices involve remembering to look after the bodily base as part of their preliminary instructions. They also recommend a careful return to everyday life and normal bodily activities after the meditation has finished,3 According to the Buddha, life is suffering (dukkha), caused by desire (taṇha). To end this suffering, desire must to be ended. Death causes dukkha because of desire for life (bhavataṇha).4 For example, when, in any existence, the greed and craving connected with the eye finally ceases, the eye does not arise again; and so the oppression by the eye does not arise again. The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind should be regarded likewise. And understands the real cessation of suffering is knowledge. This is the knowledge that sees right view regarding the cessation of suffering (sammādiṭṭhi-ñāṇa).5 Death is unavoidable result of the birth and in this way it is closely related with mindfulness of death. The Buddha addresses monks at Nadika again on mindfulness of death, which should be practised, he says, by thinking of ways that death may come. Here he uses physically explicit reminders: death by scorpions, falls, choking and dysentery.6 The sutta differs from the treatment of death in the Visuddhimagga in that the one who will experience death is at first taken as oneself rather than other beings.7 The word for oneself

3 Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon, (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 140. 4 S.v.420. 5 Ledi Sayādaw (tr), Maggaṅga Dīpanī: A Manual of the Path Factors, (England: Association for Insight Meditation, 2000), p. 20. 6 D.ii.290. 7 Vism. IX 8–10. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 75

(me) is used (Bahukā kho me paccayā maraṇassa).8 The language is stark and uncompromising in its description of the means of possible death. The image of the “head on fire” is used, presumably to arouse , the sense of urgency associated with this practice. This text suggests considering the manifold possibilities of early death as a means of arousing energy, mindfulness and clear comprehension. If the monk reviewing (paccavekkhamana) knows that he has done what he should, however, the practice brings joy and gladness and leads to the deathless (amata): the wording suggests a weight towards the cultivation of . A verse in Dhammapada describes a young monk, who falls in love with Sirimā, a beautiful courtesan. Unexpectedly she died. Even when the King ordered the people to have a look at her corpse nobody cared to look at it. Showing the decaying and worm-infested body to the monks, the Buddha spoke on the loathsomeness of the body:

“Behold this beautiful body, a mass of sores, a heaped-up (lump), diseased, much thought of, in which nothing lasts, nothing persists.” (Dhp. 147)

During the Buddha’s time, people who wished to be purified thought out various kinds of asceticism and meditation methods. Some believed in extremes of self-mortification. Some believed in canine and bovine practices, and some believed in purification through , Buddha was also a seeker of purification. He found out the proper way, purified himself first and then prescribed it to other beings.

“As he instructs others so should he act? Fully self-controlled, he could control (others); for one is difficult to control.” (Dhp. 159)

According to Satipaṭṭhana sutta, The Buddha spoken there can be no other ways for the purification of beings. This is the only way, the way of four foundation of mindfulness, satipatthana9 this is the direct way, the only way (ekāyano maggo) for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of sorrow and lamentation, for the disappearance of pain and grief, for reaching the noble path, for the realization of Nibbāna.10 The Kāyagatāsati sutta stresses the need for constant awareness of the body’s position, “When walking, the monk discerns, ‘I am walking.’ When standing, he discerns, ‘I am standing.’ When sitting, he discerns, ‘I

8 A.iii.307. 9 S.iii.144. 10 D.ii.231. 76 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

am sitting.’ When lying down, he discerns, ‘I am lying down.”11 The sutta also outlines the practice of “reflections on repulsiveness of the body” (patikulamanasikara). In this practice a meditator reflects on various parts of the body (nails, hair, bodily organs, and fluids) and noting their impurity. The sutta also recommends meditation on the of the body and death by contemplating human corpses in various states of decomposition. “Furthermore, as if he were to see a corpse cast away in a charnel ground - one day, two days, three days dead - bloated, livid, & festering, he applies it to this very body, ‘This body, too: Such is its nature, such is its future, such its unavoidable fate”.12 The sutta then explains the attainment of the first four rūpajhānas, states of calm concentration reached through meditation.

Definitions of the TermKāyagatāsati

1) – (Sk. anusmṛti, fr. anu + smṛ, cp. sati) means remembrance, recollection, thinking of, mindfulness,13 and contemplation14. A late list of subjects has given in Saṅgītisutta to be kept in mind comprises six anussatiṭṭhānāni, viz. buddhānussati, dhammānussati, sanghānussati, sīlānussati, cāgaānussati, devatānussati, i. e. proper attention to the Buddha, the Doctrines, the Community, to morality, charity and to the gods.15 2) kāya - means group, heap, collection, aggregate, body16 or may either, lit: accumulation. It refers to the physical body (rūpa-kāya) or to the mental body (nāma-kāya). In the latter case it is either a collective name for the mental groups (feeling, perception, mental formations, consciousness), or merely for feeling, perception and a few of the mental formations (nāma), e.g. in kāya-lahutā, etc. Kāya has this same meaning in the standard description of the third absorption (jhāna,) “And he feels joy in his mind or his mental constitution (kāya)”, and of the attainment of the eight deliverances (vimokkha); “having attained the eight deliverances in his mind, or his person (kāya).” - kāya is also the fifth sense-organ, the body-organ; āyatana, dhātu, .17

11 I. B. Horner, The Final Fifty Discourses (Uparipaṇṇāsa), (Oxford: PTS, 1999), p. 130. 12 M.iii.88. 13 Pāli English Dictinary, PED, pp. 112-113. 14 , Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980), p. 43. 15 D.iii.207. 16 PED, p. 488. 17 Ñyanatiloka, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, op. cit., p. 156. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 77

3) kāyagatāsati - ‘mindfulness with regard to the body’, refers sometimes18 only to the contemplation on the 32 parts of the body, sometimes19 to all the various comprised under the contemplation of the body (kāyānupassanā), the first of the four foundations of mindfulness (satipaṭṭhāna), consisting partly in concentration (samādhi) exercises, partly in insight (vipassanā) exercises. On the other hand, the cemetery meditations (sīvathika) mentioned in the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta20 is nearly the same as the 10 contemplations of loathsomeness (asubhabhāvanā). Of Visuddhimagga21 whereas elsewhere the contemplation on the 32 parts of the body is called the reflection on impurity.22

The Significance ofkāyagatāsati

One who is devoted to control of the senses should keep all evil thoughts out of his mind and be unremitting in his effort to be on the alert remembering the teaching of the Buddha on diligence (appamāda), and also keep his thoughts directed on grasping the meaning of the Dhamma, by study of, and reflection on it. In that way the ardent disciple makes use of all his contacts to help the ripening of his wisdom. For bringing about that state of wisdom the yogi has to give attention to the practice of mindfulness and full awareness, Mindfulness is required in all effective contemplation. Through full awareness one learns to do everything with deliberation and not on the spur of the moment. Mindfulness belongs to the aggregate of concentration of the Noble Path; it has to be highly developed before success in jhāna, meditation, that is aloof from sense-desires, and other evil states of mind, can be achieved. When contemplatives are weak in remembering what should be remembered at the proper time their mindfulness is ineffective and full awareness of what is fit to be done, is not present. Then they also lack wise consideration, which is necessary for overcoming adventitious defilements, and are assailed by passion. Kāyagatāsati is a meditation subject which was never before practised except when the Buddha appeared, and I outside the province of any of the founders of sects. It has been praised by the Blessed One in various ways in different suttas thus:

18 Vism VIII, 2. 19 M.ii.99. 20 M.i.55. 21 Vism VI. 22 Ñyanatiloka, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, (Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980) 78 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

“Bhikkhus, when one thing is developed and repeatedly practised, it leads to a supreme sense of urgency, to supreme benefit, to supreme liberation from bondage, to supreme mindfulness and comprehension, to the attainment of insight and vision, to a happy life here and now, to the realization of wisdom, emancipation and fruition. What is that one thing? It is mindfulness occupied with the body.”23

And again:

“O bhikkhus, they who savour mindfulness occupied with the body savour the deathless; they who do not savour mindfulness occupied with the body do not savour the deathless. They who have made the effort in mindfulness occupied with the body have savoured or enjoyed the deathless, have not neglected, have not missed it. Those who have made no endeavour in mindfulness occupied with the body have not savoured the deathless, have neglected and missed it.”24

An understanding of the essential meaning of sati may be gained by contemplation its function on those occasions when its role is clearly distinguishable from that of other dhammas, most notably in the practice called satipaṭṭhāna. On such occasions the function of sati may be summarised as follows:

“The primary feature of the working of sati is that it prevents the mind from drifting. It does not allow mental states to pass by unheeded. It prevents the mind from becoming agitated and restless. It is attentive, as if keeping its eyes on each impression that passes into consciousness and then bearing down on it. When one wishes to concentrate on a particular object, it maintains one’s attention fixedly upon it, not allowing the object to drift away or disappear. By means of sati, one keeps placing the mind on the object, or recollecting it, not allowing oneself to let it slip from the mind. There is a simile likening it to a pillar, because it is firmly embedded in its object, or to a gate-keeper, because it watches over the various sense-doors through which sense-datas pass, inspecting all that enters.”25

23 Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level) Volum I, (Yangon: International Thervada Buddhist Missionary University, 2001), p. 31. 24 Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), Volum I, (Yangon: International Thervada Buddhist Missionary University 2000), p. 31. 25 Phra Dhammapitaka (P. A. Payutto), Sammāsati an Exposition of Right Mindfulness, op. cit. pp. 15-16. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 79

In the Buddhist path of practice, there is great emphasis on the importance of sati, as evidenced in the Buddha’s saying that sati is required (i.e. should be employed) in every situation. Sati is also compared to salt, which must be used in every curry, and to a prime minister, who must be involved in every branch of government. Sati may either restrain the mind or support or sustain it, depending on the needs of the situation. When considering in to the features of sati’s functioning as mentioned above, one will see the benefits aimed at in training in sati to be as follows: 1. The maintenance of the mind in a required condition by the monitoring of the cognitive process and the stream of thought, accepting only that which is conducive to it and barring all that which is not and thus, by channelling and stilling the thought-stream, facilitating the attainment of samādhi; 2. The enabling of the body and mind to dwell in a state which might be called ‘self-sufficient’ by virtue of the sense of spacious ness, relaxation and well-being intrinsic to it regardless of external circumstances- a state wherein one is prepared to face any experience that might occur and to deal effectively with all of one’s affairs; 3. The ability, in the state of samādhi, to guide the cognitive process and the stream of thought and to alter or expand the fields of their activities in various dimensions; 4. The ability to take hold of a meditation object and, as it were, to lay it down in front of the mind so that subsequent investigation by the wisdom-faculty may proceed with optimum clarity as a basis on which wisdom can be developed and brought to perfection; 5. The purification of all volitional actions of body, speech and mind and liberation from compulsive indulgence in defilement and subjugation to craving and clinging, and the informing (in combination with sampajaṅṅa) of one’s actions with wisdom, and entirely purified logic. The fourth and fifth benefits listed here are the goals of an advanced stage of development, and may be obtained only through a specially prescribed method of practice that, according to our definition of sammāsati, is the four satipaṭṭhāna.26

26 Phra Dhammapitaka (P. A. Payutto), op. cit. pp. 17-19. 80 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Practice of kāyagatāsati

How does a monk remain focused on the body in & of itself? According to the Buddha:

“There is the case where a monk, having gone to the wilderness, to the shade of a tree, or to an empty building; sits down folding his legs crosswise, holding his body erect and setting mindfulness to the fore. Always mindful, he breathes in; mindful he breathes out. Breathing in long, he discerns that he is breathing in long; or breathing out long, he discerns that he is breathing out long. Or breathing in short, he discerns that he is breathing in short; or breathing out short, he discerns that he is breathing out short. He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to the entire body and to breathe out sensitive to the entire body. He trains himself to breathe in calming bodily fabrication and to breathe out calming bodily fabrication.”27

A bhikkhu, with keen confidence who wants to practicekāyagatāsati , should go into solitary retreat in a favourable place and review his body, up from the soles of the feet and down from the top of the hair and contained in the skin as full of many kinds of fifth thus:

“In this body there are head hairs, body hairs, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone-marrow, kidney, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, bowels, intestines, stomach, excrement, brain, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, spittle, snot, lubricant (in bonejoints) and urine.”28

A beginner who wants to undertake kāyagatāsati should approach a good friend and qualified teacher to learn this meditation. The teacher should tell him the sevenfold skill in learning and the tenfold skill in giving attention.

27 Rathanasara, K. (tr), Mahasatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, (Singapore: Education & Dhamma Propagation Subcommittee), pp. 71-72. 28 Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), op. cit. Vol. I, p. 32. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 81

The Sevenfold Skill in Learning (Uggahakosalla)

The practice of contemplation of the body includes sevenfold skill in learning (uggahakosalla), as follows.29

1) Verbal Recitation Kāyagatāsati consists in giving attention to repulsiveness. Even if one is master of the Tipiṭaka, the verbal recitation should still be done at the time of first giving attention to it. For the meditation subject becomes evident to some through recitation, as it did to the two elders who learned the meditation subject from Mahā , the elder residing at Malaya.30

2) Mental Recitation The mental recitation should be done just as the verbal recitation. For the verbal recitation is a condition for the mental recitation, and the mental recitation is a condition for the penetration of the characteristics of foulness.

3) The Colour The colour of the head hairs, etc., should be defined.

4) The Shape The shape of the head hairs, etc., should also be defined.

5) The Direction In this body, upwards from the navel is the upward direction, and downwards from it is the downward direction. So the direction should be defined thus: this part is in this direction, etc.

6) The Location The location of this or that part should be defined thus: this part is established in this location, and so on.

29 Ibid., pp. 34-35. 30 Ibid., p. 32. 82 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

7) The Delimitation There are two kinds of delimitation: delimitation on by parts which are alike in nature, and delimitation by dissimilar parts. Herein, delimitation by similar parts should be understood in this way: this part is delimited above and below and around by this. Delimitation by dissimilar parts should be understood in this way: head hairs are not body hairs, nor are body hairs head hairs.

Tenfold Skill in Giving Attention (Manasikārakosalla)

There is tenfold skill in giving attentions (manasikārakosalla) as following.

1) Following the Order From the time the recitation begins attention should be given to follow the serial order of the 32 bodily parts without skipping. For just as when someone who has no skill climbs a staircase of 32 steps using every other step, his body gets exhausted and he falls without completing the climb, so too, one who attends to the thirty-two parts leaving out every alternate part becomes exhausted in his mind and does not complete the development since he fails to get the enjoyment that ought to be got with successful development.31

2) Not Too Quickly And when he gives attention to follow the serial order, he should do so not too quickly. As a man who undertakes a journey of three yojanas, without noting the path to take and the path to avoid, goes back and forth a hundred times and, though he comes to the end of the journey, it is only with frequent questionings. So, he who attends too quickly may accomplish the meditation, but it is not clear and consequently carries no distinction, that is, he cannot attain jhāna. Therefore he should not attend too swiftly.

3) Not Too Slowly And as ‘not too quickly’, so also ‘not too slowly’. As a man, who wants to do a three league journey in one day, if he loiters on the way among trees, rocks, pools, etc. does not finish the journey in a day and needs two or three to complete it, so too, if a meditator gives his attention to the meditation subject too slowly, he does not get to the end, nor does he attain jhāna.

31 Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), op. cit. Vol. 1, p. 35. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 83

4) Warding off Distraction He must ward off temptation to drop the meditation subject and to let his mind get distracted among the variety of external objects. For if not, just as when a man has entered on a none foot wide cliff path, if he looks about here and there without watching his step, he may miss his footing and fall down the toweringly high cliff, so too when there is outward distraction, the meditation subject gets neglected and deteriorates. So he should be mindful of it, warding off distraction.32

5) Surmounting the concept The name-concept beginning with ‘head haris, body hairs’ must be surmounted and consciousness established on the repulsive nature of the bodily parts. For just as when men find a water hole in forest in a time of drought, they hang up some kind of signal such as a palm leaf there, and people, guided by the signal, come to bathe and drink, but when the path has become plain with their continual traffic, there is no further need of the signal for the people to bathe and drink where whenever they want, so too, when repulsiveness becomes evident to him as he is giving his attention to the meditation subject through the name-concept ‘head hairs, body hairs’, he must surmount the concept ‘heard hairs, body hairs’, and establish consciousness on the actual repulsiveness.

6) Dismissing Any Parts Which do not Appear In giving his attention to the bodily parts he should eventually leave out any parts which do not appear to him. For when a meditator gives his attention to head hairs, his attention then carries on till it reaches the last part, i.e., urine, and stops there; and when he gives his attention to urine, his attention then carries on till it arrives back at the head hairs and stops there. As he persists in giving his attention thus, some parts appear to him and others do not. He should work on those that have appeared till only two remains and one appears clearer. He should arouse absorption by again and again giving attention to the one that has appeared thus.

7) As to Absorption It should be understood that absorption is brought about in each one of the body parts.

32 Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), op. cit. Vol. 1, p. 36. 84 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

8-10) As to Three Suttantas The three Suttantas, namely, Adhicitta, Sītibhāva and Bojjhaṅgakosalla, should be understood for the purpose of yoking energy (vīriya) with concentration (samādhi).33 The demonstration of of the 1st and 2nd stages has been given in appendix A. The 3rd, 4th and 5th stages have been given in appendix B. Demonstration of walking six stages has been given in appendix C, and demonstration of sitting and lying meditation has been given in appendix D.

Benefits of Contemplation on Body

The meditator who is devoted to this mindfulness occupied with the body is a conqueror of boredom and delight; the boredom in meditation and the delight in sense pleasure cannot conquer him. He lives, subduing boredom as it arises. As it described by Dr. Mehm Tin Mon:

“He is a conqueror of fear and dread, and fear and dread do not conquer him. He lives, putting down fear and dread as they come up. He can bear major and minor pain, heat and cold, hunger and thirst, insect bites and scorpion sting blames and abuses. He can endure rough and severe pain, undesirable and unbearable pain, arisen bodily feeling that are menacing to life. He can develop four rūpāvacara jhāna based on the colour aspect of head hairs, bones, blood, urine, etc. he can also attain supernormal powers. As he attains the perception of loathsomeness on the living body, he can well suppress his sense desire to live happily and to progress quickly in insight meditation.34

According to the kāyagatāsati sutta these benefits has been divided into three parts categorially according to its level of experience.

Mundane benefits 1. One becomes a conqueror of discontent and delight. 2. One becomes a conqueror of fear and dread. 3. One bears unpleasant experiences of body & speech.

33 Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), op. cit. Vol. 1, pp. 37-38. 34 Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level), op. cit. Vol. I, p. 60. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 85

4. One obtains at will, without trouble or difficulty, the four jhānas.

Supramundane benefits 5. One wields the various kinds of supernormal power. 6. One hears both kinds of sounds, the divine and the human. 7. One understands the minds of other beings.

The three liberating insights 8. One recollects one’s manifold past lives 1st insight Gotama attained under the : The resolution of the past; understanding suffering. 9. One understands how beings pass on according to their actions 2nd insight Gotama attained under the Bodhi Tree: the resolution of the future; understanding kamma. 10. One enters upon & abides in the deliverance of mind 3rd & final insight Gotama attained under the Bodhi Tree: Liberation in the present the abandoning of the defilements cause of suffering realization of cessation (nirodha) and unbinding (nibbāna).35 Besides these benefits of kāyagatāsati there is many more benefits which can be obtained in our daily life generally with practice of general meditation as follows.

Development of Kāyagatāsati

To develop meditation on kāyagatāsati it should directly refers to the meditation on thirty-two parts of the body, one should first re-establish the fourth ānāpāna jhāna so the light of concentration is bright, brilliant, and radiant. One should then use the light to try to discern the thirty-two parts of the body, one at a time. The thirty-two parts of the body are twenty parts with predominantly the earth element, and twelve parts with predominantly the water element.

35 M.iii.88. 86 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The twenty earth-element parts should be discerned in four sets of five;

I II III IV

head hairs flesh heart intestines body hairs sinews liver mesentery* nails bones membrane gorge teeth bone marrow spleen faeces skin kidneys lungs brain

* Membrane: The white, net-like membrane that separares the different sections of flesh throughout the body. Mesentery: the fastenings of the bowels; GORGE: undigested food, contents of the stomach. Synovia: unctuous fluid, oil in the joints.

The twelve water-element parts should be discerned in two sets of six:36

I II bile blood tears snot phlegm sweat grease synovia pus fat saliva urine

Development of the Foulness Meditation

In four guardian meditation the second protective meditation is foulness meditation (asubha-bhāvanā) on a corpse. To develop it one should re-establish the fourth ānāpāna, or white kasinajhāna, so the light is bright and clear. Then use the light to visualize the foulest corpse of one’s own sex that you remember seeing, use the light to see the corpse exactly as it was when one really saw it in the past. When it is clear, make it appear as repulsive as possible, concentrate on it, and note it as, ‘repulsive - (paṭikkūla, paṭikkūla).37 Concentrate on the object of the repulsiveness of the corpse until the uggahanimitta (taken-up sign) becomes the patibhāga-nimitta (counterpart sign). The uggahanimitta is the image of the corpse as one really saw it in the past, and is a hideous, dreadful, and frightening sight, but the patibhāganimitta is like a man with big limbs, lying down after having eaten his fill.

36 Pa-Auk Tawya Sayadaw, Knowing and Seeing, 4th Ed., (Singapore: Pa-Auk Meditation Centre, 2010), p. 57. 37 Here the meaning of asubha is foulness, and paṭikkūla (repulsiveness) is its synonym. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 87

Continue to concentrate on that nimitta, until one reach the first jhāna, and then develop the five masteries.38

Development of the Element Meditation

In the pāli texts, there are two ways to develop four-elements meditation: in brief and in detail. The brief is for those of quick understanding, and the detailed for those who have difficulty with the brief one, the Buddha taught the brief method in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta.39 A bhikkhu review this very body, however it be placed of disposed, as consisting of just elements, thus:40 “There are in this body just 1. The earth element (pathavī-dhātu) 2. The water element (āpo-dhātu) 3. The fire element (tejo-dhātu) 4. The wind element (vāyo-dhātu)

Conclusion

If one wishes to gain thorough understanding of a phenomenon, the necessary method used is contemplation. Without contemplation, one cannot see things as they really are. If the objects give us real results and benefits for the practice leading to enlightenment, we should remember the thought and practice of mindfulness. satipaṭṭhāna sutta very briefly summarizes the four contemplations. Contemplation of body is the premium; it is the observation of the activity of the body or gestures or movements of body. It is divided into six objects and comprises fourteen types of practice. The range of the body contemplations embraces the mindfulness of the breaths, awareness of the postures, clear comprehension of the various activities, analysis of the body into its anatomical parts, analysis of the body into its basic elements; and the contemplation of the various stages of the body’s decay and repulsiveness after death. Beginning with the mindfulness of the breathing, it is systematically followed by the four postures, full awareness, foulness of the bodily parts, four elements, four absorptions, the progress of the practice through mindfulness of the body, and finally the benefits highly expected by the mindfulness of the body.

38 Pa-Auk Tawya Sayadaw, Knowing and Seeing, op. cit. p. 92. 39 D.ii.9. 40 Ibid. 88 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

F. L. Woodward (tr.) The Book of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara-Nikāya), Vol. I, PTS: London, 1979 Sarah Shaw, Buddhist Meditation: An anthology of Texts from the Pali Canon, London: Routledge, 2006 Ledi Sayādaw (tr), Maggaṅga Dīpanī: A Manual of the Path Factors, England: Association for Insight Meditation, 2000 I. B. Horner, The Final Fifty Discourses (Uparipaṇṇāsa), Oxford: PTS, 1999 Nyanatiloka, Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1980 Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Advanced Level) Volum I, Yangon: International Thervada Buddhist Missionary University, 2001 Phra Dhammapitaka (P. A. Payutto), Sammāsati an Exposition of Right Mindfulness, op. cit. pp. 15-16. Rathanasara, K. (tr), Mahasatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, Singapore: Education & Dhamma Propagation Subcommittee Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, Samatha (Higher Level) Volum I, Yangon: International Thervada Buddhist Missionary University, 2001 An Application of Buddha’s Teachings for Healing Traumatic Mental disorder

Ven. Laka Mitra Bhikkhu, Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr., Ven. Walmoruwe Piyarattana, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the concepts of Theravada Buddhism and its contemporary processes effective on trauma, mental and physical body, and to apply the knowledge of Theravada Buddhism to healing the Traumatic Mental and Physical Disorder of a person. `An agitation after Traumatic Mental Disorder (all kinds of traumatic stress disorders included in TMD) is a general behavioral diffi cult situation which threatens the preservation of mentally imbalanced and affected persons and caregivers, interrupts the rehabilitation system, and becomes an excessive oppression on caregivers and guardian. Preferred skillfulness or moral acts, chanting and listening suttas, concentration of the mind, and abandoning unwholesome and wrong thoughts, nurturing concentration and its stability, charity and generosity as an environmental intervention be able to decrease the mental excitement and Trauma mental disorder by prevailing on positive and wholesome thoughts of memories and emotional feelings, and recovering mental health and wellness, and also achieving peacefulness in a mentally disorder person.

Keywords: Healing, Traumatic Mental Disorder, Traumatic physical Disorder, Protecting. 90 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

There are various living beings in this Universe; among them the human beings are not to be an exaggeration to say. Because, the human beings have the power of thought where there the no other living beings than human beings. The human society is plagued with many problems or sufferings. Among the problems or sufferings, the “Traumatic Mental Disorder (all kinds of traumatic stress disorders are included in TMD)” is the unique of them. The “” were deeply affected to Siddhattha Gotama’s mind and was frightening of the life circles or journey of saṃsāra by which turned the way to resolve or overcome from mental oppression or frightening of the life circles. Therefore, Siddhattha Gotama was left the palace to resolve the frightening of the life circle or saṃsāra for the benefit of the whole world. What is the Traumatic Mental Disorder? How it arisen? How it ceases and what is the ways of cease of the disorder? Obviously, the worldly human being is fraught with unlimited or countless pains and stresses. The scientific and spiritual theory was found the birth, aging, illness, death, physical pain, associating disliking one, separation from what is liked, not to get what one wants, briefly the five aggregates are painful. The essential key of the arisen for the suffering or stress is craving for sensual pleasure, craving for existence, craving for extermination. In shortly, what is arisen, it has cessation too. It is the ultimate solution of suffering, stress, frustration of mental and physical body. There are three kinds of perversion mentioned in the Vipallāsa Sutta (A.ii.52). According to the sutta, the perversion of perception (saññā vipallāsa) is the fundamentalism and it is most of problem arisen. The perversion of thought (citta vipallāsa) premises a more problems of the perverted perception, and the perversion of view (diṭṭhi vipallāsa) re- evaluate the thoughts and feelings for a stable. Seeing outlook is a beauty, it is the distortion of perception, re-evaluating is mental perception, and re-evaluates the perception of the view for constancy. In order to, a person fall in mentally disorder and when it is long-lasting and re-experiencing that is called the trauma, in pāli is vaṇa.

The Meaning and Definition of the Traumatic Mental Disorder, and it Causes and Effectiveness in Modern Society

The Traumatic Mental Disorder (all kinds of traumatic stress disorders included in TMD) is a kind of damage or harmfulness in the mind occurs as a result of unbearably oppressing, distressing event. Trauma is a mental condition caused by severe shock, especially when the harmful effects last for long time, an unpleasant experience that makes a person feels upset or anxious, an injury, and chronic event or experience. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 91

Accordance with the Encyclopedia of Psychology indicated as “The Traumatic Mental Disorder” is an anxiety disorder that may enhance to a horrifying event or ordeal in which terrible mental and physical harm arisen or was threatened. However, the terrific symptoms of stress which is continue to experience by the people long after a traumatic event may have post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” may be continuing to experience as horrible symptoms of mental and physical stress disorder. It can also lead to depression as a result of symptoms to continued feeling of intense sadness which is interfere with one’s ability to function normally. Further, the American Psychological Association via Encyclopedia of Psychology claimed that the PTSD may relieve the event via intrusive memories, flashbacks and nightmares; avoid or abstain anything reminds them of the trauma; didn’t have anxious and unpleasant feelings before intense their lives from disrupted. The meaning of the Trauma is a Psychological word and it’s used as a noun. Also, the Term means for mental condition caused by severe shock, especially when the harmful effects last for a long time, an anxious and medical term used as an injury. Traumatic is an adjective word and extremely unpleasant and causing you to feel upset and or anxious and experience before noun (psychology or medical) connected with or caused by trauma: traumatic amnesia. Also, the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder noun (medical) a medical condition in which a person suffers mental and emotional problems resulting from an experience that shocked them very much and Traumatize or traumatize to shock and upset very much, often making them unable to think or normally. The World Health Organization (WHO) was recognized as the Mental Disorders construct a broad range of problems, with different symptoms. Anyhow, they are generally characterized by some combination of abnormal thoughts, emotions, behavior and relationships with others. As examples they expressed schizophrenia, depression, intellectual disabilities and disorders due to drug abuse. The WHO, claims that most of these types of disorders can be successfully treated. The global burden of disease has been attributed to Neuropsychiatric Disorders and the trauma disorders may often affect to neural systems to disability or instability. The mental disorders or mood disorders or psychic disorders means paranormal or abnormal or unnatural performance of the mind which shows itself in various ways and ranging from reiterated stress, anxiety, neurosis, obsession of personality, illusion, delusion, personality disorder, hallucination, paranoia, schizophrenia and the most terrible is psychosis. A definition of trauma doesn’t mean the name type of trauma or traumatic events. Instead of this is a description of the mental or physical experience of trauma and highlights the factors that influence the perception of trauma. 92 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

“Also, the individual’s sense of safety and self is threatened. It doesn’t matter if an outsider thinks it’s threatening or not. The perceived sense of threat is the key factor”. There are two types of trauma diagnoses. It is very essential to know that all of the experiences of trauma don’t lead to a trauma response or trauma-related disorder or diagnosis. It has normal period of time, which is following a traumatic state of event or experience that may expect to observe trauma related responses or sign that do not necessary to develop into a post-traumatic stress disorder. Anyway, according to their claimed, when the signs and symptoms of traumatic stress suffer over last (may be one month or longer than), entangle a child’s or adult’s daily life, such as their social and emotional health as well as meet it specific diagnostic criteria, there are two types of trauma diagnoses. They are below. 1. The Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) implies the symptoms causes with a traumatic event – like as a car accident, witnessing violence, natural disaster etc. These symptoms appeared as bad dreams, physical reactions, flashbacks, startle reactions, loss of interesting in his/her usual life of activities, avoiding reminders of event, etc. 2. The Complex Trauma is well-known as Complex PTSD, has been proposed to include in an essential new diagnostic category, Developmental Trauma Disorder. Complex Trauma or Developmental Trauma Disorder –indicates how children’s lead to multiple or long lasting traumatic events, also it is ongoing development. Generally, according to the description of the Psychiatric, the Complex Trauma indicates as it involves the simultaneous or sequential appearance in the child maltreatment and it include as psychological maltreatment, neglect, physical and sexual abuse and witnessing domestic violence. Complex Trauma is: 1. Chronic, 2. Begins in early childhood, and 3. Occurs within the child’s primary care giving system or social environment. These initial traumatic experiences, the resulting emotional abnormality, the loss of safety direction and the inability to danger states may one’s development over lasting to lead repeated exposure in adulthood without any supports that might appeared the negative effects. These Mental Disorders are forming of behavioral or psychological symptoms which effects multiple occurs in the life. These types of disorders could be appearing distress or stress for the individual experiencing these symptoms. Accordance with defining of American Psychological Association (APA) that the cause of trauma is the emotional reaction somebody has to a stiffly negative event. It is a normal reaction to a stiff event; the effects can be so danger that they interfere with a personal’s ability to live a normal life. Sometimes in this situation, help may be needed to recover the stress of dysfunction caused by the traumatic event, also to restore the personal condition of emotional well-being. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 93

Trauma can be caused by an oppressing negative event that causes a lasting influence on the person’s mental and emotional durability. Meanwhile the many sources of trauma are physically affected in nature, some others are psychological and also some general sources of trauma as follows: 1. Rape, 2. Domestic violence, 3. Natural disasters, 4. Severe illness or injury, 5. The death of a loved one, and 6. Witnessing an act of violence. These cases are happening in human’s society without any border and effected by these. The trauma is sometimes but not always cooperated with being current at the space of a trauma-inducing event. It does also enable to preserve to trauma after witnessing an incident from a distance. Especially young children are penetrable to trauma and would be psychologically examined after a traumatic incident has appeared to ensure their emotional well-being. The Modern Psychology is presented that clarifies how traumatic responses are performed into a disposal of DSM-5 PTSD symptoms, to explicit as hyperarousal subtype of TMD Disorder (all kinds of traumatic stress disorders included in TMD). In short, the conceptual structural characteristic of traumatic responses, particularly those existing in brain as hyperarousal re-experiencing later occurred with trauma-related event, to re-generate hyperarousal symptoms. These kinds of symptoms are containing in grounded cognition, which consisted in brain regions that are actuate in an event and reactivate when those are recalled, also known to conduct in brain diverse regions. According to Neurologist explanation, the character of PTSD is well illustrated by the following vignette epitomizes the condition of severely traumatized Vietnam veterans’ decades after active combat in Vietnam, also in Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria.

The Relevant Buddhist Concepts to the Traumatic Mental Disorder (TMD) and its Effective Processes to the Treatment Systems.

The health problem is one of the very essential and serious issues of humankind. Before pointing out the relevant Buddhist concepts to the “Trauma”. What is called to the “trauma” in pāli and Buddhist Canonical Texts? The word “Trauma” means vaṇa in pali (its noun). Here “Traumatic” means vaṇasahita. Furthermore, A wound (vaṇa) is very sore, and painful, and Puggalapaññatti Commentary, that purāṇa-vaṇa sadisa-citto means “like old affected (traumatic) mind”. state that vaṇaṃ āliṃpeti means the injure is conflagration, burning and flame. Commentary is mentioned wordcoḷaka is dressing an injury, and paṭikaṃma that means restoration or healing of a wood and mental condition, meanwhile Dhammapada Commentary presented that paṭicchādana means remedying a wound, injure, and trauma. Traumatic Mental Disorder (TMD) is all kinds of Traumatic 94 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Stress Disorders included in it. When it is excessive, it is called bāḷha, and when it is long- lasting it is called pabāḷha, also it is re-experiencing then it is called Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Also, the Trauma may have appeared in both mental and physical too. Health consumption and new chronic, trauma, stress or depression, also infectious, diseases are stiffly increasing day by day around the world. Furthermore, the basic health and mental problems such as anxiety disorder, feeding or eating disorder, dissociating disorder and so on are still the most important causes of human suffer. Even though the number of new strategies taken by the primary health care and the universal coverage had been enhanced and applied to resolve the problems, the results are still questionable. The reason is needy or affected one couldn’t get the basic benefits from health services, which are unavailable and still limited facilities or limited projects for the local and effected area. Capra (1982: p. XVII) is pointed out that the health issue is only one main crisis of our perception which is based on scientific reality. Especially, Paṭācara life story is very important and it is pointing out several traumatic behavioral disorders. Paṭācara is former name of the Bhikkhuni . Anyhow, both of her children died there in the river. She was affected with heavy emotional Shock of disaster and horrible mentally shock of separation (disorder) of the two children’s and husband’s death. After asking many people – in vain – for medicine that may revive the child, she was finally went to the Buddha. She told her whole story to Buddha. The Buddha asked her to provide some mustard seed to prepare the medicine for the child and said to her to obtained from a family in which no one died. She ran from house to house and asking for mustard seed, and no one refused to give it her. But, when she asked if anyone had died in family, the people response was always, “Oh, yes, of course”. After, she was understood that the “Death is universal”. As soon as she abandoning the child’s body to charnel ground and return to the Buddha and asked to be ordained as a nun, and afterwards she enlightened as an arahant. Here, it is clear that the Buddha was applied for her the psycho-therapy to recovery from the Traumatic mental disorder and heavy mental shocked. According to “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)” the latest version (2013) of American Psychiatric Association recognized as there are several Jataka stories were mentioned in Buddhism. Almost all are related to the Traumatic Stress Disorders. Therefore, all kinds of Traumatic Stress Disorders may include in “Traumatic Mental Disorders” (TMD). In the Buddhist psychology, there are numerous characters those who have affected with hysteria type of reactions that mentioned in Jataka stories – such as the Maranabheruka Jataka, one monk shows a post-traumatic reaction. The monk effects with the extreme fear, hyperarousal, JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 95

avoidance, frightening mental pictures (flashbacks) and mental emotional anesthesia. This story is very similar to the clinical description of the American Psychiatry Association. The principal subject of this research is traumatic mental disorder. This Sutta was proclaimed that the term of Cetasika roga – mental disease or disorder. It is mind made disorder. An excessive or long-lasting negative and noxious behavioral condition of mind is called traumatic mental disease or disorder. The Buddha explained in Aṇguttara Nikaya that the mind is ever clean. Generally, the mind is affected or polluted by defilements or negative thoughts. Mostly, the symptoms are appeared through the behavioral defilements of the mind. In Buddhism, there are ten saṃyojana (Fetters) causes mental disorders, mentioned in the Saṃyojana Sutta. They are as follows: 1. Sakkāya diṭṭhi – personality belief, Self-illusion, belief in permanent self, 2. Vicikicchā – skeptical doubt, 3. Sīlbbata parāmāsa – clinging to me rites and rituals, 4. Kāmarāga – sensual craving, 5. Paṭigha – malevolence, 6. Rūparāga – craving for fine material existence, 7. Arūparāga – craving for immaterial existence, 8. Māna – conceit, 9. Uddhacca – restlessness, and 10. Avijjā – ignorance. The Mindfulness is a first step of the seven factors of Enlightenment, and it is the seventh part of the Eightfold Path of Buddhism, also it is important to all of human beings to practice. Sati is referred to “right mindfulness” (samma sati), developing awareness, cultivating awareness, and levels of Awareness and mindfulness of things, oneself, feelings, thought, people and reality. It is the only way or path (ekāyanā maggo) to meets or gains the direct knowledge or wisdom for purification of begins, for uproots illness, ill will, hostility, fear, anxiety, stress, distress, chronic, injure, trauma, and in shortly all kinds of sufferings (for extinguishing suffering and grief, for achievement of the true way, and for the accomplishment of the Nibbāna. According to the Kevatta Sutta, the Meditating person can achieve healing, wholesome skills, abilities, Miracle of Psychic Powers, Miracle Powers of Telepathy, and Miracle Powers of Instruction. One who is properly developed and cultivated the meditation (especially Samatha Meditation), he or she is able to be achieving the supernatural powers without any border of gender. The Insights (Vipassanā) meditation is particularly for the final goal of Enlightenment. However, Buddha was not recommended it much, because the powers should not be the final goal, rather focus on achievement ofNibbāna . One meditates; let’s go of the monitoring of his mind and focuses on concentration, breath or other some things that wants to be concentrated on. An individual lets go of his/her stress thoughts and feelings and compromises own mind to be free. Once the mind is free, an individual may see the right visions and perceive that a closed mind may not sight. Thus, one should practice 96 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

and develop the concentration and letting go of negative thoughts, felling, and behaviors of own mind established on positive thoughts, feelings, and moral behaviors, and compromises own mind to be free. The freed mind or an individual has no stress, depression, trauma, chronic pain, and all of sufferings, and reduction of pain is there, extinction of trauma is there, destruction of chronic pain is there. It is the antidote and therapeutics of all kinds of mental traumatic disorders.

An Application of Buddha’s Teachings for Healing Traumatic Mental Disorder (TMD)

The commentary of Majjhima Nikāya ‘Papañcasūdani’, mentioned that “All worldly beings are deranged – Sabbe puthujana uṃmattaka. Accordance with the Sallekha Sutta of the Majjhima Nikāya, that the forty-four psychological illnesses or disorders, all worldly beings are suffering from these concomitant illnesses or disorders and systematic treatments and instructions given by Buddha to overcome from trauma, stress, depression, anxiety, boundless suffering or pains. There are many other discourses of resources and processes enrolled in the or great efforts. In order to the instructions of this chapter will be accomplished by four exertions of the systems, the “paramount gradual development processes”, and it is obvious and worthy practicing, developing, and absorbing the process in one’s life to achieved the welfare of the mental health recovery and happiness. The Four Right Exertions is known as Four Right Efforts, four Great Efforts, Four Energetic Strivings, Four Right Endeavors, and Four Right Concentration of Mind. The Four Right Exertions motivate to the abandonment of harmful mental behavior and nurturing of skillful mental behavior.

1) The sake of the Non-arising (Saṃvara-padhāna - Prevent) of evil, Unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen In order to the knowledge of the sake of the Non-arising (anuppannānam pāpakānam akusalānam dhammānam anuppādāya) of evil, unskillful qualities that have not yet arisen. The unskillful quality includes the right understanding (Saṃma-diṭṭhi) and observing, the evil or unskillful qualities of physical acts and mental thoughts. The nature of the negatives thoughts has to perceive as it is. The negative thoughts of reality have not yet arisen, which is stress, distress, trauma, oppress, anxiety, pain and suffering have to be perceived. A person should be abandoning the unskillful thoughts that have not produced yet, means reality of suffering should be perceived. The statement of the Buddha, this is the noble JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 97

truth of suffering. Therefore, a person should be perceiving the reality of evil or unskillful qualities or thoughts that the mental and physical anxiety, stress, distress, unhappiness, pain and suffering, increase or decrease on its responsible - due to the inborn for short period or long-period as stability and instability of the five aggregates subject to griping of suffering, disease or disorder. When the person personally experiences the obsessive chronic, incurable and long-standing the conditions affected the mental health that is called as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The cause of stress, depress and suffering. Accordance with definition of psychologist, it is a symptom, syndrome and clue for the reason or cause of application, stress, depression, disease, and disorder. Therefore, the symptom should be found out that this signifies the certain stress, aggravation or emotional condition invading an individual should be perceived oneself and systematically to be capable to recover it or resolve it. Accordance with the point of view of the psychologist, there is various reasons or causes for these the trauma, stress, distress, disorders and etc. Further they state, the syndromes may involve with disturbing evil, unskillful thoughts and feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental (or physical) stress, and depression to trauma related cues, in how he/she thinks and feels, as well as a growth or reduction on its response. Therefore, an individual should be careful not to enthusiasm the sake of non-arising (anuppādāya) of evil, unskillful of qualities, thoughts and feelings that have not yet arisen (retrain (saṃvara padhāna) from the unskillful (harmful) thoughts or feelings by (salāyatanāni) six internal and external senses), because they are leading to cause of the stress, pain, trauma, dissatisfaction, interruption, and suffering, as well as increase or reduction on its response or reaction.

2) The sake of the Abandonment (Pahāna-padhāna- Abandon) of evil, Unskillful qualities that have arisen. The knowledge of the sake of the abandonment (uppannānaṃ pāpakānaṃ akusalānaṃ dhaṃmānam pahānāya) evils, thoughts and feelings that have arisen is one of the four right exertions. The mental and physical behavioral characters of disorders are divided into many criteria in western psychology, and recognized, suggested, and medicated to removal of those disorders. While Buddhism, setting up in six types of “Caritas”, is a predominant nature of human being’s in behavioral pattern. The behavioral nature or characters (Caritas) are as follows-: 1. Lōbha or Rāga carita (the greedy or passionate nature or behavior), 2. Dōsa carita (the nature of angry), 3. Mōha carita (the delusion or confusion or anxiety nature), 4. Saddhā carita (the faithful nature), 5. Buddhi carita (the intelligent nature or behavior), and 6. Vitakka carita (the ruminating or pondering nature, feelings, thoughts, reflection and investigation). 98 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Master of meditation, generally identify an individual’s caritas or behaviors by seeing and observing his/her movements and gestures, living style, the choosing of foods and behavioral response and reactions. An individual with rāga carita and with saddhā carita displayed in common carita and these with buddhi carita. Also, individuals with mōha carita and those with vitakka carita are closely related in nature and behavior. The Masters are teaching or giving a technique to overcoming by Observing, identifying, suggesting, from those harmful behavioral response and reactions of a person. In order to one can achieve the true happiness and wellness.

3) The sake of the Arising (Bhāvanā-padhāna - Develop) of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen. Here, the arising of skillful qualities that have not yet arisen, are recognized as wholesome roots (kusalamūla) that have not yet arisen in one’s mind, should be endeavor to arising (anuppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhaṃmānaṃ uppādāya) it. In Buddhism, the pali term amoha is “non-confusion” or “non-fascination”. The contemporary various scholars are translated it as “non-delusion” or “non-bewilderment”. There is another definition on “amoha” is an absence of stupidity or delusion. Ven. A. P. Mahathera, that the term is translated as “wisdom”. It is defined as a person without delusion concerning what is reality or true, due to elimination or discrimination; the basis of its function is to cause a person to not involve in unwholesome actions or events, which is causes to produce the stress, chronic pain, trauma, mental disorder, and suffering. From the psychological perspective, the psychologist also is suggested that the syndrome or symptom of experiences, insecure events, mental impairments, should be perceived individual, and uprooted through the positive thinking, as well as effective mind care and medication.

4) The Maintenance (Anurakkhanā-padhāna - Maintain) non-confusion, increase, plenitude, development and culmination of skillful qualities that have arisen. Here the pali term in Buddhism, is Anurakkhanā which is translated as maintenance. It is defined as (uppannānaṃ kusalānaṃ dhaṃmānaṃ ṭhitiyā) non-confusion, wisdom, increase, affluence, sustainment and culmination of skillful qualities, positive thoughts and feelings, appropriate realities that have arisen. A person, with right understanding of the true knowledge of the absence of desire unto worldly objects and worldly existence is not involve in evil, injurious, unhygienic, and unhealthy behavior. So, it is leading to a person in beneficial, wholesome, hygienic, mental health behavior. The consequences of evil behaviors may involve with disturbing unwholesome thoughts, feelings, or dreams included to the JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 99

reasons of the case, stress, disease and disorder, suffering, then arising (origin) the mental or physical oppress or depress to trauma-involved symptoms, right exertions to abandon the countless or boundless suffering hints, also changing in how a person thinks and feels, as well as a produce or extinguish on its reactions. The person, who produced extremely the evils, unskillful thoughts, feelings, anger, is extremely danger for self-destruction and self-annihilation. To maintenance Anurakkhanā the skillful qualities that have arisen is the last exertion of the four exertions. To prevent from stress, mental illness and disorder, and so on, one should be producing, dwelling on something, setting one’s thoughts to application, developing by means of again and again practicing bhāvitā-bahulikatā (it a kind of therapy) cultivation, well-balanced, well-trained by mind, which is including Loving-kindness meditation or Loving-friendliness therapy. Then the of stress, causes of stress, cessation (letting go therapy) of stress, and the path of practice leading to the renunciation or cessation of mental (and physical) traumatic stress or disorder, is disappeared in an individual, instead of that the Noble Eightfold path- right understanding, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration, is appeared in one’s mind. In a well-trained mind the happiness of vision is arisen, happiness of insight is arisen, happiness of discernment is arisen, happiness of knowledge is arisen, happiness of illumination is arisen by comprehending the noble truth of stress or disorder, abandoning the arisen of stress, directly experiencing the renunciation of stress, and developing the path of leading to renunciation of mental stress, disorder. It is the maintenance Anurakkhanā or well-balanced the wisdom, increase, affluence, development and culmination of skillful qualities (mental states) that have arisen. In the Western Psychological Science, the Trauma, Chronic, injury and mental disorders of individuals are characterized by observing their behavioral events to treatment. These behavioral disorders are categorized into variety sequence of events, such as abnormal events or excessive recurrent events. According to consultation of the psychologist and psychiatrist, for prevention the diagnosis behavioral symptom, the specialists are used the appropriate therapy to relieve or heal a trauma disorder. Example, A mental stress or disorder, like many trauma disorders, requires ongoing treatment as a result; mental circumstances can be effectively treated with one or a combination of the following therapies: Medication and Psychotherapy, as well as the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means. “Hypnosis is now used in medical treatment as hypnotic psychotherapy to 100 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

treat diseases of both the body and the mind”. Here, its (hypnosis) use in therapy, typically to recover suppressed memories or to allow modification of behavior by suggestion, has been revived but is still controversial. The Buddhist Psychological Theories are quite similar to Western Psychological Techniques; merely different is using worldly medicine in Western technique. But, in the Milinda Pañña, it is clearly mentioned that “Among of all the medicine in the world, numerous and various, there is nothing like the medicine of Dhaṃma: Therefore, O friends, drink this immortal of medicine”. The Four Right Exertions are motivated to restraint saṃvara padhāna of the senses, then one should be abandonment pahāna padhāna of (defilements) harmful mental behavior, Cultivate bhāvanā padhāna or nurturing of skillful mental behavior (of Enlightenment Factors), (by love one should be quench the fire of hatred, by wisdom the fire of delusion, confusion, fear, anxiety, and the supreme men extinguish confusion, fear, anxiety with wisdom that breaks through to truths), and preservation anurakkhaṇā padhāna of concentration, for instance, using charnel-ground contemplations, as well as a person should be heal himself, and to prevent others from hazardous, risky, injure, Anxiety, stress, depression, chronic pain, trauma, mental illness, mental disorder, sufferings etc. According to Iddhipāda-vibaṅga Sutta, it is indicated itself that is an analysis of the bases of power. Here, the Pali term iddhi is translated as “power” or “potency” ( term is ṛddhi) and the term pāda is “base”, “basis” or “constituent”. The combination of the both terms (Iddhipāda) in a one is referred to “spiritual powers”. Generally, the combination of the word is translated by the many scholars are “base of power” or “base of spiritual power”. It is pursuit of Enlightenment; the related spiritual powers are secondary to the four exertions (base) mental qualities that acquire such powers. The mental states or qualities are concentration on intention or purpose (), concentration of exertion or energy or will (viriya), concentration on consciousness or mind or thoughts (citta), and concentration on investigation or discrimination (vīmaṃsā). They are the four bases of mental qualities: that related to develop the wholesome (skillful) mental states and get rid him of unwholesome and mental states.

5) Development of Power The “Development of power” means here the “Spiritual power”. Some modern scholars it is indicated as “Psychic power”. The spiritual power is above mentioned “bases of power”. There are four types of power, which is called here as “development of power”. To JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 101

development of the power, one should establish the concentration, for this one should have an intention (chanda-desire) to acquire it. Here, concentration of mind means “Citta-Samādhi” and one-pointedness of mind (citt’ekaggatā) in pali. The centering of mind represents the function of unifying the mental consciousnesses putting in the tool of cognition. It is called concentration of mind due to will. One should produce his will for the non-arisen of that have not yet arisen harmful feelings and unwholesome thoughts. The chanda or will is the first basis for the development of power or spiritual power. With the establishment of an exertion and arouses energy (viriya), it is second basis of development of power, one should proceed to applies his mind (citta). It is the third basis of development of power. Well establishment of the will, an exertion and arousal energy, one should apply his mind lead to strive (vimaṃsā) for ending of the effluent. It is the fourth basis of development of power.

6) Pursuing of Power The development power of one’s will, that is pursuing with concentration due to will and excessive of striving- quite away from craving, away from harmful thoughts and feelings- the person enters and stable in the first jhāna: joy and delight grown from away, related by directed thought and evaluation. With the stability of directed thoughts and evaluation- the person enters and stable in the second jhāna: joy and delight grown from endurance, consolidated of awareness free from directed thoughts and evaluation- inward assurance. With the fading of joy, the person stables forbearing, awareness and alertness, and senses delight with the body that the person enters and stables in the third jhāna. According to Buddha’s stated, the forbearing and awareness, one enables to a pleasant abiding. With the abandoning of delight and pain – as with the earlier disappearance gladness and stress – the person enters and stable in the fourth jhāna: because of purification of equanimity and awareness, neither delight nor pain or suffering. This is the development of concentration that when developed and pursued, which is leading to a delight abiding in here and now. Well-trained mind opens the perception of light and resolved on the perception of daytime, as well as nighttime.

7) Great Fruit and Benefit of the Power Awareness is inspired to keep away from harmful and negative thoughts, to cultivate and develop the appropriated thoughts, to perceive the functions of health and letting go them and be enable to heal the traumatic mental disorder and physical suffering. The Nibbāna is the ultimate bliss or happiness”, where ultimate happiness is stable, happiness is not changeable, no any kind of illness, no any stress, distress, disease, and disorder, no more 102 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

origin of harmful thoughts, because eradicated the root of origin, no burning from negative thoughts or defilements, mind is authentic, genuine and pure, no uncomfortable, insight rapture and pleasure are there, mental states are stable and steady, emancipation, liberation, no rebirth, freed from suffering, final mental states static, ultimate achievement and bliss.

Conclusion

According to the finding Buddhist and modern psychological sources, engaging with skillfulness or moral acts, associating with charity and generosity, chanting and listening suttas, concentration of the mind, and abandoning annihilated and violent thoughts, developing concentration and its stability have to provide therapeutic approaches for care of agitated person after TMD (all kinds of traumatic stress disorders are included in TMD). Additionally, positive effects of concentration developing and cultivating on agitation can achieve mental health care providers and patients’ family members’ inspiration to explore more familiar environments for managing agitation, and Insightly letting go of stress, anxiety, trauma, chronic pain, and Theravada Buddhist Canonical instructions and suggestions may be rightly comprehending, practical application and developed with sustaining for the mental and physical health and happiness. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 103

References

I. Primary Sources

Miln. 335. S. v. 276. D. iii. 225. A. ii. 16. Vin. iii. 56. Vism. 84. S. v. 276. DhA. iii. 425. D. iii. 225. A. ii. 16. Note: padhāna is fourfold, viz. saṃvara, pahāna, bhāvana, anurakkhanā or exertion consisting in the restraint of one’s senses, the abandonment of sinful thoughts, practice of meditation and guarding one’s character.

II. Secondary Sources

I. B. Horner, (tr.), (2000) The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon III, Chronicle of Buddhas, Oxford: PTS. Bhikkhu Thanissaro (tr.), (2005), Distortion of the Mind, Oxford: PTS. , (tr.), (2000), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha, Boston: Wisdom Publication. , (tr.), (2004), Gateway to Knowledge, (North Atlantic Books Vol. 1) Kathmandu. T. W. Rhys Davids, W. Stede, (1921), Pali-English Dictionary, .

III. Internet Sources

Thānissaro Bhikkhu, (tr.), -vibhanga Sutta: Analysis of the Bases of Power” . Thānissaro Bhikkhu, (tr.), (1997), Kevatta Sutta: To Kevatta, . Organ Donation after Death in Mahāyāna Buddhist Perspective

Jing Liu, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email:[email protected]

Abstract

Nowadays lots of countries are encouraging organ donation after death. With the global organ shortage, and the increasingly sophisticated organ-transplantation techniques, this practice is becoming popular. In Buddhist circles, especially in today’s Buddhist circles in Taiwan, there have been some Bhikkhu and Bhikkhunī who have been sparing no effort to advocate organ donation after death. Meanwhile, there are also some Buddhist masters who disagree or even oppose organ donation after death. Generally speaking, those who advocate organ donation after death are keeping pace with the times by answering the government’s call and are occupying the moral high ground. However, most of the Chinese mainland Buddhist masters are still rather conservative about organ donation after death. Actually, both the pros and cons of organ donation after death can fi nd their theoretical basis recorded in the texts. This article is a research on organ donation after death in Mahāyāna Buddhist perspective. There are three objectives of this article: (a) to study the belief of organ donation (dāna) in Mahāyāna Buddhism; (b) to study the pros of organ donation after death in Mahāyāna Buddhist perspective; and (c) to study the cons of organ donation after death in Mahāyāna Buddhist perspective. This research examines two primary cruxes: (a) the fi rst crux of organ donation after death involves the problematic criteria for death1; (b) the second crux of organ donation after death involves different understanding of death and how to take care of dying people.

Keywords: organ donation, death, Mahāyāna.

1 E.g. cessation of brain waves, cessation of heart beat and cessation of respiration. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 105

Introduction

Nowadays lots of countries are encouraging organ donation after death1.With the global organ shortage, and the increasingly sophisticated organ-transplantation techniques, this practice is becoming popular. In Buddhist circles, especially in today’s Buddhist circles in Taiwan, out of the faith of sacrifice, devotion and benevolence, some of the most Buddhist reverends also keep pace with the times and have been sparing no effort to help promote organ donation after death. Among them, Bhikkhunī Cheng Yen2 and Venerable Hsing Yun3 are the most representative Buddhist masters. Bhikkhunī Cheng Yen from Taiwan, who is well-known for her charity promotion, is the founder of Buddhist Compassion Relief Foundation. Dukkha includes birth, aging, illness and death. Master Cheng Yen believes that the dukkha of illness is what we should pay the most attention to. On the basis of this belief, she has founded many Tzu Chi hospitals, including the Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Yuli Tzu Chi Hospital, Kuanshan Tzu Chi Hospital, Dalin Tzu Chi Hospital, Taipei Tzu Chi Hospital, Taichung Tzu Chi Hospital, Douliou Tzu Chi Outpatient Department, Suzhou Tzu Chi Outpatient Department, etc. As a renowned philanthropic Buddhist master, Master Cheng Yen has been promoting organ donation after death vigorously for years by propagating her eleemosynary idea of “body donating & waste recycling & medicine promoting” and up until today she has achieved much success. When she was asked about how to take care of the recently deceased people, Master Cheng Yen remarked that we better should not move the recently deceased people’s

1 There are mainly two types of organ donation after death: “Donation after cardiac death (Dona- tion after circulatory determination of death—DCDD); Donation after brain death (Donation after neurological determi- nation of death—DNDD)” James F. Childress & Catharyn T. Liverman, Organ Donation: Opportunities for Action, (Washington: National Academies Press, 2006), p. 4. 2 Taiwanese Buddhist nun. She is noted as the founder of the Buddhist Compassion Relief Tzu Chi Foundation (commonly known as Tzu Chi). “On April 14,1966, Dharma Master Cheng Yen founded the Tzu Chi Merit Society in Hualien with the support of thirty housewives…” Tzu Chi USA Journal #44, (Han Huang, 2015): 75. 3 The First Patriarch of Fo Guang Shan Order and a famous proponent of . “Humanistic Buddhism as conceived and interpreted by Grand Master , attempts to reconnect us with the original spirit and essence of truth that Sakyamuni Buddha brought into this world over 2500 years ago.” Richard L. Kimball, Humanistic Buddhism as Conceived and Interpreted by Grand Master Hsing Yun of Fo Guang Shan, Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism Vol.1, (Los Angeles: Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic Buddhism, 2000): 45. 106 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

bodies within 24 hours in case extra physical sufferings were inflicted to the recently deceased people4. Possibly based on her belief that the dukkha of illness is what we should pay the most attention to, while involving with the problem of organ donation after death, Master Cheng Yen claims that only the Seventh Consciousness5 and the Eighth Consciousness exist for the recently deceased people and thus there won’t be any physical pains arising in the recently deceased people’s bodies. That’s because the preceding Six Consciousnesses have ceased working at the time when the recently deceased people are having the operation of organ-harvesting. Venerable Hsing Yun is the patriarch of Fo Guang Shan in Taiwan. On one hand he advocates hospice care and admits Pure Land Belief is our final sanctuary. On the other hand he dodges the most fundamental and very well-known theory of “the dead people can only get dressed, bathed or moved by others at least three or eight hours after their death”, which is believed as one of the most prominent features of Pure Land Belief. Venerable Hsing Yun said: “You would bring light to the others when you donate your cornea, you would bring the power of life to the others when you donate your heart, you would transfer your vitality of life to the other people’s life when you donate your marrow.”6 and thus organ donation after death is preached as a supposed highly noble virtue of human beings by him. There are also some other Buddhist masters who disagree or even oppose organ donation after death. Generally speaking, most of the Chinese mainland Buddhist Masters are rather conservative about organ donation after death. Their opinions can be summarized as follows: Our consciousnesses are still with us after recent death and it can not be taken as true death then. We are not really dead until our consciousnesses leave our bodies completely. Because the consciousnesses won’t leave instantly after recent death and by when the

4 Bhikkuni Cheng Yen, Pure Wisdom, (Nanjing: Jiangsu People’s Press, 2009), p. 54. 5 “-vijñāna is the Seventh Consciousness. It serves as the ground for ego-attachment. Ālāyavijñāna is the Eighth Consciousness. It stores dharma seeds and serves as the genesis for all dharma.” “Eye Consciousness, Ear Consciousness, Nose Consciousness, Tongue Consciousness and Body Conscious- ness are five kinds of sense consciousnesses, collectively they are called as the Five Sense-consciousnesses.” “Mano-vijñāna is the Sixth Consciousness. It’s centre for mental phenomena and activities.” Lingbo Yu, Analects for Verses Delineating the , (Buddha’s Education Foundation, 2009), p. 21. 6 Ven. Hsing Yun, Buddhist Perspective for Euthanasia—Master Hsing Yun’s in Singapore, (Taiwan: Pu Men Xue Bao, 2003), p. 7. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 107

bodies still can feel, if at that time the recently deceased people undergo the surgery of organ-harvesting, there would be huge pains arisen and in return intense hatred would be generated among the dead people’s last-moment-thought and finally this would lead to the recently deceased people’s degeneration. The process of death is suffering itself and both the dying people and the recently deceased people need to be taken good care of, rather than to be bothered or hurt. The last-moment thought is highly crucial for the dying people and it would determine where the dying people are going to be reborn in their afterlife. We need to chant the name of Amitayus Buddha7 for the dying people and the recently deceased people for a few hours or even days to help the dead human get far away from duggati (realms of miserable existence) and to be reborn in heaven or the Buddha’s realms.

Mysterious death

In ancient China, people would tell life from death by touching pulses or feeling nose breath. Nowadays most of the countries are taking heartbeat-stopping or -respiration- stopping or brain death as the criteria for death. However, if we take heartbeat-stopping or lung-respiration-stopping as criteria of death, the problem is both the stopped heartbeat and the stopped respiration would sometimes restart. Some people may believe the brain death is irreversible and take brain death as the criteria for death. If we take brain death as the criteria of death, the problem is: is brain death the real death? 8 In Buddhism, it was considered that one would not pass to another rebirth realm in an instant. It is a process.9 Firstly you lose your respiration (wind), then you start to lose your temperature (heat). The temperature is lost inch by inch, and it may take hours until the

7 “The Buddha then said to Elder Śariputra: “If you travel westward from here, passing a hundred thousand koṭis of Buddha lands, you will come to the land called Utmost Bliss, where there is a Buddha named Amitayus. He is living there now, teaching the Dharma…” Hisao Inagaki & Harold Stewart translated, The Three Pure Land Sutras, (Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2003), p. 91. 8 “In most human , the loss of these neurological functions is accompanied by the traditional, familiar markers of death: the patient stops breathing, his or her heart stops beating, and the body starts to decay. In relatively rare cases, however, the irreversible loss of brain-dependent functions occurs while the body, with technological assistance, continues to circulate blood and to show other signs of life. In such cases, there is controversy and confusion about whether death has actually occurred.” Controversies in the Determination of Death, (A White Paper of the President’s Council on Bioethics, 2008), p. 1. 9 Master Yin Guang, Master Yin Guang Wen Chao Jing Hua Lu, (Beijing: Religion Press, 2006), p. 61-66. 108 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

temperature is gone completely. While the heat is dispersing, the consciousness is also ceasing to work little by little. Finally the body gets totally cold and that means our consciousness has already gone entirely. It’s until then when a person can be regarded as truly dead. In the history of China, there are many ancient notable Buddhist masters who were very careful and prudent about death. Some of them even instructed their disciples to keep their bodies unmoved or enshrined for at least three or seven days after their deaths just in case they would get interrupted. The primary dispute on organ donation after death is mainly involved with the problematic criteria for death and how to differentiate life from death. It is well-known that there are lots of different interpretations of death. Death is really mysterious and is a forever tricky problem. For millennia the human beings have kept on studying death and the religion believers have never stopped debating it. Nevertheless, up until today there is still much controversy about either the precise definition of death or the concrete process of death, let alone the world after death. Death is such an obscure and profound issue that it’s just like what is described by the great Chinese educationalist Confucius10 in his work The Analects (Lun Yu)11: ‘If we don’t know life, how can we know death?’12

The Belief of Organ Donation in Mahāyāna Buddhism

The Essay on the Meaning of Mahayana defines donation as follows13: “Speaking of donation, it means to give away one’s own property and belongings to the other people with the intended purpose of sacrificing oneself and benefiting the others.” Briefly speaking, donation connotes both the relinquishing of stinginess and the cultivating of generosity by a kind of benevolent giving of alms which aims at helping the receivers while expect nothing in return. Categorized by different groups of practitioners, Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra14 enumerates nine types of Donation and they are Truth Donation and Alms Donation suitable

10 551 BC—479 BC. “Confucius is the earliest and the most influential thinker and educationalist in China. He has been regarded as a sage by Chinese people for over 2000 years.” Confucius, The Analects, (Foreign Language Teaching and Studying, 1997), p. 3. 11 “The Analects is a book recording conversations between Confucius and his disciples.” Ibid. p. 5. 12 “Tzu-lu asked how one should serve ghosts and spirits. The Master said, Till you have learnt to serve men, how can you serve ghosts? Tzu-lu then ventured upon a question about the dead. The Master said, Till you know about the living, how are you to know about the dead?” Ibid. p. 133. 13 Essay on the Meaning of Mahayana, (CBETA, T44, no. 1851, p0694b08-p0694b12) 14 CBETA, T11, no. 0310, p0515c02-p0515c08. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 109

for the Lay Bodhisattvas; Pens Donation, Ink Donation, Scriptures Donation and Dharma Donation suitable for the Ordained Bodhisattvas; Donation, Wives Donation and Organ Donation suitable for the Anutpattikadharmaksanti15 Bodhisattvas. As to organ donation, it can be recognized as one piece of Mahāyāna precepts. In the second volume of Brahmajāla-sūtra16, organ donation is specified as the Sixteenth- minor-precept as follows: Buddhist Bodhisattvas should enlighten themselves by studying and contemplating Mahāyāna Tipiṭaka. If there are any novice Bodhisattvas come to learn from them, the Buddhist Bodhisattvas should honestly teach those novice Bodhisattvas about all ascetic cultivations such as burning bodies, burning arms and burning fingers. The Bodhisattvas can not be named as Monastic Bodhisattvas without making offerings to Buddhas by burning off their bodies, arms or fingers. In addition, the Bodhisattvas should also make offerings to hungry tigers, wolves, and all hungry ghosts by renouncing their flesh and limbs. The Buddhist Bodhisattvas should systematically preach Dharma to novice Bodhisattvas and make them enlightened. If the Buddhist Bodhisattvas can not accordingly preach Dharma honestly and systematically by reason of their self-interests, they would commit a minor transgression. In the sixth volume of Śūraṃgama-sūtra17, the Buddha states the benefits of organ donation as follows: After I pass away, if there are any Bhikkhus who would resolve to practice samādhi can burn one body-lamp or one finger-joint in front of the Buddha Figure, those Bhikkhus would collect boundless merit. Their unlimited sins would be eliminated and their innumerable ignorance would be exterminated. They have validated their commitments on Dharma. If it’s not on account of their practicing of organ donation, those Bhikkhus would have to atone for akusala kamma (demeritorious action) of their previous , just as how the Buddha ingested horse fodder. In Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism, the rationale of organ donation lies in the well-known story which talks about how the Bhaiṣajya-rāja Bodhissattva18 (Medicine King Bodhisattva)

15 “…to be enlightened with the truth that nothing really arises or perishes”, Mahāprajñāpā ramitāśāstra, (CBETA, T25, no. 1509, p0676a11-p0676a15) 16 CBETA, T24, no. 1484, p1006a16-p1006a25 17 CBETA, T19, no. 0945, p0132b14-p0132b20 18 (Skt.), aka Bodhisattva Medicine King. “to cure two kinds of diseases: firstly Disorder of the Four Elements, secondly Ignorance and Malice. is named Bodhisattva Medicine King according to his practice.” Visualization of the Two Bodhisattvas, the King of Medicine and the Superior Physician, (T20, no. 1161, p0880c06-p0666a22) 110 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

burnt his own body off as an offering to the Buddha Virtue Pure and Bright Like the Sun and Moon and to the Dharma Flower Sutra twice. This story is recorded in the 23rd chapter of Saddharma Puṇḍárīka Sūtra19. According to the Saddharma Puṇḍárīka Sūtra, if there is a one who has made his firm resolve to obtain Anuttara--sambodhi20 and that one would like to burn off a finger or even a toe of his body as an offering to a Buddha stupa, thus the virtue and merit of this person’s offering would surpass the virtue and merit of all the other kinds of offerings. For example, the virtue and merit of the offerings of kingdoms, cities, wives, children, the Three-thousand-great-thousand realms, mountains, forests, rivers, ponds, and all kinds of treasures and jewels. According to Saddharma Puṇḍárīka Sūtra, the virtue and merit of organ donation is so outstanding and amazing that lots of subsequent Chinese Mahāyāna monks tried similar organ donation practice and burnt themselves off to pay homage to the Buddha or Dharma. Here is a brief study of those monks who are categorized by the periods in which they lived.

(1) Biography of Eminent Monks21 Biography of Eminent Monks records the biographies of ancient Chinese eminent monks from Eastern Han Dynasty to Period of the Northern and Southern Dynasties. Because the book’s author Hui Jiao is from Liang Dynasty and so sometimes the book is also called as the Biography of Eminent Monks in Liang Dynasty. There is a Death Episode in the twelfth volume of this book and it records altogether eleven monks who perished out of the reason of organ donation.

(2) A Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks22 A Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks records the biographies of ancient Chinese eminent monks from the beginning of Liang Dynasty to the middle of Tang Dynasty. Because the book’s author Dao Xuan is from Tang Dynasty and so sometimes the book is also called as the Biography of Eminent Monks in Tang Dynasty. There’s a Death Episode in the twenty-seventh volume of this book and it records altogether twelve monks who practiced organ donation.

19 CBETA, T09, no. 0262, p0054a12-p0054a16 20 Supreme perfect enlightenment. “ Only the Buddha’s wisdom can be called as Anuttara-samyak- sambodhi.” Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra, (CBETA, T25, no. 1509, p0656b05-p0656b13) 21 CBETA, T50, no. 2059, p0404a02-p0405c22 22 CBETA, T50, no. 2060, p0678a15-p0684b03 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 111

(3) Biography of Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty23 Biography of Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty records the biographies of ancient Chinese eminent monks from the middle of Tang Dynasty to Song Dynasty. Because the book’s author Zan Ning is from Song Dynasty and so this book is called the Biography of Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty. There’s a Death Episode in the twenty-third volume of the this book and it records altogether seventeen monks who had ever practiced organ donation.

(4) An Additional Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks24 An Additional Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks records the biographies of ancient Chinese eminent monks from Tang Dynasty to the end of Wanli reign in Ming Dynasty. The book’s author Ming He is from Ming Dynasty. There’s a Death Episode in the twentieth volume of this book and it records altogether five monks who had practiced organ donation.

(5) A New Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks25 A New Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks records the biographies of ancient Chinese eminent monks from Northern Song Dynasty to the beginning of Republic Era. The book’s author Yu Qian is from Republic Era. There’s a Death Episode in the thirty-ninth volume of this book and it records seven monks who perished out of the reason of organ donation.

The Pros of Organ Donation After Death

Generally speaking, there are four aspects of organ donation after death as follows:

(1) According to Mahāyāna Bodhisattva precept According to the second volume of Brahmajāla-sūtra, organ donation is specified as the Sixteenth-minor-precept. Since organ donation is an essential cultivation for Mahāyāna Bodhisattva practitioners, let alone the organ donation after death.

23 CBETA, T50, no. 2061, p0855a27-p0861c27 24 CBETA, X77, no. 1524, p0506b19-p0509b08 25 CBETA, B27, no. 0151, p0301b14-p0306b25 112 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

(2) According to Mahāyāna Yogācāra theory According to Mahāyāna Yogācāra, there is a theory on Eight Consciousnesses. They are the Eye-Consciousness for seeing, the Ear-Consciousness for hearing, the Nose- Consciousness for smelling, the Tongue-Consciousness for tasting, the Body-Consciousness for touching, the Mind-Consciousness for perception, the Manas Consciousness for self- grasping, and the Storehouse Consciousness for storing. Although the eight consciousnesses have different appellations, however they’re actually of one same entity. Their relationship is just as the water and waves which are neither identical nor different. They are named respectively according to different functions. Among them, Ālaya Vijñāna (the Storehouse Consciousness), acts as the receptacle for storing Bīja and it’s called mind. Manas Vijñāna (the Manas Consciousness) is arising from the Storehouse Consciousness, it acts as the self-grasping consciousness and always revolves around and embraces the Storehouse Consciousness as its object, so the Manas Consciousness is called Thought. The preceding six consciousnesses are able to discriminate various objects and act as the discriminating consciousness, so they are called consciousness. The preceding six consciousnesses might be intermittent sometimes. However, the eighth Storehouse Consciousness and the seventh Manas Consciousness would always keep being incessant as long as the human being is alive. According to The Rules of the Eighth Kinds of Consciousness written by Xuan Zang, the Storehouse Consciousness would always be both the very first and the very last host throughout a human being’s life. When a human being is going to die, the human being’s lifespan, warmth and consciousness would extinguish simultaneously. The human being’s lifespan, warmth and consciousness are just like three sticks of reeds26. The three sticks of reeds lean on each other and support each other. Once one stick of reed fall down, the three sticks of reeds would consequently fall apart simultaneously. Likewise, a human being’s lifespan, warmth and consciousness support each other and sustain the human being’s life together. Once one of them stops to function, the other two would collapse simultaneously and consequently the human being’s life would be extinct instantly. When a human being is going to die, he would have to abandon his mortal body. The dead mortal corpse lying in the ground would become as inanimate as wood or stone.27

26 S aṃyuttāgama，(CBETA, T02, no. 0099, p0081b03–p0081b08) 27 Ibid. p0150a17–p0150b13 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 113

(3) According to Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra28 In the eleventh volume of Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the Buddha clarifies that if there are Virtuous men and women who are able to refrain from evil physical, verbal and mental , when they are going to die, if their families would deal with their corpses by burning off, or by plunging the corpses into the water, or by casting the corpses into the graveyard, the corpses would then be devoured by foxes, jackals and beasts. However, those virtuous men and women’s minds, thoughts and consciousnesses would go to good paths. Nonetheless, the minds dharma is indeed neither whence nor whither. The state of consciousness is a continuous and uninterrupted consciousness flow. It’s composed of continuous and uninterrupted successions of numerous momentary states of consciousnesses. The previous consciousness and its next consciousness are not intermittent and they’re similar and continuous.

(4) According to Bie Yi Za A Han Jing In the eighth volume of Bie Yi Za A Han Jing29, the 155th text records as follows:

... Śākya Mahānāma Kulika went to visit the Buddha. After paying homage to the Buddha’s feet, he sat sideways and asked the Buddha: “Bhagavato, the people of Kapilavastu are prospering and at ease. I live with them together and sometimes this strange idea would occur to me: if there were mad elephant or rushing cart or uncontrollable horse or insane man who run into me, at that time perhaps I could not keep myself mindful of the Buddha, Dhamma or Sangha. At that time I might think to myself—if the Bhikkhu could not keep himself mindful of the Triple Gems, when he was demised, where would he go, which gatiyo was he advancing, what kind of would he bear?” The Buddha answered his questions thus: “At that circumstance, you do not fear, then upon your death you would go to good places, and you wouldn’t degrade into the duggati. You wouldn’t suffer from akusala kamma. That’s just like a big tree. When the tree is young, it always grows to the east. If you cut it off when it’s big, to what direction would it fall down? You need to know the tree would definitely fall down to the east. You are just like the tree. You have accumulated lots of merit from practicing for a long time, if you degenerate into duggati and suffer from akusala kamma, that would never happen.”

28 Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra，(CBETA, T12, no. 0374, p0431b07–p0431b12) 29 Bie Yi Za A Han Jing，(CBETA, T02, no. 0100, p0432b14–p0432b27) 114 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Cons of Organ Donation After Death

The cons of organ donation after death can be categorized from four aspects as follows:

(1) According to Nan Hai Ji Gui Nei Fa Zhuan30 According to ‘Immolation Improper’ and ‘Imitating Offense’ from the fourth volume of Nan Hai Ji Gui Nei Fa Zhuan written by Master Yi Jing from Tang dynasty, lay people can burn their fingers off as an offering to the Buddha or Dharma. However the monks can not burn off their fingers as an offering because it is in contradiction with the precepts.

(2) According to Maraṇa-dukkha In Buddhist Tipiṭaka, Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra31 called death as Marana-dukkha. Maraṇadukkha refers to the suffering of death. Maraṇa means death, dukkha means suffering. According to the sixty-seventh volume of Saddharmasmṛty-upasthāna sūtra, there are four types of death at the end of human beings life. They are earth disorder, water disorder, fire disorder and air disorder. At the end of human beings’ life, the Four Elements would disintegrate and collapse and huge agony would occur correspondingly. In the tenth volume of - kośa32, Maraṇa-dukkha is called as Marman-dukkha and it describes the process of death as Marman-destruction-suffering33. Marman is a Sanskrit term which means death-point of the body. It’s extremely tiny and would induce agony and death under the slightest stimuli. The Four Elements, i.e. the earth, water, fire and air would increasingly get proliferated and degenerated while the human is dying. Under the stimulation of the disintegrating Four Elements, there would appear Marman Destruction during the process of dying. According to Abhidharma-kośa, during the process of death, the water, the wind and the heat in our body starts to decompose. Either of the water decomposition, the wind decomposition and the heat decomposition would stimulate and destruct Marmans in the body and acute prick

30 CBETA, T54, no. 2125, p0231a29–p0231c17 31 Voluminous work of Yogācāra School. It’s a definitive encyclopedia on yogic practice. Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, (CBETA, T30, no. 1579, p0279a08-p0882a14) 32 Verses on the Treasury of Abhidharma. A key work on Sarvāstivādin tenets written by from Gandhāra in the 4th or 5th century. Abhidharmakosa-sastra, (CBETA, T29, no. 1558, p0001a10- p0159a14) 33 “Marmans are acupuncture points in our body which would lead to death by the slightest touch.” It’s said there are hundreds of Marmans in our body. Ibid. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 115

pains would be stirred up to the human in the destruction process of Marmans. Finally the Marman-destruction34 would lead to human’s death. According to Abhidharma-kośa, there are two different ways to end the human beings’ life at the end of their life. One way is named instant dead and the other way is named gradual dead. For those human beings who would suffer gradual dead would probably also have to suffer from Marman-dukkha.

(3) According to Last-moment Degradation In the sutra Zhong jing zhuan za pi yu35, there is a tale about King Agnidatta who degraded into a serpent after death despite originally King Agnidatta should have been born into the celestial heaven on the facts of immeasurable virtue and merit he made by making offerings and erecting and temples when he was alive. What led to his degeneration as to be born as a serpent? In the sutra Zhong jing zhuan za pi yu, King Agnidatta explained the reason as follows: “While my life was going to end, the fanning servant dropped the fan on my face by accident and hatred was stirred up in my mind. That’s why now I degraded into this serpent body.” According to King Agnidatta’s degrading tale, we can see the importance of taking good care of the dying people’s mind. The crucial significance of the last-moment thought of the dying people has also been recorded in Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra36. The Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra quoted some text from the Fen Bie Ye Jing and clarified why the last-moment thought of the dying people is able to decide the final direction of our afterlife as follows:

Venerable Ānanda asked the Buddha why at the end of people’s life the power of a modicum of last-moment thought would surpass the power of their whole life’s practice. The Buddha told Venerable Ānanda that although the dying people’s last-moment thought is no more than a single and momentary thought, it’s sharp and of unmitigated power. Just as the fire or the poison, which with limited quantity can create much effect, the dying people’s last-moment thought is able to finally decide the dying people’s afterlife. At the end of their life, the dying people would have to relinquish their mortal bodies and all the other possessions all of a sudden,

34 “ Either of the water decomposition, wind decomposition and heat decomposition would stimulate Marmans like a sharp edge and hence acute sufferings would be arisen…It’s called Marman-destruction because death would come on the heels of that.” Ibid. 35 Zhong jing zhuan za pi yu，(CBETA, T04, no. 0208, p0535b05–p0535b16) 36 CBETA, T25, no.1509, p0238b15-p0238b27 116 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

it’s just like the soldiers on the battlefield who would fight hard even at the cost of their lives. The last-moment thought is fearless and full of power, it would surpass the power of one-hundred-year’s practice and can be called as Great Mind.

(4) According to Last-moment hospice Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism regards the human beings’ last-moment thought as the crucial and determinate factor which would determine the outcome of dying people’s afterlife. Master Yin Guang stresses the importance of the last stage of life and narrates in detail about how to take care of the dying people at their last stages of life in the article “ Dharma Talk on End-of-Life” from his work “Yin Guang Da Shi Wen Chao Jing Hua lu” 37. In this book, Master Yin Guang relates the last stage of life as of most importance and maintains we should by no means touch or move the dying people’s body in case extreme sufferings and hatred arisen to the dying people which would inevitably lead to their degradation. For the practitioners who chant the Amitābha Buddha and originally would aspire to transmigrate to the Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land, if they have families who would just cry and weep sorrowfully at the end of their life, those practitioners would get their right mind harmed and fail to attain their next births in the Amitābha Buddha’s Western Pure Land.

Conclusion

In a word, as a part of Mahāyāna , organ donation is an essential cultivation for Mahāyāna Bodhisattva practitioners. Based on this reason, some people would believe organ donation after death is a meaningful and supposed cultivation for Mahāyāna Bodhisattva practitioners as well. Generally speaking, in today’s Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhist world, organ donation after death is occupying the moral high ground and being advocated and propagated by some Buddhist masters in the light of some theoretical basis recorded in the texts. In the meantime, some Buddhist masters oppose it in the light of some theoretical basis recorded in the texts as well.

37 Master Yin Guang, Dharma Talk on End-of-Life, Yin Guang Da Shi Wen Chao Jing Hua lu, Religion Press, 2006), p. 61-66. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 117

References

I. Tipiṭaka

Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol. 4. No. 208 Zhong Jing Zhuan Za Pi Yu. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.13 (Big5) Normalized Version CBETA V1.13 (Big5). Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). Release Date: 2009/04/ 23. p.535 (T04, no.0208, p0535b05-p0535b16, p0531b25-p0531c24) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol.25. No.1509 Da Zhi Du Lun, Chu Pin Shi Li Shi Lun Di San Shi Jiu. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.0 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p. 238 (T25, no.1509, p0238b15–p0238b27) Taishō Tipiṭaka.Vol.02. No.100 Bie Yi Za A Han Jing Juan Di Ba (155). CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.38 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.432 (T2, no.100, p0432b14–p0432b27) Taishō Tipiṭaka.Vol.12. No.374 Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.53 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.431 (T12, no.374, p0431b07–p0431b12) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol.11. No.310 Da Bao Ji Jing Juan Di Jiu Shi, Yiu Po Li Hui Di Er Shi Si. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.42 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.515 (T11, no.310, p0515c02–p0515c08) Taishō Tipiṭaka.Vol. 2. No. 99 Za A Han Jing Juan Er Shi Yi. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.150 (T02, no.99, p0150b05–p0150b10) Taishō Tipiṭaka.Vol.30. No.1579 Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.505 (T30, no. 1579, p0505b02-p0510b25) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol. 9. No. 262 Sad-dharma Puṇḍárīka Sūtra. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.53-54 (T09, no.0262, p0053a04- p0054a12) 118 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Taishō Tipiṭaka.Vol.50. No.2059 Biography of Eminent Monks. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.404-405 (T50, no.2059, p0404a02- p0405c22) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol.50. No.2060 A Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.678-684 (T50, no.2060, p0678a15-p0684b03) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol. 50. No. 2061 Biography of Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.855-861 (T50, no.2061, p0855a27-p0861c27) Taishō Tipiṭaka. X77. No. 1524 An Additional Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.506-509 (X77, no.1524, p0506b19-p0509b08) Taishō Tipiṭaka. B27. No. 151 A New Sequel to Biography of Eminent Monks. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.301-306 (B27, no.0151, p0301b14-p0306b25) Taishō Tipiṭaka. T24. No. 1484 Brahmajāla-sūtra. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.1006 (T24, no.1484, p1006a16-p1006a25) Taishō Tipiṭaka. T19. No. 945 Śūraṃgama-sūtra. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.132 (T19, no.0945, p0132b14-p0132b20) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol. 54. No. 2125 Nan Hai Ji Gui Nei Fa Zhuan. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.231 (T54, no.2125, p0231a29–p0231c17) Taishō Tipiṭaka. Vol.29. No.1558 Abhidharma-kośa. CBETA Chinese Electronic Tripitaka V1.93 Normalized Version. Distributor: Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA). p.56 (T29, no.1558, p0056a17–p0056c23) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 119

II. Books & Academic Journals

Bhikkuni Cheng Yen. Pure Wisdom (Qing Jing De Zhi Hui) [M]. Nan jing, China: Jiang Su Ren Min Chu Ban She. 2009/1 Print. Confucius. The Analects. Foreign Language Teaching and Studying Press. 1997 Print. p.3-133. Hisao Inagaki & Harold Stewart translated. The Three Pure Land Sutras. Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research Press. 2003 Print. p.91. Lingbo Yu. Analects for Verses Delineating the Eight Consciousnesses. Buddha’s Education Foundation Press. 2009 Print. p.21. Master Yin Guang.Yin Guang Da Shi Wen Chao Jing Hua Lu-Dharma Talk on End-of- Life. Beijing: Religion Press. 2006 Print. p. 61-66. Tzu Chi. Tzu Chi USA Journal #44. Han Huang Press. 2015 Print. p.75. An Analytical Study of The Seven Factors of Enlightenment in Bojjhaṇga Sutta as a Protection Against Sickness in Theravāda Buddhist Perspective

Punnyakami, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article aims to promote understanding of the meanings and types of the seven factors of enlightenment (sattabojjhaṇga), how we contemplate these factors according to the teachings of the Enlightened One, how they cure all sickness according to the Pāḷi Canon, and why they can cure the sickness in Theravāda Buddhist perspective. From this study, it is found that the term Bojjhaṇga is derived from two words: bodhi and aṇga. Bodhi means enlightenment or insight of the realization of the Four Noble Truths: the Noble Truth of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, and the Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering. Aṇga means factors or limbs. Therefore Bojjhaṇga means the factors of enlightenment. The development of the factors of enlightenment causes the knowledge leading to wisdom and peace to arise. So these factors are called the factors of perfected knowledge. If a monk cultivates and develops the seven factors of enlightenment, he inclines to Nibbāna, tends to Nibbāna and walks towards Nibbāna. Firstly, the fi ndings show the meaning of the seven factors of enlightenment and the types of the seven factors of enlightenment. Secondly, the research examined the application of these factors by contemplation of the seven factors of enlightenment. Finally, the article touched upon two kinds of sickness, two kinds of medicines, and bojjhaṇgas as the medical healing applied by the development of these factors. Therefore the seven factors of enlightenment are one of the categories of spiritual qualities frequently mentioned by the Buddha as very benefi cial for spiritual development.

Keywords: Bojjhaṇga, Sickness, Theravāda, Buddhist Scripture. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 121

Introduction

The Enlightened One expounded the seven factors of enlightenment (sattabojjhaṇga) specifically under the title of Bojjhaṇga Saṃyutta in Saṃyutta Nikāya. In this section there are three discourses regarding the seven factors of enlightenment, namely the Bojjhaṇga sutta, the Mahākassapa Bojjhaṇga sutta, the Mahāmoggalāna Bojjhaṇga sutta, and the Mahācunda Bojjhaṇga sutta. These suttas have been recited by Buddhists since the time of the Buddha as a protection () against pain, disease and adversity. The development of the factors of enlightenment causes the knowledge leading to wisdom and peace to arise. So these factors are called the factors of perfected knowledge. If a monk cultivates and develops the seven factors of enlightenment, he inclines to Nibbāna, tends to Nibbāna and walks towards Nibbāna. These seven factors are: 1. Mindfulness (sati) 2. Investigation of the Dhamma (dhammavicaya) 3. Energy (vīriya) 4. Rapture (pīti) 5. Calm or Tranquillity () 6. Concentration (samādhi) 7. Equanimity (upekkhā)1_ Nowadays, most of the Buddhists recite the Bojjhaṇga sutta as a protection (paritta) against pain, disease and adversity. It is very difficult to understand the meaning of the Bojjhaṇga sutta and the seven factors of enlightenment. We cannot understand easily why we recite the Bojjhaṇga sutta as a protection (paritta) against pain, disease and adversity. Indeed, the Enlightened One’s sāsanā is like a hospital, He is like a skilled physician, these factors are like medicine, and the meditators are like the patients.2_ If someone reflects upon these factors practically, he can protect himself from physical pain because of developing these factors and especially because of tranquility (passaddhi).3_

1 Piyadassi Thera, 1960-1980, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Satta Bojjhanga), (Sri Lanka, Kandy, Buddhist Publication Society), p.5. 2 Chanmyay, Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaïga: Medicine That Makes All Diseases Disappear, tr. by Ven. Ariya Ñānī, (Kuala Lumpur, )2008), p.1. 3 Thapyaekan, Sayataw, 2005, The Great Teaching of Satta Bojjhanga, (2nd), (Burmese Script, Yangon, Myanmar) p. 190. 122 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Objectives of the Research

There are three objectives of this research: (1) to study the context and origin of Bojjhaṇga sutta, (2) to study the concept of the seven factors of enlightenment in Bojjhaṇga sutta in Theravāda Buddhist scriptures and (3) to analyze the seven factors of enlightenment in Bojjhaṇga sutta as a protection against physical sickness in Theravāda Buddhist perspective.

Research Methodology

This is textual study that applies documentary research methodology. The research methodology can be described in the following steps: 1. Collecting data from primary sources of English translations of Nikāya and Pāli canon in order to explore the body of knowledge of the seven factors of enlightenment as well as secondary sources of commentaries, sub-commentaries, books written and composed by famous Buddhist scholars. 2. Analyzing the raw data as well as systematizing the collected data in order to give a clear picture of the seven factors of enlightenment. 3. Constructing the entire outline of the work. 4. Discussing the problem encountered according to the significance of the studies. 5. Making a conclusion and giving suggestions for further study, recitation, and practice.

Meaning of the Bojjhaṇgas

The term Bojjhaṇga is derived from two words: Bodhi and Aṇga. Bodhi means enlightenment or insight of the realization of the Four Noble Truths: the Noble Truth of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering, the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering, and the Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering. Aṇga means factors or limbs. Therefore Bojjhaṇga means the factors of enlightenment.4_

4 Piyadassi Thera, 1960-1980, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Satta Bojjhanga), (Wheel Publication No. 1, Sri Lanka, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society), p.4. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 123

The firstSaṃbojjhaṇga is Sati, which means mindfulness. Dhammavicayasaṃbojjhaṇga means investigation of the law and is the second factor of enlightenment. The third Saṃbojjhaṇga, Vīriya is derived from the Pāli word Vīra. Vīra means manly, mighty, heroic, a hero. The fourth Saṃbojjhaṇga, Pīti means happiness, rapture, zest and joy. Passaddhisaṃbojjhaṇga means tranquility as a factor of enlightenment and consists in tranquility of mental factors (kāyapassaddhi) and tranquility of consciousness (cittapassaddhi). The sixth Saṃbojjhaṇga, Samādhi means concentration; a concentrated, self-collected, and intent state of mind and meditation, which, concomitant with right living, is a necessary condition to the attainment of higher wisdom and emancipation. The last one, Upekkhā means looking on and equanimity. It also means neutrality or indifference, zero point between joy and sorrow, disinterestedness, neutral feeling, equanimity.5_

Types of Bojjhaṇgas

In the Abhidhammattha Saṇgaha, mindfulness has the characteristic of not wobbling, that is not floating away from the object. Its function is absence of confusion or non-forgetfulness. It is manifested as guardianship, as the state of confronting an objective field. Its proximate cause is strong perception (thirasaññā) or the four foundations of mindfulness.6_ Dhammavicaya Saṃbojjhaṇga (investigation of the dhamma) is wisdom mental factor. The Atthasālinī stated that wisdom has the penetration of intrinsic nature, unfaltering penetration as its characteristic, like the penetration of an arrow shot by a skillful archer. And thus knowing should be regarded as the characteristic of wisdom. It has illumination of the object as its function, like it were a lamp. When darkness disappears because of the lamp’s illumination, all the objects within the reach of the light can be seen clearly.7_ The factor of energy can be learned from the Mahājanaka story in the Jātaka section. Vīriya is the state of an energetic man, it is the action of the energetic, or it is that which should be carried out by method or suitable means. The enlightenment factor of energy

5 T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, 1925, PALI-ENGLISH DICTIONARY, (London, ), p.170. 6 Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2000, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhammā, (Buddhist Publication Society, Sri Lanka), p.86. 7 Maung Tin, M.A (trs), 1920, The Expositor (Atthasālinī), Vol.1, (Pali Text Society, London), p.162. 124 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

has the characteristic of supporting or upholding its concomitants. As a leaning old house supported by new pillars will not fall, the concomitants supported by energy will not fade away. Just as a strong reinforcement would help an army to hold on instead of retreating, even so energy upholds or uplifts its concomitants.8_ Rapture has satisfaction as its characteristic, and the thrilling of body and mind as function, and elation as manifestation, and its proximate cause is mind and matter. There are five types of rapture as explained in the commentary: (1) minor rapture (khuddaka pīti) (2) momentary rapture (khaṅika pīti) (3) showering or flood of rapture (okkantika pīti) (4) uplifting rapture (ubbega pīti) (5) pervading rapture (pharaṇa pīti) Tranquility has the characteristic of pacifying the suffering of both mental factors and of consciousness, the function of crushing the suffering of both, and the manifestation of an unwavering and cool state of both. Its proximate cause is mental factors and consciousness. Its nature is tranquility and calmness. Tranquility is divided into two groups: (1) Kāyapassaddhi (tranquility of mental factors) and (2) Cittapassaddhi (tranquility of consciousness or mind). Tranquility as a factor of enlightenment can really be very calm and peaceful. It is a happiness that has no equal in ordinary worldly happiness.9_ Concentration has non-scattering of itself or non-distraction of associated states as its characteristic, the welding together of the co-existent states as function, as water knead bath-powder into a paste, and peace of mind or knowledge as manifestation. It is distinguished by having ease as proximate cause. Like the steadiness of the flame of a lamp in the absence of wind, so it should be understood as steadfastness of mind.10_ Equanimity has the characteristic of carrying on consciousness and mental properties equally, the function of checking deficiency and excess, or of cutting off partisanship. It has the manifestation of neutrality. By virtue of its indifference regarding consciousness and mental

8 Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, 2015, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhammā, (3rd) (Yangon, Myanmar), p.67. 9 Chanmyay Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaṇgas: Medicine that Makes All Diseases Disap- pear, tr. by Ven, Ariya Ñāõī, (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia), p.83. 10 Maung Tin, M.A (trs), 1920, The Expositor (Atthasālinī), Vol.1, (Pali Text Society, London), p.157. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 125

properties, it should be regarded as a charioteer who treats with impartiality the well-trained horses he is driving. Its proximate cause is the non-desire of rapture.

The Seven Ways of Contemplation of the Seven Factors of Enlightenment The Contemplation of Mindfulness (Satisaṃbojjhaṇga)

In the Visuddhimagga commentary, the commentator said that Mindfulness (sati) is recollection (anussati) because it arises again and again; or alternatively, the mindfulness (sati) that is proper (anurūpa) for a clansman gone forth out of faith, since it occurs only in those instances where it should occur, is “recollection” (anussati).11_ There are ten recollections in the Abhidhammatthasaṇgaha12_. They are: (1) Buddhānussati (recollection of the Buddha) (2) Dhammānussati (recollection of the Dhamma) (3) Saṇghānussati (recollection of the of the Saṇgha) (4) Silānussati (recollection of the virtues of one’s morality) (5) Cāgānussati (recollection of the virtues of one’s offering) (6) Devatānussati (recollection of one’s virtues similar to deities’virtues) (7) Upasamānussati (recollection of the virtues of Nibbāna) (8) Maraõānussati (recollection of the nature of one’s death) (9) Kāyagatāsati (recollection of thirty two bodily parts) and (10) Ānāpānassati (mindfulness of breathing).13_

The scriptures outline many different ways of practice which lead to enlightenment, but mindfulness is the main one. The practice of mindfulness brings together all these factors: body, feeling tones, conditions of mind; all these categories, the , the five aggregates, the six senses and sense objects, the seven factors of enlightenment, the four noble truths. It’s the primary way, the main way to the realization of enlightenment.14_ Besides

11 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga( ), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (BPS, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.547. 12 Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2000, A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhammā, (Buddhist Publication Society, Sri Lanka), p.333. 13 Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, 2015, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, (3rd) (Yangon, Myanmar), pp.274-276. 14 Thiradhammo, 2012, Contemplations on the Seven Factors of Awakening, (Bolden Trade, Malaysia), p.35. 126 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

providing the foundation for the other factors, mindfulness is the one enlightenment factor whose development is beneficial at any time and on all occasions.15_ The Contemplation of Investigation (Dhammavicayasaṃbojjhaṇga) There are seven things that lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of investigation of the dhamma: (1) asking questions, (2) making the basis clean, (3) balancing the faculties, (4) avoidance of persons without understanding, (5) cultivation of persons with understanding, (6) reviewing the field for the exercise of profound knowledge and (7) resoluteness upon that investigation of dhamma.16_

Investigation of dhamma can be understood as an investigation of subjective experience based on the discrimination gained through familiarity with the dhamma. Such discrimination refers in particular to the ability to distinguish between what is wholesome for progress on the path and what is unwholesome. This directly contrasts investigation of dhamma with the hindrance doubt (vīcikicchā).17_ The investigation of dhamma involves having enough awareness to be able to observe without judging. This observation is not analyzing or thinking about anything; it is rather a clear, silent seeing of the actual condition of body and mind.18_

15 Anālayo, 2003, Satipaññhāna (The Direct Path to Realization), (O.S.Printing House, Bangkok), p.235. 16 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), tr. by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.127. 17 Anālayo, 2003, Satipaññhāna (The Direct Path to Realization), (O.S.Printing House, Bangkok), p.235. 18 Ajahn Thiradhammo, 2012, Contemplations on the Seven Factors of Awakening, (Bolden Trade, Malaysia), p.41. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 127

The Contemplation of Energy (Vīriyasaṃbojjhaṇga)

There are eleven things lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of energy: (1) reviewing the fearfulness of the states of loss such as the hell realms, etc., (2) seeing benefit in obtaining the mundane and supramundane distinctions dependent on energy, (3) reviewing the course of the journey thus: “the path taken by the Buddhas, Paccekabuddhas and the great disciples has to be taken by me and it cannot be taken by an idler”, (4) being a credit to the alms food by producing great fruit for the givers, (5) reviewing the greatness of the Enlightened One, (6) reviewing the greatness of the heritage, (7) removing stiffness and torpor by attention to perception of light, change of postures, frequenting the open air, etc., (8) avoidance of idle persons, (9) cultivation of energetic persons, (10) reviewing the right endeavors and (11) resoluteness upon that energy.19_

Meditators will come to realize the enlightenment factor of energy during their meditation practice. In order to be mindful, they have to make an effort, they have to try hard and they have to exert themselves.20_ Each of factors of enlightenment cumulatively supports the development of the others. They form a cause and effect relationship. When mindful, a meditator discriminates and investigates to penetrate into the processes underlying physicality and mentality. While this occurs, if a meditator exerts the required level of energy, the enlightenment factor of energy is developed. An adequate level of energy is required for the fulfillment of learning.21_

19 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga( ), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.127. 20 Chanmyay, Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaïga: Medicine That Makes All Diseases Disappearī,_, (Tr.by Ven. Ariya Ñān Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). p.57. 21 Venerable Uda Eriyagama Dhammajīva, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, Sri Lanka, p.18. 128 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Contemplation of Rapture (Pītisaṃbojjhaṇga) There are eleven things lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of rapture: (1) the recollection of the Buddha, (2) the recollection of the Dhamma, (3) the recollection of the Saṇgha, (4) the recollection of virtue, (5) the recollection of generosity, (6) the recollection of deities, (7) the recollection of peace, (8) the avoidance of rough persons, (9) the cultivation of refined persons, (10) the reviewing encouraging discourses and (11) the resoluteness upon that happiness.22_

The man lacking in this quality cannot proceed along the path to enlightenment. There will arise in him sullen indifference to the dhamma, an aversion to the practice of meditation and morbid manifestations. It is very necessary that a man, striving to attain enlightenment and final deliverance from the fetters ofsaṃsāra, should endeavor to cultivate the all important factor of happiness.23_

The Contemplation of Tranquility (Passadhisaṃbojjhaṇga)

There are seven things that lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of tranquility: (1) using superior food, (2) living in a good climate, (3) maintaining a pleasant posture, (4) keeping to the middle, (5) avoidance of violent persons, (6) cultivation of persons tranquil in body, and

22 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga( ), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.127. 23 Piyadassi Thera, 1960-1980, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Satta Bojjhanga), (Wheel Publication No. 1, Sri Lanka, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society), p.26. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 129

(7) resoluteness upon that tranquility.24_

There are many kinds of tranquility. If we observe the conditions of body and mind in terms of tranquility, at the end of a meditation for example, we may notice how the body has changed in the course of sitting. And we can recognize different degrees of tranquility. Some of them are perhaps not particularly helpful or supportive of meditation practice. Sometimes tranquility can be very heavy, close to sleepiness or dullness.25_ The man, who cultivates calm of the mind, does not get upset, confused or excited when confronted with the eight worldly conditions (aṭṭha-lokadhamma). He endeavors to see the rise and fall of all things conditioned, how things come into being and pass away. Free from anxiety and restlessness, he will see the fragility of the fragile.26_

The Contemplation of Concentration (Samādhisaṃbojjhaṇga)

There are eleven things that lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of concentration: (1) making the basis clean, (2) skill in the sign, (3) balancing the faculties, (4) restraining the mind on occasion, (5) exerting the mind on occasion, (6) encouraging the listless mind by means of faith and a sense of urgency, (7) looking on with equanimity at what is occurring rightly, (8) avoidance of unconcentrated persons, (9) cultivation of concentrated persons, (10) reviewing of the jhāna and liberations and (11) resoluteness upon that concentration.27_

24 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification (Visuddhimagga), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.128. 25 Ajahn Thiradhammo, 2012, Contemplations on the Seven Factors of Awakening, (Bolden Trade, Malaysia), p.82. 26 Piyadassi Thera, 1960-1980, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment (Satta Bojjhanga), (Wheel Publication No. 1, Sri Lanka, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society), p.32. 27 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga( ), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.128. 130 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Actually, concentration is the main point of all meritorious deeds. For example, the chief or the leader of all the soldiers, horses, elephants and chariots that are fighting on the battlefield is the king. All the soldiers have to carry out the orders of the king. In the same way, concentration is the main factor when performing any meritorious deed. The mind needs to be inclined towards concentration, only when concentration is present, does wholesomeness arise so that one will be successful. Therefore, we need to make an effort to arouse concentration.28_

The Contemplation of Equanimity (Upekkhāsaṃbojjhaṇga)

There are five things that lead to the arising of the enlightenment factor of equanimity: (1) maintenance of neutrality towards living beings, (2) maintenance of neutrality towards formations (inanimate things), (3) avoidance of persons who show favoritism towards beings and formations, (4) cultivating of persons who maintain neutrality towards beings and formations and (5) resoluteness upon that equanimity.29_

In the context of the Factors of Awakening, equanimity follows and is thus supported by concentration, and before that is tranquility. Ultimately, however, perfect equanimity comes from wisdom, from clearly seeing the true nature of things. When one understands that all things are impermanent, always changing, ephemeral, what is there to get excited about? Everything is just changing phenomena, just flowing processes. Ultimately equanimity is that profound, dispassionate stillness where everything manifests but is not reacted to, just silently received.30_

28 Chanmyay, Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaṇga: Medicine That Makes All Diseases Disappearī,_, (Tr.by Ven. Ariya Ñān Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). p.90. 29 Bhadantācariya Buddhaghosa, 1975, The Path of Purification Visuddhimagga( ), tr.by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka), p.128. 30 Ajahn Thiradhammo, 2012, Contemplations on the Seven Factors of Awakening, (Bolden Trade, Malaysia), p.125. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 131

Two Kinds of Sickness and Two Kinds of Medicine

In the Pali Canon, there are various words used to describe what in English is called “illness,” “disease,” “sickness.” Among these, the most commonly used words are roga, byādhi and ābādha. In the Roga sutta, the Enlightened One said that there is sickness of the body and sickness of the mind. In the Abhidhammā the mental defilements, which are states that afflict and defile the mind of beings, are globally included in the category of unwholesome states (akusalā dhammā). The Pali Nikāyas differentiate between dukkha born of physical contact and domanassa born of mental contact. For example, the Saccavibhaṅgasutta of the Majjhima Nikāya answers the question ‘what are dukkha and domanassa?’ Physical pain, physical discomfort, painful, uncomfortable feeling born of physical contact – this is called dukkha. Mental pain, mental discomfort, painful, uncomfortable feeling born of mental contact – this is called domanassa. An analysis of Buddhist stories shows a clear picture of different types of mentally sick persons. The famous examples of psychopaths of violent type are , Ajātasattu and Aṅgulimāla; and Paṭācārī and Kisāgotamī are the example of psychoses. Paṭācāra’s story is not told in the but is provided by the commentaries. Therefore, there are two kinds of sicknesses: (1) physical sickness and (2) mental sickness.

Physical sickness refers to the ninety-six diseases that can afflict the body. Mental sickness refers to the one thousand five hundred defilements (kilesā) that can afflict the mind.31_ Here, if there are two kinds of sickness, there will be two kinds of medicine. There was the famous doctor, named Jīvaka, in Jīvaka sutta, Aṇguttara Nikāya. He cured physical sickness by giving of medicine so that the patient was relieved from his sickness. Similarly The Enlightened One cured the mental sickness of Kisāgotamī with His teaching as dhammabhesajja in the Kisāgotamī story.

31 Chanmyay, Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaïga: Medicine That Makes All Diseases Disappearī,_, (Tr. by Ven. Ariya Ñān Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). p.2. 132 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Medical Healer of the Bojjhaṇga

At the time of the Enlightened One, The Enlightened One recited the Bojjhaṇga sutta as dhammabhesajja in order to heal the physical sickness of Mahākassapa Thera and Mahāmoggalāna Thera in Mahākassapa Bojjhaṇga sutta and Mahāmoggalāna Bojjhaṇga sutta. Similarly, the Enlightened One himself listened to the reciting of Mahācunda Thera to heal from his sickness in Mahācunda Bojjhaṇga sutta. The Enlightened one was asked by one of the monks what were the enlightenment factors and why they are called enlightenment factors. The Enlightened One answered that these factors lead to enlightenment, so they are called enlightenment factors. These factors leading to enlightenment, bojjhaṇgas, need to be practiced and developed repeatedly. Then we can attain insight knowledge, path knowledge, fruition knowledge and Nibbāna. With the attainment of Nibbāna, we do not suffer from any sickness and we are free from all kinds of diseases. The Enlightened One attained Buddhahood because he took the medicine of the bojjhaṇgas.32_

How to Practice the Seven Factors of Enlightenment to Cure All Sickness

Firstly, if a person would like to cure physical sickness and mental sickness, he has to listen to the Bojjhaṇga sutta. Even if a person cannot understand the meaning of the seven factors of enlightenment, a person will free himself from his sickness because of the power of these factors, the power of the sound of a reciting person and his belief on these factors. If a person understands the meaning of the seven factors of enlightenment clearly, he can cure his sickness because of his rapture from listening to the Bojjhaṇga sutta, the volition of a reciting person towards him, and his tranquility from the understanding of the dhamma.33_ Secondly, a meditator has to practice the seven factors of enlightenment for curing of physical sickness and also mental sickness. In , the Enlightened One expounded how are the seven factors for enlightenment developed and pursued so as to

32 Chanmyay, Myaing Sayadaw, 2008, The Bojjhaṇga: Medicine That Makes All Diseases Disappear,_, (Tr. by Ven. Ariya Ñān Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia). p.6. 33 Thapyaekan Sayadaw, 2005, The Great Teaching of Satta Bojjhaṇga, (2nd), (Yangon, Myan- mar), p.190. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 133

bring clear knowing and to achieve their culmination. There is the case where a monk develops mindfulness as a factor for enlightenment dependent on seclusion, dependent on dispassion, dependent on cessation, resulting in relinquishment. He develops analysis of qualities as a factor for enlightenment, persistence as a factor for enlightenment, rapture as a factor for enlightenment, serenity as a factor for enlightenment, concentration as a factor for enlightenment, equanimity as a factor for enlightenment, dependent on seclusion, dependent on dispassion, dependent on cessation, resulting in relinquishment.

Conclusion

The objectives of this article were to study the meanings and types of the seven factors of enlightenment (sattabojjhaṇga), how we contemplate these factors according to the teachings of the Enlightened One, how they cure all sickness in the Pāḷi Canon, and why they can cure the sickness in Theravāda Buddhist Perspective. Now, how do we put all these Seven Factors of Enlightenment together? In a practical sense, some of them are quite active, energetic qualities, and others are more calming. There are three active ones: investigation of dhamma, energy and joy. Three others are calming: tranquility, concentration and equanimity. And mindfulness watches over them all. First we become familiar with the whole range of these qualities. As you know, they are in the mind already and we all have some tranquility, some concentration, some investigation and so on. When we recognize what is truly tranquility and not just passivity, the difference between equanimity and indifference, we can learn how to cultivate those positive qualities. Recognizing them as Factors of Enlightenment, we give them some emphasis, some cultivation and development, so that they become prominent qualities for . With mindfulness as guardian, we observe the particular condition of mind on any occasion and adapt the practice accordingly. It is not a good time to develop tranquility when the mind is in a dull state. A meditator has got enough ‘tranquility’ already. When the mind is sluggish and dull, it may be a good time to develop the more active qualities. If the mind is tired or low in energy, it may be time to develop the factor of energy. If the mind is depressed or down, maybe joy is the quality to develop. When the mind is dull, muddled and unclear, it may be appropriate to develop investigation of dhamma, the investigation of phenomena, and bring up reflective thinking so you can investigate the nature of things and clear the mind. Conversely, when the mind is active and excited, tranquility may be a good quality to help balance it. 134 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

When the mind is scattered or restless, perhaps that’s a good time to develop concentration. Concentration provides a boundary, a focus. When the mind is worried or in doubt, equanimity is a good balance for it. The Seven Factors of Enlightenment come together in what we call samatha-vipassana, calm and insight meditation. That’s what the Seven Factors actually create. Calm meditation is primarily energy, joy, tranquility, concentration, and equanimity. Insight practice is primarily mindfulness and the investigation of dhamma. Thus what we call calm and insight meditation brings the Seven Factors of Enlightenment together, and this is how the Buddha defi ned Buddhist meditation: calm and insight,samatha- vipassana. Calm and insight meditation, the developing of the mind, is the fundamental meditation practice, leading to a clearer, more penetrative view of the true nature of reality, and culminating in the experience of full Enlightenment. Therefore these factors can cure physical and mental sickness.

References

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Piyadassi, Thera, “The Book of Protection”, Buddhist Publication Society, Candy, Sri Lanka, (1999). Payadassi, Thera, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, Satta Bojjhanga, BPS, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1960, 1980. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Ph.D, “Teaching Document”, IBSC, MCU, Ayutthaya, Thailand, 2016. Sayadaw U Sīlānanda, PARITTA PĀḶI PROTECTIVE VERSES, (USA,1998). S.N.Goenka, Mahāsatipaññhāna Sutta (The Great Discourse on the Establishing of Awareness), (Vipassanā Research Institute VRI, Igatpuri, India, 1985). Soma Thera, The Way of Mindfulness (The Satipaññhāna Sutta and Its Commentary), (Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1998). T. W. Rhys Davids, Pali-English Dictionary, (Pali Text Society, London, 1925). , The Wings to Awakening, (1996). Uda, Eriyagama, Dhammajīva, The Seven Factors of Enlightenment, Sri Lanka. U Jotika, U Dhamminda, (trs), hāna_t_Mahāsatipat Sutta (The Greater Discourse on Steadfast Mindfulness), Myanmar, (1986). Ven. Nyanatiloka, Buddhist Dictionary (A Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines), (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 2004). Venerable Sujīva, The Tree of Wisdom (The River of No Return), (Malaysia, 2009). Ven. Dr. Madawela Punnaji Maha Thera, Ariyamagga (The Sublime Eightfold Way, (Malaysia, 2011). Venerable Ledi Sayādaw, The Requisites of Enlightenment (Bodhipakkhiya Dīpanī), tr. by Sein Nyo Tun, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1971). Venerable, Ledi Sayādaw, “Magganga Dipanī” (The Manual of the Path Factors) (Burmese script), Yangon, Myanmar, (1986). A Study of Vicikicchā in Theravāda Buddhism

Ven. Acchariya, Phra Rajapariyattimuni, Asst. Prof. Dr., Dr. Veerachart Nimanoong International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This research article is about a study of Vicikicchā in Theravāda Buddhism. Specifi cally, it was to study Vicikicchā as a factor of fi ve Hindrances and a method for overcoming them systematically. It was for achieving knowledge and understanding about Vicikicchā and clear up some doubts about the subject. This study focuses on skepticism about Vicikicchā on eight topics: the Buddha, the teaching of Dhamma, the society of Sangha, the training, the past, the future, the past and the future, and the law of dependent origination. The objects of doubt can be the Triple Gems (Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṁgha), the discipline, Kamma, or the law of dependent origination. All involve the Buddha’s methods of liberation. Factors of Vicikicchā are unanalytical refl ection (Ayonisomanasikāra), ignorance (Avijja), and false view on the Dhamma (Micchādiṭṭhi). These factors make people uncertain about following the Buddha’s teaching, that is, Vicikicchā are the obstacles to Enlightenment. General doubts can cause problems to a person both at the spiritual level and at a physical level. In a society they can lead people to suspect each other and try to break off relationships with other people. It can be considered that Vicikicchā are unwholesome doubts, which are different from philosophical doubts. Philosophical doubts concern the search for knowledge or a theory. A primary cause of Vicikicchā is the opportunity to own self. If you want peace in your life it is important to try to live without doubts among friends and relations. A stream-enterer can have general doubts but cannot have Vicikicchā anymore. When beings reach the fi nal emancipation by getting to be an Arahanta they will have no doubts like Vicikicchā at all.

Keywords: Theravāda, Buddhism, Vicikicchā, Doubt. 138 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

After the demise of the great Buddha the doctrine of the Buddha has been channeled through many generations and adjusted to many traditions and cultures in various societies. As time went on many Buddhist schools would come into existence. According to a story in Theravāda tradition during the (i.e. 100 years after the demise of the Buddha) some disputing monks got expelled from the Sangha, which led to a formation of a new order named Mahasanghika. Thus, a splitting of Sangha occured in Buddhism.1 Further it has been recorded that about 250 years after the Buddha’s Parinibbana 18 Mahasanghika schools were scattered over Northern India. A lot of Buddha’s teachings were explained differently such that much confusion ensued up until now regarding which are the authentic teachings of the Buddha. Therefore, many followers and new truth seekers are reluctant to study and practice some teachings of the Buddha. In Theravāda Buddhism Vicikicchā2 is one of the obstacles that hinder a person from progressing along the Path of Enlightenment. It is also regarded as an unwholesome mental factor and one of the unwholesome fetters. Vicikicchā is one of the five hindrances and is also included in the ten fetters of existence. It disappears completely and forever at Stream- entry. The term Vicikicchā does not mean doubting something. According to the Cetokhila Sutta3 is it explained that this term Vicikicchā means doubtful, uncertain, undecided and unconfident about the teacher, thus the mind does not incline to ardour, devotion, perseverance and striving. Furthermore, it is also regarded as one among several mental barrennesses4 that is very perplexing in terms of doctrine, community, and training; thus, leading to people’s decline in effort, perseverance and striving. Fellow monks are irritated by the ones who have developed perplexity in these terms. Moreover, one gets stuck in the cycle of rebirth.

1 Buddharakkhita, , History of Pali Language and Literature, Bangalore: Sreeranga Printers Pvt Ltd, 2005, p. 37. 2 Mon, Tin Mehn, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, Yangon: Mehm Tay Zar Mon, 1995, p. 84. 3 Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, & Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (), Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009, p. 194. 4 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012, pp. 1328-29. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 139

According to the explanation of Abhidhamma text5 the term Vicikicchā denotes having the following kinds of doubts: doubts about the Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha and training; doubts about the past and future lives; doubts about kamma; and finally, doubts about the Four Noble Truths6. Vicikicchā can be further categorized as a among the Mohamula Cittas (consciousness rooted with ignorance) named Upekkhasahagatam Vicikicchā- sampyuttamekam (one consciousness, accompanied by indifference, and connected with skeptical doubt). For example, a person who is having doubts about kamma and rebirth. However, when the practitioner attains the stage of sotāpanna, the stream-winner, one of the lowest among the 8 types of noble disciples,7 one would be able to completely remove the three fetters8. Thus, one would shut the doors to lower realms and would be destined to reborn into a happy state and within 7 lives would attain the highest bliss.9 In the Sabbasava Sutta10 the Buddha mentioned 16 types of doubts one can encounter. They can be categorized into three groups. The first five types of doubts concern past life; the next five types of doubts concern the future, and the rest 6 types of doubts concern the present life. (A) Related to the past are five types of doubts: 1. Have I been in the past? 2. Have I not been in the past? 3. What have I been in the past? 4. How have I been in the past? 5. From what state into what state did I change?

5 Mon, Tin Mehn, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, Yangon: Mehm Tay Zar Mon, 1995, p. 28. 6 The four noble truths are: - 1. The noble truth of suffering, 2. The cause of noble truth of suffer- ing, 3. The cessation of noble truth of suffering, and 4. The path leading to the cessation of suffering. (SN 56, 11, Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta). 7 Nyanatiloka, Ven., Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrine, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988, p. 321. 8 The three fetters removed by Sotāpanna are 1. sakkāya-ditthi (belief in self), 2. vicikicchā (skepti- cal doubt) and 3. sīlabbata-parāmāsa (attachment to rites and rituals) (AN, 10, 13: Sanyojana Sutta). 9 Pasanno, Ajahn, & Amaro, Ajahn, The Island: An anthology of Buddha’s Teachings on Nib- bana, Penang: An Abhayagiri Publication, 2010, p. 281. 10 Ñanamoli, Bhikkhu, & Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikaya), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 1995, p. 398. 140 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

(B) Five doubts are related to the future: 1. Shall I be in the future? 2. Shall I not be in the future? 3. What shall I be in the future? 4. How shall I be in the future? 5. From what state into what state will I change in the future?

(C) Six doubts are related to the present: 1. Am I? 2. Am I not? 3. What am I? 4. How am I? 5. When did this being come into? 6. Whether it will go?

The Avarana Sutta11 elucidates that Samādhi (concentration), the mental state of being firmly fixed or one-pointedness12 can help overcome the 5 hindrances: sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and skeptical doubts13 temporarily. Had these 5 hindrances not been overcome one who practice insight would lack the strength and power to realize what is good for oneself, good for others and good for both. Thus, one will not be able to realize the superhuman state and achieve super knowledge and vision. The purpose of this research article was to study the Theravāda concept of Vicikicchā. With the widely-varied interpretations of the teachings of the Buddha many new followers may get reluctant and develop Vicikicchā. It is very important to understand the danger of holding on to Vicikicchā and missing the opportunity to study and practice Dhamma. Moreover, in the Theravāda tradition, Vicikicchā is considered negative unlike being positive in the modern concept of doubt. It is a mental defilement which is considered to be rooted in ignorance or lack of understanding. The term Vicikicchā is understood as obstruction to a truth seeker or practitioner. It is demotivating and develops hesitation to

11 Hare, E. M., (trs.), The Books of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikaya), Vol. III, London: Pali Text Society, 1973, p. 51. 12 Nyanatiloka, Ven., Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrine, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988, p. 289. 13 Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Anguttara Nikaya), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012, p. 1150. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 141

study and practice the Four Noble Truths (Dhamma). Every individual possesses this mental defilement until one has realized the stage of stream-enterer. Once Stream-entry has occurred one will completely uproot Vicikicchā and firmly develop confidence in the master, doctrine, community, training, past and future lives, etc. The researcher would like to stress that Vicikicchā is a factor that leads to social conflicts and to report a proper method advised by Theravāda Buddhist doctrine for overcoming it.

Definitions of Vicikicchā in the Research

Vicikicchā: the Pāli Vicikicchā is translated as skeptical doubt, confusion or indecision. It is one among the 5 Hindrances that obstruct one on the path to enlightenment and one among the 10 Fetters. It can be completely destroyed at the stage of Stream-enterer. Generally, the term Vicikicchā refers to doubts about the teacher, doctrine, community, past and future lives. Ultimately, they can have doubts about the Four Noble Truths. Theravāda: The term Theravāda means [Thera: elder + vāda: teachings] the teachings of the Elders. It refers to those senior monks who conducted the after the passing away of the Buddha. Nivarana: The Pāli term Nivarana is translated as hindrances or obstructions. It means obstructing one’s progress on the path to Enlightenment. Social conflict: Here social conflict means a conflict or argument between two or more parties. There are several reasons for social conflict—Vicikicchā is one of them. According to the Pāli–English Dictionary Definition Vicikicchā is derived from the verb Vicikicchati which means doubt, perplexity, or uncertainty.14 The meaning of Vicikicchā is doubt or skeptical doubt. Actually, the word ‘vicikicchā’ is divided into two parts “Vi+Cikiccha”. Although there are several etymological definitions, only the main one will be explained here. Its etymological definition is ‘Vigatācikicchātivicikicchā.’15 The meaning of Cikiccha is ‘cure or remedy’, and the meaning of prefix ‘vi’ is ‘lack of, being without, or not able to’. Combining these two meanings Vicikicchā becomes ‘lack of cure’. However, the specific meaning should be that ‘it cannot be cured or it is not able to cure’ according to the aforesaid etymological definition. Vicikicchā

14 Rhys Davids, T. W. and William Stede. Pali-English Dictionary, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2003, p. 1120. 15 Rhys Davids, Caroline. A. F., (ed & trs). Buddhist Manual of Psychological Ethics (Dham- masangani), London: Pali Text Society, 1978, p. 380. 142 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

literally means “the desire to discern or think over” (Vicikicchā) where the prefix vi- has a sense of duality or separation, and Cikicchā comes from the verb Cikicchāti (“he thinks over, reflects, aims at, intends). Hence the verb Vicikicchati, “he doubts.” As such it is usually understood as “doubt, perplexity, or uncertainty.”16 The Abhidhammattha Vibhāvinī Ṭīkā, a sub-commentary to the AbhidhammatthaSaṅgaha commenting on Vicikicchā notes that there are two etymologies for Vicikicchā, namely: (a) “vexation due to perplexed thinking” = Vici- (i.e. Vicinanto), “inquiring” + Kiccha, “being vexed”; (b) “being devoid of (Vi-) remedy (Cikicchā) from knowledge.”17

More specifically Vicikicchā is a spiritual doubt, that is, in terms of moral virtues and the teachings, it clouds up our psychological thinking preventing us from focusing mentally. It is the fifth and the last one of the five hindrances. On a deeper level Vicikicchā is an uncertainty of the truth of reality and of our capability for self-awakening. It is one of the three fetters that prevents us from becoming a stream-winner who truly understands doubts. Vicikicchā is doubt or indecision: that which is devoid of a remedy from wisdom, Vicikicchā (Vi- devoid; Cikicchā-wisdom). It is also explained as vexation due to perplexed thinking (Vici – seeking; Kicchā – vexation).18 Here it is not used in the sense of doubt with regard only to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṁgha, etc., for even non-Buddhists exhibit Vicikicchā. Vicikicchā is a doubt about the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Saṁgha, etc., but as a hindrance it denotes unsteadiness in a particular thing that is being done. In the Vimāna, Vatthu Commentary Ekaṁsika (“I am certain”) states that, “I was without doubt about the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṁgha (the Three Jewels). That is, one possesses the certainty that the Blessed one is a fully self-awakened one, that the Dhamma is well taught, that the Saṁgha is well conducted.”19

16 Tan, Piya, Sutta Discovery (SD), Vol. 31.8- “Vicikicchā: Doubt” Singapore: Minding Centre, 2010, p. 96. 17 Wijeratne, R. P., and Rupert Gethin, (ed & trs), Abhidhammatthasangaha: Summary of the Topics of Abhidhamma and Abhidhammatthavibhavini: Exposition of the Topics of Abhidhamma, Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2002, p. 429. 18 Nārada, Venerable Mahāthera, The Buddha and His Teachings, Taipei: Buddha Educational Foundation, 1998, p. 229. 19 Dhammapala, Paramattha-dipani: -, translated by Peter Masefield; as- sisted by N.A. Jayawickrama, Oxford: The Pali Text Society, 2015, p. 85. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 143

Actually, a number of lists of doubts is found in the Canon and Commentaries. The shortest list is perhaps that of the 3 kinds of darkness, found in the Saṅgīta Sutta (AN 4. 125): “One is uncertain or doubt about the past, the future, and the present”. Then we have the 5 kinds of doubt listed in the Cetokhila Sutta (MN 2), namely: (1) Doubt about the Teacher (the Buddha), (2) Doubt about the Teaching (Dhamma), (3) Doubt about the Sangha (Sainthood and Attainment of liberation), (4) Doubt about the training (regarding moral virtue, mental cultivation and wisdom), and (5) Resentment towards our colleagues in spiritual training.

As a result, our minds are not inclined to spiritual effort and devotion and are lost in these five spiritual wildernesses.20 One more etymological definition and its meaning will be mentioned here. It is “Sabhāvaṁ vicinanto etāya kicchati kilamatīti vicikicchā.”21. According to this etymological definition the word ‘Vicikicchā’ is also divided into two as ‘Vi+Cikiccha’. However, the meaning is different. Here the meaning of prefix ‘Vi’ is ‘investigating’ or analyzing and ‘Cikiccha’ is ‘tired’. If someone investigates about the Buddha he or she will try to understand the three characteristics of impermanence, suffering, non-soul, and Kamma but he or she may not reach a true understanding, or it is beyond his or her knowledge to get the exact answer and hence the person becomes tired.

Unwholesomeness of Vicikicchā

Doubt is often seen in world religions as enemy of truth since it prevents faith from arising. however sees faith as spiritual, arising from wisdom, not blind belief. The vitality of wise faith in spiritual liberation is reflected in two well-known parables, which we shall now compare. Vicikicchā or skepticism on the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha is deciding immediately between belief and disbelief. Examples of skeptical doubts are followed:

20 Buddhaghosa, The Expositor (Atthasalini): translated by , and edited by Caroline A. F., & Rhys Davids, London: Pali Text Society, 1921, p. 354. 21 Janakābhivaṁsa, Ashin, Thingyobharthartika, Yangon: New Burma Press, 2014, p. 134. 144 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

1. Is there the Omniscient Buddha? 2. Can one attain if one follows the Eightfold Path? 3. Is he a Bhikkhu of good conduct? 4. Can we get any benefits from observing wholesome moral precepts? 5. Do we have past existences? 6. Are there future lives? 7. Can one’s moral and immoral deeds influence the forthcoming lives? 8. Can one enjoy the consequences of good deeds? 9. Is it true that due to ignorance there arise volitional actions or mental formations?22

The (Nivaraṇā) Saṅgārava Sutta compares spiritual doubt to looking at our own reflection in a bowl of turbid, muddy water in the dark. It is interesting that this comparison parallels closely to the Tevijja Sutta parable of a man with a shawl on the river bank. In both parables, there are the imageries of immobility (the man stuck on a river bank and the water was heavy with mud) and blindness (the shawl over the man and the bowl of muddy water was left in the dark).

Canonical Description and Commentaries on Vicikicchā

The Canonical texts offer two basic approaches to the preliminary overcoming of the Hindrances. One is the suppression of the Hindrances by development of serenity (Samatha); the other is their elimination during the course of developing insight. The former is described in the discourses of the Buddha expounding the states of ‘,’ the latter is described in the discourses on the practice of Satipaṭṭhāna, ‘the foundation of mindfulness’.23 Two different approaches are offered because of the differing mental dispositions of disciples. Disciples of a contemplative bent generally incline to first attain concentration by suppressing the hindrances through the process and then move on to develop insight. These are called practitioners of the vehicle of serenity (Samathayānika) who develop “insight preceded by serenity.” Other disciples of another intellectual bent are

22 Janakabhivamsa, Ashin, Abhidhamma in Daily Life: The Principle of Physical and Mental Processes, Yangon: Chanmyay Yeiktha Meditation Centre, 1977, p. 27. 23 Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, & Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikaya), Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1995, p. 198. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 145

generally disposed to strive immediately for insight, leaving until later the task of deepening the state of concentration. In commentaries Vicikicchā or ‘skeptical doubt’ is one of the 5 mental Hindrances (Nīvaraṇa), one of the 3 Fetters (Saṃyojana) that will disappear forever at Stream-Entry, the first stage of holiness (Ariya Puggala). As a fetter, it refers to skeptical doubt about the Master (the Buddha), the Teaching, the Sangha, and the training and about things past and future as well as conditionality. It also applies to uncertainty whether things are wholesome or not, to be practiced or not, or of high or low value. Vicikicchā is the lack of desire to think things out, i.e., to come to a conclusion. Vigata-cikicchā is the desire to think things out. Vicikicchā has the nature of wavering, and its manifestation is indecision and divided attitude. Its proximate cause is unwise attention to matters of doubt. It is associated with one of the 2 classes of unwholesome consciousness rooted in delusion. The commentarial explanation of Vicikicchā is the inability to decide anything definitely that it is so or not. In other words, it is an indecision. “Who is the doer of Kamma?” “Who reaps the fruit?” “Is it a sort of ascension of a soul?” In answering these subtle questions, Venerable Buddhaghosa Thera stated in the Visuddhimagga as follows: Everywhere in all realms of existence the noble disciple sees only mental and corporeal phenomena keep going through concatenation of cause and effect. No producer of volitional act, or kamma, is seen apart from the action. No recipient of the kamma-result is seen apart from the result. Moreover, he is well aware that wise men are merely using conventional language when, with regard to a karmic act, they speak of a doer, or with regard to a karmic result, they speak of the recipient of the result.

A Stream-Enterer: A Noble One Who Overcome Vicikicchā

In the Dutiyasariputta Sutta or Second Discourse to Sariputta the Buddha confirmed the four factors for Stream-entry as follows: (1) Association with superior persons (Sappurisasamsevo), (2) Hearing the true Dhamma (Saddhammassavanam), (3) Careful or wise attention (Yoniso-manasikaro), (4) Practice in accordance with the Dhamma (Dhammanudhamma-ppatipatti).24

24 Bodhi, Bhikkhu,(trs), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Anguttara Nikaya), Bos- ton: Wisdom Publications, 2012, p. 209. 146 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

In the Discourse on Half of a Holy life the Buddha emphasized that association with a good friend is the whole of a holy life. It is by associating with superior persons that one will be able to hear the true Dhamma and it is to be expected that one will develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold Path. The Commentary to Sangiti Sutta explains that wise attention (Yoniso-manasikā ra) in this context is paying attention to impermanence, suffering, and non-self, which essentially means directing the mind to development of insight (Vipassannā) in contrast to development of tranquility (Samatha). Dhammanudhammappati-patti explains the preliminary practice that is conducive to supramundane states (i.e. Magga, Phala, and Nibbāna). This preliminary practice is identified in the sub-commentary as devotion to insight, which is basically Vipassanā development. A stream-enterer (Sotāpanno) is one who has entered the stream that leads to Nibbāna for the first time, developing into the path of stream-attainment, eradicating false views and doubt (Diṭṭhi Vicikicchā), and escaping from falling into woeful states. One who becomes a stream-winner will be reborn seven times at the most. Furthermore, a Sotāpanna (Stream-Enterer) who has realized the first stage of enlightenment has eradicated wrong views (Diṭṭhi).

Then What is the Way to Overcome Vicikicchā?

According to Kankhāvitaraṇa-visuddhi overcoming doubt (Vicikicchā) is the understanding of the causal relationship between the mind (Nāma) and body (Rūpa) when it is grasped in the manner described above. Disciples who wish to fulfill it set forth in search of those that condition and result in the combination of mind and body just as a physician seeks to diagnose the origin of a sickness. They begin with a reflection that this combination of mind and body is not without cause since it is everywhere conditioned at all times, in all cases. The Satipaṭṭhāna Nīvaraṇa Sutta states that the practice of the four Satipaṭṭhānas is a way of removing these same five mental hindrances. However, the result of Satipaṭṭhāna can also bring about wisdom or mental calm (Samatha), depending on our ability and choice during the cultivation of Satipaṭṭhāna. During the time of the Buddha there were ascetics who had raised such skeptical doubts about life as: “From where this has been come?” “What is his destiny?” etc. Even among those who could recollect their previous lives there were still some who constructed misleading speculative theories. Owing to this diversity of views, skeptical doubt arises like a wavering in the mind of one who has reached a crossroad. The JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 147

speculative views serve only to perpetuate that doubt. Skeptical doubt arises in one who thinks beyond his ability to do so. The Dhamma is beyond logical reasoning that works on the conceptual level. As a result, such people end up confused and undecided. This paralysis the whole task of proceeding on the right way. The method of noting doubts mindfully when they arise will solve the problem in most cases. The more persistent ones can be sorted out by an interview with the meditation instructor. We have clearly established that the practice of the tried insight method through Satipaṭṭhāna can lead all the way to Arahantship. Therefore, it is imperative to discuss the principles and practice of Satipaṭṭāna so that the reader will understand and appreciate its prime role in the path of enlightenment. The Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta said that the Buddha declared the following: “this is the only way (Ekayano Maggo), O Bhikkhu, for the purification of beings, for the overcoming of Vicikicchā and lamentation, for the destruction of suffering and grief, for reaching the right path, for the attainment of Nibbā na, namely, the four Satipaṭṭhāna or foundation of mindfulness.” Further in the Discourse on Analysis the Buddha explained the following: “What, Bhikkhus, is the way leading to the development of the four foundations of mindfulness? It is this Noble Eightfold Path; that is, right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. This is called the way leading to the development of Satipaṭṭhāna (the foundation of mindfulness). Actually, this is how the Noble Eightfold Path is the way leading to the development of Satipaṭṭhāna. In a meditation retreat the three constituents of the morality group, namely, right speech, right action and right livelihood have been perfected when the meditator undertakes to observe the Precepts. During the practice of Satipaṭṭhāna Vipassanā meditation the meditator has to observe every object that arises. He or she must be ardent and mindful which means having the right effort and right mindfulness. In this way the mind will be fixed or concentrated on the object which is right concentration. These three factors form the concentration group. Right thought is usually explained as thoughts of renunciation, thoughts of non- hate, and thoughts of non-cruelty. Right thought in Satipaṭṭhāna Vipassanā meditation means not thinking about various things but directing the mind towards the object to be observed or right application of the mind. With the support of the concentration group the mind will be able to “gain insight into the true nature of the object”, experiential knowledge that all physical and mental processes possess the three characteristics of impermanence (Anicca), suffering (Dukkha) and not-self (Anatta). This experiential 148 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

knowledge constitutes the right view. These two factors, right thought and right view, form the wisdom group.

Vigata cikicchati vicikiccha. Sabhavam va vicinanto etaya kicchati kilamatiti vicikiccha. Vicikiccha samsaya lakkana, Ayonisomanasikara padatthana, (vicikicchayam ayonisomana-sikara padatthana.) Patipatti antara yakarati datthabba.25

Conclusion

The facts to be avoided and to be observed with respect to doubt (Vicikicchā) have been mentioned in this research paper. Actually, the opposite of doubt is faith, Saddh ā in Pāli. Faithfulness must be nursed through wisdom. If faithfulness becomes weak skeptical doubt (Vicikiccā) becomes stronger. The more skeptical doubt (Vicikicchā) becomes stronger the more the life of a being becomes darker. That is why this kind of skeptical doubt (Vicikicchā) must be overcome through meditation practice. Getting such kind of knowledge is one of the results of this study. Doubt (Vicikicchā) is another unwholesome (Akusala) dhamma which is a hindrance. Doubt about the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha, doubt about realities, all these kinds of doubt are hindrances to the development of wholesomeness (Kusala) and to the development of right understanding. Actually, we need courage to continue to develop Satipaṭṭāna so that doubt can eventually be eradicated. Here doubt means exclusion from the cure (of knowledge). One investigates the intrinsic nature and suffers pain and fatigue (Kicchati) from doubt. The characteristic of doubt is a shifting about, a mental wavering, an indecision or uncertainty as a manifestation of grasping and an unsystematic thought as a proximate cause. It should be regarded as a danger to attainment. Vicikicchā (doubt) is different from wrong view (Ditthi). When there is a Ditthi, one clings for example to the concept that phenomena are permanent. When Vicikicchā (doubt) arises, one wonders whether the mind is different from the body, whether phenomena are permanent or impermanent. There is no other way to eradicate doubt but by developing Paññā (wisdom) to see realities as they are. People who have doubts about

25 Buddhaghosa, The Expositor (Atthasalini), translated by Pe Maung Tin, edited by Caroline A. F., & Rhys Davids, London: Pali Text Society, 1921, p. 255. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 149

the person and the teachings of the Buddha may think that doubt can be cured by studying historical events. They want to find out more details about the time the Buddha lived and about the places where he moved about; they want to know the exact time the texts were written down. However, they cannot be cured of their doubt by studying historical events; this does not lead to the goal of the Buddha’s teachings which is the eradication of defilements.

References

Acharya, Buddharakkhita, “Mind Overcoming its Cankers,” Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 2004. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha (Samyutta Nikaya), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2000. Bodhi, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha (Anguttara Nikaya), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2012. Buddhaghosa, Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purifi cation, Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, (trs), Seattle: WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions, 1999. Buddharakkhita, Acharya, History of Pali Language and Literature, Bangalore: Sreeranga Printers Pvt Ltd, 2005. Buddhaghosa, The Expositor (Atthasalini): translated by Pe Maung Tin, and edited by Caroline A. F., & Rhys Davids, London: Pali Text Society, 1921. Buddharakkhita, Acharya, Sutta Sangaho: Selected Discourses of the Buddha, New Delhi: Buddha Vachana Trust, 2003. Buddhadatta, A. P., Mahāthera, Concise Pāli-English Dictionary, Motilal Banarsidass Publisher, 1957. Buddharakkhita, Acharya, History of Pali Language and Literature, Bangalore: Sreeranga Printers Pvt Ltd, 2005. Bhikkhu, Pasanno, Bhikkhu, Amaro, The Island: An Anthology of Buddha’s Teachings on Nibbana, Penang: An Abhayagiri Publication, 2010. Dhammapala, Paramattha-dipani: Vimanavatthu-atthakatha, translated by Peter Masefi eld; assisted by N.A. Jayawickrama, Oxford: The Pali Text Society, 2015. 150 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Dhammapala, Paramattha-dipani: Vimanavatthu-atthakatha, translatedby Peter Masefield; assisted by N.A. Jayawickrama, Oxford, The Pali Text Society, 2015. Hote Sein, U, Pāli-Myanmar Dictionary, Yangon: Pitaka Byuhar Association, 1985. Henepola Gunaralana, A Critical Analysis of the Jhānas in TheravādaBuddhist Mediation, Washington: the American University, 1980. Hare, E. M (trs.), The Books of the Gradual Sayings (anguttara-nikāya), Vol. III, London: Pali Text Society, 1973. Hare, E. M., (trs.), The Books of the Gradual Sayings (Anguttara Nikaya), Vol. III, London: Pali Text Society, 1973. Janakābhivaṁsa, Ashin, Thingyobharthartika, Yangon: New Burma Press, 2014. Ko Lay, U (trs), Abhidhamma in Daily Life, Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2009. Mon, Mehm Tin, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhamma, Yangon: Mehm Tay Zar Mon, 1995. Morris, R., (Ed), A., K., Wader (revised), Anguttara Nikaya. Vols. I-II. Oxford: PTS, 1989, 1995. Maurice, Walshe, (trs.) The Long Length Discourses of the Buddha (), Massachusetts: Wisdom Publications, 1987. Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha (Majjhima Nikaya), Boston: Wisdom Publication, 2005. Nārada, Venerable Mahāthera, The Buddha and His Teachings, Taipei: Buddha Educational Foundation, 1998, p. 229. Nyanatiloka, Ven., Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrine, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988. Nyanatiloka, Ven., Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrine, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1988, p. 289. Nanamoli, Bhikkhu, (trs.), The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga, Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society, 1997. Piya, Tan, Sutta Discovery (SD), Vol. 31.8- “Vicikicchā: Doubt”, Singapore: Minding Center. 2010. An Analytical Study of Bodhisattva Concept in Mahāyāna Buddhism

Ven. Vo Van Hoi, Asst. Prof. L.T. Dr. Banjob Bannaruji, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

It’s not diffi cult to discern that the ideal of Bodhisattva can be derived from the Arahant’s ideal. Concerning the development of the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva doctrine, the most accessible documentation for this is found in the original Buddhist sutras. The early concept of Bodhisattva was related only to the Buddha as found in the Buddhist scriptures such as Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, etc. Later Mahāyāna Buddhism developed the Bodhisattva theory in the important Mahāyāna sutras. The difference between Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism is the number of Bodhisattvas that appeared in the two systems of the sutras. But the Bodhisattva in Mahāyāna Buddhism is the personifi cation of the characteristics of the Buddha such as compassion, loving-kindness, and wisdom. Considering the historical context and geographical spread of Buddhism, the author believes that this change was suitable to propagate the Dharma.

Keywords: Buddhism, Bodhisattva, Mahāyāna, concept and development. 152 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

The ideal of Bodhisattva is presented as an outlet for devotional practice, and offers a model for practitioners to guide them on the path to attain the enlightenment. It remains an important part of Mahāyāna Buddhism today and an inspiration to practice the teaching of the Buddha. Moreover, the Bodhisattva ideal is provided for the engaged form of Buddhism that does not run away from the suffering of the world, but actively seeks to end the mental and physical sufferings of all beings. These human qualities as a whole represent the Buddhist attitude to their final goal. In the outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism D.T. Suzuki writes that: As Sākyamuni was a Bodhisattva in his former lives, destined to become a Buddha, so we are all Bodhisattvas and even Buddhas in a certain sense when we understand that all sentient beings, the Buddha not excepted, are one in the . The Dharmakāya manifests in us as Bodhi, which is the essence of Buddha as well as of Bodhisattva.1 The typical representative figure for the compassion and wisdom of the Buddha in Mahāyāna Buddhism tradition is the image of Bodhisattva, who can help the sentient beings overcome all sufferings. According to Mahāyāna , the Bodhisattva is the bearer or messenger of the Buddha’s teachings in the world, always listening to the sufferings of all people to help them overcome sufferings and find the truth of real peace. Scholars of the Mahāyāna tradition and Buddhist philosophers used the images and ideals of the Bodhisattva in the Sūtras of Mahāyāna Buddhism in order to apply “skillful means” to develop the true teachings of the Buddha in life. Therefore, there is no resistance of human beings when compassion flows through their consciousness, especially when the mind is feeling the stream of knowledge, wisdom, and compassion. On the seashore of Buddhism, of course, this flow of compassionate water is always flowing in the blood of the living beings, just as the underground water flows down the earth, but how can beings receive the flavor of it? Does another matter? It is this that opens up another problem for us to step into the next obstacle in the hope that we will study and propose a practical application of the Bodhisattva ideal for daily life.

1 D.T. Suzuki (1907), Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism, London: Luzac and Company, p. 290. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 153

The Definition of Term Bodhisattva

The concept of Bodhisattva is one of the most important concepts in the Mahayana Buddhist tradition. This term is frequently mentioned in the early as well as later Buddhism. Etymologically, the term Bodhisattva is derived from the root budh, originally meaning to be awake. The noun Bodhi comes to the meaning: (i) knowledge, (ii) enlightenment, (iii) the knowledge possessed by a Buddha.2 According to Encyclopedia of Buddhism etymologically the term can be separated into two parts, Bodhi and sattva: Bodhi, from the root budh, to be awake, means “awakening” or “enlightenment” and “sattva”, derived from “sant”, the present participle of the root as “to be”, means “a being” or, literally, “one who is”, a sentient being. Hence, the term is taken to mean “one whose essence is Enlightenment” or “enlightened knowledge”. By this implication, it means a seeker after Enlightenment, a Buddha-to-be. There is also a suggestion that the Pāli term may be derived from Bodhi and satta, “one who is attached to or desires to gain Enlightenment”.3 The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics also gives that Bodhisattva is usually translated as “one whose essence is perfect knowledge” (sattva = essence, one nature, svabhavā). It is possible that this was the original meaning of the word; historical, however, Bodhisattva is “one who is on the way to the attainment of perfect knowledge”, “a future Buddha”. T.R.V. gives that the Bodhisattva is nothing but the virtuous and good, the source of all goodness in the world.4 Charls Elliot said that a Bodhisattva is one whose essence is knowledge.5 H. Kern holds that a sentient or reasonable being, possessing Bodhi is a Bodhisattva.6

2 T.W. Rhys-Davids and William Stede, (1993), Pāli - English Dictionary, New Delhi: Motilal Barnasidass Publishes, Pvt, Ltd, p. 14. 3 G. P. Malalasekera (1971), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol. III, and O.B.E, Sri Lanka: The Government of Ceylon, p. 224. 4 T.R.V. Murti (1960), The Central Philosophy of Buddhism, London: C. Tinling & Co., Ltd., p. 264. 5 Charles Elliot (1968), , Vol. II, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, p.1. 6 H. Kern (1974), Manual of Indian Buddhism, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 65. 154 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

According to , the Bodhisattva is being composed of two contradictory forces of wisdom and compassion. In his wisdom, he had no attachment to selfhood, no discrimination between him and other; in his compassion, he is resolved to save them. His ability to combine these contradictory attitudes is the source of his greatness and his ability to save himself and others.7 In short, etymologically Bodhisatta means a Bodhi-being, a future Buddha, or “a being who desires to attain enlightenment”. The word can, therefore, be used in reference to all those who seek Bodhi. As far as this research work is concerned, we are able to understand that Bodhisatta is considered as an ordinary man, a hero or a warrior who possess his own karma at his very birth as all other human beings, but with effort and determined mind, he will be able to eliminate all his bad karmas and sufferings, and attain the final liberation by cultivating a realistic and practical way, which had been discovered and taught by Lord Gotama Buddha. However, we should remember the fact that in Mahāyāna Buddhism such Bodhisattvas are only symbolic characters, derived from the characteristics of the historical Buddha or descriptions of the saints in other worlds; they are neither historical personalities nor heavenly gods for worship and the real nature of all the Bodhisattvas has crystallized only as a result of the virtues of the historical Buddha as a kind of god in response to the popular demands influenced by the practice of polytheism.

The Character of Bodhisattva in Mahāyāna Buddhism

The first characteristic is compassion; compassion is the central motivating basis of the path. Compassion urges to reduce the current suffering of others, encourage them to act in a way to reduce their future suffering and aid them on the path to awakening so as to bring all their suffering to end.8 The Pali-English Dictionary defined compassion (Karuṇā) as follows:

The desire of bringing welfare and good to one’s fellow men, or the desire of removing bane and sorrow of one’s fellow men, it also denotes the exalted state of compassion for all beings.9

7 Edward Conze (1997), Buddhism: It Essence and Development, New Delhi: Munshiram Mano- harlala Publishers, p.125. 8 Group of Author (2017). Guidance And Insight From The Buddha, Thailand: Mahachulalong- kornrajavidyalaya University Press, p.24. 9 T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, (1993), Pali-English Dictionary, New Delhi: Motilal Ba- narsidass Publishes, Pvt, Ltd., p. 197. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 155

The second characteristic of Bodhisattvas is great wisdom; wisdom came as a result of having brought forth the great Bodhi-heart. Bringing forth the great Bodhi-heart is the resolve to take across all living beings without being attached to the mark of having made them crossed over. As in the Vajraccedika Pāramitā Sutra, the Lord says to Subhūti (Good Existence) that someone who has set out in the vehicle of a Bodhisattva should produce a thought in this manner. Again and again, all Bodhisattvas should subdue their hearts with the vow, as many beings as there are in the universe of beings, comprehended under the term beings – all living beings born from eggs, wombs, humidity or by transformation, with or without form, either thoughtful or thoughtless, and neither thoughtful nor thoughtless – are all led by me to final Nirvana for the extinction of reincarnation. Although immeasurable, uncountable and unlimited numbers of living beings are thus led to (the Nirvana for) the extinction of reincarnation, it is true that not a living being is led there. Although the Buddha saves countless beings, in actuality there are no beings that he saves. Living beings save themselves. Thus it is said that there is crossing over living beings but not attaching oneself to the mark of doing so. The third characteristic of Bodhisattvas, according to many traditions within Mahāyāna Buddhism, is that on the way to attaining the Buddhahood, a bodhisattva proceeds through ten Bhūmis. Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first, he or she first must travel the first two of five paths: the path of accumulation and the path of preparation. After the ten Bhūmis, according to Mahāyāna Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.

Bodhisattva Concept in Mahāyāna Sutras

1. Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra According to Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, the Bodhisattva will become thoroughly conversant with the noble truth of self-realization, will become a perfect master of his own mind, will conduct himself without effort, will be like a gem reflecting a variety of colors, will be able to assume the body of transformation, will be able to enter into the subtle minds of all beings, and because of his firm belief in the truth of mind-only, by gradually ascending the stages, will become established in Buddhahood.

2. The Avataṃsaka Sūtra The sūtra is also well known for its detailed description of the course of the bodhisattva’s practice through ten stages where the Ten Stages Sūtra, or Daśabhūmika 156 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Sūtra, is the name given to this chapter of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra.10 This sūtra gives details on the ten stages (bhūmi) of development a bodhisattva must undergo to attain supreme enlightenment. The ten stages are also depicted in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra. The sūtra also touches on the subject of the development of the “aspiration for Enlightenment” () to attain supreme Buddhahood.

3. The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (The Large Sūtra on Perfect Wisdom) The literature on Prajñāpāramitā is vast, deep and vital to figure out for understanding the Mahāyāna. The oldest text is the Perfection of wisdom in 8000 lines and 32 chapters. Many thousands lines of this sūtra can be summed up in two sentences: (1) One should become a Bodhisattva (a Buddha to-be), i.e. someone content with nothing less than all-knowledge attained through the perfection of wisdom for the sake of all living beings. (2) There are no such things as a Bodhisattva, or all-knowledge, or a “being”, or the perfection of wisdom, or an attainment. Asaṅga as the avoidance of five standpoints explains the often-repeated saying that the Bodhisattva should “stand in perfect wisdom by not taking his stand anywhere.”11

4. Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya Sūtra (The Heart Sūtra) Various commentators divide this text into different number of sections. Briefly, the sūtra describes the experience of liberation of the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. According to the Heart Sūtra, not only the Bodhisattvas, but also all the Buddhas own the attainment of their goal to the realization of the Full Emptiness. In order to win Enlightenment of the full emptiness, they had to cast everything aside, and to rely only on the perfection of wisdom. It also means that wisdom plays an important role in Buddhism.

The Bodhisattva Ideal in Mahāyāna Buddhism

According to Mahāyāna Buddhism, everyone who follows the Gotama Bodhisattva’s path to practice his vow of action to become a Buddha and efforts for helping others. They are “accepted” as the Bodhisattvas. It seems that a person who aspires to attain sammā- sambuddhahood is called a Bodhisattva. Who wishes to serve others and reach ultimate perfection? Everyone is free to pursue the Bodhisatta ideal, but there is no compulsion that all must strive to attain Buddhahood which, to say the least, is practically impossible. Therefore,

10 , Sūtra of the Ten Bhūmis. (Accessed: April 10, 2009) 11 Mahāyānasamgraha, p. 253. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 157

Bodhisattva concept should be understood philosophically. With the advancing impetus of doctrine, Mahāyāna Buddhism at the same time gave a meticulous doctrine to explain how the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas do to save all living beings. Besides, Mahāyāna Buddhism also offers a progressive perspective when determining the role, improving the important position of lay people in religious activities and their abilities to reach enlightenment. The formation of Mahāyāna, especially the Bodhisattva ideal, thus, did not make a break of the Buddhist community but has lighted up the fire of faith in their heart. Since everyone has a Buddha mind or Buddha nature and can be a Buddha by following the Bodhisattva-path, it promotes and encourages everyone to constantly move forward, not retreat in front of any danger or hardship to fulfill their goal.

The (praṇidhāna) in Mahāyāna Buddhism

The above of seeking the Bodhi, below to save (transform) beings. One of the great vow and action of a Bodhisattva. The Bodhisattva action and vow (Bodhisattvacarya- praṇidhāna) is the vow (praṇidhāna) taken by Mahāyāna Buddhists to help all beings. One who has taken the vow is nominally known as a Bodhisattva. This can be done by venerating all Buddhas and by cultivating supreme moral and spiritual perfections, to be placed in the service of others. In particular, Bodhisattvas promise to practice the six perfections of giving, moral discipline, patience, effort, concentration, and wisdom in order to fulfill their bodhicitta aim of attaining enlightenment for the sake of all beings. The vow is the wish to save all human beings from sufferings, to learn and practice dharma in order to attain enlightenment: “Followers of Mahāyāna Buddhism are expected to take and repeatedly reiterate the bodhisattva vow, a promise to dedicate one’s life to the welfare of other being and to forgot final realization of Nibbāna.”12

The Bodhisattva path in Mahāyāna Buddhism

In Encyclopedia of Religion,13 it is stated that the English term Bodhisattva path is translated from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva, “Vehicle” of the Bodhisattva or, more frequently, Bodhicaryavatara the practice of the Bodhisattva terms widely employed in Mahāyāna Buddhist texts.

12 Noble Ross Reat (1994), Buddhism of History, California: Jain Publishing Company, p. 51. 13 Mircea Eliade, op.cit, p. 165. 158 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

There is not one kind of cause and condition, which is used in seeking the Buddhahood way. The Bodhisattvas either cultivate Dharma through belief and understanding of the twelve causes and conditions, the , or through belief and understanding of the six Perfections (Pāramitās). When one talks of the Bodhisattvas or their effort to become an Enlightened One, the role of these perfections becomes much more significant. When one discusses various appearances of their practice of the Bodhisattva way, this does not refer to the physical appearances of the Bodhisattvas, but to the various practices and Dhamma they cultivated.

The Qualifications of Bodhisattvahood inMahāyāna Buddhism.

1. Bodhisattva for the Practice of Wisdom Across the method of the wisdom view above, evident liberation and liberation wisdom can be expected because it is through the following statement of the Buddha:

Seeing this, Bhikkhus, the Bhikkhus-monks are boring to the disciples color ... for the feeling ... for the thought ... for the ... boring for awake. Due to boredom, he is greedy. Due to lust, he freed. In liberation, the mind is up: I am liberated ... no longer retreats this state anymore.14

Thus, through the training of the Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva view, or more accurately, by the practice of wisdom, one can realize the truth of all things. It is impermanence, suffering and non-self. Thus, the enlightenment of truth arises in one’s mind as if he or she is being blessed by the Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, and enables them to experience happiness and liberation without clinging... In fact, this is not only the ultimate goal of the general Bodhisattva ideal, and the Avalokiteśvara in particular, but also the unique and unparalleled wisdom through which the Buddha realized the truth. Therefore, without any hesitation, one can say that this goal is the true convergence of both the Buddhist teachings, the Theravāda Buddhist teachings and the Theravāda or Theravāda Buddhism. This is also the main practice of Buddhist followers.

14 Most Ven. Hoang Ngoc Dung, (2001), The Concepts of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva: Doctrine And Practice, Ph.D. Dissertation, New Delhi: University of Delhi, p.113. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 159

2. The Six Perfection (Pāramitā) In the development of Bodhicitta, a Bodhisattva must practice the perfections (Pāramitās). In other words, the germination of the Bodhicitta produces a Bodhisattva out of an individual, and to realize the complete fulfillment of this pledge, the Bodhisattva makes an entry into the most arduous and strenuous stage of the path, the practice of the Pāramitās.15 According to Mahayanists, the doctrine of Pāramitās is leading to Bodhisattvahood, and in the end Buddhahood was the new method of Buddhist practice resulting from the intention of Mahāyāna patriarchs of later times.

Conclusion

The Mahāyāna went on developing the Bodhisattva concept in such a way that it became an object of devotion and its human nature gradually disappeared. Moreover, Mahāyāna encourages everyone to enter the Bodhisattva-path. Mahāyāna followers believe that everyone has a Buddha mind or Buddha nature and can be a Buddha by following the Bodhisattva path. It seems that Mahāyāna doctrine of the Bodhisattva derived logically from the firm belief in future Buddha. If earlier Buddhas had existed there must be other Buddhas yet to come. Moreover, the Bodhisattva ideal is the production of the Thought of Enlightenment. Mahāyāna, from the compassionate aspect of Buddhism, deployed it as an ideal. And it became a main goal of the school. Therefore, we must not forget that in any attempt at pointing to a philosophy of the Enlightened One, one is in much the same position as the blind men; one cannot ‘say it all’ with regard to Buddhism. Our reading of primary texts from several Buddhist traditions leads us to the conclusion that there is no one ‘central philosophy’ of Buddhism. All forms of Buddhism, Theravāda Buddhism and Mahāyāna Buddhism, affirm the perfectibility of a person, and one finds this notion of perfection embodied in both images: the Arahant, the Bodhisattva. The image of human perfection is explained in different perspectives, that is because of looking to the Buddha as the ideal. In fact, there is only one Nirvāṇa for all who follow in the Buddha’s footsteps, who meditate to realize the reality of life, who destroy the hatred, the destruction and the delusion.

15 Gunapala Dharmasiri (2006), Buddhist Social Philosophy and Ethics, Sri Lanka: Bud- dhist Society, p. 120. 160 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

Charles Elliot.(1968). Buddhism and Hinduism. Vol. II, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. D.T. Suzuki.(1907). Outlines of Mahāyāna Buddhism. London: Luzac and Company. Edward Conze.(1975). The Diamond Sūtra and The Heart Sūtra. London: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. . (1997). Buddhism: It Essence and Development, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlala Publishers. . (1967). Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies. London: Bruno Cassier, Publishers. Mircea Eliade.(1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2, and London: Cpllier Macmillan Publishers. Group of Author.(2017). Guidance And Insight From The Buddha, Thailand: Mahachula- longkornrajavidyalaya University Press. H. Kern.(1974). Manual of Indian Buddhism. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. G. P. Malalasekera. (1971). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. III, and O.B.E, Sri Lanka: The Government of Ceylon. Noble Ross Reat.(1994). Buddhism of History. California: Jain Publishing Company. Rigpa Shedra. (2009). Sūtra of the Ten Bhūmis. 10 (April). T.R.V. Murti.(1960). The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. London: C. Tinling & co., ltd. T.W. Rhys Davids and William Stede.(1993). Pali-English Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Pvt, Ltd. Most Ven. Hoang Ngoc Dung (Thich Vien Tri).(2001). The Concepts of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva: Doctrine And Practice. New Delhi: University of Delhi. Galmangoda, Sumanapala.(2006). Buddhist Social Philosophy and Ethics. Sri Lanka: Samadhi . An Analytical Study of Action (Kamma) in Theravada Buddhism

Kula Vati, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Asst. Prof. L.T. Sanu Mahatthanadull International Buddhist Studies College, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This researcher article is about a study of an Analytical Study of Action (Kamma) in Theravāda Buddhism. Specifi cally, it was for achieving knowledge and understanding about Kamma Theravāda Buddhism. Apply Kamma result in Daily Life. Kamma means intentional body, verbal and mental action. In the ultimate sense, Kamma means volition. If the volition is good, Kamma is good; and If the volition is bad, Kamma is bad. Kamma is a law of nature and is not controlled by any being. The past actions infl uence the present, and the past and the present actions infl uence the future. According to Buddhism this inequality is due not only to heredity and environment and, “nature and nurture” but also to the operation of the law of Kamma, in other words, to the result of our own inherited past actions and our present doings. Man himself is responsible for his own happiness and misery. He creates his own heaven and hell. He is the architect of his own fate. Kamma is neither nor a doctrine of predetermination. Every action produces an effect and a cause comes fi rst and effect afterwards, therefore, we speak of Kamma as ‘the law of cause and effect’. For example, throwing a stone is an action. The past infl uences the present but does not dominate it, for Kamma is past as well as present. The past and present infl uence the future; the past is the background against which life goes on from moment to moment, the future is yet to be. Only the present moment exists, and the responsibility of using the present moment for good or for ill lies with each individual. Kamma and it working is behind different kinds of existences, difference in appearance, characteristic, intelligence, aptitude, wealth, health, etc., among beings. The personal, social, and psychological differences are due to Kamma. All Kamma bear the nature of producing result. Through the development of Eightfold Noble Path, all defi lement got eradicated; and one become an Arahant. After the passing away into Nibbāna, all Kamma become defunct, and one is free from Kamma.

Keywords: Buddhism, Analytical Study, Kamma in Theravada. 162 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Kamma is a Pali word meaning action. In its general sense Kamma means all good and bad actions. It covers all kinds of intentional actions whether mental, verbal or physical- thought, words and deeds. Whatever you do with your limbs is physical action. Verbal action means the words that you utter. Mental action means the thoughts that occur in your mind. In its ultimate sense Kamma means all moral and immoral volition.1 The one that prompts these three actions is nothing but the mental concomitant, cetanā-cetasika that occurs in the mind of beings. Cetanā impels you to perform a certain deed because Cetanā is responsible for the completion of every Kamma action. Cetanā is commonly called Kamma. The Buddha says: Mental volition, O bhikkhus, is what I call Kamma. Having volition one acts by body, speech and thought.2 Cetanā (volition) is the main source of kamma, the word cetanA is a special term in Buddhism, the definite meaning of which cannot be rendered into any other language. CetanA is the main cause of every action bodily or verbal or mental which may be good or evil. Nothing can be accomplished without centanā. Cetanā is also the motivating force for the mind. The Kamma arises depending on the driving force of cetana. The greater centana, the stronger kamma. Cetanā is an extremely subtle reality. So it is very difficult to understand Cetanā correctly. But it is that subtle cetanā which motivates the mind. In performing an action, cetanā stimulates the mind, i.e., consciousness and its concomitants to perform their respective roles to accomplish the action, because cetanā precedes every action and it is solely responsible for the accomplishment of the action, cetanā is called the action or kamma by the Buddha. The intensity of kamma depends on the force of cetanā. Cetanā is of three kinds pubba-cetanā, munca-cetanā and Apara-cetanā. Pubba-cetana exerts the initial force to perform the action; Munca-cetanA is the force involved while performing the action and Apara-cetanA continues to exert the force after performing the action.The results of an action will be effective only when the action is performed in conformity with the three kinds of cetanA. If one of these cetanAs is weak or absent, the kamma becomes weak and its results will also be less effective.

1 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma, The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar, 2007), pp.115-117. 2 Ashin Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in Daily life, Mahagandayone Monastery, Writing and reparing the scriptures. Traslate by U Ko Lay (Faculty of Patipatti International Theravāda Buddhist Monastery, Myanmar ,1999), pp.108-109. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 163

To achieve success in this world, kamma, wisdom and effort are essential. Of these three wisdom and effort are prominent, and so people recognize the importance of their roles. As kamma and its results are difficult to understand, there are people who do not believe in them. Those who claim to be non-believers are in fact performing kammic actions everyday in contradiction to their own belief. All people are occupied with their own work all the time. They receive their earnings in accordance with their work. There are two kinds of work or action—the good and the evil. Those who commit crimes are punished by means of fines, flogging, imprisonment or hanging according to the law. Those who perform good deeds earn money, property, status or power. So, people have to suffer or enjoy the consequences of good or bad kamma. Therefore, it is obvious that kamma and its results do exist in the world. One cannot deny or object to the existence of kamma and its results. The nature of kamma is subtle; the power of kamma is very strong. People think that after they have performed an action, the action dissolves and disappears, leaving nothing behind. But it is not so. Although the action has been completed, the energy of cetana arising at the time of action does not vanish. It remains in the mental stream. Only when one understands correctly the principle of Kamma and its effect, one shall possess the right understanding and right view. The right view is Sammādiṭṭhi. The right view leads to right thought, right speech, the right action, right livelihood and good morality. Paying no attention to Kamma and its effect; not understanding its and ignoring its leads to the wrong understanding the wrong view. Thus, a person who understands Kamma and its effect and the one who does not understand Kamma will be so different that they are wide apart like the earth and the sky. 3 So, there are inequalities and manifold destinies of human beings in the world. One is, for example, inferior and another superior. One perishes in infancy and another at the age of eighty or a hundred. One is sick and infirm, and another strong and healthy. One is beautiful another ugly. One brought up in luxury and another in misery. One is born a millionaire another misery. One is genius and another folly. 4Every action has its reaction. This is the eternal law. Buddhism named it as Kamma. Kamma is wholesome and unwholesome volitional action and Kamma Vipaka is the result of action. Through volition one does the

3 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma, The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar 2007), pp. 116-117. 4 Nārada Mahā thera, Buddhism in a Nutshell, (Kandy, Sri lank Buddhist, Publication Society,1982), pp.14-15. 164 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

kamma by means of body, speech or mind. We are the heirs of our action that we have done in the past as well as in the present. According to Buddhism, man’s position is supreme. Man is his own master, and there is no higher being or power that sits in judgment over his destiny. Hence man has it in his power to shape his future destiny by means of his will and actions. It depends on his actions whether his destiny will lead him up or down, either to happiness or to misery. If day-by-day we are practicing kindness towards all living being, humans as well as animals, we will grow in goodness, while hatred, and all evil actions done through hatred, we will suffer unhappiness. The Buddhists believe Kamma and it results. Those also trust that there are three periods of time in a life. There are the following: (1) the past life (2) the present life (3) the next life. In the past life having done good kamma, in the present life one is superior, long life, strong, healthy and handsome. One does good action last one should be poor, inferior and ugly in one future our good action will come back to us in blessing and bad action will come back to us in naughtiness If we sow a mango seed, for instance, a mango tree will come up and bear mangoes, and if we sow a chili seed, a chili plant will grow and produce chilies. Good action leads to us our goal, Nibbana. So one who wants to be lucky should do good action. Every action produces an effect and a cause comes first and effect afterwards, therefore, we speak of Kamma as ‘the law of cause and effect’. For example, throwing a stone is an action. The stone strikes a glass window and breaks it. The break is the effect of the action of throwing, but it is not the end. The broken window is now the cause of further trouble. Some of one’s money will have to go to replace it, and thus one is unable to save the money or to buy with it what one wants for some other purpose and the effect upon one is a feeling of disappointment. This may make one irritable, and if one is not careful one may allow the irritability to become the cause of doing something else which is wrong and so on, there is not end to the result of action, no end to Kamma, so we should be very careful about our actions, so that their effect will be good. Therefore, it is necessary for us to do a good, helpful action that will return to us in good Kamma and make us strong enough to start a better Kamma.5Thrown a stone is into a pond and watch the effect. There is a splash and a number of little rings appear round the place where it strikes. See how the rings grow wider and wider till they

5 Nārada Mahā thera, Majjhima Nikāya Majjhimapaņņsa Ațțhakathā,( Somerville, Wisdom Publications,1995), pp.70-75. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 165

become too wide and too tiny for our eyes to follow. The little stone disturbs the water in the pond, but its work is not finished yet. When the tiny waves reach the edges of the pond, the water moves back till it pushes the stone that has disturbed it.6 The effects of our actions come back to us just as the waves do to the stone, and as long as we do our action with evil intention the now waves of effect come back to beat upon us and disturb us. If we are kind and keep ourselves peaceful, the returning waves of trouble will grow weaker and weaker till they die down, and our good kamma will come back to us in blessings. If we sow a mongo seed, for instance, a mango tree will come up and bear mangoes, and if we sow a chili seed, a chili plant will grow and produce chilies.7 Kamma give results in the various sphere, and the formless. For example, unwholesome Kamma give results in the four woeful state and human beings and even in some celestial being.8 The word Kamma literally action or deed, but in the Buddha teaching it refers exclusively to volitional action. From a technical stand point, Kamma denoes wholesome or unwholesome volitional action, volition being the factor responsible for action.9Therefore, Buddha said that beings are owners of their kamma. Kamma alone is their property; nothing else is Kamma is a very important subject in Buddhism.10

The Practice of Kamma in Theravāda Buddhism

The meaning of Kamma, the Pali term Kamma literally means action or doing. Any kind of volitional or intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded as kamma. It covers all that is included in the phrase: ‘thought, word or deed’. Generally speaking, all good and bad actions constitute kamma. In its ultimate sense, kamma means all moral and immoral volition (kusala- akusala cetanā). Having willed one acts by body, speech and thought.” According to Buddhism, all actions, though technically deeds, constitute

6 Ashin Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in Daily life, Mahagandayone Monastery, Amarapura Writing and reparing the scriptures. Traslate by U Ko Lay (Faculty of Patipatti International Theravāda Buddhist Monastery,Myanmar ,1999), pp. 5-7. 7 Pa Auk Tawya Sayādaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009) ,pp. 251-259. 8 Bhikkhu Bodhi, A Comaprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma the Abhidhammattha Sańgaha of Ācariya , (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy Sri lanka, 2007), pp. 105-109. 9 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma, The Real Creator, (Yangon, 2007), pp.151-155. 10 Nārada Mahā thera, Buddhism in a Nutshell, (Buddhist publication Society,Kandy, Sri lanka,1982), pp. 13-14. 166 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

kamma, because volition, the most important factor in determining kamma, volition, a deed is sterile; it produces no reaction of moral significance. Kamma is not fate nor is it predestination, imposed on us by some mysterious unknown power controlling our lives. It is one’s own doing that reacts on one’s own self, and so it is possible to divert the course of our Kamma to some extent. The past influences the present but does not dominate it forKamma is both past and present deeds. Every action produces an effect and it is a cause first and effect after wards, therefore speak of Kamma as ‘the law of cause and effect.’ Throwing a stone, for example, is an action. The stone strikes a glass window and breaks it. The break is the effect of the action of throwing, but it is not the end. The broken window is now the cause of further trouble. Some of one’s money will have to go to replace it, and one is thus unable to save the money or to buy with it what one wants for some other purpose and the effect upon one is a feeling of disappointment.11 This may make one irritable, and if one is not careful one may allow the irritability to become the cause of doing something else, which is wrong and so on. There is no end to the result of action, no end to Kamma, so we should be very careful about our actions, so that their effect will be good. It is therefore necessary for to do a good, helpful action, which will return to us in good kamma and make us strong enough to start a better Kamma.12 The effects of our actions come back to us again and as long as we do our action with evil intention, the new effect come back to beat upon us and disturb us. If we are kind and keep ourselves peaceful, the returning trouble will grow weaker and weaker till they die down, and Our good kamma will come back to us in blessings. Kamma is a central and fundamental aspect of Buddhist doctrine common to all traditions of Buddhism. The Buddhist experience and concept that encompasses this worldly ambiguity and complicity of our intentions and actions is Kamma. Kamma is, on the one hand, a crucial category for practicing Buddhists in Asia and elsewhere that helps them interpret and understand their situations and life. Type of Kamma, including will divided into section as follow: (a) Two kinds of Kamma and (b) Three kinds of Kamma (c) Twelve kinds of Kamma. According to the Buddhism, there are two Type of Kamma, what are wholesome states? Wholesome

11 Ashin Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in Daily life, Mahagandayone Monastery, Amarapura Writing and reparing the scriptures. Traslate by U Ko Lay (Faculty of Patipatti International Theravāda Buddhist Monastery, Myanmar,1999), pp. 199-203. 12 Pa Auk Tawya Sayādaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp. 251-259. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 167

states are good states of mind; happy states of mind, like non-attachment; good will instead of ill will; a tranquil mind instead of a restless mind; not jealous of others; and the like. So this kind of wholesome states of mind gives you peace, gives you a happy state. Whereas unwholesome states of mind are states that make you agitated; make you unhappy such as greed, anger, restlessness, jealousy, and arrogance. Evil Kamma or unwholesome Kamma leads to a decrease in wholesome states or an increase in unwholesome states. You should avoid performing this kind of Kamma.13

Two kinds of Kamma

AKusala Kamma is rooted in greed (lobha), anger (dosa) and delusion (moha). Akusala kamma is also of ten kinds: three bodily actions, four verbal actions and three mental actions. Akusala means blameworthy, faulty and unwholesome actions producing detrimental results. Since these action are not wholesome, they are called evil kinds of conduct. They can lead one to be reborn in the four miserable realms. Because they serve as ways of getting to miserable realms, they are called Akusala kamma. There are ten Unwholesome Actions caused by deed, word, and mind, which produce evil Kamma. Of them three are committed by bodily-namely, 1. Killing (pānātipātā) 2. Stealing (adinnādānā), and 3. Sexual misconduct (kāmesu micchācārā).

Four are caused by word- namely, 4. Lying (musāvādā) 5. Slandering (pisunavācā), 6. Harsh speech (pharusavācā), and 7. Frivolous talk (samphappalāpa vācā).

Three are committed by mind-namely, 8. covetousness (abhijjhā), 9. Ill-will (vyāpāda) and 10. False-view (micchāṭṭhi).

13 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar,2007). pp. 231-135. 168 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Kusalakamma, there are including the ten Wholesome action, Wholesome action is rooted in Non-greed (Alobha), Non-anger (Adosa) and Non-delusion (Amoha). There are ten Wholesome Actions caused by deed, word, and mind, which produce Wholesome Kamma. Kāmāvacara kusala kamma is ten kinds: three bodily actions, four verbal actions and three mental actions. These ten actions are called ten kinds of good conduct (sucarita). Kusala means blameless wholesome action producing beneficial results. These ten good conducts can help one to be reborn in human world or celestial realms. Because they serve as ways of getting to good destinations, they are called as “Kusala kamma patha”. Of the ten meritorious actions, the mental action of holding the right view, believing in kamma and its results, is the most important basic kamma.14 Therefore, wholesome means good action, good speech and good thought. Unwholesome means evil action, evil speech and evil thought. To cultivate good action, good speech and good thought means to cultivate good kamma. In the same way, to cultivate bad action, bad speech and bad thought means to cultivate bad Kamma (b) Three Kinds of Kamma Three kind of Kamma, including will divide into section as follow: These are body, speech and mind. When we act physically the body serves as the instrument for volition. This is bodily Kamma. When we speak, expressing our thoughts and intentions, that is verbal Kamma, which can be performed either directly through speech or else indirectly through writing or other means of communications. When we think, plan, desire inwardly, without any outer action, that is mental Kamma manifests itself in three ways, through three “doors” of action.15 Alternatively, Kamma can be classified according to the paths which there are three. They are: 1. Bodily Kamma: intentional actions through the body. 2. Verbal Kamma: intentional actions through speech. 3. Mental Kamma: intentional actions through the mind. Incorporating both of the classifications described above, we have altogether six kinds of Kamma: bodily, verbal and mental­ Kamma which is unskillful; and bodily, verbal and mental Kamma which is skillful. Another way of classifying Kamma is according to its results. In this classification there are four categories:

14 Phramaha Thotsaporn Iddhivaro, Kamma inTheravāda Buddhism, ( Kandy: Buddhist Publica- tion Society,1955), pp.20-25. 15 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar, 2007), pp.103-105. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 169

1. Black kamma, black result: This refers to bodily actions, verbal actions and mental actions which are harmful. Simple examples are killing, stealing, sexual infidelity, lying and drinking intoxicants. 2. White kamma, white result: These are bodily actions, verbal­ actions and mental actions which are not harmful, such as practicing in accordance with the ten bases for skillful action. 3. Kamma that is both black and white, giving results both black and white: Bodily actions, verbal actions and mental actions which are partly harmful, partly not. 4. Kamma which is neither black nor white, with results neither black nor white, which leads to the cessation of kamma: This is the intention to transcend the three kinds of kamma mentioned above, or specifically, developing the Seven Enlightenment Factors or the Noble Eightfold Path. Of the three channels of Kamma bodily, verbal and mental is mental kamma which is considered the most important16.

Twelve Kinds of Kamma

Twelve kinds of Kamma, including will divided into section as follow: (1) Four kind of Kamma with Respect to function, (2) Four kinds of Kamma by Order of Ripening, (3) Four kinds of Kamma by Time of Repening. When Kamma repins, the volitions involved in carrying out action, can perform various function. The functions can be classified into four: (1) There is Reproductive janaka Kamma, which conditions the future birth. (2) Supportive Upatthambaka Kamma that assists or maintains the results of already-existing Kamma. (3) Counteractive Upapilaka Kamma, which suppresses or modifies the result of the reproductive Kamma. (4) Destructive Upaghātaka Kamma that destroys the force of existing Kamma and substitutes its own resultants.

(a) Four Kind of Kamma with Respect to Function (1) There is Reproductive janaka Kamma is produces the unborn, makes it manifest, it is called janaka. Janaka kamma every birth is conditioned by past good and bad Kammas that predominated at the moment of death. The Kamma that conditions the future birth is called Janaka Kamma.

16 Pa Auk Tawya Sayadaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp.201-205. 170 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

(2) Upatthambhaka Kamma that which comes near the Janaka kamma and supports it is called Upatthambhaka Kamma. (3) Upapilaka Kamma Obstructive or counteractive Kamma, which unlike the former, tends to weaken, interrupt and retard the fruition of Janaka kamma is called Upatthambhaka kamma.17 (4) Upaghātaka Kamma is that which can nullify the potential energy of Janaka Kamma. It is more powerful opposing Kamma of the past, which, seeking an opportunity may quite unexpectedly operate. Second one which not only cuts off the effect of the janaka kamma but also destroys the janaka kamma and produce its own effect. In other words, the person dies abruptly and is reborn in accordance with the upaghātaka-Kamma.18 As an example of the operation of the above four Kammas, the case of Devadatta may be cited. His good janaka-kamma conditioned him to be born in a royal family. His continued comforts and prosperity were due to the action of the janaka Kamma as well as the supportive Kamma. The obstructive Kamma came into play when he was excommunicated from the Samgha and subject to much humiliation.19 Then his serious immoral Kamma causing a schism in the Samgha operated as the destructive Kamma which sent him down to the avici hell.

(b) Four Kinds of Kamma by Order of Ripening Four kinds of Kamma by Order of Ripening, including will divided into section as follow; Weighty (Garuka-kamma), Death-proximate (Āsaṇna kamma), Habitual (Āciṇṇa Kamma), Reserve (Kaṭṭattā Kamma). (1) Weight (Garukakamma) is that which means either weighty or serious, may be either good or bad, it produces its result in this life or in the next for certain: if good, it is purely mental as in the case of Jhāna. Otherwise, it is verbal or bodily. The five kinds of Garuka-kamma according to their gravity are: (a) Mātughātaka Matricide, (b) Pitughātaka patricid (c) Arahantaghātaka The murder of an Arahan (d) Lohituppādaka the wounding of a Buddha, (e) Samghabhedaka-the creation of schism in the Samgha.

17 Nandamālābhivamsa, Fundanmental Abhidhama Part II. ( Myanmar: 2013), pp.39-40. 18 Ashin Silanandabhivamsa,Volition An Introduction to the law of kamma, Dhammananda Monastery, (Theravāda Buddhist Society of America.1979),pp. 51-55. 19 Pa Auk Tawya Sayādaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp. 168-173. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 171

(2) Death-proximate (Āsanna-kamma), is that which one does or remembers immediately before the dying moment. (3) Habitual (Ācinna Kamma), is that which one habitually performs and recollects and for which one has a great liking. (4) Reserve (Kaattā Kamma) is the ‘cumulative kamma which embraces, all that can’t be included in the above three, this is as it were the reserve fund of particular being. Moreover, which is done once and soon forgotten. Now if we have any garuka-kamma, it will produce its result when we die and condition our next life.20 If we do not have any garuka-kamma, which is often the case, then we must rely on āsanna-kamma to condition our next life. To get a good āsanna-kamma, sons and daughters or relatives and friends should arrange wholesome deeds such as offering robes to monks or listening to Dhamma- preaching for the person on his or her death-bed. The dying person should also be reminded of his past good deeds.

(c) Four Kinds of Kamma by Time of Repening Four kinds of Kamma by Time of Repening, including will divided into section as follow; (1) Immediately Effective (Diṭṭhadhammavedaniya kamma), (2) Subsequently Effective (Upapajjavedaniya-kamma), (3) Indefinitely Effect (Aparāpriya Vedaniya Kamma) (4) Defunct (Ahosi-Kamma). (1) Immediately Effective (Diṭṭhadhammavedaniya kamma Moral and immoral action, which may produce its due effects in this very life is called Diṭṭhadhammavedaniya- kamma. (2) Subsequently Effective (Upapajjavedaniya-kamma) Some actions, which may produce their effects in a subsequent life, are called Upapajjavedaniya-kamma. (3) Indefinitely Effect (Aparāpriya Vedaniya-Kamma) actions, which may produce their effects in any life in the course of one’s wondering in Samsāra, are called Aparāpariya vedaniya-kamma. (4) Defunct (Ahosi-Kamma) a seed to sprout, certain auxiliary causes such as soil, rain, etc., are required, in the same way for a Kamma to produce an effect, several auxiliary causes such as circumstances, surroundings, etc., are required, the Kamma which can’t produce its effect in this very life or any life for not auxiliary causes. It is called Ahosi-Kamma.21 Moreover, Defunct Kamma which no longer bears fruits. In studying vãthis, we notice that

20 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar, 2007), pp.175-179. 21 Pa Auk Tawya Sayadaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp.92-93. 172 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

mahā-kusala citta or akusala citta functions seven times as javana in normal situations. The cetanā (volition) associated with the first javana is named diṭṭhadhammavedaniya-kamma which will produce its result in this very life. If it does not operate in this life, it becomes defunct. 22 Practice of Kamma including will divided into three section as follow: (1) Ten Wholesome Caurses of Action (Dasa KusalaKamma pada) (2) Meritorious Deeds (Puňňa Kiriya Vatthu) (3) Threefold Training. There are including the ten Wholesome action, Wholesome action rooted in Non- greed (Alobha), Non-anger (Adosa) and Non-delusion (Amoha). There are ten Wholesome Actions caused by deed, word, and mind, which produce Wholesome Kamma. Of them three are committed by bodily-namely, 1. Abstaining from killing living beings ((pānātipātā-virati), 2. Abstaining from stealing(Adinnādānā-virati) 3. Abstaining from sexual misconduct (kāmesu micchācārā-virati)

Four are caused by word- namely, 4. Abstaining from false speech (musāvādā-virati) 5. Abstaining from malicious speech (pisunavācā-virati 6. Abstaining from harsh speech (pharusavācā-virati) 7. Abstaining from gossip (samphappalāpa-virati)

Three are committed by mind-namely, 8. Abstaining from coveting (anbhijjhā) 9. Abstaining from ill-will (avyāpāda-virati) 10. Possessing Right Understanding of the Dhamma (sammādiṭṭhi).

Therefore, wholesome means good action, good speech and good thought. Unwholesome means evil action, evil speech and evil thought. To cultivate good action, good speech and good thought means to cultivate good kamma. In the same way, to cultivate bad action, bad speech and bad thought means to cultivate bad Kamma.23

22 Ashin Silanandabhivamsa,Volition An Introduction to the law of kamma, ( Dhammananda Vihāra Monastery, Theravāda Buddhist Society of America.1979), p.35. 23 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (Yangon, Myanmar. 2007), pp. 55-57. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 173

Meritorious Deeds (Puñña Kiriyā Vatthu)

Ten based of Meritorious Deeds (Dasa Puñña-kiriyā Vatthu) are ten meritorious acts which Buddhist practice in everyday life to reach the eternal happiness Nirvāna either lay-man or a monk. But Buddhist monks have more rules (Vinaya) to follow so that it will speed up the process. (1) Giving (Dāna): It means giving something in Charity-Generosity the moral act of giving one’s possessions. Ultimately, it is the volition involved in giving something to other.24 (2) Morality (sīla) Virtue or precepts Keeping away from evil done through the doors of the body and speech. The precepts can be five, eight, nine, ten, 227 or 331, according to one’s ablity, commitment as well as spiritual status. (3) Meditation (Bhāvanā) Mental Culture is meditating or contemplating on either the forty exercises for the attainment of mental tranquillit. Vipassanā or Insight meditation is an insight into the true nature of things or seeing develop and cultivate the mind.25 (4) Reverence (Apacāyana) paying respect and reverence to the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, to parents and other elders, to teachers and any others leading virtuous lives. Paying respect is shown by worshiping, offering flowers, or by getting up from the seat. (5) Service (Veyāvacca) giving assistance to those worthy of respect and mentioned above, as well as to the sick, old and weak people. Serving the visitors, Keeping one’s home, school and temple clean and tidy too comes under service.26 (6) Transference of merit (Pattidāna) requesting another to share the merit or moral deeds done by a person. Conferring merit to the dead, to the Devas and all beings and wishing them to be well and happy. (7) Rejoicing in other’s merits-sharing (Pattānumodanā) the merits offered by others and rejoicing in the same. Rejoicing in good deeds even without the knowledge of the doer comes under this. A man who rejoiced when was offered to the Buddha acquired equal merit.

24 Pa Auk Tawya Sayādaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp.101-105. 25 Bhikkhu Bodhi; A Comaprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma the Abhidhammattha Sańgaha of Acariya Anuruddha, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy Sri lanka,2007), pp. 203-205. 26 Pa Auk Tawya Sayādaw, The workings of Kamma, (Myanmar, 2009), pp.109-111. 174 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

(8) Listing to the Dhamma (Dhamma Sāvana) hearing the Dhamma with a pure mind for the purpose of practicing morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi) and insight (paññā). (9) Teaching the Dhamma (Dhamma Desanā) Teaching the Dhamma out of compassion to the listeners with a pure mind, and without the impure intention of obtaining offerings, honour, praise and fame. (10) Straightening one’s view (Diṭṭhijju Kamma): It is a type of wholesome Kamma accrued through straightening one’s view and by goving up pernicious views. It includes adopting right view regarding the nature of Kamma, life, existence, etc. On coming across the Teaching of the Buddha, it is most important for everyone to cultivate the Morality (sīla), concentration (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). One should undoubtedly possess these three virtues.27 The method is based on three practical steps, namely Morality, Concentration, and Insight or wisdom, known collectively as the Threefold Training. The first step is morality (Sīla). Morality is simply suitable behavior, behavior that conforms with the generally accepted standards and causes no distress to other people or to oneself. It is coded in the form of five moral precepts, or eight, or ten, 227, or 337 in other ways. It is conducted by way of body and speech aimed at peace, convenience and freedom from undesirable effects at the most basic level.28 It has to do with the members of a social group and the various pieces of property essential to living. The second aspect of the threefold training is concentration (Samādhi). This consists in constraining the mind to remain in the condition most conducive to success in whatever he wishes to achieve. Just what is concentration? No doubt most of you have always understood concentration as implying a completely tranquil mind, as steady and unmoving as a log of wood. But merely these two characteristics of being tranquil and steady are not the real meaning of Concentration.29 The basis for this statement is an utterance of the Buddha. He described the concentrated mind as fit for work in a suitable condition for doing its job. Fit for work is the very best way to describe the properly concentrated mind.

27 Piyadassi Thera, The Threefold Division of the Noble Eightfold Path, (Sri lanka, 2010), pp.7-9. 28 Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (Yangon, 2007), P.137-238. 29 Dagfinn Aarhus Braseth,Morality, Meditation, and Wisdom: An Exploration of the Buddhist Foundation of Mindfulness, ( Kandy: Buddhist Publication Society,1955), pp.37-39. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 175

The third aspect is the training in insight (paññā), the practice and drill that give rise to the full measure of right knowledge and understanding of the true nature of all things. Normally we are incapable of knowing anything at all in its true nature. Mostly we either stick to our own ideas or go along with popular opinion, so that what we see is not the truth at all.30 It is for this reason that Buddhist practice includes this training in insight, the last aspect of the threefold training, designed to give rise to full understanding of and insight into the true nature of things.

Conclusion

Kamma is a fundamental doctrine in Buddhism, Kamma is a central doctrine of Buddhism, a novel discovery made by the Buddha on the day of His enlightenment. The Buddha explained and formulated this doctrine in the complete form in which we have it today. According to Buddhism, this inequality is due not only to heredity, environment, “nature and nurture”, but also to Kamma. In other words, it is the result of our own past actions and our own present doings. The law of Kamma places the responsibility of his or her life on the individual. He must bear the consequences of his bad actions, and enjoy the consequences of his good actions. He may alter his future life for good or bad by good or bad actions, respectively. Knowing that the Law is our great helper if we live by it, and that no harm can come to us if we work with it, knowing also that it blesses us just at the right time, we learn the grand lesson of patience, not to get excited, and that impatience is a check to progress. In suffering, we know that we are paying a debt, and we learn, if we are wise, not to create more suffering for the future. In rejoicing, we are thankful for its sweetness, and learn, if we are wise, to be still better. Patience brings forth peace, success, happiness and security. The Law being just, perfect, it is not possible for an understanding person to be uneasy about it. If we are uneasy and have no confidence, it shows clearly that we have not grasped the reality of the law. We are really quite safe beneath its wings, and there is nothing to fear in all the wide universe except our own misdeeds. The Law makes man stand on his own feet and rouses his self-confidence. Confidence strengthens, or rather deepens our peace and happiness and makes us comfortable, courageous; wherever we go the Law is our protector.

30 Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Noble Eightfold Path The Way to the End of Suffering, (Kandy: Bud- dhist Publication Society,1999), pp .98-103. 176 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

As we in the past have caused ourselves to be what we now are, so by what we do now will our future be determined. A knowledge of this fact and that the glory of the future is limitless, gives us great self-reliance, and takes away that tendency to appeal for external help, which is really no help at all. ‘Purity and impurity belong to oneself, no one can purify another’ says the Buddha. Naturally, if we realize that the evil we do will return to strike us, we shall be very careful Jest we do or say or think something that is not good, pure and true. Knowledge of Kamma will restrain us from wrong-doing for others’ sakes as well as for our own.The more we make the doctrine of Kamma a part of our lives, the more power we gain, not only to direct our future, but to help our fellow beings more effectively. The practice of good Kamma, when fully developed, will enable us to overcome evil and limitations, and destroy all the fetters that keep us from our goal, Nibbana.

References

Bhikkhu Bodhi; (tra) A Comaprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma the Abhidhammattha Sańgaha, (Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy Sri lanka,2007. Walshe, Maurice. tr. The Long Discourses of the Buddha (Dīghanikāya). Kandy: BPS, 1996. PaAukTawya Sayadaw, The workings of Kamma, Myanmar, 2009. Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, Kamma-The Real Creator, (professor) Yangon, 2007. Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, The Essence of Visuddhi Magga, (professor)Yangon, 2015. The Great Exeat Exposition of Kamma, the Mijjhima Nikaya, Cūlakammavibhaṅka Sutta. The Middle length Discourse of the Buddha Translation of the Mijjhima Nikaya, Translated by @ 2003. , Maggańga Dipani; The manual of the conctituents of the noble path. Myanmar,1961. Dr. Nandamālābhivamsa, (tra) Fundanmental Abhidhama Part I,II. Myanmar: 2013. Ashin Janakabhivamsa, Abhidhamma in Daily life, Mahagandayone Monastery, Amarapura Writing and reparing the scriptures. Traslate by U Ko Lay (professor) Faculty of Patipatti International Theravada Buddhist Monastery,Myanmar ,1999. Ashin Silanandabhivamsa,Volition An Introduction to the law of kamma, Dhammananda Monastery, Theravada Buddhist Society of America.1979. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 177

Nārada Mahā thera,Buddhism in a Nutshell,Buddhist publication Society,Kandy, Sri lanka,1982. Daw Mya Tin, The Dhammapata: Verses and Stories, Editorial Committee, Burme Tipitaka Association, Yangon, Myanmar, 1986. Nanatiloka Thera, The word of the Buddha, Buddhist Publication Society, 2011. J.P.Vaswain, What would you like toknow about Karma, (Auther House, Bloomington, Indiana United State of America, 2015). Dr. Mehm Tin Mon, The Essence of Buddha Abhidhama, (professor) Yangon,Myanmar: 2015.Third Edition.

A Study of Meditation Effect on The Brain and Emotional Happiness by MiRi Scan

Dr.ThunnawatWattanaseth, MD1, Asst. Prof. Dr. Siriwat Srikhruedong,2 Dr. Sompoch Srivichitvorakul.3 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The objectives of this study are as follows: 1) to measure and compare the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long- term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners; 2) to measure and compare physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)”; and 3) to measure and compare the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups. The study was an experimental research in nature. Population of the study comprised 256 healthcare providers in Kasemrad International Hospital by randomized interview for those eligable of the study from October to December 2015. The samples of the study included 30 eligible cases divided to three groups, namely, 10 cases of Long-term meditation practitioners (LTM), 10 cases of Short-term meditation practitioners (STM), and 10 cases of Non-meditation practitioners (NM). Tools of data collection were MRI and questionnaire. Statistics used for analyzing data composted of Percentage, Mean, Standard Deviation and Pearson correlation.

Keywords: Meditation Effect on the Brain and Emotional Happiness, MRI SCAN

1 Graduated Student in Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Buddhist Psychology), Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. 2 Staff of Department of Buddhist Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. 3 Staff of Department of Buddhist Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 179

Results of the Study

1. With respect to the measurement and comparison of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners, it was found that there existed no significant changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) within the each group and across the three groups. While comparing the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe among three eligible groups with standard value of cerebral cortical thickness there was no change with a statistical significance. 2. In respect of the measurement and comparison of physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)” it revealed that there were no significant changes of fractional anisotropy (FA) within the group and across the three groups. When comparing the standard values of FA there were no statistically significant changes. 3. Regarding the measurement and comparison of the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups it revealed that there was a high mean happiness score (HS) in the group of Long-term meditation practitioners. While comparing the mean happiness score (HS) of Long-term meditation practitioners with Short-term meditation practitioners and Non-meditation practitioners it was found that the mean happiness score of the latter two groups statistical similar.

Background and Significance of the Problem

Many years ago, meditation was a well-known cognitive therapy incorporating enhanced mindfulness. Many researches emphasized meditation as an important process as curative & palliative therapy. They suggested that improvement of complex emotional control and attention regulation increases in meditators. Recently, the therapeutic use of meditation, including mindfulness-based techniques, has become increasingly important in the treatment of physiological and psychological conditions4. Furthermore, the neuroscientific evidence suggests that meditation alters the structure and function of the brain including neural

4 D.S. Ludwig, J. Kabat-Zinn , Mindfulness in Medicine.. The Journal of the American Medical Association, 2008, Vol.300 No.11, Pp.1350-1352. 180 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

processes, underlying attention, and emotion5. One of many researches, Goto et al,6 shows altered synaptic structure of the brain circuits associated with attention and emotion might be the one of the essential pathophysiological conditions underlying some major psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and depression. In the details of the research of Goto, the Prefrontal cortex (PFC) mediates an assortment of cognitive functions including working memory, behavioral flexibility, attention, and future planning. Unlike the hippocampus, where induction of synaptic plasticity in the network is well-documented in relation to long-term memory, cognitive functions mediated by the PFC have been thought to be independent of long-lasting neuronal adaptation of the network. Nonetheless, accumulating evidence suggests that prefrontal cortical neurons possess the cellular machinery of synaptic plasticity and exhibit lasting changes of neural activity associated with various cognitive processes. Moreover, deficits in the mechanisms of synaptic plasticity induction in the PFC may be involved in the pathophysiology of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as schizophrenia, drug addiction, mood disorders, and Alzheimer’s disease. In Thailand, there are many meditation practitioners of the Thai style Theravada tradition, such as “breathing training” with Brikornrnam “pút-toh” There does not seem to be any research of brain structures using MRI of practitioners of Thai meditation by Diagnostic Radiologist (specialist doctor). This is an important and interesting issue in the field of medical evidence based experimental study in Thailand, when we compare data of international meditation research with MRI scans. However, there are many researches about meditation in Thailand but most of these are not related with medical equipment. This study wants to utilize evidence-based medical science applied to Theravada meditation in Thailand. This will be attempted by identifying anatomical and physiological brain changes in meditation practitioners under detection and measurement by MRI scan.

5 J.A. Brefczynski-Lewis, A. Lutz, S. Schaefer, D.B. Levinson, R.J. Davidson, Neural Correlates of Attentional Expertise in Long-Term Meditation Practitioners. Madison: The Wisconsin Press, 2007, Pp.11483-11488. 6 Y. Goto, C.R. Yang, S. Otani, Functional and Dysfunctional Synaptic Plasticity in Prefrontal Cortex: Roles in Psychiatric Disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 2010, Vol.67 No.3, Pp. 199-207. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 181

Objectives of Research

1. To measure and compare the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups; a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners. 2. To measure and compare physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)”. 3. To measure and compare the Happiness score (HS) between groups.

Hypothesis in Research

1. Increased cerebral cortical thickness (CT) in meditation group 2. Increased value of fractional anisotropy (FA) in meditation group 3. High happiness score (HS) in a long term meditation group.

Definition of the Term used in the Research

A long-term meditation is an at least 3 years meditation experience that has a routine meditation of at least 20 minutes a day at least five days per week. A short-term mediation is a short duration of meditation experience of less than 3 months. A control is a case of no experience in meditation in recent 3 years. MRI7 is a medical machine with magnetic generation. MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was used in radiology to form pictures of the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body in both health and disease. MRI scanners use strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and field gradients to generate images of the inside of the body. The cerebral cortex 8 is the outer covering of gray matter over the hemispheres. This is typically 2- 3 mm thick, covering the gyri and sulci. Certain cortical regions have somewhat simpler functions, termed the primary cortices. These include areas directly receiving

7 American Society of Neuroradiology. “A CR-ASNR Practice Guideline for the Performance and Interpretation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) of the Brain. 2013, Boston: Pp. 26 -28 8 Swenson Rand, Chapter 11-Cerebral Cortex. Review of Clinical and Functional Neuroscience. E-book, Boston: 2006. 182 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

sensory input (vision, hearing, somatic sensation) or directly involved in production of limb or eye movements. The association cortices subserve more complex functions. Regions of association cortex are adjacent to the primary cortices and include much of the rostral part of the frontal lobes also regions encompassing areas of the posterior parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the anterior part of the occipital lobes. These areas are important in more complex cortical functions including memory, language, abstraction, creativity, judgment, emotion and attention. They are also involved in the synthesis of movements. Cerebral cortical thickness (CT) 9 is a thickness of gray matter, typically 2-3 mm. This study measured CT at “straight gyrus” of the frontal lobes. For mammals, species with larger brains (in absolute terms, not just in relation to body size) tend to have thicker cortices. The range, however, is not very great; only a factor of 7 differentiates between the thickest and thinnest cortices. The smallest mammals, such as shrews, have a neocortical thickness of about 0.5 mm; the ones with the largest brains, such as humans and fin whales, have thicknesses of 2.3–2.8 mm. There is an approximately logarithmic relationship between brain weight and cortical thickness. Fractional anisotropy (FA)10 is a value of anisotropy of a diffusion process. A value of zero means that diffusion is isotropic, i.e. it is unrestricted (or equally restricted) in all directions. A value of one means that diffusion occurs only along one axis and is fully restricted along all other directions. FA is a measure often used in diffusion imaging where it is thought to reflect fiber density, axonal diameter, and myelination in white matter. The FA is an extension of the concept of eccentricity of conic sections in 3 dimensions, normalized to the unit range Happiness is a mental or emotional state of well-being defined by positive or pleasant emotions ranging from contentment to intense joy11. Happy mental states may also reflect judgements by a person about their overall well-being. A variety of biological, psychological, economic, religious and philosophical approaches have striven to define happiness and identify its sources. Various research groups, including positive psychology and happiness economics are employing the scientific method to research questions about what “happiness” is, and how it might be attained.

9 R. Nieuwenhuys, H.J. Donkelaar, C. Nicholson, The Central Nervous System of Vertebrates, Volume 1, New York: Rockefeller University Press, Pp. 2011–2012. 10 P.J. Basser & C. Pierpaoli, Microstructural and Physiological Features of Tissues Elucidated by Quantitative-Diffusion-Tensor MRI. Journal of Magnetic Resonance, 1996, Boston: Pp. 209-219. 11 Darrin M. McMahon, “From the Happiness of Virtue to the Virtue of Happiness”, Daedalus, 2004, California: Pp. 5–17. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 183

Meditation12 is a practice where an individual trains the mind or induces a mode of consciousness, either to realize some benefit or for the mind to simply acknowledge its content without becoming identified with that content, or as an end in itself. The term meditation refers to a broad variety of practices that includes techniques designed to promote relaxation, build internal energy or life force (qi, ki, , etc.) and develop compassion, love, patience, generosity, and . A particularly ambitious form of meditation aims at effortlessly sustained single-pointed concentration meant to enable its practitioner to enjoy an indestructible sense of well-being while engaging in any life activity.

Expected Benefits (Outcomes)

1. To explored scientific evidence of MRI study in the human brain with meditation 2. To know relationship between anatomical brain changes and meditation 3. To know relationship between emotional happiness and meditation.

Research Methodology

The discourse of this study is about social experimental design and scientific measurement to evaluate the result of meditation of three groups of population by the method of cross sectional study. Statistical analysis of variables with Pearson correlation was performed for study effect of meditation on the brain and emotional happiness. The population of this study is healthcare providers: 256 persons, in the Kasemrad International Hospital. The research was done from June 1, 2014 to Jan 31, 2015. There is a wide range of age: 24 to 64 years.

Population and Samples

We selected 30 persons from 256 persons to interview about their history of meditation. Samples are divided to three groups as follows: 1) Ten cases of Long-term meditation practitioners, 2) Ten cases of Short-term meditation practitioners, and 3) Ten cases of Non-meditation practitioners.

12 Daniel Goleman , The Meditative Mind: The Varieties of Meditative Experience. 2008, New York: Tarcher, Pp 86-88 184 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

We employed cortical thickness (CT) analysis and fractional anisotropy (FA) based on advanced MRI technique to quantify white matter integrity and structural change in the brains. All cases of our study would receive psychological questionnaires of happiness score (HS) assessment.

Research Tools

All data were acquired using a 1.5-Tesla Essenza MRI scanner (Siemens, Erlangen, Germany). T1-weighted structural images covering the whole brain using a 3D magnetization- prepared rapid gradient echo sequence were acquired with the following parameters: TR/ TE=1160/4.76ms, field of view=23cm, flip angle=15egrees, voxel size=0.45x0.45x0.90mm3, slice thickness=0.9mm. Diffusion-weighted images (DWIs) were acquired with diffusion gradients (b-factor 1000s/mm2) along 12 non-collinear directions. Ten images were acquired with no diffusion gradient (B0 images) to increase the signal-to-noise ratio. Other parameters were as follows: TR/TE=9200/83ms, 75 slices, field of view=256mm, voxel size=2x2x2mm3. All scans were judged by a diagnostic radiologist (T.W.) to be visually excellent without obvious artifacts, signal loss or gross pathology.

Scope of Contents

To study for the changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT), Fractional anisotrpy (FA), and Happiness score (HS).

Data collection and Steps of Research

A total of 30 cases (10 long-term meditators, 10 short-term meditation practitioners and 10 controls) with Age-Sex matching participated in the study. The mean duration of long term meditators was calculated and noted. Control subjects had no previous experience with meditation or similar practices. The non-patient version of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV was used to assess psychiatric disorders in all participants. All subjects were right-handed (Annett, 1970). Exclusion criteria included a life-time history of psychosis, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, substance abuse or dependence, significant head injury, seizure disorder or mental retardation. The present study was approved by the Research Institutional Review Board of Bangkok Chain Hospital (BCH) and informed consent was obtained from all subjects following the explanation of the procedures. The questionnaires for assessment of happiness score was used in all participants after MRI scan. (See diagram 1) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 185

Statistics and Data analysis

The statistical analysis was corrected for multiple comparisons using a Pearson correlation (2-tails). The correlation coefficient (r) was calculated between factors of 1) mediation duration, 2) cortical thickness (CT), 3) fractional anisotroy (FA) and 4) happiness score (HS). (See diagram 2)

Diagram 1: Steps in research and data collection 186 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Diagram 2: Statistical correlation between three eligible meditation groups and three dependent variables (CT, FA, and HS)

Results

Thirty participants were eligible in the study. There are divide to three groups as 1) Long term meditation (LTM), average 4.4 years for duration of mediation, 2) Short term meditation (STM), average 1.6 months for duration of meditation and 3) Non meditation (NM). The mean age of LTM group = 31 years, STM group = 34 years, and NM group = 33.3 years. Twenty-two cases had graduated Bachelor degree. The mean duration of meditation in LTM group = 4.4 years, and STM group = 1.8 months. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 187

Measurement of Cortical Thickness (CT) and Fractional Anisotropy (FA)

The measurement of cerebral cortex, this study selected on the axial T1W view at skull base, used direct measurement at mid part of lateral cortex of the straight gyrus under work station of PACS. The reason for using lateral cortex of the straight gyrus was due to: 1) The medial cortex usually has wavy contour in contrast to lateral cortex which is straight and smooth contour, 2) The straight gyrus is easily identified on MRI scan without confusion rather than other temporal gyri and frontal gyri. The measurement of Fractional anisotropy, the study used FA map with b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, axial view of whole brain, and also select at basal ganglia level. The hand-free regional of interest (ROI) was put on the right & left putamen. The measurement value in each side was recorded. The MRI’s image & measurement of CT and FA of LTM case, STM case and NM case are shown in Figure 1 (a,b), Figure 2(a,b) and Figure 13(a,b). 188 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Figure 1a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of LTM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.16mm) and left straight gyrus (1.02mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.09mm) was recorded.

Figure 1b: Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of LTM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.24, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.20 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 189

Figure 2a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of STM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.31mm) and left straight gyrus (1.32mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.31mm) was recorded.

Figure 2b: Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of STM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.21, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.26 190 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Figure 3a: Measurement of cortical thickness (CT) in the case of NM, using axial 3D T1W technique. The direct measurement (in millimeters) was performed perpendicular to the white matter at mid part of the right straight gyrus (1.16mm) and left straight gyrus (1.00mm), under workstation. The average value measurement (1.08mm) was recorded.

Figure 3b Fractional anisotropy (FA) map in the case of NM, using b = 1000, TR 3300, TE 107, the FA value of the right putamen = 0.24, the FA value of the left putamen = 0.24 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 191

The means of value’s measurement of cortical thickness (CT), fractional anisotropy (FA) of the right putamen (FAR) and the left putamen (FAL) are summarized on Table 1, below

Table 1: Summarization of the means of CT, FAR, and FAL in each group.

Mean CT Mean FAR Mean FAL Long Term Meditation (LTM) 1.205 mm 0.2418 0.2268 Short Term Meditation (STM) 1.143 mm 0.2417 0.2266 Non-Meditation (NM) 1.221 mm 0.2413 0.2264 Total 30 cases 1.1897 mm 0.2426 0.2266

From this table, there is no significant difference of the mean value of CT and FA between LTM, STM and NM groups. No difference in neuronal density and white matter arrangement, which reflects from FA, of the right and left putamen are seen between groups. The standard reference value of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT)13is about 2mm in overall average. Various values of cerebral cortical thickness depend on age, region of the brain, race, underlying disease, etc. However, Cortical thickness values reported in the literature mostly range from a mean thickness over the whole brain of around 2.5 mm up to 3 mm.14 The cortical thickness of straight gyrus is thinner than the average value of whole brain. For the standard reference of Fractional Ansiotropy (FA), the study of Cheng Luo and colleague15 shows normal range of FA in putamen of the control group about 0.21 to 0.31. For this study, the mean FA of right and left putamen in LTM group is 0.2418 and 0.2268, respectively. The mean FA of right and left putamen in STM group is 0.2417 and 0.2266, respectively. The mean FA of right and left putamen in NM group is 0.2413 and 0.2264,

13 Chloe Hutton, Voxel based cortical measurements in MRI. Neuroimage. Bethesda MD: 2008, Vol. 40, Pp 1701–1710. 14 J.P. Lerch, A.C. Evans, Cortical thickness analysis examined through power analysis and a population simulation. Neuroimage. Bethesda MD: 2005, Vol. 24, Pp 163–173. 15 Cheng Luo, et al., Diffusion and volumetry abnormalities in subcortical nuclei of patients with absence seizures. Epilepsia, 2011, Vol 52, Pp 1092-1099. 192 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

respectively. The overall mean FA of total thirty cases at the right putamen is 0.2416, and also the left putamen is 0.2266.

Measurement of Happiness Score (HS)

All cases of three groups were had to examine happiness score by answers of questionnaires, after received MRI scan. The mean of HS of LTM group = 5.188, STM group = 3.630, NM group = 3.480. The meaning of mean happiness score = 5.188 is “Very happy”. Being happy has more benefits than just feeling good. It’s correlated with benefits like health, better marriages, and attaining goals. The meaning of mean score = 3.630 and 3.480 is “Not particularly happy or unhappy”. This score would be an exact numerical average of happy and unhappy responses. Some of the exercises mentioned just above have been tested in scientific studies and have been shown to make people happier longer.16

Conclusion

After collecting data, MRI scans, examining questionnaires and statistical analysis, the conclusion of the study with respect to the three objectives of research and hypothesis of research was summarized as follows; (1) With respect to the measurement and comparison of the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe in three eligible groups: a) Long-term meditation practitioners, b) Short-term meditation practitioners, and c) Non-meditation practitioners it found that there existed no any significant changes of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) within the group and among three groups, while comparing the cerebral cortical thickness (CT) at straight gyrus of the frontal lobe among three eligible groups with standard value of cerebral cortical thickness there were no changes with a statistical significance.

16 P. Hills and M. Argyle, The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, Oxford: 2002, Vol.33, Pp.1073–1082. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 193

(2) In respect of the measurement and comparison of physiological changes of neurons in the putamen (the part of basal ganglia) of all eligible groups by advanced MRI technique, called “Fractional Anisotropy (FA)” it revealed that there were no any significant changes of fractional anisotropy (FA) within the group and among three groups, when comparing with standard value of FA there were no statistically significant changes. (3) Regarding the measurement and comparison of the Happiness score (HS) among three eligible groups it revealed that there was a high mean happiness score (HS) in the group of Long-term meditation practitioners. While comparing the mean happiness score (HS) of Long-term meditation practitioners with Short-term meditation practitioners and Non-meditation practitioners it was found that the mean happiness score of the latter two groups were not significantly different.

Discussion

Unless this study shows no significant change of cerebral cortical thickness (CT) and Fractional anisotropy (FA) of LTM, STM and NM group, at point of time (cross-sectional study), the study give a new body of knowledge as follow; 1) Long-term meditation effects emotional happiness significantly. 2) Meditation in the study does not improve cerebral cortical thickness, that means no effect on the natural progression of senile aging or degeneration of the human brain, corresponding with “The ” (Trilaksana – Anicca, Dukka, Anatta), and the research of Sergio Elías Hernández 17 , which shows increased Gray Matter (neuronal density) in the Long-Term Sahaja Meditation, using by a Voxel-Based Morphometry MRI Study. This study is one of several researches which discloses the differentiation between neural density and volumetric thickness of cerebral cortex. The results of the study show the direct effect of meditation to neurons (increased neural density and neuroplasticity). Some cases of the study showed no change of the cortical thickness (CT), but all cases of Long- term Meditation have an abundance of neuronal density of gray matter.

17 Sergio Elías Hernández, and et al, Increased Grey Matter Associated with Long-Term Sahaja Yoga Meditation: A Voxel-Based Morphometry Study. Plos Journal, 2016, Plos organization, E-book. (Search on Apr 1, 2016) 194 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Suggestions for research methodology

1) Prospective longitudinal studies may give more information between three mediation groups. 2) Increased number of case studies may be helpful to the study. 3) Choosing more regional cerebral areas for measurement in further studies may give more information and more extended discussion.

Suggestions for meditation practitioner and beginner

1) Long-term meditation with regular self-training of at least 20 minutes per day for an average 4.4 years seems to improve emotional happiness.

Suggestion for proposed policy

1) The government, public organizations, or private organizations should promote meditation of at least 15 to 20 minutes per day as a daily routine for all age groups, especially adult or working person, for the benefit of happiness and decreased stress in the workplace, home, and social relationships. 2) Schools, colleges, and university should have the activity of meditation and emphasize the important relationship between meditation and happiness. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 195

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An Analytical Study of Buddhist Social Roles of Citizen Based on Sigālovāda Sutta

U Ja Ti La, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College (IBSC), Mahāchulalongkornrājavidyālaya University, Thailand. Corresponding Author Email:[email protected]

Abstract

The present thesis is a qualitative research that has three objectives, namely: (1) to study meaning and signifi cance of social roles of citizens in General, (2) to study the meaning and signifi cance of social roles in the Buddhism, (3) to present the Buddhist social roles of citizens based on Sigālovāda sutta. The fi ndings show the meaning of social roles in general, in contemporary social worker from western or eastern countries, in sigalovada sutta and its signifi cances on the different levels of human societies. Moreover, The Buddhist Social Roles of Citizen based on Sigalovada Sutta, Social and religious Infl uences on human beings and the Middle Path of Social welfare, Finally, in the human societies, Buddhist social roles are very important. It also found the types of social roles in human society, the effect of social roles based on sigālovāda sutta to the citizen. It identifi ed the social according Sayadaw U Janaka Bhivassa and U Indaka and comparative study of understanding social roles of Sayadaw U Janakan and social roles in general.

Keywords: individual social roles, human society, social confl ict. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 201

Introduction

Now a day, individual social roles is very important to know how to practice the duties and responsibilities of human being in the world. According to Buddhist teaching, there are many ethical teaching for the people who would love to get peaceful life with the successful society. Such as we can find the individual duties or responsibilities in the human society so on. Here, to show the ways how to practice the individual Buddhist social roles for the human right of human being in the world it will be described the practical individual duties or responsibilities in human society. Sigālovāda sutta is a classic text on lay ethics and social responsibilities, an exposition of the whole code of domestic and social duties of a layman according to the Buddhist point of view. It is often called by latter-day Buddhists as “the householder’s discipline”. According to this sutta, a social role of Buddhism is a practical way of solving the problems in the societies and to identify the way of living in oneself. Even though, Sigālovāda sutta to the six directions taught by the Buddha to the Sigālaka.

The Meaning and Significance of Social Roles of Citizen in General Meaning of Social Roles in Social Science

Social roles can be defined as professional activity of helping individuals, groups or communities to enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal.1 According to the teaching of Buddha, socials means Social work, it will be included four operations which are donations, economy, education and cultures to citizen in societies.2 From a Buddhist perspective, social roles can be understood as a complex of social actions, which are desirable for a person according to his status. Caritta Sila and Varitta Sila describe desirable social behavior in charity, economy, education, and culture Moreover, in Sigālovāda sutta, there are also practical ways for the citizens to practice in order to being well, to do one’s duty perfectly and avoiding doing unwholesome thing3.

1 Rosemary Chapin, National Association of Social workers, (New York, 2007), p.3 2 Pradip Barua Ven, A Study of Ambedkar and The Ambedkarite Buddhist Movement in Indle (Thailand: Ayutthaya, 2011), p. 24. 3 Ibid, pp. 343-346. 202 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Such as it is regarding to Cāritta Sĩla and Cāritta Sĩla, which is responsibilities and duties of individual in human society to be peaceful world with the development. In social science literature, social roles focus upon socialization into new roles and beginning with work on roles exit, recent studies are taking into account both entry into roles.4 Role exit is the process of disengagement from a role that is central to one’s self- identity and the reestablishment of an identity in a new role that takes into account one’s ex-role.5 Being an “ex” is unique sociologically in that the expectation, norms, and identity of an ex-role relate not to what one is currently doing but to social expectations associated with the previous role. It is important to note that there is considerable disagreement among social scientists about the definition of the related concepts of social position, social status, and social role. Among the most straightforward definitions of social role and social status are those given by individuals who use the term “status” in a way that is identical to our use of the term “position” Linton defines a status as “the polar position in patterns of reciprocal behavior” when a person “puts the rights and duties which constitute the status into effect, he is performing a role” there are two important and related concepts here; position and role. In a social network analysis, position social roles refers to a collection of individuals who are similarly embedded in networks of relation, while role refers to the patterns of relation which obtain between actors or between positions. The notion of position thus refers to a collection of actors who are similar in social activity, ties, or interactions, with respect to actors in other positions. For example, nurses in different hospitals occupy the position of “nurse” by virtue of similar kinds of relationships with doctors and patients, though individual nurses may not know each other, work with the same doctors or see the same patients.6

4 Peg A. Lamphier, Rosanne Welch, Women in American History: A Social, Political, and Cultural Encyclopedia and Document Collection. (United States of America: ABC-CLIO, Jan 23, 2560), p.11. 5 William H. Swatos, Encyclopedia of Religion and Society, (London: New Delhi, Rowman Altamira, 1998), p. 432. 6 Stanley Wasserman, Katherine Faust. Social Network Analysis: Methods and Applications, (United of America: Cambridge University Press, Nov 25, 2537), p.348. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 203

Meaning and Significance of Social Roles in Buddhism based on Sigālovāda sutta

The Social roles are referred to ethics of harmony society, responding of families, Middle Path of social welfare and social, religious influence. In Theravada Buddhism, social roles defined as two kinds of ethics. Sometime, it refers to and noble eight-fold path.

Types of social roles

Social roles are classified into two types as follow; 1. Cāritta sĩla Cāritta sĩla regarding to practice in duties and responsibilities of individual in human society. Cāritta sĩla means certain obligations that must be fulfilled.7 In Buddhist ethic certain moral obligations are incumbent on one such as; paying respect, making obeisance, showing reverence on one’s elders, who may be senior in age of in status and not behaving rudely before the Bhikkhũs, teacher and parents. Every Buddhist lay person is to fulfill them. Such fulfillment is calledSāritta Sĩla. Furthermore, fulfilling the duties of parents, son, daughters, teacher, pupils, wives and husbands. It must be based on activities of Buddhist cultural which is regarding to six directions in sigālovāda sutta. However, we can find various duties and responsibilities of individualism for the human society. If one has to practice merit ethic with the social roles of human right, one can reject the evil activity from the duties and a person who is endowed with conviction (saddhā) and effort (Vĩriya) can follow the practice of responsibilities of individual in human society. Here, conviction means believing that one who practice Cāritta Sĩla will enjoy its benefits because it is good practice. Effort means making a vigorous attempt to overcome laziness and to keep up the practice of moral conduct patiently. Only when a person can practice the moral conduct out of conviction and effort, can one be called a person who is fully endowed with Cāritta Sĩla.8

7 Buddhagosa, Visuddhimagga: The Path of Purification. (tr) By Ňanamoli Bhikkhu. (Taiwan: The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation, 2001), p.9. 8 Cp-a. 301 204 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

2. Vāritta Sĩla, Varitta Sila referring to avoid the evil ethic on the duties and responsibilities of individual in peaceful society. Vāritta Sĩla means avoiding immoral conduct or DE meritorious action that the lord Buddha prohibited9 abstaining from immoral conduct and observing the five moral precepts constantly can lead one who follows it toNibbāna . Whereas evil conduct can truly lead the one who commits it to Apāya-neither abode. Therefore, constant observance of the five precepts, etc. Hence, it is a type of social roles that is five precept involving the individual’s avoiding, and values for people who are able to know the occurrence or effect of evil ethic which is regarding individual social roles of human right in the world. Such as if someone can practice the individual social roles, someone can reject the problems of social conflict from human society it is vital important to practice in daily life. The practice of Buddhist moral precepts deeply affects one’s personal and social life. The fact that they represent a course of training which one willingly undertakes rather than a set of commandments willfully imposed by a God or Supreme Being is likely to have a positive bearing upon one’s conscience and awareness. On the personal level, the precepts help one to lead a moral life and to advance further on the spiritual path. Moreover, popular Buddhism believes that the practice of morality contributes to the accumulation of merit that both support one in the present life and ensure happiness and prosperity in the next. On the social level, observing the five precepts helps to promote peaceful coexistence, mutual trust, a cooperative spirit, and general peace and harmony in society. It also helps to maintain an atmosphere which is conducive to social progress and development, as we can see from the practical implication of each precept. By observing precepts, not only do you cultivate your moral strength, but you also perform the highest service to your fellow beings to live peace. Every country or society has its code of what is considered to be moral within its own social context.10 These codes are often linked to the society’s interest and its legal system. An action is considered right so long as it does not break the law and transgress public or individual sensitivities. These social roles are flexible and amended from time to time to suit changing circumstance. Important as they are to society, these standards cannot serve as a reliable guide to some absolute principles of morality which can be applied universally and for all time.

9 Cp-a. 301 10 A II 120. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 205

Meaning of Social Roles in the Vinaya and Sutta

The Vinaya Pitaka introduces new social roles, for example, Sāmaneras are expected to carry out specific duties for the monks and the laity is expected to act in a certain way towards monks and nuns. Different social roles are described in the Vinaya Pitaka, therefore, Alice Colette commented on the meaning of social roles in the Vinaya Pitaka as follows. In the nuns’ Vinaya, the Buddha articulated the roles of nuns in many ways to differentiate their position from the lay women’s position in the society. He made it clear that specific and identifiable female behaviors or occupations are not acceptable after the new status is acquired. By legally making nun hood out of a patchwork of already familiar social roles for women, the writers of Bhikkhuni Vinaya were able to beach up and more clearly articulate the nebulous social position that Buddhist nuns occupied.11 The selections translated and discussed below are a sampling of the Vinaya paths that perform this sort of quilting work. In these examples, we can find evidence of attempts to negotiate a social and public, as well as a “private” identity for Indian Buddhist nuns, created by the need for them to appear as women of virtues at all times while at once protecting and keeping their renounced position. In many places the Buddhist scriptures indicate the general way of Buddhists social thinking, and to that level they are indicative for our own times.12 From the evidence of the Buddha’s discourses in the Digha Nikāya, it is clear that early Buddhists were very much concerned with the creation of social roles and favorable to the individual cultivation of Buddhist values. In the case of a Buddhist householder in Sigālovada sutta, we can say that the given discourse is a different way to describe social roles. This present paper recognizes that human is a social being that has to follow social norms and carry out socially appreciated practices, which can be defined by Buddhist teachings such as the Sigālovada sutta.

Significance of Social Roles in Sigalovada Sutta

Respect is among the most important social ethics: if there is no respect in a relationship or a family environment, feelings of peace and confidence may not be available

11 Alice Collette, Women in Early Indian Buddhism: Comparative Textual Studies, (New York: Oxford, OUP USA, 2014), p. 86. 12 Peter Harvey, an Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, (UK: Cam- bridge University Press, May 25, 2533), p. 213. 206 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

to family members. Personal dignity of each individual must be respected both by junior and senior members. According to a book by William Dustin, complications of contest discrimination between humans, and problems caused by race perception became an important issue in the society. The non-discrimination is always concerned to be good ethic for a citizen.13 Each one with a social trust groomed extremely important post-tag is the most important thing, if you can build the same confidence divided into different nations, but the line can only walk the street holding hands. Therefore, people are unable to build different, but similar beliefs in common law that we believe will be able to build a common understanding of the same law to build sympathy and love between people who will be able to differentiate. So it will solve the problems of discriminate on. Among social discrimination a major problem is religious discrimination, human standard discrimination, nationality discrimination such as the world is divided into four of the first period, which cause many problems, so social matters are essential in social ethics. The significance of social roles is described in the following passage.

Social Roles of Parents and Children

The Buddha explained to Sigāla that honoring the six directions really means fulfilling one’s reciprocal responsibilities in six social relationships.14 The six types of human relationships are those between parents and children, husband and wife, teacher and pupil, friends, employer and employee, and religious teacher and his disciples. Through fulfilling one’s responsibilities, one can achieve harmony, security and prosperity both within the family and in the society as a whole. According to Buddhism, parents should take an interest in choosing a suitable spouse for the child and thus halt from emotional dependence too to a great level.15 It is the mother who cannot wean the child emotionally who becomes a problem mother-in-law to the child’s partner. As a child, one has duties towards one’s parents and may be grandparents, to shows the duties an individual has to make in all social roles, by dutifully attending to them. Parents also have certain duties, which are described in the text, towards one’s children.

13 William K. Dustin, Toward an Ethic of Citizenship; Creating a Culture of Democracy for 21st Century, (New York: 2543), p. Xii. 14 Gary Storhoff, John Whalen-Bridge, American Buddhism as a Way of Life, (New York: SUNY Press, Apr 5, 2553), p. 152. 15 Chanju Mun, Buddhism and Peace: Theory and Practice, (United of America: Blue Pine Books, 2006), p.234. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 207

According to the Sigālovāda sutta, which deals with the code of conduct for the laity, there are five duties to be performed by parents towards their children.16 Guiding children to become useful members of the society is the responsibility of their parents. When a child fulfills his responsibilities, parents will give him the following benefits. 1.They will restrain him from evil 2. They will support him in doing well 3. They will teach him some skill 4. They will find a suitable spouse for him in due time 5. They will hand over his inheritance in due time.17 The researcher has described the meaning and significance of social roles inSigālovāda sutta, significance of social roles in general, and types of social roles. This study has considered the meaning of social roles in Vinaya, the meaning of social roles in Buddhist dictionaries and encyclopedias, the meaning of social roles according to contemporary Buddhist scholars, social roles of parents and children, social roles of teacher and pupil, social roles of husband and wife, social roles of clansman and friends, social roles of employers and employees, and social roles of spiritual teachers and disciples. In this chapter, the researcher also examined different dictionaries and described the meaning and significance of social roles according to different points of views of the writers who did the research on the social roles from Sigālovāda sutta. For this research, the researcher used the books Buddhist Critical : Prajñā and Śūnyatā by Shōhei Ichimura, An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices by Peter Harvey, and the Mind and the Way: Buddhist Reflections on Life by Sumedho.

An Analysis on Social Roles of Citizen based on Sigālovāda Sutta

In Sigālovāda sutta, there are many guidelines for bhikkhu and bhikkhuni, both trainers and pupils. Therefore, we can say that Sigālovāda sutta describes social roles for the monastic community. Female practitioners who would like to become Bhikkhunis are required to accept the garudhammas, a set of rules that can be seen as their responsibilities toward monks (Zenith).

16 John Prickett, Marriage and the Family, (New York, James Clarke & Co., 1985), p. 62. 17 D III 38 (sutta),p. 304-05 208 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Social Roles for Families

There are social roles related to the six directions as described in Sigālovāda sutta. The social roles which the Buddha taught to the followers in accordance with the six directions are very practical guidelines for the laity in everyday life. Here, the researcher will describe social roles that should be practiced in families, as well roles of women as wives.

Buddhist Social Roles for Children

In Buddhist society, parents and children are very connecting. The parents grow their child in the case of health and support in the case of learning. The children on the other hand, must look after the parents back in the cases of what parents needed. For the social of children to the parents, Ven. Indaka describes Buddhist social roles according to Sigālovāda sutta can be seen as follows. In a family, relationships between the members are intimate, expressive and specific. A family, whether extended or nuclear, is closely connected with the kin-group. Duties in a family comprise the support extended and respect paid to the parents, the provisions made for the sustenance of the wife and children and the treatment extended to elders and kinsmen. One’s parents, wife and children belong directly to the family, and the kinsmen’s support is vital for the family to continue its functions successfully in society.

Social Roles of Mother as Parents

The Buddha taught how a woman should behave towards her husband in the following Pali verse: The women as wife has to be generous and hospitable to the husband’s friends and relatives. It had already been mentioned that she should treat the husband’s parents, relatives and friends as her own that is with loving kindness, respect and utmost care. The important function of looking after what the husband has earned is a vital responsibility of the wife who has to protect such wealth without squandering it. In carrying out such a function she should never be one of lazy disposition. She should conduct her affairs intelligently and skillfully. In this context the assumption is that the wife is educated and accomplished. The Pāli canon encapsulates the two most prominent roles for women, wife and mother. A short description of a possible future for the king’s newborn daughter culminates in motherhood as the way in which the baby girl will fulfil her destiny, particularly through her son’s achievements. For the most part, women’s roles as wife and mother coalesce or, rather, motherhood is not only the culmination of the wife’s role, but its main goal. Mothers JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 209

as such, however, are not as present in the four main Nikāya as wives are, although they are more prominent in other Pāli material, such as the Jatakas. Similarly, motherhood as an abstract role is not described very specifically unlike: again, the role of wife for which we can draw a clear picture from the Nikāyas.18

Social Roles for Teacher and Pupils

There are many social roles that have been discussed. The roles for individual who are teachers and pupils and sociology are very vital for oneself to be encouraged. In this study, it will be found the specific way to practice for the individual life and harmony society. For example, when one is learning the Dhamma of Buddha, we pay respect the individual to each other. It is very importance to practice the responsibility of harmony society. In the report that being autonomous as an individual Dhamma listener, the research committee on the activities of women has shown the role of women characterized as serving, subordinated and reserved, needs to be changed. It said that the duty of an individual is to learn the nature of others in order to have respect to each other.

Social Ethics of Harmony Society

The role of ethics is very vital in the case of rapid economic and technical development in the harmony society. The three kinds of Dānas are very important to our daily social roles. However, two – Abhayadāna (gift of fearlessness) and Dhammadāna (gift of Dhamma) – are essential nowadays because they provided the immeasurable benefits (pparinana) for society. Thus, giving, sharing and the attitude of generosity are conducive for spiritual growth. From the perspective of mind cultivation (Bhāvanā), generosity reduces the tendency to be selfish and increases the tendency to be selfless. With courage and sincerity, the practice of giving can be used as a gateway to self-understanding though honest observation of the inner mental processes and tendencies, the intentions and motivations involved, and the beliefs behind them. Conversely, stinginess can bring about – either in this life or in the next one – loss of possessions; it is also the reason of fear. Nevertheless, generosity can bring about pleasant results, such as prosperity. In Buddhist thought, the cultivation of giving (dāna) and ethical conduct will themselves refine consciousness to the higher levels.

18 Pascale Engelmajer, Women in Pāli Buddhism: Walking the Spiritual Paths in Mutual Dependence. (New York: London, Routledge, Oct 17, 2557), p.71. 210 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Siladihipayogaguddhiya (subcommenary of Silakkhanda Vagga) explains that in order to get rid of the harmful action leading to society, abhayadana is very important, “Panana na bhadanena panatipata veramani sattanam abhayam deti, evam sabba nisikkha padani katabbani” means in order for beings to live peaceful in a society, killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, telling lies and taking intoxicants should be stopped: this is called abhayadāna. In the social level, sĩla means that abhayadāna contributes to harmonious and peaceful coexistence among community members and consequently help to promote social growth and development. In a society, where morality prevails and members are conscious of their roles. There will be general security, mutual trust, and close cooperation, these in turn leading to greater progress and prosperity. Without morality, there will be corruption and disturbance. And all members of societies are adversely affected. Most of the problems that society experiences today are connected in directly or indirectly and with a lack of morality.

Ethics for Employer and Employees

Ethics are divided for human’s daily- life in order to associate to one another. On the other hand, Buddhist ethic called as morality (sīla). It could be the roles to the humankind. Ethics: abstain from harmful behaviour and abstain from stealing are practiced by employers and Employees. In the workplace, employers have to practice the first five-precepts and the employee must keep the second five precepts as the humankind. There are three fundamental modes of training in Buddhist practice; morality, mental culture and wisdom. The English word morality is used to translate the Pali term sila, although the Buddhist term contains its own particular connotations. The word sila denotes a state of normalcy, a condition which is basically unqualified and unadulterated. When one practices sila, one returns to one’s own basic goodness, the original state of normalcy, unperturbed and unmodified. Killing a human being, for instance, is not basically human nature; if it were, human beings would have ceased to exist a long time ago. A person commits an act of killing because he or she is blinded by greed, rage or hatred. Such negative qualities as anger, hatred, greed, ill will, and jealousy are factors that alter people’s nature and make them into something other than their true self. To practice sila is thus to train in preserving one’s true nature, not allowing it to be modified or overpowered by negative forces. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 211

Social Ethics for Husband and Wife

The relationship between partners especially, husband and wife are very strict. Sometime, could be translated as strict. In this deviation of social ethics for husband and wife, the Buddha has taught or compared the third precept which is not to indulge in sexual misconduct, includes rape to the couple in order to build good relationship as husband and wife. Joseph D. Bloom has mentioned the roles of Husband and Wife as the ethics as follow: Kamesumicchacara veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami; one observes the precept of abstaining from sexual misconduct.19 The third precept, not to indulge in sexual misconduct, includes rape, adultery, sexual promiscuity, paraphilia, and all forms of sexual aberration. This teaches one to respect one’s own spouse as well as those of others, and encourages the practice of self-restraint, which is of utmost importance in spiritual training. It is also interpreted by some scholars to mean the abstention from misuse of senses and includes, by extension, non-transgression on things that are dear to others, or abstention from intentionally hurting others feelings. For example, a young boy may practice this particular precept by refraining from intentionally damaging his sister’s dolls. If he does, he may be said to have committed a breach of morality. This precept is intended to instill in us a degree of self-restraint and a sense of social propriety, with particular emphasis in sexuality and sexual behavior. Kamesumiccara means sexual misconduct which is as problem is a cause for concern in modern times.20 It is a complex issue involving ramifications in emotional, social, and moral fields. The third moral precept advises against all forms of sexual misconduct, which include rape, adultery, promiscuity, paraphilia, and sexual perversions. Actually, the Buddhist commentary emphasizes adultery more than anything else, but if we take into account the purpose and intention of the precept, it is clear that precept to cover all improper behavior with regard to sex. The broadest interpretation even purports to mean abstention from the misuse of the senses. It could refer to any morally unwholesome action committed under the influence of sensual desire to the inability to control one’s sense. In any case there is no doubt that the third precept aims at promoting, among other things, proper sexual behavior and a sense of

19 Joseph D. Bloom, Carol C. Nadelson, Malkah T. Notman,Physician Sexual Misconduct, (American: Psychiatric Pub, 1999), p.3. 20 John Thoburn, Clergy Sexual Misconduct, (United State of America: 2555), p.8. 212 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

social decency in a human civilization where monogamy is commonly practiced and self- restraint is a cherished moral value. For one reason or another, many young people in love are not able to enter into married life as early as they wish. While marriage is still some distance in the future, or even an uncertain quantity, these people enter into relationships, of which sex forms a significant part. This happens not only among adults, who must legally answer to their own conduct, but also among teenagers who are still immature, emotionally unstable, and tend to act in irresponsible ways. Peer pressure and altered moral values are an important contributing factor to the escalation of the problem. The trend toward extramarital sex has become so common that it is now virtually taken for granted, are becoming increasingly popular, and marriage is relegated to a place of insignificance, jeopardizing in the process the sanctity of family life. In the context of this development, the third abhayadāna becomes all the more relevant and meaningful. Unlike killing, which certain circumstances seem to warrant, there is hardly any plausible excuse for sexual promiscuity, except human weaknesses and inability to restrain the sexual urge. However, there is a distinction between sexual promiscuity and sexual relationship based on mutual trust and commitment, even if the latter were a relationship between two single adults. Thus, one may begin to practice the third precept by resolving not to be involved in sexual activities without an earnest intention and serious commitment of both parties. This means that sex should not be consummated merely for the sake of sexuality, but should be performed with full understanding within the people involved and mutual responsibility for its consequences. A certain level of maturity and emotional stability is necessary to ensure a healthy and productive sexual relationship between two partners. With the realization that there is a better and nobler path to follow than promiscuity, one may see the wisdom of self-restraint and the benefit of establishing a more lasting and meaningful relationship which, rather than impeding one’s spiritual progress, may enhance it. Finally, if anything else fails to convince people of the danger and undesirability of sexual promiscuity, perhaps the phenomenal AIDS epidemic will. This may seem beside the point, since moral precept and moral integrity are matters that concern inner strength, strength, fortitude, and conscientious practice, not fear and trepidation based on extraneous factors. It is, nevertheless worthwhile to consider the JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 213

connection between promiscuous behavior and the “AIDS”21 epidemic and realize how strict observance of the third Buddhist moral precept could greatly reduce the risk of infection of spread of this deadly disease. Acceptance of this fact may also lead to an appreciation of the value of morality and moral precept as laid down by the Buddha, consequently strengthening conviction in the Dhamma practice.

Ethics for Clansman and Friends

The fourth precept: Falsehood and the fifth precept: of causes carelessness are to follow in the friendship in the society of human being. In the situation of friendship, these two-social ethics are very vital to all of clansman and friends in the case of working together in a one place or company. When one commits or destroys these precept, the good friendship- quality of him or her will be unbalanced. Dr. PhraRajyanvisith has describe ethic for the clansman and friends as follow: Musavada veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami; one observe the precept of abstaining from falsehood. The fourth abhayadāna, not to tell lies of resort to falsehood, is an important factor in social life and dealings. It concerns respect for truth. A respect for truth is a strong deterrent to inclinations or temptation to commit wrongful actions, while disregard for the same will only serve to encourage evil deeds. The Buddha has said; “There are few evil deeds that a liar is incapable of committing” the practice of the fourth precept, therefore, help to preserve one’s credibility, trustworthiness, and honor. The practice of the fourth aims at inculcating a respect for truth in the mind, implying both one’s own obligations as well as the rights of other people to truth. This is one of the most important components in developing sound social relationships and it makes all documents, contracts, agreements, deeds, and business dealings meaningful. When we resort to falsehood, we not only become dishonest but also show disrespect to the truth. People who tell lies discredit themselves and become untrustworthy. It is true that sometimes telling lies may prove more profitable than truth, especially from the material point of view. Because such gains are unwholesome and may cause harm in the long run, and because material profits are likely to lead to more falsehood and fabrication, it is imperative that the practice of the fourth precept be duly emphasized. Where a person’s

21 Peter Aggleton, Peter Davies, Graham Hart, AIDS; Individual Cultural and Policy Dimen- sions, Taylor& Francis, (New York: London, 1990), p.5. 214 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

reputation and feelings are concerned, discretion should be exercised. Of course, there are instances where silence is more appropriate than speech, and one may choose this as an alternative to prevarication and falsehood. In our actions, we can give both material things as well as service. In speech, we give through the use of kind words, encouraging, words, and positive and truthfulness. Suramerayamajjapamadatthanaveramanisikkhapadamsamadiyami; one observe the precept of abstaining from intoxicants that cloud the mind and cause carelessness. The last abhayadāna of Buddhist moral precepts enjoins against the use of intoxicants. On the personal level, abstention from intoxicants helps to maintain sobriety and a sense of responsibility. Socially, it helps to prevent accidents, such as car accidents, that can easily take place under the influence of these harmful substance. The negative effects they have on spiritual practice are too obvious to require explanation. The fifth precept covers all intoxicants, including narcotics that alter the state of consciousness and are physiologically addictive. The danger and negative effects of narcotics, such as cocaine and heroin, are too well known to need any further elaboration. Today they represent a serious health and social problem around the world. Drinking intoxicants is not part of the Buddhist culture, although it seems to have become a widespread phenomenon in modern society. It is true that alcoholic consumption was prevalent before and during the time of the Buddha, but he never approved of the practice. Friendship founded on compassion and mutual understanding is much more desirable than that which is based on alcohol. Social drinking may produce a general euphoric atmosphere among drinkers but it is never a necessary condition for interpersonal relationship. Often, people use this as an excuse to get drunk. The high rate of car accidents connected with drunk driving should serve as a strong reminder of the danger and undesirability of alcoholic consumption. On the other hand, it may be mentioned in passing that liquor does contain medicinal properties and can be used for medical purposes. Such use, if genuine and under qualified supervision, does not entail transgression of the fifth precept and is not considered a morally unwholesome act. The most obvious s danger of intoxicants is the fact that they tend to distort the sensibilities and deprive people of their self-control and powers of judgment. Under alcoholic influences, a person is likely to act rashly and without due consideration or forethought. Otherwise decent people may even commit murder or rape under the influence of alcohol, or cause all kinds of damage such as fire, accident, and vandalism to people of property. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 215

The Middle Path of Social Welfare According to original teaching of the Buddha, there have been many examples of Buddhist uprising and protest against war and political oppression as in Myanmar and Vietnam. On another level, modern-day socially engaged Buddhist is faced with important dilemmas about how far to engage with modern-day secular institution. The Buddha is presented as a socially engaged actor who, after gaining enlightenment, set forth into the city to spread his teaching and transform society, to this is the key concept of sangha who have been got peaceful more commonly reflects Buddhism’s emphasis community- based on social roles of citizen. Moreover, some of its social effects, most notably poverty, need to be mitigated. For the middle path, the state thus has an important role to play in tempering the market’s effects. The middle path also believes in promotion equality of opportunity in the sense that people should not face barriers, such as in the education system. So that everyone has the same opportunities even if both starting and finishing points remain unequal, the middle path is equivocal about the state’s role in the provision of welfare. There is anxiety that a strong state will expand to crowd out other sources of welfare, reduce efficiency, and put strains on the economy and lead to over. There are also fears that it could undermine personal social role and self-reliance.

Conclusion

The researcher has described the social roles as the way of training for Bhikkhu and Bhikkhuni according to Sigalovada sutta, social roles that are related to six directions based on Sanghalovada sutta, roles of an individual, and influence of religious roles that is related to Buddhist ethic on the society. The researcher uses material sources such as Buddhist scripture, particularly Sigalovada sutta, which describes various social roles, Pali canon, commentaries, sub-commentaries, Journals, published books, and non-published books. In this thesis, the researcher has described the meaning of social roles and their significance for the citizen. It was found that social roles are very important to practice in the daily life of human beings. According to the teachings of Buddhism, the researcher has analyzed the meaning and significance of social roles as a part of human lives and the Buddhist social roles based on Sigālovāda sutta. Firstly, the researcher identified the meaning of social roles to the citizen in general part. It includes practical ways of the applying social roles in the lives of citizen regarding 216 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

to the general statement such as social sciences dictionary. Moreover, the researcher has given the knowledge on knowing how the social roles statement. The responsibility element of social roles has been described. Secondly, according to the Anamatagga Samyutta in Nidana Vagga, social roles have been compared with ethical behavior, such as mutual trust, compassion, moral action, practiced under real understanding, and loving kindness. Social roles of teacher to pupils, social roles of pupils to teacher, social roles of husband to wives, social roles of wives to husbands, social roles of clansmen and friends have been mentioned according to Buddhist teaching. Finally, the researcher has found that in Sigālovāda sutta, the Buddha pointed out that the destruction of lives, in the early evolution of the world, made the biggest threat to the human’s harmonious coexistence. Therefore, the first concept of abhayadana doubtless can give peace to the society. The Buddha had addressed the tools of social roles in Sigalovada Suttta such as precept of abstaining from the destruction of life, precept of abstaining from taking that which is not given, and precept of abstaining from sexual misconduct, all the roles that mentioned above have been described in the chapter fourth. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 217

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Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) and Development of Lao Society

Ven. Ekalad Phuthavong, Asst. Prof. Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull, Phramaha Nantakorn Piyabhani, Dr. International Buddhist Studies College Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The research in this article, which is a qualitative paper in nature, has shown that the aims of social development in Lao Theravada Buddhism are twofold. The primary aim is the improvement of life in the society, protection of human rights, and the preservation of the natural environment. The secondary aim is the personal development of individuals. It has also shown that Buddhism for Development Project is concerned with longer term and sustainable social development in Laos, particularly in the six fi elds of (1) Vipassanā meditation, (2) Dhamma Sanjorn, (3) Community Development, (4) Media and Communications, (5) Training and Curriculum, and (6) Metta-Dhamma. All of the departments in the BDP have functions related to social development in Lao society. The Lao Buddhist Saṅgha performs many roles as it uses Buddhist doctrine for further social development and improvement of the lives of many people in Lao society. Furthermore, according to this study, the members of the Saṅgha also take part in a range of Buddhist ceremonies, lead people of the community in the development of organic agriculture, support and protect the environment, and play various roles in HIV and tuberculosis prevention and treatment activities.

Keywords: Buddhism, Social Development, Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) 220 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Buddhism has been influencing the Lao society for many centuries to the present day. Buddhism is the most popular religion of . Buddhism is a vital feature of daily life and casts a strong influence on Lao society. Lao women can be seen each morning giving alms to Buddhist monks and novices. Lao men are expected to become monks at least for a short time once in their lives.1 The Lao Saṅgha has a unique role in social development. All present senior members of the Saṅgha played an active role in mobilizing people to join the successful 1975 revolution.2 The Saṅgha was not eradicated by the communist regime, although a large number of monks and nuns disrobed or left the country. Those of the Sangha who remained slowly regained the respect of the communities and played active roles in society such as teaching in schools. The recent revival of meditation practice also means that the real spirit of Buddhism is coming back, with the healing power that comes from maintaining mental strength. The proposed programme is designed to utilize local culture and wisdom, to be pro-Buddhist in the sense of using traditional Buddhist values, while remaining inclusive of all religious and ethnic groups. The Lao style of socialism is threatened by the three big neighbor countries of Laos: Thailand, China and Vietnam. There capitalism became predominant and the spread of rampant consumerism has created many social problems.3 Laos, too, is discovering that subsistent peasant communities are being up-rooted, albeit slower than in neighboring countries. Young people, in particular in the big cities, are unhappy and discontented from the traditional way of life. They are eagerly responding to the pulls of modernization and consumerism, which is only now becoming evident in Laotian society. Many of them turn to drugs.4 The Saṅgha leaders feel that Lao society is facing these new challenges and they themselves can play meaningful roles if members are well trained in understanding their own spiritual and cultural roots. They must also understand the complications of globalization as well as social, cultural and environmental issues related to it. They also see the benefit and sustainability of

1 Mr. Soukaseum Bodhisane, National Tourism Authority of Lao P.D.R, Visit Laos Years 2000, (, Lao, 2000), p.2. 2 Bounleuth Sengsoulin, the Lao Shagha of and Their Social Roles in the Post-1975 Period, (Creamery, Berliner, 2004), p.3. 3 Ronald D. Renard, Mainstreaming Alternative Development in Thailand, Lao PDR and Myanmar is a Report Prepared, (United Nations, 2007), p.7. 4 John Holt, Laos and Its Religious Culture, (University of Hawaii, Press: 2009), p.4. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 221

the participatory approach to community development where people are empowered to make their own decisions in the process of improving their own situations. Once the monks and nuns, who are natural cultural leaders in Theravada Buddhist communities, are equipped with these knowledge and skills, they can facilitate community development in an egalitarian way consistent with the spirit of Buddhism and Lao modern socialism. For this to be practical, lay people must also be deeply involved, and so this proposed project targets young people to work in partnership with monks and nuns.5 The Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) was registered in 2003 with the permission from the Lao Front for National Construction on March 23rd. A non-profit organization to undertake the mission for Lao Saṅgha, it was skilled in promoting Dhamma and had a role in community development. The Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) is an important organization.6 BDP was built during the time of change in Lao society with economic development and social problems. Thus there was a gathering of Lao Saṅgha, Buddhists followers and other individuals who wanted to help in reducing and resolving social problems. Using the doctrine of Buddhism, monks were determined to be the leaders of social development. These leaders taught Buddhist morality to people, including children and youth in the schools to know, understand and prevent problems, thus reducing the issues in Lao society. The BDP caused the Lao Saṅgha to have more roles in social development, such as using Buddhist doctrine to apply in life, conservation of the environment, and doing organic agriculture. Thus the researcher completed a thesis in order for the beneficial activities of the Lao people to be known around the world. Next I will provide some points of the conducted research.

The Theravada Buddhism and Social Development

The social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in the society so people can reach their full potential. The success of the society is linked to the wellbeing of each and every citizen; social development means investing in people. It requires the removal of barriers, so that all citizens can journey toward their dreams with confidence and dignity; it is about refusing to accept that people who live in poverty will

5 Homhun Buorapha, Laos Buddhism under the Ideal of Socialism 1975-1985), (English Ver- sion), (Vientiane Press: 2055), p.6. 6 Ven. Sali Kantasilo, Buddhism for Development Project (BDP), (Vientiane, Laos, 2013), p.4. 222 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

always be poor. It is about helping people so they can move forward on their path to self- sufficiency. Buddhism preaches the middle way of development; it offers teachings which enable man to develop both body and mind. Ideal people are those who achieve four kinds of development, i.e. physical, social, mental and intellectual development. Social development (Sila-Bhāvanā) is the development of good and friendly relationships with other people in order that a desirable society with a good social environment is established in the world. It is to be realized by observing precepts (Sila) and following the Buddha’s teaching on social justice. There are at least two main issues in Buddhist social development: human rights and women’s rights. Buddhism does not approve the caste system, regarded as violation of human rights, ideology. The Buddha disagreed with the by announcing that “To be good or evil depends on one’s own Kamma (actions), not on one’s birth”. The Buddha established equality among different castes within the Saṅgha, where the monks are respected according to their seniority, not concerning their castes. Women have been oppressed in the long history of Indian patriarchy. Women have been excluded by Hindu religion so their spiritual liberation was considered to depend on how good they have served their husbands. The Buddha disagreed with the ill treatment of women and this has raised the status of women in two ways: (1) By announcing that women are equal to men in attiring Nibbāna; and (2) By establishing the Bhikkhunī Saṅgha, the first nun institution in the history of world’s religions.

The BDP and Social Work in Lao Society

The Buddhism for Development Project (BDP) was registered in 2003 with permission from the Lao Front for National Construction on March 23rd. It was registered as a non-profit organization to undertake the mission to develop Lao society.7 Lao Saṅgha is skilled in promoting Dhamma and has a role in community development and fulfilling its objectives. These objectives include producing Vipassanā masters and Vipassanā Meditation centers for training the Buddhist followers, teaching Dhamma to children at schools and young people at Somsanga Centers and Ophthalmology centers, building sustainably developed communes, creating supporting materials for teaching ethics and applying them to social development, enhancing and strengthening resource persons and BDP members, ensuring that they receive

7 Phra Pinthong isakhun, Nanthaphon, Vongphet,(tr)., Disseminations the Code of Ethics Outside the place of Buddhism for Development Project: A case study of Sinxay Primary Junior Secondary school, Chanthabouly District, Vientiane Capital. (Vientiane, Laos, 2013), p.18. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 223

domestic and international funds to adequately support BDP’s activities, and producing volunteers for social development activities.8 The BDP has six departments to work on social development. They are (1) Vipassanā meditation department, which provides training in both principle and practice for monks, nuns, and interested lay people. (2) The Dharma Sanjorn or Mobile Dharma department: Teaching dharma to children at schools, communities, and two centers: Somsanga Center (Treatment and Vocational training for drug addict’s center) and Ophthalmology center (Thong Pong) to become happy and useful members of the society, to encourage them to live confidently in the community. (3) Community development: Motivating the villagers to produce sustainable agriculture of organic products and handicraft, while protecting the community environment and culture. (4) Media and Communication: Broadcasting two radio programs on FM 103.7 on Saturday 10-11 pm and Sunday 6-6:30 pm, publishing Dhamma books, newsletters (3 issues per year), and maintaining www.laobdp. org website. These are the means of communication to disseminate BDP social work: (5) Training and Curriculum: Training BDP members to become leaders in supporting BDP’s activities in the community, developing the training curriculum to be more accurate. (6) Metta Dhamma (Networking Project): Training monks, nuns, volunteers and community leaders to disseminate understanding on HIV/AIDS and put an end to discrimination of HIV/AIDS victims, especially CEDC children. The BDP is well-known, popular and well-accepted in Lao society, especially the radio program and the magazine of BDP. The Lao government is looking to give more importance to BDP, meaning cooperation and support from the government in the future.

The Role of BDP on Social Development

The tasks of the Lao Buddhist Saṅgha can be further divided into two main categories. Obligatory tasks are laid down in the Vinaya and more secular tasks for monks in community are also given. The former are based on the tradition, whereas the latter broadly depend on changing and complicated demands of the Buddhist community. Buddhism for development project (BDP) states that the roles of Lao Saṅgha in social development may be presented in the following issues. The doctrine of Buddhism can resolve social problems and can be used to improve the daily life. Lao Buddhism has made positive contributions to Lao society.

8 Phra Pinthong isakhun, Nanthaphon, Vongphet,(tr)., Disseminations the Code of Ethics Outside the place of Buddhism for Development Project: A case study of Sinxay Primary Junior Secondary school, Chanthabouly District, Vientiane Capital. (Vientiane, Laos, 2013), p.18. 224 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Buddhist monks have also lent sanctity and dignity to the state and have nourished a real respect for it in people’s minds. It is true that they have expected nothing in the way of services from the state. Further, the Buddhist monks have played and, in fact, still play an important role in education of the young and for the comfort of old. Many schools are situated in temple grounds and Buddhist monks teach children in schools.9 Lao Saṅgha plays an important role in national development. From the time that Buddhism was brought to Laos, monks have always been both spiritual leaders and national development leaders. Saṅgha education has an important role to play in producing quality monks who will be able to educate their followers both in the Buddhist teaching and in secular knowledge.10 The Metta-Dhamma Project was initiated, and the younger generation of monks has been trained to perform social work. In the society, even though monks are not modern medical doctors, they are spiritual doctors who are there for the sick, especially those with HIV/AIDS. The role of Dhamma Sanjorn, which was built on the success of its moral teaching program at schools throughout Vientiane Municipality, is especially important in social development.11 Now the Dhamma Sanjorn project has extended its work beyond education. The Dhamma Sanjorn monks have played an important role in environmental preservation and climate change. They organized activities such as tree planting for schools and hosting tree and water ordination ceremonies for communities. (1) Building relationship among temples, schools, communities and families through fair school activities; (2) conserving natural resources through tree and water ordination ceremonies and green campaigns at schools; (3) working with marginalized people like blinds and former drug users; (4) bringing drug and alcohol prevention in two schools of Vientiane Municipality; (5) providing capacity building training for monk volunteers in terms of education and agriculture; (6) supporting young people to improve their personal and social skills and to play a role in social work. Thus, the monks have guided them to refrain from the six kinds of destruction or path of ruin.12 In a dictation,

9 Members of the Standing Central Committee of the Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization, The Celebration Ceremony of the Honorary PH.D. Degree for Most Ven. Phramaha Vichit Singharaj, on May 9, 2542 B.E., (Vientiane: State Printing, 2542), p.40. 10 Ven. Khamsao Civilize, a Study of the Present Laotian Buddhist Sangha Status and roles in Educational Administration, (Mahachulalongkonrajavidyalaya University, Bangkok, Thailand, 2004), p.107-108. 11 Spirit in Education Movement (SEM, Thailand), Lao Grass-root Leaders Training and Action, Annual Report 2011, (Vientiane, Laos), p.9. 12 Khampeuy Vannasopha, com., Policies and Tasks, (Vientiane: the Educational Printing Enter- prise, 2003), p.37-39. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 225

Buddhist monks and novices have paid attention to renovate and maintain monasteries and Buddhist holy places. They also took part in giving free treatment with traditional medicine, planting fruit trees, medicinal herbs, and trees for environmental protection.13 Thus the present Lao Saṅgha plays an important in social development. The Lao Saṅgha is taking part in different kinds of social work, developing virtue, knowledge, economy, environment, etc.

The Role of BDP in Lao Politics

Buddhist monks and novices study politics to consolidate their political background and make it conform to progressive revolutionary politics. This will enable them to more easily integrate themselves into the revolutionary ranks alongside revolutionary cadres. In certain counties, Buddhist monks and novices may not become involved in or study politics. Many hold such prohibition to be a deprivation of right of Buddhist monks. They are regarded as potential cadres of the Buddhist who are fighting injustice in the world. Buddhist monks assigned to teach people in rural areas must understand the people who attend their sermons. They must select an appropriate sermon to give the people in order to change their line of thinking. If they use only Buddhist politics coupled with example from ancient times, it may be difficult for the people to understand them, and the people may be unable to relate the example to present reality. Therefore, they should mix the themes of current politics and Buddhist politics in giving sermons and use current examples. Thus, the policies of party and government is to request Buddhist monks to give sermons to teach the people and encourage them to understand that all politics and lines of the party and government are in line with Buddhist politics, so that the people willing to follow them; even after the establishment of the new political, social, and economic system from 1975 C.E. to the present day, Buddhism still has a deep and significant influence upon the character, mind, and way of life of Lao people and society. Buddhism has made the civilization of Laos, and is a religion of peace and compassion, giving the Lao a gentle and harmonious way of life. Buddhism is the foundation of Lao culture and civilization, the creative force behind literature, sculpture, arts and architecture, fine arts, song, music, and education.

13 Ven. Phramaha Bounthavee Vilaichak, “The Role of the Sangha in Lao Society”, Metta-Dhamma Project Review, (Vientiane, Laos), p.5-6. 226 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Influence of BDP on Monks in Lao Temples

In Buddhism, the temple is more than a center to conduct religious ceremonies; it is also a social center, especially in the rural communities. The temple is a center of mental culture, a center of tradition, culture, and lifestyle; the temple plays a role in education and social development, so it is an essential and irreplaceable part of Lao society. The Buddhist monks and temples play a central role in mental development and present a good example of living according to Buddhist principles. The temples are an important area in Buddhism, a place for Saṅgha living and a place of education in Buddhism; in Laos, every village has a (temple), which has been an information center for the ritual and social life of the village. The temple was a site not only for religious rituals and festivals but also for all community meetings concerning all important secular affairs of the village. The temple plays an important role in Lao society indeed. The Lao Saṅgha performs several functions in the social life of the country and now is praised by people and the government. Teaching Dhamma to people, supporting social development, and promoting education can be seen as the main roles of Lao Saṅgha.14 The Lao Saṅgha is responsible to teach people about the wholesome ways of life, (1) training every person in family to properly perform their functions; (2) teaching and training the people to avoid the paths which lead to destruction, addiction, and causes AIDS; (3) teaching to accumulate goodness, (4) mediating between the people and the government, and (5) conduct religious and cultural ceremonies.

The Role of BDP in Lao People’s Revolutionary Party

Buddhism has played a very important role to develop the people’s daily ethical life and train Lao people to hold the Buddhist principles of strengthening solidarity, loving the nation, giving mutual assistance based on loving kindness, and improving the spiritual living conditions of multi-ethnic community. The Lao People’s Revolutionary Party revived the country together with the Buddhism. For Buddhism, Buddhist education, propagation, construction and welfare were developed again in the areas of Lao Saṅgha administration.15 Especially, the Lao People’s Revolutionary Party supported the Lao Buddhist Fellowship

14 Reports of Completion in Lao Sangha College, Buddhism with Development Lao Societies in the present, (Vientiane, Lao, 2013), p.12. 15 Ibid, p.4. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 227

Organization, the central component of the Saṅgha administrative organization, because it is an important Buddhist organization.16 The Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization has the right and the duty to reconstruct and protect Buddhism, which is supported by the party. The Lao Buddhist organization has provided the Lao people with moral values, which integrate the people culturally and socially. The various religions existing in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic including Buddhism have been established with the consent of believers without any coercion or bribing from any political institution or individuals from outside or inside the country. The goals and activities of either small or big religions in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic are based on and aimed at serving the development of the country. In educating the population of various strata to follow the progressive teachings of their religion such as avoiding bad, doing good, and cultivating a pure heart. Buddhism has being teaching human beings in the spirit of solidarity, mutual equality, justice, and peace, so the government also supports the Lao Buddhist Saṅgha to help people in the future.17 The Lao People’s Democratic Republic is a democratic country and Lao people have the freedom and the right to follow any religion. There have never been any religious conflicts in Laos, because all religions are based on and aimed at serving and developing the country. In addition their aim in Laos is to educate the population of various strata to follow the progressive teachings of their religion. Buddhism has made a tremendous impact on the culture, tradition and civilization of vast areas of Laos.18 Buddhism not only gave the Lao people a gentle and harmonious way of life, but also encouraged their creativity in various forms such as culture, painting, sculpture, music, and architecture. Buddhism taught Lao people to live in peace with each other, not to interfere with others, to honor rulers, parents and the elderly, and to care for culture and the good traditions of Lao.19

16 Ibid, p.6. 17 Prime Minister’s Office, Decree and Management and Protection of Religious Activities in the Lao P.D.R., (Vientiane: Prime Minister’s Office, 2002), p.1-2. 18 Meg Regina Rakow, Laos and Laotians, (University of Hawaii, USA, 1992), p.32. 19 Mr.Khamsing Khammanivong, Laos Cultural Profile, (Diversicare, 2012), p.37. 228 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the Lao Saṅgha has maintained international relationships from 1975 C.E. to the present day. It has acted in accordance with the foreign policy of the government. The foreign policy of peace, independence, friendship and cooperation with various religions has facilitated Buddhist countries to work on Buddhist activities. These activities concern Buddhist education, the world Buddhist propagation conference, Buddhist world peace, social welfare, the promotion of Buddhism, and preservation of Buddhist tradition, culture and customs. Buddhism has made tremendous impact on the daily life, the way of life and the worldview of Lao people. Buddhism is the religion of peace, loving-kindness, compassion, and has enriched the lives of Lao people. Buddhism has taught them a gentle and harmonious way of life, but also encouraged their creativity. Buddhism has taught Lao people to live properly and peacefully, not interfering with each other. The development of education is especially important and will allow the new generation of Lao people to build a society that has happiness, peace, good traditions, and culture from Buddhism, teaching them to be a good human being. Buddhism can have a positive impact on any social or educational institution in Lao to promote a happy society. The Lao Buddhist Saṅgha has played an important role in education of the young and the comfort of the elderly; many schools are situated in temple grounds, and Buddhist monks teaching children in schools. At the same time, the temple is still an information center, a center of ritual and social life of the village. The temple is the site not only of all religious rituals and festivals but also of all community meetings concerning important secular affairs of the villages. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 229

References

Pali Text Society. (2000). Pāli Text Society Translation Series of Tipiṭaka from Various Translators, Oxford: PTS. T. W. Rhys David, Ph.D and William Steed, Ph. D, (2011). The Pali Text Society’s Pali-English Dictionary, (United Kingdom, Oxford) Sanu Mahatthanadu. Ph.D. (2016). Teaching Document Selected Works in Buddhist Scriptures, (Bangkok, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University). Keophanya, Somphou, (2006). Buddhism and the Laos Social Development, Bangjok:Lao Embassy. Phra Pinthong isakhun, Nanthaphon, Vongphet. (2013) (tr)., Disseminations the Code of Ethics outside the place of Buddhism for Development Project: A case study of Sinxay primary-Junior Secondary School, Chanthabouly District, Vientiane Capital. (Lao Version, Vientiane, Lao). Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization. (2006). Statistical Record of Lao Sangha Education in 2005 to 2006 CE. Vientiane: Commision for Educational Affairs of LBFO. Ongtu Sangha College, (2003). A History of Ongtu Sangha College. (Lao Version), Vientiane: Sangha College. Sila Viravong, His Royal Highness Prince Maha Uparaj Pedsaraj, Vientiane Manthatulad Printing, 2003. Thebbualy, Venerable Phramaha Khamtane.(1975). The Report of the Historical Background of Lao Buddhism to the Conference of Provincial Chiefs, Vientiane LBFL. Most Venerable Phramaha Vichit Singhraj. (2004). The President of Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization. Santhavong, Khamvia Phammachan. (2010). (tr)., Buddhism and Social Development in Lao PDR: a case study of Buddhism for Development Project. (Lao Version)Vientiane, Laos. Mr. Soukaseum Bodhisane. (2000). National Tourism Authority of Lao P.D.R Visit Laos’s years 2000, Vientiane, Laos. Vachirapanno, Venerable Phramaha Daosayam. (2002). : by. Chaiang mai. (Thai Version). 230 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Suned Phothisan and Nousai Phommachan.(2000). A history of Laos.Vientiane, Laos. Santhavong,Khamvia phammachan.(2010). (tr)., Buddhism and Social Development in Lao PDR: a case study of Buddhism for Development Project, (Lao Version), Vientiane, Laos. Dr. Dhammanond Kitivesakhun. (2015). Reports of Buddhism for Development Project, Vientiane, Laos. Khamvia Phummachak. (2009). Buddhism and social development in Lao PDR: a case study of Buddhism for development project, Faculty of Social Sciences. Ven. Khamyad Rasdavong. (2004). A historical study of Buddhism in the Lao People’s democratic republic from 1975 t0 2004 (C.E.), Bangkok, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Bounleuth Sengsoulin. (2004). The Lao Shagha of Luang Prabang and their Social Roles in the Post-1975 Period, Creamery, Berliner. The University of Hawaii. (2009). Laos and Its Religious Culture, University of Hawaii. Venerable Sali Kantasilo. (2013). Buddhism for Development Project (BDP), (Interview Lao Version) Vientiane Laos. Ven. Khamsao Civilize. (2008). A Study of the Present Laotian Buddhist Sangha’s Status and Roles in Educational Administration, Bangkok, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Homhun Buorapha. (2004). Laos Buddhism under the Ideal of Socialism 1975-1985), (English Version), Creamery, Berliner. Pra Oudomsak Punyavaro (Keophanthavong).(2014). The study of Lao People’s Living according to . (Thai Version), Bangkok, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University.

Mind Wave: How the Mind Builds Life

Dr. Samart Sukhuprakarn Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Einstein’s general theory of relativity, theoretically and experimentally, stated that emptiness is really a substance. This substance is called fabric of space and supports all material and energy in the universe. As we know the universe started from the Big Bang and many waves occurred in the fabric space. Then the waves changed to energy, energy changed to mass. The mind behaves similar to a wave frequency, meaning that the occurring and the disappearing of the mind would be as fast as 4 trillion times per second. This could mean that the mind is able to communicate with the mass of space, which is like the waves. We know the mind keeps all of karma for the data base for the next life. The mind may not keep all this karma in itself. The mind may keep it somewhere in the fabric of space. The fabric of space could be like storage, collecting karmic information, which the mind could build relationships with. When there is a new life in this world, each one would then take responsibility for what they have ever done.

Keywords: Mind Wave, Gravitational Wave, Time and Space, Karma 232 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

In accordance with the space-time theory of Einstein, space itself is something. Any phenomenon in the cosmos would be a result of space. This was a very challenging idea to the theory of Newton (classical mechanics). Besides that, Einstein revealed that the speed of light was constant in every place of the universe, but the space-time, the mass, and the distance could be changed in both size and quantity. Einstein said that in a total solar eclipse, the solar prominence and the solar corona would be shown despite the evidence that it should be totally dark. As per Einstein, this solar phenomenon is from the fact that the light is bending, making the travelling of the light bend space around the objects before it would reach an observation area. Einstein compares space to a large piece of canvas; many stars are rolling on such a canvas and the light also travels upon this canvas; when the light moves and touches objects like stars, the light would also bend around the objects. This space canvas has never stopped vibrating since the occurrence of the Big Bang 14,000 million years ago. Although the space-time theory affirms that the mass of space exists, Einstein was never able to experimentally prove the existence of the space substance, he could only provide noticeable natural phenomenon. It wasn’t until the concrete discovery of the gravitational wave by the scientists in LIGO (The Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory) project that this wave’s existence in the space was accepted, as well as the confirmation of the mass of space which moves and incurs such a gravitational wave. According to string theory, in each universe, there is a space fabric which is 200,000 times smaller than electrons. The Big Bang creating the universe caused the space to be pressed until it became inflated like sponge in boiling water. Upon that explosion, the space fabric crossed each other chaotically creating knots. After that, when the high-temperature of space fabric cooled to zero-degree Kelvin (-273.15 degree centigrade) those knots became quarks and developed in to larger particles, including neutrons, electrons, and protons. In consequence, these particles would turn into the substance in the universe. Given that there is the mass of space and such masses are expanding infinitely, the existing mass of the space would be ready for any incoming data. The researcher thinks this characteristic deems further study. Space may be storing some data including Karma or results of people’s actions.

The Buddha teaches: JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 233

“… I am the owner of my (Karma), heir to my (Karma), born of my (Karma), related to my (Karma), abide supported by my (Karma), whatever I shall do, for good or for ill, of that I will be the heir.1”

In both cases, we could not escape from our Karma or space. In other words, no creature can hide from the Karma database wherever or in whichever universes they were born.

The Buddha taught:

… This spirit travelling so far (absorbing that far emotions), travelling individually (once at a time, one spirit is gone; the same spirit would then be born, not at the same time), no appearance (no physical; no color), living in a cave (living in the four primary elements based on the heart shaped substance) ...2

This teaching supports the papers proposition in two ways. Firstly, The mind shall be soulless, non-self, with no physical appearance. The mind then can be considered as anatta. If the karma database is with the mind, the mind would then be large enough to store huge files since Karma data must be gigantic. In reference with this part of consideration, it is impossible for a mind to record the data itself. Second reason: The mind consumes no space or is non-physical matter staying beyond any control of the time-space. People could usually notice the spirit when it appears through a body because the mind needs a residence like the body. For this part of consideration, the writer thinks that the non-self status of the spirit does not consume any area in the space. The mind then cannot record any Karma data; its duty is only being part of the body forming in relating to each source of Karma database at a time. According to the above mentioned grounds, the writer is then interested to study where and how the mind records Karma data. If the mind is non-self, it shall not be able to store Karma data. It is necessary for the mind to have storage and the mind shall have processes that connect to this storage which could be anywhere in the universe. The writer also believes that it is very difficult to explain this idea, especially due to the fact that many centuries ago, there wasn’t high-technology equipment that could test these ideas. During this current era, science has verified many of the theories this paper bases its propositions on.

1 M. I 581. 2 Kh II 234. 234 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The gravitational wave officially discovered on February 17, 2016 supports the theory that space does contain mass. The space covering the whole universe could promote a belief in the Big Bang theory which focuses on the inflation of the mass of space. All of the above explanations have pointed to a possible relationship between the mass of space, non-self-status of the spirit, and the re-birth of creatures. A body forming is factored by the first sub consciousness and based on the beings’ Karma database. It is vital for the spirit to have its database sources since it cannot carry the data as per its non-self- status. Relating to the mind not being able to handle gigantic data, the relationship of the mind of the mass of space should then be material. But how both of them communicate and are linked would need to be later studied.

Universe Originated From a Unit of Space

The Big Bang theory mentions the existence of the mass of space which accumulated enormous energy at one tiny point and then exploded and inflated within less than 1x10-43 seconds or within less than a trillion-trillionth of a second. After the Big Bang, the expansion of a gigantic amount of waves and energy had continued, but humans could not have hear the sound of such an explosion because it was at a very low frequency. When the wave and heat energy bumped against the surrounding space having low temperature of 0ºK, the wave and energy transformed to mass. During the beginning stage of such an explosion, the universe was full of 4 types of waves.

The inflation of the mass of space is similar to an air bubble. When such mass of the space is exposed to cold temperature crystallization would be shaped around the air bubble.3

3 http://designtaxi.com/news/381485/Watch-A-Soap-Bubble-Freezing- Almost-Instantly-On-A- Cold-Winter-Day/ JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 235

Such waves would be transformed to particles after they attacked the cold temperature. In this research, the writer mainly discusses the processes related to the four waves only such as the electromagnetic radiation developed to be photon or the light particle, the weak nuclear force changed to electrons, the strong nuclear force built to be protons, and the gravitational wave developed to be the gravity particle. The reason why the gravitational wave is stated above for its development is because scientists previously were not sure how to discover the gravitational wave; the only thing scientists had for reference is Newton’s theory of gravitation. Einstein’s idea of the gravitational wave was only a theory that could not be verified by the instruments of his time. The recent discovery of the gravitational wave has verified this theory. The origin of Multiverses in this huge unit of space is the inflation of a lot of air bubbles that originated a new universe, as per the Big Bang theory. Each air bubble might be compared with our universe as per the picture below.

The space is like boiling foams connecting to each other with a Black Hole.4

4 http://u2.lege.net/cetinbal/Kipthorne.htm 236 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Air bubbles could be continuously inflated depending on the amount of pressure. A number of universes consequently would be initiated and become Multiverses.

Parallel Universe

Within our universe, the parallel universe could exist due to the little-known particle called antimatter, which is a particle having opposite charges but comprising of the same atomic structure. Few samples of the antimatter include hydrogen, containing the same mineral mass but opposite charges called anti-hydrogen, and carbon consisting of anti-carbon. In reference to this condition, some scientists provide an opinion that there is really a parallel universe. What is seen is merely half of reality similar to a mountain being partly shown above the ice. Moreover, our universe would be expected to have some unrevealed substance and some disclosed energy which we cannot directly see or which does not react with the electromagnetic force. The light providing us the visibility for seeing things is considered the electromagnetic force. The seeing ability of any substance including darken substance is the effect of light refraction when passing the substance. This is similar to the gravitational wave which scientists have just officially found in February 2016; and this was more than a hundred years after Einstein had introduced his theory to the world. Nevertheless, many scientists have verified and agreed that the space contains some mass or some substance.

Wave – Energy – Substance

Formerly, scientists had treated and studied energy and substance separately; heat energy and other kinds of energy did not relate to any other substance. However, when Einstein had distributed his study that substance and energy were identical in accordance with his model E = Mc2, scientists then could completely explain the formation of the universe. Additionally, the explanation could cover a question why a newly born universe having only wave and energy was able to generate substance. Einstein did fulfill this knowledge that the energy, which was the fruits of such explosion, attacked the cold surrounding atmosphere for some time and then the energy had been transformed to be a substance as per the following steps stated in the theory: Energy - > Particle - > Atom - > Molecule - > Element - > Substance. However, what is still a mystery is the process by which a wave is converted to energy as the universe initially contained only the wave. Later, Max Planck revealed that energy actually stayed together since an atom internally vibrated and a substance would then release a chunk of energy. This led to the JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 237

introduction of quantum physics which elaborated a phenomenon of smaller-than-atom particles. His model E = nhf was consequently written. Quantum theory is different from Newtonian mechanics for several reasons. Quantum physics is adopted for explaining phenomenon of tiny particles and energy while Newtonian mechanics cannot explain such particles and energy; the Newtonian mechanics usually correlates with a direction of an object when the quantum physics does not relate to the direction as it highlights only appearance. This technology allows us to be able to determine qualifications of objects by using an impulse making the objects discharge energy. This energy is generally known as a spectrum which could be used to measure the length of a wave related to an object. In astronomy, this technology is utilized for determining types of minerals available in each star.

The above picture shows that in each object, there are many different minerals which are in a spectrum.5

From the above elaboration, the discovery of wave-particle theory happened. Particle and energy could interchange with each other. The light from the sun travels to the earth through as electromagnetic wave stage; when the light reaches the earth impacting an object, the electron of the object would then be released from the object. We can explain why a color of an object would be pale after it has been exposed to the sun for some long time. It is difficult to determine when the particle would be changed to a wave or a particle. However, it would be quite amazing if the mind could influence the wave particle. During the Double Slit Experiment, a particle is reinforced passing through the two slits; normally,

5 https://thornburghchemistry.wikispaces.com/file/view/FG04_003_PCT.gif/ 130362033 / FG04_003_PCT.gif, April 20, 2016. 238 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

after the reinforcement through the slit, the particle would turn into wave immediately. However, if we observe the process, the particle does not transform into a wave; it would still maintain its particle status and then pass one of the two slits like a marble. So, one could say that the wave, the energy, and the substance correspond to each other. The mind may interfere with this natural process. We could state that the wave is the cause of the substance, called wave-matter. If the object will be controlled by the mind, the mind behavior may behave similar to the wave.

The Mind Behaves Similar to Waves

The mind normally follows this process: arising stage - existing stage - disappearing stage. This process continues forever. However, the behavior of the mind wave could not be proven using empirical testing. Though this idea has not been verified by science, many scientists do not deny its validity. According to the commentary, Atthakatha, during the period it takes to snap a finger, the mind appears and disappears for 1012 times, which equals 4 x1012 (4 THz), or that there are 4 million mental moments within one second. This could be compared with the analogue electromagnetic signal and digital electromagnetic signal as in the following picture.

Three stages of mind versus electromagnetic waves.

The Double Slit experiment has led to a possible summary that the consciousness mind could communicate with an object at the particle level, given that the particle is one component of such an object. Some scientists mentions that an object is wave-matter; the mind could influence an object due to the wave characteristics of the mind. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 239

The Mind Uses Space as Karma Database

It is widely accepted in Buddhism that beings are born and die, and this process is repeated for innumerable times. Each birth would be based on previous Karma. From the concept that a mind is non-self, a body of the mind could not physically exist because its Karma data (from previous uncountable births) is enormous and impossible to be physically stored. The writer thinks that the mind can only communicate with the Karma storage since each creature has its own Karma. This means each mind would have different characteristics due to different Karma from their past; otherwise, one mind might take the results of what another mind had done.

The Wave-Matter Mind Identifies Creatures’ Characteristics

People have different minds; the mind of one person is different from a mind of another person. There are 52 mental factors, which are like a barcode of the mind that is also unique to each mind. In addition, a human contains the six types of characteristic behaviors, meaning humans would act or behave differently and the acts fall into one of those six types. One twin brother does not have the same characteristic behaviors as the other twin brother. Despite them being groomed in the same environments, their abilities and habits could be totally different. This supports the concept that each mind (of each person) has an individual Karma database. The 52 mental factors would lead the mind as per its familiarity or its past Karma. The writer thinks that a wave-matter mind shall be based on different characteristic behaviors and shall possess different characteristics. When the mind would transmit its wave, such a wave could not be intervened by another mind; as a result, the Karma effect responsible by each person cannot be wrong. Other questions arise: what does the mind communicate with, and how does the mind communicate? There is a study explaining that a mind could transmit a wave and then touch an object. 1. Electroencephalography (EGG) is a method or equipment used for checking electrical wave patterns of the brain. This equipment could scan the brain and present a wave-like graph. This implies that communication of the mind would be similar to a wave pass through the brain. 240 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

2. In the experiment of Dr. Masaru Emoto, he studied forms of water crystal which had been changed in accordance with changing mental environments. The result of his study shows that crystals of water are different when water depending on if it was placed in a good environment or a bad environments. The changing form of crystals may imply that the structure of molecules in water changes by a wave, similar to a microwave. In reference with the picture below, praying could be like releasing energy.

Crystals before a pray Crystals after a pray

Besides the previously mentioned experiment, there are other experiments related to this idea. An experiment in Project PEAR (The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research) tested the deviation of an object which received energy from the mind. Another experiment by Lynne McTaggart managed to send out energy from a mind to heal a patient at a remote place. In the opinion of the writer, since the mass of space lays layer by layer it could then store data. A mind possesses wave-matter characteristics which could communicate with the space and the data transmitted from the space is individual and unique. The non- self mind would have qualifications in accordance with Karma data stored in the space. In summary, the writer would like to conclude the relationships between mind and scientific phenomenon as follows: JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 241

Characteristics of Mind Regarding Integration of Modern Science

Characteristics of Mind The Integration of Wave and Energy No physical body Being similar to the wave Consume no space Energy takes no space. Moving fast Speed of the birth and the disappearance is fast similar to the wave Be able to move far Wave can travel any far, especially electromagnetic wave, which can travel 300,000 kilometers per second Pure and Innocent Purely white which actually combines all of the colors Emotional absorption Communicate with various objects; same as the wave Accumulate Karma data Need a storage; mind is just a communicator Keep continuing Wave also continues to create some signals (appear and disappear) Create amazes Upon characters of the wave, it could be interfered anytime, and would intervene with other things.

Conclusion

With reference to all of the aforementioned explanations, the summarized key points include: the mind is just like wave, and that each creature has its own and unique characteristics upon the characters of the mental factors; the mind could not record its own Karma data by itself since it has the non-self-status (anatta) making it impossible for the mind to store such Karma data with it; the mind itself could only act as a communicator with a source of Karma data contained in the fabric of the space; this mass of the space shall possess an activation qualification which consequently would lead to the formation of the universe in which the wave could be transformed to be energy and then changed to substance. Since the fabric of space would cover the whole universe, any creatures reborn could not escape from it. This corresponds with the Buddha’s teaching on Karma. Beings have their own Karma and take responsibility for that Karma. Karma is the cause of one’s birth; whatever one has done, good or bad, they are the heir of such Karma. A possible explanation for this is that for each body forming, the mind would interact with or pull data from the mass of the space impacting such formation. 242 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

Tripitaka issue Mahachulalongkornrajadyalaya. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajadyalaya publishing, 2539. Pra Kanthasarapiwong. Abhidarmmattasankhaha and Paramatthatepanee. Print 3rd . Bangkok: Prayoonsarnthai, 2552. Joe H. Slate. Aura Energy for Health, Healing and Balance. Translate by Seekhrin. Bangkok: Liangchaing Publishing, 2547. C. W. Leadbeate. Man Visible and Invisible. Translate by Siri Budhsuk. Print 2nd.. Bangkok: Vinyan Publishing, 2539. Chaiwat Kupratakul. From Atom to Universe. Print 2nd. Bangkok: Sarakadee, 2546. Bancha Thabunsombat. Einstein’s fan. Bangkok: Seed ucation, 2548. Bill Bryson. A Short of Nearly Everything. Translated by Tomorn Sukprecha, Wilawan Ruedeesant. Bangkok: Thai Union Graphic, 2551. Bussakorn Methanggurn. Who’s let you born?. Bangkok: Liangchaing Publishing, 2548. Brian Greene. The Fabric of the Cosmos. /Translated by Atthakid Chatphutti. Bangkok: Matichon, 2550. Michio Kaku. Parallel Worlds. Translated by Swang Pongsiripattana, Bangkok: Matichon, 2552. Ravee Pavilai. The comparative world outlook, view of the life between Science and Buddhism. Bangkok: Sahadharmmic, 2543. Robert Matthews. 25 Big ideas. Translated by Chaiwat Kupratakul. Bangkok: Veevich Publishing, 2551 Vachara Ngamchitcharoen. The Equation of Emptiness. Bangkok: Greenpanyayan, 2554. Viphoo Ruropakarn. The Univers. Print 3rd. Bangkok: Nanmee Book Publishing, 2548. Stephen Hawking. The Universe in a Nutshell. Translated by Rohim Pramath. Bangkok: Borisuthikarnpim, 2551 Somparn Promtha. It is emptiness. Bangkok: Buddhacharti, 2539. Samart Sukhuprakarn. An Analytical Study of the Concepts of the Big Bang Phenomenon in Buddhist View. The Thesis of Master Degree of Art (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkorntajavidyalaya University Bangkok, Thailand. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 243

Samart Sukhuprakarn. The Influence of Mind over Matter in Theravada Buddhism, The Thesis of Doctoral Degree of Art (Buddhist Studies) Graduate School Mahachulalongkorntajavidyalaya University Bangkok, Thailand.

(I) Book

Brenda J. Dunne and Robert G. Jahn, Consciousness and Anomalous Phenomena, Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research, School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, 1995. Lynne McTaggart. The Field: The Quest for the Secret Force of the Universe. USA:Harper paperback, 2008. . The Intention Experiment: Using your thoughts to change your life and the world”. New York: Free Press, 2007. Michio Kaku. Hyperspace. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. . The future of the mind: the scientific quest to understand, enhance, and empower the mind, City University of New York, 2014. Arnold Mindell. The Quantum Mind and Healing, USA: Hampton Roads Plublising Company, 2004. Penrose, Roger. Road to Reality. London: Jonathan Cape, 2004

(II) Articles

Brenda J. Dunne, Roger D. Nelson, and robert G. Jahn, “Operator-Related Anomalies in a Random Mechanical Cascade”, Journal of Sciencific Exploration, Vol.2, No.2:155- 179. Brenda J. Dunne and Robert G. Jahn, “Experiments in Remote Human / Machine Interaction”, Journal of Sciencific Exploration, Vol.6, No.4:311-332. A Philological Study of Some Pyu Words through Inscriptions

Swe Swe Mon MA Buddhist Studies, International Buddhist College Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Regardless of disputes and different opinions of archeologists on historical data of Pyu people and their kingdoms, this paper aims to do philological study of some Pyu’s words through its inscriptions. Firstly some Pyu inscriptions will be generally studied to shed light on the Theravā da infl uence in Pyu Period. Pyu language based on Pā ḷ i and Sanskrit thus it performs as a bridge between Pā ḷ, i Sanskrit and Myanmar languages to some extent. Though it is based on Pā ḷ i and Sanskrit, it does not use the words directly from those languages. Therefore, it can be regarded that Pyu language is the evolution from Pā ḷ i and Sanskrit. In evolution process, words may either slightly or totally change. In this work, the subtle Pyu’s words of consecrated Queen, water, Buddha, well-done/let the goodness be and slave will be philologically studied to prove that they are derived from Pā ḷ i language.

Keywords: Pyu, Inscriptions, Consecrated Queen, Water, . JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 245

Introduction

As Kaccāyana Thera’s saying goes, “attho akkharasaññāto”.1 The meaning of all words can be understood only by means of letters. Verily, in case of corrupt letters, the cor- rect meanings of words are difficult to know. With this reason, having the skilled knowledge of letters is of much benefit in the study of texts, scriptures, manuscripts and inscriptions. Moreover, it is the considerable purpose for linguists, archeologists and historians especially to trace the context of ancient civilizations. Thus, it is true that appearance and invention of letters (akkharā) is pivotal role for the development of culture and literature of a nation. The standard of culture is dependent on the plane of literature and they are directly well- proportioned. Literature begins with and based on letters. Along with the advancement of mankind, the system of letters is improved throughout the ages. Modern letters has been changed in stages from ancient letters so they can be regarded as grandchildren of ancient letters. Likewise, Pyu language which is based on Pāḷi and Sanskrit is assumed as the father of Myanmar language according to some archeologists and linguists whilst some assume either Mon or Rakhine languages. From the study of Pyu inscriptions, there are evidences to prove that Pyu is a father language of Myanmar and its performance as a bridge between Pāḷi, Sanskrit and Myanmar language. This attempts had been made to do a philological study of some subtle Pyu words named consecrated queen, water, pagoda, well-done/let the goodness be and slave found in Pyu inscriptions. Not only it will shed a light the relationship between Pyu, Pāḷi, Sanskrit and Myanmar languages but also aim to reveal the standard of ancient Pyu literature and culture. Through studying these Pyu words, we can also feel and see the flourishing of Theravada Buddhism in the time of Pyu civilization. It is because that history will offer the answer to the question of when and how Buddhism came to Myanmar which history tries to answer.

The Background of Pyu

Pyu is believed to be the mixture of three groups; (1) few insignificant local inhabit- ants since Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age, (2) many migrants came from India bringing

1 Thera Kaccāyana, Kaccāyana Byākaraṇa; (Yangon: Thabyay Pịtaka Book Shop, Myanmar, 1984), p. 1. 246 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

in Hinduism and Buddhism along with their cultures and literatures successively, (3) and the last group believed to came down from north, Tibeto-Burman group. At present, Pyu is used to designate groups of Tibeto-Burma peoples, migrating from northern plains to the valleys of Upper Myanmar during the first millennium AD. Though there is no record by Pyu people, Chinese accounts mention a Tibeto-Burman speaking people called the P’iao living beyond the frontier. The meaning given to the word P’iao varied over time, from ‘rebel’ in early Tsin Dynasty texts to ‘cavalry’ in later Tang ones. Pyu people are thought, however, to have referred to themselves as Tircul with P’iao transcribed as Pyu.2 The Pyu civilization is regarded as the starting point of nowadays Myanmar and Pyu period brought major transitions to ritual as Hindu and Buddhist practice was integrated into an increasing hierarchical society. It is considered that they lived in the whole of up- per Myanmar by establishing separate cities.3 Amongst Pyu cities, Beikthano, Hanlin and Sriksetra are eminent for objects found from the walled sites of these cities. Archeology Department of Myanmar claimed the period of these three cities as (1) Beikthano (AD 1- 4), Hanlin (AD 3-9), Sriksetra (AD 4/5 – 9). Except some portions, it is not easy to grasp the whole picture of art, literature, believes, life of society and culture of Pyu by studying the objects such as pagodas, , sculptures, gold plates, stone inscriptions, coins, polished stone beads, urns, pots, fraction of iron implements, glass, votive tablets, etc., found in the Pyu walled sites. The Pyu sites have been dated to about 200 BC – 900 AD, with charcoal samples from Beikthano yielding the earliest dates.4 There is palaeographic analysis of a limited number of inscriptions on stone and on gold plates and stylistic analysis of bricks, beads, pottery, sculpture, monuments and walls. However, many aspects of related to the Pyu remain uncertain. So, regardless of disputes and different opinions of archeologists on historical data and information about Pyu we will start to see and analyze the concrete objects found in there.

I. Theravāda Buddhism and Pyu Regarding with the arrival of Theravāda Buddhism to Myanmar, historians try to discover the date. In past, they accepted the time of King Anuruddhā of Pagan period (11th

2 U Aung Thwin, Ancient Myanmar Cities, (Yangon: 2005), p. 14. 3 Maung Htin Aung, A History of Burma, (USA: 1967), p.5-29. 4 U Aung Thaw, Report on the Excavations at Beikthano, (Yangon: Government of the Union of Burma, Yangon, 1968), p. 48. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 247

century AD) as the first arrival ofTheravāda Buddhism. But now, according to the data found in excavation of ancient Pyu cites, archaeologists agree the fact that Theravāda Buddhism had introduced before Pagan period. Pagan has already been a Theravāda Buddhist kingdom before introduction of Theravāda Buddhism by Ashin Araham from Thathon kingdom.5 After the fall of Sriksetra, the Pyu brought not only the Theravāda Buddhism but also their culture and civilization to Pagan. Almost all the Theravāda Buddhist rites, ceremonies and festivals and observances of Pagan kingdom came from Pyu kingdom. The of Pagan was conceived at Pyu Kingdom and improved on in Pagan. The introduction of Buddhism to early Pyu kingdoms is believed to date from the time of King Dwattabaung during the third century BC. This may be regarded as the official introduction of Buddhism to Pyu kingdoms. But, for having close proximity to India for trade affairs and historical relations, it is not possible to believe that the most prominent Buddhism of India had not reached to Pyu kingdoms earlier. Chinese historical sources recorded surely the two trade routes, sea and island routes where have existed between Pyu kingdoms and India because China had a contact trading with India through Pyu Kingdoms in about 200 BC. Herein, information based on the study of Pyu inscriptions will be analyzed.

(1) Inscription found at the southern mound of ancient Hanlin (circa AD 4-5) Most of the inscriptions found in Pyu cites are the record of their merits. This inscrip- tion is a record of an ordination of a Pyu prince. This inscription is translated as follow.

“Be protected, be successful! He was treated badly in the womb (He suffered in the womb). The moon appeared and like a horse it ran. Due to greediness, (men ran in the cycle of life) (Like a horse, the moon appeared and ran. In the same way, due to craving men ran in the cycle of life). Vin Venaw Siri Kada benefitted Great Queen Siri Za Tra Zain and their son He listend the Dhamma and realized that the Dhamma. He cleared all hairs and shaved his hair. He ordained. He was sheltered by Dhamma umbrella.”6

5 Regarding with the fact that the King Anuruddhā s march to Mon Kingdom to take Tipiṭaka, some historians still do not agree. 6 U Aung Thein, Pyu and Pyu Stone Inscriptions or Buddhism in Pyu, (Yangon: 2005), p. 18-19. 248 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

According to Chinese records, Pyu children were shaved their heads and sent to monasteries from the age of seven until at the age of twenty. When they reached at age of twenty, they were free to choose whether to process higher ordination or to go back home. From this point, we can see their faith in Buddhism. Not only Theravāda but Mahāyāna and Vāda also had prevailed in Pyu period.

(2) Inscriptions in Two Gold Plates found at Maung Kan Village, Sriksetra In ancient Sriksetra, Pyu inscriptions are found more than Hanlin. At the time of Sriksetra, Pyu language were inscribed mostly in gold plates, statues, terracotta tablets, burial urns in stone and stone tablets. The greatest Pyu monuments in Sriksetra are the three lofty stupas – the Bawbawgyi, Payagyi and Payama. In 1897, Dr. Emil Forch Hammer found the two gold plates at Maung Kan village, near Srikesetra. Each gold plate has three lines of Pāḷi stanza and assuming that they used the southern India letters. The first gold plate mentioned –

1. Ye-dhamm̄a-hetuppabhavā tesaṁ-hetuṁ tathāgato āha tesaṅcha yo nirodho evaṁ vādi mahāsamaṇoti. Chattāyo iddhipādā 2. Chattāro samappdhānā chattāro-satipatthānā chattāri ariya saccāni catuvethārijjāni pañcacakkhuni cha. 3. Asaddharaṇāni sattabojjhangā ariyo-atthingiko maggonavalokuttarā dhamma dasabalāni suddasa buddhakoni atthārasa buddhadhammāni.7

The second gold plate mentioned – 1. Ye-dhamm̄a-hetuppabhavā tesaṁ-hetuṁ tathāgato āha tesaṅcha yo nirodho evaṁ vādi mahāsamaṇoti. Itipisobhagavā arahaṁ. 2. Sammā-saṁbuddho vijjāsaraṇa saṁpanno sugato lokavidhū anuttaropurisa dhammasārathi sattādeva manussānaṁ buddho bhagavāti. 3. Svakkhāto bhagavatādhammo saṅditthiko akāliko ehipassiko opanayiko paccattaṁ veditabbo viññuhiti.8

7 U Thar Myat, Pyu reader: A History of Pyu Alphabet, (Yangon: The Natinal Printing Works, Myanmar, 1963), p.44. 8 U Thar Myat, Pyu reader: A History of Pyu Alphabet, (Yangon: The Natinal Printing Works, Myanmar, 1963), p.45. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 249

They are started with the famous Yedhammā gātha from Mahāvagga Pāḷi and fol- lowed by Buddhavacana from Dīgha Nikāya, Majjhima Nikāya, Aṅguttara Nikāya, Udāna Pāḷi from Kuddhaka Nikāya and Vibhaṅga Pāḷi from Abhidhammā Piṭaka.

(3) Inscription in a Gold Plate found at Kyun Daw Su Village , Sriksetra (circa AD 5-6) The fragments of this gold plate were found in 1928-1929 excavation at Kyun Daw Su village, Sriksetra. The nine attributes of the Buddha was inscribed in it as follow -

“itipisobhagavā arahaṁ sammāsambuddho vijjāsaraṇasaṁpanno sugato lokavidū anuttaro purisa (dammasarathi satthā)deva manussānaṁ buddhobha- gavā.” 9

(4) Inscriptions in Twenty Gold Plates found in the Relic chamber of Khin Ba Mound, Sriksetra (circa AD 4-5) In 1926 last, Mr. Duroiselle and his group found twenty leaves of gold manuscripts in the relic chamber of Khin Ba mound. Each inscribed on one side only, placed within two cover made of gold. These gold plates manuscripts are regarded as the earliest one written in Pāḷi. They have similar style of Telugu-kanaṭi script.10 Like the Maung Kan Gold plates, the first eighteen leaves of the manuscripts contains three lines, the nineteenth has four lines and the last twentieth has only two. All these manuscripts mentioned the text from the Tipiṭaka. They can be grouped into nine as follow. (1) The first fourteen lines (gold plate no. 1 – 5 (not include the last line from no.5)) are Paṭiccasamuppāda desanā. (2) The last line of gold plate no.5 is “udayavaya bangabaya adinnava nibbida munjana upekkha” which is from Abhidhammatthasaṅgaha Pāḷi. (3) The first two lines of gold plate no. 6 is Buddhavacana that can be found in Dīgha, Majjhima, Aṅguttara and Udāna Pāḷi. (4) From the last line of gold plate no.6 up to the second line of gold plate no. 12 is the Sīhanāda sutta Pāḷi from Mūlapaṇṇāsa of Majjhima Nikāya and Catuttha

9 Ibid. p. 40. 10 U Sein Win, Pyu Culture and Evidences, (Yangon: 1996), p. 56. 250 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Nipāta Pāḷi of Aṅguttara Nikāya. (5) From the last line of gold plate no. 12 up to the gold plate no. 17 is from Paṭisambhidāmagga of Kuddaka Nikāya. (6) The first line “maggana thingiko settho saccanam caturo pada viragoes” and the first half of the second line “thodhammanam dipadanam ca cakkhumati” of gold plate no. 18 can be found in the Dhammapada. (7) The last words “siddhadanto danteti” of the second line of gold plate no. 18 up to the third line and the word ‘gava’ from the fourth line of gold plate no. 19 are from Mahāvagga of Vinaya Piṭaka. (8) The fourth line of a gold plate no. 19 “yo viyo sabbavidanto, suddho appati pug- galo, araham sugato loke, tassaham paricarakoti” is a gatha from mahavagga Pāḷi of Vinaya Piṭaka. (9) Gold plate no. 20 is about the nine attributes of the Buddha.

(5) Terracotta tablet founded at Pyokhingyi mound, Sriksetra (circa AD 6-7) This terracotta is believed to be written with a Gupta script bearing effigies of the Buddha on the obverse. The reverse of some of these contains short extracts from the Abhidhamma. It is -

“kusala (dhamma aku) Sala dhamma avyaka (ta) Dhamma. bā: dehi”11

The last words “bā: dehi” are Pyu language.

(6) Terracotta Votive tablet from the Relic chamber of , Pagan It was written in Pyu language though it had dated Pagan Era. With this point, we can know the presence and still use of Pyu language in the time of Pagan. The translation is -

11 U Thar Myat, Pyu reader: A History of Pyu Alphabet, (Yangon: The Natinal Printing Works, Myanmar, 1963), p.38. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 251

“By donating (terracotta tablet containing mould of) that noble Buddha by me. May noble lord Buddha Arimeitaya say these words of praise. “You, headman of villages, Sri Banyanaw attain omniscience and reach the country of Nibbana where no one can die.” All of you may say “Well-done, well-done.”12

From these inscriptions, we can see that Pyu people had great contact in Theravāda Buddhist texts since AD 4-5 and also can know the influence of it on Pyu people and in their life. Besides, many of the Buddhist reliefs found in Sriksetra present inscriptions in Pyu language. Amongst the archaeological finds, the numerous votive tables found testify to the strong activity of Buddhist worshippers in Pyu society.When the Sriksetra was destroyed, it is believed that Pyu people brought the Theravāda tradition with them to Pagan. Therefore, the beginning of Theravāda is not from the Pagan period but since from the time of Pyu. Moreover, the strong presence of Buddhist images and monuments confirms the spread of Budhism in Myanmar even before the rise of Pagon.

II. The Language of Pyu The Pyu script was used mostly for religious and royal purposes and it is noted for archaism over a 700 year time span. Brahmi letters gave birth Southern India letters and Northern India letters. Amongst the Southern India letters, Telugu-kanaḍi has a close relationship with Myanmar letters. From Telugu-kanaḍi letters, Kadaṁba and Pallava letters are appeared. It is believed that from Kadaṁba letters, Pyu letters are created and used as their own style. Thus, it is a sophisticated Brahmi-derived language and it is not yet totally translated. The Pyu letters are researched and revealed firstly by Dr. Charles Otto Blagden. Pyu language becomes as a dead language nowadays. Inflectional languages, like Pāḷi and Sanskrit, are languages in which a word is composed of a root and inflectional morphemes, which fuse into one another. The inflectional morphemes signify the number, gender, person and case of nouns and tense or aspect of verbs. In Sanskrit, the stem ‘deva’ (god) changes into devas, devaṁ, devasya, and deva in nominative, accusative, genitive and locative, respectively. Languages in India are mostly inflectional languages. Japanese, Korean, Burmese and most languages in India as Hindi, Telegu and Tamil are SOV (Subject, Object, Verb) languages, according to their ways of word order. Thus, as a Brahmi-derived language, Pyu language is also SOV language.

12 U Aung Thein, Pyu and Pyu Stone Inscriptions or Buddhism in Pyu, (Yangon: 2005), p. 52. 252 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Most of the scholars assume that 12th century AD is the beginning of Myanmar language and the end of Pyu language.13 Pyu language is based on Pāḷi and Sanskrit because they are in the same language group. Thus it performs as a bridge between Pāḷi, Sanskrit languages and Myanmar language to the some extent. Though it is based on Pāḷi and Sanskrit, it does not use the words directly from those languages. Expectation is they used the texts of Pāḷi and Sanskrit without changing. So, we can see the original Pāḷi verse of Tipiṭaka in the inscriptions. Therefore, it is said that Pyu language is the evolution from Pāḷi and Sanskrit. In evolution process, there are slightly changes and hugely changes of words. In ancient Hanlin, archeologists do not have much evidences regarding with Pyu language except one gravestone inscription and one stone inscription which are supposed to be written between 4 AD and 5 AD. According to the study of Pyu words from gravestone inscriptions, Pyu language has eight kinds of tones and it is not ended with vowel.14 The gravestone inscription of Hanlin with two types of letter is believed to be the earliest one (see figure- 10). The original two sentences and the extra sentences were not written in same letters. They are different. It is believe that the original two sentences were written with letters of six century AD while letters of extra sentences were earlier than six century AD. According to some scholars, letters of extra sentences were the same as Brahmi letters used during the third BC and the second AD in India. It is maintained in the museum of Pagan. In this inscription, the word “daviṁ which means the King of Devas is the combina- tion of ‘deva’ and ‘inda’. The previous ‘a’ vowel, is dropped because of the following vowel ‘i’. The word becomes as ‘devinda’ Then, the last consonant ‘da’ is dropped according to the nature of Pyu language and we get ‘devin’. ‘e’ of ‘devin’ is changed into ‘a’ and ‘n’ is changed into ‘niggahita ṁ’. Finally, the word ‘daviṁ’ is formed. (deva + inda > devinda > devin > daviṁ ). Likewise, there are similar words such as “jiṁ”, “kviṁ” and “tim” In it, we can see the slightly changes of words and the usage of euphony.

13 U Khin Maung Than, Pyu Abhidhan, (Sagaing: The Department of Research, Sitagu Buddhist University, Myanmar, 2013), p. 12. 14 Dr. Than Tun, The Story of Burma told in Pictures, (Yangon: Guardian Sunday Supplement, Vols. 8-9, First Anniversary Commemoration). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 253

(1) Consecrated Queen – Uvo: In the history, Myanmar Kings celebrated different kinds of consecration ceremonies. There are fourteen kinds of consecration ceremonies in general. Consecration ceremony for occupying kingship, giving title as a queen, getting victories in wars and getting the white elephants are the most popular ones. In the time of Sriksetra, consecration ceremony for giving title as a queen can be found through the word “uvo:” inscribed in a burial stone-urn of the queen of King Suriya Vikyama.15 In the Rājakumāra inscription of Pagan, the word “uvomaya: (consecrated queen)” can be found. The word “:” in “uvomaya:” means “wife” in Pyu language. But when it is combined with ‘uvo:’, it means ‘queen’. “ya” becomes “long” as “yā”. Then, it becomes as ‘mayā:” means ‘wife in Myanmar. It can suggested that the word “uvo:” is derived from the Pāḷi word “abhiseka” which means “consecration; ablution; sprinkling.” The nature of Pyu language is cut of the last or first Pāḷi word if it is seen long and difficult to pronounce. So, ‘seka’ of ‘abhiseka’ is dropped. ‘abhi’ changed into ‘uvo:’ (a>u) (b>v) (hi>ih>o:). It can suggested with another way that the word “uvo:” is from the Pali word “avasitta” which means “be sprinkled, anointed, consecrated” (eg. rājā khattiyo muddhâvasitto - of a properly consecrated king). The nature of Pyu language is cut of the last Pāḷi word if it is seen long and difficult to pronounce. So, ‘sitta’ of ‘avasitta’ is dropped. ‘ava’ is changed into ‘uvo:’ ( a>u) (va>vo:). The Pāḷi word ‘abhiseka’ is changed into ‘bhisik’ as Myanmar language. ‘abhi’ of ‘a’ is dropped. The last vowel ‘a’ is dropped because it is rare to see the word ending with vowel in Myanmar language. ‘e’ of ‘seka’ is changed into ‘i’. In this way, the word ‘bhisik’ is used in Myanmar language.

(2) Water – Tdu The Pyu word ‘tdu’ which means ‘water’ can be found in the inscription of Rājakumāra in the phrase of ‘in pouring water”.16 There are synonyms of the word ‘water’ in Pali such as jala; udaka; vāri; ambu; pānīya; salila; nīra; toya, etc. In Sanskrit, there are about twenty-seven synonyms of it. But the Pyu word “Tdū” cannot be found from the single synonym word of water, according to U Aung Thein.17 He said that it is formed by

15 U Aung Thein, Pyu and Pyu Stone Inscriptions or Buddhism in Pyu, (Yangon: 2005), p. 85. 16 U Thar Myat, Pyu reader: A History of Pyu Alphabet, (Yangon: 1963), p.76. 17 U Aung Thein, Pyu and Pyu Stone Inscriptions or Buddhism in Pyu, (Yangon: 2005), p. 83 254 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

the combination of “toya” and “udaka”. ‘ya’ of ‘toya’, ‘u’ and ‘ka’ of ‘udaka’ are dropped. The word ‘toda’ is left. ‘o’ is dropped again and ‘a’ is changed into ‘u’. Then, the word ‘tdu’ is formed. (toya + udaka > toda> tda> tdu) Otherwise, it can be derived only from ‘udaka’. ‘u’ is dropped. ‘a’ in ‘da’ is dropped. ‘dka’ is left. The last vowel ‘a’ is changed into ‘o’ and ‘k’ is changed into ‘t’ for in the same vagga group. We got ‘dtu’. According to metathesis, ‘d’ and ‘t’ change the place. It becomes as ‘tdu’. Another instance of the combination of two Pāḷi words formed a Pyu word is “tiṁprī:” which has the meaning of ‘country’. It is the combination of ‘raṭṭha’ and ‘pura’. ‘ra’ of ‘raṭṭha’ is dropped and ‘-ṭṭha’ is changed into ‘ta’. Again, ‘ta’ is changed into ‘tim’. ‘u’ of ‘pura’ is dropped and ‘pra’ becomes ‘prī:’. Then, the Pyu word ‘tiṁprī:’ is formed. the Pyu word ‘tiṁprī:’ is changed as ‘taipri’ in Myanmar Language.

(3) Well-done/ Let the goodness be – Hapracho: When the merit is done, Buddhist people used to say “well-done, well-done, well- done”. As most of the ancient inscriptions are record of merits, the use of ‘well-done’ can be found frequently. In Pyu inscriptions, ‘well-done’ is inscribed as ‘hapraso” or ‘sadhū’. And it also brings the meaning as ‘let the goodness be’. In this sense, ‘hapraso’ is the combination of three words, ‘ha’ + ‘pra’ + ‘so’. ‘ha’ means ‘good’ and it is derived from upassāra pada ‘su’ of Pāḷi. ‘pra’ seems to be Mon word. In Mon inscription, we can see the phrase “pasādhukar”. In it ‘pa’ is translated as ‘do’ or ‘make’. Thus, ‘pr’ of ‘pra’ become ‘pp’ and one ‘p’ is dropped. It becomes as ‘pa’ means ‘do’. In another way, we can think it comes from the Pāḷi root √kar. ‘k’ is changed into ‘p’ and ‘par’ becomes ‘pra’. The word ‘so’ means ‘be’. It has the same meaning with Myanmar language ‘tho’ It is probably came from Pāḷi word of ‘hoti’. ‘ti’ is dropped and ‘h’ is changed into ‘s’ (h>s, they are interchangeable).

(4) Buddha – Hra In the Rājakumāra inscription, the golden Buddha was written as “hratha” in Pyu Language. ‘hra’ is the Buddha and ‘tha’ means ‘gold’. There are many words used to refer the Buddha such as “tathāgata”, “bhagavā”, “sammmāsaṁbuddha”, etc., in praising of the Buddha’s attributes. Akin to it, the word ‘hra’ may come from ‘arahaṁ’, the first attribute of the Buddha. ‘a’ and ‘ṁ’ are dropped and ‘raha’ is left. ‘a’ of ‘ra’ is dropped and ‘rha’ is changed into ‘hra’, according to metathesis. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 255

(5) Slave – Tra: Although slavery is no longer legal anywhere in the world, it is illegally still keep- ing on under the name of human trafficking. We cannot know the exact date to discovery the beginning of the slavery, yet, we can see the existence of slavery in ancient time from historical records. In ancient Myanmar also had a system of slavery. There are texts explain- ing the different types of slaves. The children born from slaves were also included in the list of slaves. In Pagan Era, pagoda-slaves were well-know. After a pagoda was built, a group of slaves were donated to that pagoda take care and maintain the pagoda. Even nowadays, the generations of pagoda-slaves can be seen in Pagan. Bound by the sense of duty and the deeply held Buddhist belief in Kamma, they have served as the custodians of pagodas. The evidence of slaves in Pagon period can be found in the Rājakumāra inscription through the word “‘tra:”. The Prince Rājakumāra donated three villages of slaves to the pagoda. Before that time, slavery reached to the land of ancient Myanamr in no doubt. In Pyu, slave is known as ‘tra: while Mon used ‘dik’ for the word ‘slave’. The word ‘tra:’ is come from the Sanskrit word ‘dāsya’. ‘da’ is dropped and ‘sya’ becomes ‘sra’, ‘y’ and ‘r’ are interchangeable. And ‘s’ is changed into ‘t’. Finally, the word ‘tra:’ is formed.

Conclusion

To sum up present knowledge, in Pyu inscriptions three types of languages are found generally, namely, Pāḷi, Sanskrit and Pyu. For instance, twenty gold plates from Khin Ba mound were written in Pāḷi language. The inscription of a seated Buddha statue was written in the mixture of Pāḷi and Sanskrit. The gravestone inscription of Hanlin was in Pyu language. According to the regions and Era, the style of writing was changed so that we can mostly see different scripts of Southern India which are branches of the Brahmi letters while very rare to see of Northern Indian scripts. History, language, and literature are inseparable. Undoubtedly, historian represents the past via language and employs literature as historical evidence. Yes, it is true. Thus, this study hopes to confirm the high degree of literature via language achieved by the Pyu culture and the key role of the Pyu cities in the network of the first urban societies of South- east Asia. A great quantity of diverse structures has been excavated at only in Sriksetra. In total, 105 monuments have been located inside the walls and 172 outside them, conveying something of the archaeological complexity and riches of the vast site. Undoubtedly, more 256 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

remains to be discovered there and at other Pyu centres- discoveries that may well change the views presented here and have implications for our understanding of early urbanization and cultural expression.

References

Ancient Myanmar Inscriptions. Vol I, II, III. Yangon: The Government of Burma, 1972. Aung Thaw, U, Ancient Myanmar Cities. Yangon: 1993. Aung Thein, U, Pyu and Pyu Stone Inscriptions or Buddhism in Pyu. Yangon: 2005. Htin Aung, Maung, A History of Burma. USA: 1967. Khin Maung Than, U, Pyu Abhidham. Yangon: 2013. Marshall, John, ed. Archeological Survery of India, Annual Report 1911-1912. India: 1915. Moore, Elizabeth Howard, The Pyu Landscape: Collect Articles. Myanmar: Myanmar Archeological Publication Series, 2012. Pho Latt, U, Chronicle of Myanmar and Research on its Culture. Yangon: 1962. Sein Win, U, Pyu Culture and Evidences. Yangon: The Ministry of Cultural, 1996. Thar Myat, U, Pyu Reader: A History of Pyu Alphabet. Yangon: 1963. The Relationship Between Internal and External Conflict: A Buddhist Way to Discover Peace

Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury Guest Lecturer at Mahapajapati Buddhist College, Mahamakut Buddhist University, Thailand Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The term ‘confl ict’ is used for both people and groups who debate, and even kill each other, as a result of having different beliefs, attitudes, needs and benefi ts. On the other hand, the term ‘peace’ connotes as an antonym word of confl ict. The purpose of this paper is to draw a brief account from the scholastic and Buddhist perspective, how the confl ict appears in the mind (internal) and comes into external world through the behavior (fi ve aggregates), what is the relationship between internal and external confl ict, and what are the ways to discover inner rapture or peace through avoiding confl icts both internally as well as externally.

Keywords: Confl ict, Peace, Buddhism. 258 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Conflict can occur between people or groups who have different beliefs, attitudes, needs and benefits, so that they debate, and even kill each other as a result. Peace, however, connotes as an antonym word of conflict. The purpose of this paper is to draw a brief account from the scholastic and Buddhist perspective, how the conflict arises in the mind (internal) and comes to external world through behavior (five aggregates). A relationship between internal and external conflict will be examined as well. Finally, the author will point out the ways to find inner peace by avoiding conflicts, internal and external.

Notion of Conflict and Violence in Buddhism

The word ‘conflict’ emerged from the Latin word ‘Confligere’, which connotes fighting, warfare, incompatibility, opposition and contradiction1. People and groups who have beliefs, attitudes and needs that are absolutely different tend to debate and even engage in armed conflicts as a result2. On the other hand, in accordance to the Oxford Dictionary, the word ‘conflict’ refers to a serious disagreement or argument, which turns into violence3. Moreover, In the Pāli English dictionary by Mrs. Rhys Davids, conflict or violence is known as ‘Virodha’, “Viggaha’, ‘virūjjhati’, ‘Ghatana’4 . Investigating the several Pāli discourses and early Buddhist canon, another Pāli word ‘daṅḍa’ also connotes as conflict or violence5. According to the Dhammapada, the Buddha said, ‘Sabbe tasanti daṅḍassa’, which means that ‘all trembles at violence or conflict’6. However, non-violence is at the heart of Buddhist thinking and behavior. The first of the five precepts that all Buddhists should follow is “avoid killing, or harming any living being”.7 Buddhism is essentially a peaceful tradition.

1 Mack, W. Reymond and Peace, John, Sociology and Social Life; New York : D Van Company, 1973. P. 68. 2 Ibid. 3 Oxford Dictionary. Access on Date:3rd January, 2018. (http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/ conflict?q=conflict) 4 Davids, Rhys, Pali-English Dictionary; London : Pali text Society, 1923. 5 Malalasekera, G.P., Dictionary of Pāli proper names. Access on Date : 3rd January, 2018. (http:// what-buddha-said.net/library/DPPN/index_dict.ppn.htm) 6 Cf- Dhp. V. 129, PTS, p. 19. ‘Sabbe tasanti daṇaḍassa, sabbe bhāyanti maccuno, Attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā, na haneyya na ghātaye’ & Dhp. V. 130, PTS, p. 19. ‘Sabbe tasanti daṇaḍassa, sabbesaṃ jīvitaṃ piyaṃ, Attānaṃ upamaṃ katvā, na haneyya na ghātaye’ 7 Pañca-sila : ‘Panatipata veramani sikkhapadam samadiyami’. Access on date: 23rd January. (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sila/pancasila.html) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 259

Nothing is Buddhist scripture gives any support to the use of violence as a way of resolving conflicts.

Relationship Between Internal And External Conflict

Buddhist doctrine is based on the working of the mind. In the Dhammapada, the Buddha proclaims, ‘Mind is the forerunner of all evil or good states’8. Moreover, in terms to illustrate the root of the conflict, John Galtunag, a Norwegian peace-maker, mentioned that ‘Conflict is related to the mankind’s behavior. Conflict arises because people are concerned or understand that there are some groups who are working against their advantage’9. Thus conflict, in his definition, goes together with attitude and behavior, per the following diagram:

Conflict  Attitude  Behavior

On the other hand, the term ‘conflict’ is viewed as ‘dispute’, ‘debate’, or ‘quarrel’ as regarding to the Buddhist doctrine10. Moreover, in order to ascribe the root of conflict, Elizabeth J. Harris, a prominent Buddhist scholar, precisely states two reasons of the arising conflict; one is an individual’s maladjustment and another is unsatisfactory social and environmental conditions11. Buddhism strictly claims that conflict arises from the mind because of papañca (mental fabrication)12. In the Madhupiṇḍikasutta of the Majjhima Nikāya, Venerable Mahakacchayana states, “Cakkhuṁ ca pațicca rupe ca cakkhu viññānaṁ upajjāti ținnaṁ saṁgiti passo”; which means ‘when the agent sees (perceive) anything (object), the object arises in the mind, and creates consciousness - these three contacts make mind

8 Cf- Dhp., Verse no. 1, PTS; Page no. 1 ; “Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā , Manasā ce paduṭṭhena bhāsati vā karoti vā, Tato naṃ dukkhamanveti cakkaṃ’va vahato padaṃ” & Dhp., Verse no. 2 , PTS; Page no. 2; “Manopubbaṅgamā dhammā manoseṭṭhā manomayā , Manasā ce pasannena bhāsati vā karoti vā, Tato naṃ sukhamanveti chāyā’va anapāyinī.” 9 Dhammahaso, Phramaha Hansa, Article on : “Buddhist Values towards Conflict and Peace”: Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development, ICDV Conference Volume. Bangkok: MCU press, 2011. Page no. 382. 10 Ibid. 11 Harris, J. Elizabeth, Violence and disruption in Society: a study of Early Buddhist Text. Kandy : Buddhist Publication society, 2002. Access on Date: 5thJanuary, 2018. . (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ lib/authors/harris/wheel392.html) 12 Bhikkhu Tannissaro, Madhupindika Sutta: the Bell of honey. Access on Date: 5th January, 2018. (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.018.than.html) 260 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

consciousness’13. Furthermore, for a more clear understanding of state of consciousness arising, Venerable Thannissaro Bhikkhu provides a visual map as follows:

Contact  Feeling  Perception  Thinking  The perceptions and categories of papañca 14

In terms to the Buddhist perspective, conflict connotes as papañca; when the agent (mind) perceives something (object) from external world through pañcaskhandha (five aggregates - eye, ear, nose, tongue, body), the object arises in the mind internally; through analyzing the perceived, object transmits into papañca (conflict) and flourishes as an external conflict. Therefore, from the Buddhist point of view, we can merely accept that there is a close relationship between the internal and external conflict; and the process by which external conflicts arise based on thinking.

The Value of Conflict

Buddhism would argue that evil sometimes occurs from conflict through a logical sense of curiosity. On the other hand, in many situations, conflict also leads to many benefits for human beings and societies, such self-development and disintegration of inner values of human beings. Moreover in a subjective sense, conflict leads to establishing the Vinaya, the first sanctioned Buddhist council, and the development of the economy as well. So, conflict in Buddhism can be both a good and bad thing15. According to the , if we look at the biography of the Buddha, before he renounced the worldly life, prince Siddhartha had seen four signs, i.e. old age, a sick man, a dead body and an ascetic, which created conflict (pain) in the prince’s mind and prompted him to make a decision to renounce the family. Moreover, in accordance to Aggañña Sutta, establishing a system of monarchy is closely related to conflict due to most people have physical needs, such as land for subsistence and agriculture16. The Vinaya, or monastic code for the monks, was established to reduce conflict

13 Madhupiṇḍikasuttaṃ : MN I, Pali Text Society; page no. 108. 14 Bhikkhu Tannissaro, Madhupindika Sutta: the Bell of honey. Access on Date: 5thJanuary, 2018.. (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.018.than.html) 15 Dhammahaso, Phramaha Hansa, Article on : “Buddhist Values towards Conflict and Peace”: Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development, ICDV Conference Volume. Bangkok: MCU press, 2011. Page no. 382 -385. 16 Aggañña Sutta- DN 27. Access on Date: 5th January, 2018. (http://www.urbandharma.org/pdf/ AggannaSutta.pdf) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 261

and create harmony among monks. However, during the meditation period, conflict plays an important role. For an instance, before entering into jhāna17, vitakka (questions, disturbance or conflict) arises into yogi’s mind. When the yogi receives a correct answer through right investigating (vicāra), the yogi must be an ease vitakka (conflict). Then, upon knowing the vitakka, a yogi can enter into first jhāna; gradually the yogi can develope his meditation skills within each jhāna level even while the yogi enters into the stream. To understand the value of Conflict, His Holy Eminence states, “When you don’t led yourself do what you want to do, it is a conflict, and it creates more conflict and confusion”18.

Seeking for the Peace

Peace is an antonym word of the word ‘Conflict’, and the Buddhism is one that based on Peace; in Pāli which is familiar as ‘Santi’, ‘Sāma’, ‘Sāmaggi’19. According to Buddhism, Ones who practices the Dhamma by following the way of the Buddha, he may understand the nature of conflict and can gain a true peace. Again, Venerable Tannissaro Bhikkhu states, “staying with bare mind is the way of ignore the conflict both internally and externally”20. Bare mind is the strong mind for those who do not receive any object (including conflict) from the external world, never give any opportunity to fabricate the mind (papañca) and always stay with an inner rapture. Moreover, to avoid any kind of conflict and find an ease in the mind, the most respected Venerable Bana Bhante recites one gātha (verse) in his dhamma speech as follows:

“As you have eyes, but you should stay as like as a blind one, As you have ears, but you should stay as like as a deaf one, As you have an ability to speak, but you should act as like as a dumb one, As you are a wise one, but you should stay as like a foolish who knows nothing”. 21

17 Jhāna – Jhāna is an advanced state of concentration or Samadhi, wherein the mind becomes absorbed into its meditation subject. It is divided into four levels, each level progressively more refined than the previous one. 18 Chah, Ajhan; A Collection of Talks Ajhan Chah. Ubon Ratchatani: Wat Non Pah Phong, 2009. Page no. 49-62. 19 Davids, Rhys, Pali-English Dictionary; London : Pali text Society, 1923. 20 A dhamma Talk by Ajhan Tannissaro Bhikkhu. 3th March, 2003 at Wat Metta. 21 Sanjoy Barua Chowdhury’s noble conversation with the Noble Venerable His Holy Eminence Bana Bhante on 7th May, 2011 at Rajbana Vihara Complex, Rangamati, . 262 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

Davids, Rhys, Pali-English Dictionary; London : Pali text Society, 1923. Dhammananda, K. Sri ,The Dhammapada, Taipei: The corporate body of the Buddha, Taiwan, 2002. Mack, W. Reymond and Peace, John, Sociology and Social Life; New York : D Van Company, 1973 Dhammahaso, Phramaha Hansa, Article on : “Buddhist Values towards Confl ict and Peace”: Buddhist Virtues in Socio-Economic Development, ICDV Conference Volume. Bangkok: MCU press, 2011 Harris, J. Elizabeth, Violence and disruption in Society: a study of Early Buddhist Text. Kandy : Buddhist Publication society, 2002. Chah, Ajhan; A Collection of Talks Ajhan Chah. Ubon Ratchatani: Wat Non Pah Phong, 2009. Bhikkhu Tannissaro, Madhupindika Sutta: the Bell of honey. Access on Date: 5thJanuary, 2018. (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.018.than.html) Malalasekera, G.P., Dictionary of Pāli proper names. (http://what-buddha-said.net/library/ DPPN/index_dict.ppn.htm) www.urbandharma.org & www. oxforddictionaries.com

Female Practitioners at the Crossroad: The Organization and Identification of Bhikkhunis in Taiwan

Meilee Shen PhD student at the Graduate Institute of Religious Studies, National Chengchi University Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Buddhist nuns in Taiwan have shouldered educational, cultural, economic, and social responsibilities, in such a way that has been transformed in Taiwan and overseas. In recent years, nuns in Taiwan have established various associations to accomplish their goals and satisfy their needs. This paper will focus on three main questions: 1. How can a Buddhist organization be distinguished from a temple? 2. Does the constitution of female Buddhist organizations reveal gender confl icts in Buddhism? 3. How can nuns in Taiwan establish their identity by associating together? This paper will mainly study on the Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association (CBBA), because it has attracted members together to work for religious causes and social needs since 1996. However, with a mission to promote female practitioners’ role in Buddhist circles, the CBBA has not contributed much to gender equality in Buddhism. The present research argues that the CBBA has not managed to unite nuns in Taiwan, because it has not supported nuns’ education, nor recruited highly educated ones. In conclusion, the research suggests that the CBBA should: 1. Connect with Buddhist organizations in order to achieve unity. 2. Revolutionize the Buddhist hierarchical system by creating a space for younger generations’ development. 3. To allocate fi nancial contributions from social charities to nuns’ education in order to foster an active female presence role in Buddhism in the future.

Keywords: Bhikkhuni networking in Taiwan, Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. 264 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

During the writing of this research, a historical event regarding the restoration of bhikkhuni (fully ordained Buddhist nun) sangha took place in Bodhgaya, India. , the 17th of the Karma , kept his promise to reinstate Buddhist nuns’ full ordination back to what Tibetan Buddhist tradition had been on March 11, 2017. Under several great Tibetan lamas’ supervision, a total number of nineteen Tibetan nuns received their getsulma vows from Bhikkhuni masters of Nan Ling Monastery, Taiwan, and they will finally receive the gelongma vows to be a fully ordained bhikkhunis in the near future.1 According to the 17th Karmapa, “the priority is that there is no gender discrimination in Buddhism. Everyone should have an equal opportunity and ability to propagate Buddha’s teachings regardless of one’s gender”.2 Ironically, more than a decade ago, the well-known Bhikkhuni professor in Taiwan, Hengching, already recognized the important role of bhikkhunis in by pointing out that Buddhist scholars constantly argued that Tibet could not be considered as “ a ‘central’ land of the Dharma” due to lack the of a bhikkhuni order.3 The getsulma ceremony was a milestone in Tibetan Buddhism that took years of hard work and efforts to realize, and the light at the other end of tunnel is beginning to appear. Whereas Tibetan nuns have just begun to rebuild their orders, Buddhist nuns in Taiwan have already been recognized for their roles and contributions in the history of Buddhism. On November 19, 2016, the Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association (CBBA) held “The 1st Global Awards for Outstanding Contributions of Commentated Bhikkhuni in Celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Chinese Bhikkhuni Association” at Jhong Jheng Stadium in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. There were hundreds of thousands Buddhist nuns with diverse nationalities coming together to celebrate their achievements. It took more than six decades for them to be able to get on the stage to claim their true identities, since the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China (BAROC) relocated and re-established the Buddhist order in Taiwan, in 1949. From the beginning, female Buddhist practitioners were invisible and underappreciated;

1 History in the Making: The First Step Toward Full Ordination for Tibetan Buddhist Nuns. Retrieved from Web: http://kagyuoffice.org/history-in-the-making-the-first-step-toward-full-ordination-for- tibetan-buddhist-nuns/ on May 3, 2017. 2 Buddhist Door Network: To Work for Bhikkhunis and This Should be A More “Feminine” Time – Interview the 17th Karmapa Retrieved from Web: http://gyalwangkarmapa.blogspot.tw/2016/12/blog-post_31. html on May 14, 2017. 3 Heng-Ching Shih. (2000). “Lineage and Transmission: Integrating the Chinese and Tibetan Orders of Buddhist Nuns,” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal 13, p. 505. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 265

they worked on chores at temples as kitchen maids or cleaning ladies with an inferior status despite the fact that they outnumbered Buddhist monks in Taiwan. The tide had turned with the lifting of martial law in 1987. The amendment of the Organization of Civil Groups Law in 1989 created an opportunity for bhikkhunis in Taiwan to blossom. Both law changes gave Buddhism a new field to develop with many possibilities on the island. According to Dr. Yu-Chen Li, the BAROC lost its authority to individual temples and became decentralized in Buddhist circles in Taiwan.4 Freedom from the BAROC’s authority results in a new age for ; new and huge temples were built, Buddhist educational programs were created, and Buddhist social participation led to a great number of people to enter the monastic orders. In particular, an increasing bhikkhuni population with good training and education help bhikkhuni’s status to a higher level after the 1990s. It was indeed a golden age for bhikkhunis in Taiwan. Several recognizable bhikkhuni orders and associations were established during the 1990s, and the CBBA is one of them. The founding of the CBBA signifies bhikkhuni’s collective identity and unity in Taiwan. There are several features that make the CBBA unique. First, it is the only bhikkhuni association that overcomes various Buddhist lineages and practices by unifying them under the same mission and purpose. The majority of bhikkhuni organizations in Taiwan are established within their own temples with same lineage, practice, and teacher, and do not allow outsiders to participate. Second, the CBBA remains in touch with the BAROC, thus showing that bhikkhunis can respect bhikkhus while claiming their independence. The goal of the CBBA is not to focus on overpowering bhikkhus, instead, its goal is to raise awareness for gender equality and fair opportunities in the Buddhist world. According to Master Yinshun, “Buddhism has made no distinction between men and women in faith, correct practice, wisdom … Women and men, both and alike, can practice the Way and reach liberation … Women are wise and strong, and, at the same time, not inferior.”5 Third, engaging in social charity and preaching Dharma are the mainstream in contemporary Buddhism in Taiwan, and the CBBA ensures that teaching Dharma is still their priority despite many charitable contributions that they have made to society. Every association has its concern for the future, and the CBBA is no exception. Lack of promoting bhikkhuni education may create a generation gap within the association.

4 Elise Anne DeVido. (2010). Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns, Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 7. 5 Ibid., p. 17. 266 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Due to the fact that most elected officials are seniors, how to bring in new leaders will be a major challenge. Recently, members of the CBBA began to build up a network for bhikkhunis around the world, and to promote the CBBA at an international level. With these intentions, the association has to improve in attracting highly educated bhikkhunis and helping them to contribute with their skills to the association.

The CBBA: An Association Beyond Buddhist Lineages

The CBBA is the only bhikkhuni association with members from different lineages and temples in Taiwan. The association was established in the southern part of Taiwan, Pingtung, on November 23, 1996, under the supervision of the Ministry of the Interior (MOI), ROC. As a nonprofit Buddhist organization, the CBBA aims to unify bhikkhunis in Taiwan and connect with Buddhists abroad the world in order to promote bhikkhunis’ social status, protect the Buddha’s teachings, advocate religious traditions, and provide social services both inside and outside the Buddhist world. The leadership of the CBBA reveals an interesting and balanced geographical network. The First president, Bhikkhuni Jingding, came from southern Taiwan; the Second president, Bhikkhuni Shaohong, came from eastern Taiwan; the Founder and also the Third president, Bhikkhuni Mingzong, came from northern Taiwan; and the current president, Bhikkhuni Puhui, is in central Taiwan. Among the officials of the CBBA, twelve bhikkhunis are in central Taiwan; ten bhikkhunis are in the south; five bhikkhunis are in the north; and two bhikkhunis are in the eastern part of Taiwan. They carry the mission of Dharma by preaching and working for the well-being of others.6 Members are not only geographically diverse, but their Dharma lineages and practices are also distinct from each other; some of them come from the Chan lineage and the Pure Land lineage of Mahayana Buddhism; some combine Mahayana with Theravada Buddhism, and some practice Vajrayana Buddhism. The different practices and lineages make the CBBA more like an organization rather than a temple, which has traditionally one lineage under the same Dharma master. Members of the CBBA create a network of friendship-in-Dharma in order to support each other. They have frequently participated and supported each other’s activities or ceremonies at members’ temples. They also supported each other in the following ways:

6 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on April 22, 2017. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 267

three member birthday gatherings, two in members’ promotions, two in opening ceremonies of temples of members, members’ funerals, and they even attended funerals of members’ masters or parents on four occasions in 2016. The communication and assistance from members proves that the CBBA is a friendly and supportive association for bhikkhunis in Taiwan. In addition, the vice president of the CBBA, Bhikkhuni Hongan, sponsored an annual event at Miao Chong Temple to celebrate World Earth Day and pray for world peace.7 The majority of members of the CBBA were there to support the event. The World Earth Day celebration – which focuses on how to raise people’s awareness in protecting and respecting the environment – became a worldwide event beginning in 1970. Celebrating World Earth Day became an opportunity for people to realize that bhikkhunis care for the well being of people in society. Moreover, the celebration is also an educational program related to environmental education, and promoting education is one of the founding principles of the CBBA. However, a strong supportive network may also be the CBBA’s weakness due to the fact that members spend the majority of their time within their own circle instead of participating with other Buddhist organizations. Lack of connection with people other than their own may reduce opportunities to learn from others. It may also isolate the CBBA from other Buddhist communities. In order to achieve their goal of unifying bhikkhunis in Taiwan and around the world, the CBBA may need to adjust their practices in order to accomplish their stated goals.

The CBBA Has A Unique Structure

The CBBA has a democratic system for electing the president, vice president, directors, and supervisors. Members make sure they have a fair and transparent transition when approaches the time of election. This modern and democrat method sets the CBBA apart from many traditional temples in Taiwan that still follow an ancestral way of selecting the next heir through personal connections. The CBBA’s president and directors serve a four-year term and can be re-elected. Besides having an electoral system, the CBBA’s membership also has a unique system. If we compare membership status in both the CBBA and the Tzu Chi Charitable Foundation (or Ciji) in Taiwan, the former has a collective membership while the later is based on individual membership. In order to become a member of the CBBA, the bhikkhuni should be either president or the representative of a or organization.

7 Ibid. 268 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Once the bhikkhuni becomes a member of the CBBA, all residing bhikkhunis of the temple automatically become members of the association as well. In 2016, there were more than 300 members in the association, but we do not know exactly how many individual members there are. Contrastingly, Ciji’s membership is based on individual laypeople and is divided into different groups in order to accomplish different responsibilities with the foundation. In the CBBA, members emphasize unity, when they appear in public. They understand that they represent the association and not an individual. This is a way to practice the selfless teachings of the Buddha and to prevent one leader from dominating power in the association. Both the CBBA and Ciji have bhikkhunis as leaders. The current president of the CBBA is Bhikkhuni Puhui, and Bhikkhuni Zhengyan is the only leader of Ciji since its establishment in 1966. In the CBBA, they choose a new leader every four or eight years, according to the bylaws. For Ciji, it seems like Bhikkhuni Zhengyan will remain as the leader of the foundation until the last breath of her life. The majority of members in Ciji are fond of their leader’s personal charisma and image but that may not be the case for members of the CBBA toward Bhikkhuni Puhui. According to the Weberian sociological tradition, charisma is “an inborn personal magnetism that arises in the interaction between leader and follower.”8 However, leadership in the CBBA is not necessarily lacking charisma, instead, it is more accurate to say that the CBBA emphasizes a collective image rather than a personal figure likeBhikkhuni Zhengyan in Ciji. Overall, the major concern for the CBBA, is not a personal power issue but rather a generation gap that may weaken the structure in the future due to the fact that the majority of members are senior and aged. Those who are currently in charge of the CBBA, the presidents and directors, became bhikkhunis from the 1950s to the1970s, with an average current age of 70. Whether they are willing to admit it or not, a generation gap is something that members of the CBBA will face in the next decade if they can not recruit more young bhikkhunis into the association.9 The generation gap of Buddhism in Taiwan appeared after the amendment of laws in 1989, which the BAROC granted temples the full freedom to administer activities and function on their own and allow temples to hold ordination ceremonies without the BAROC’s

8 C. Julia Huang. (2008). “Gendered Charisma in the Buddhist Tzu Chi (Ciji) Movement,” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 12:2, p. 31. 9 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on May 1, 2017. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 269

permission and supervision. Multiple annual ordination ceremonies took place after the 1990s and that could be one reason why the population of bhikkhunis has increased tremendously. The increasing bhikkhuni population did not produce unity in the Buddhist world in Taiwan. Instead, several well-known bhikkhuni temples are individually run rather than joined together in a team and they are not members of the CBBA. For instance, bhikkhuni , such as Nanlin Bhikkhuni Sangha and Yide Temple, are not actively involved with the CBBA. These two bhikkhuni sanghas have a large number of young and highly educated bhikkhunis and they can do very well with or without the assistance from outsiders. Also, these two bhikkhni sanghas regularly held bhikkhuni : Nanlin Bhikkhuni Sangha in 1999 and 2003, and Yide Temple in 2004, 2006, and 2012.10 These bhikkhuni sanghas represent the new generation and are capable to function independently. However, it is also true that disconnecting from the bhikkhuni circle in Taiwan may put bhikkhunis’ unification at risk. Therefore, the CBBA must find a way to connect and communicate with these new generations of bhikkhuni sanghas and bring them on board in order to strengthen bhikkhunis’ position in Buddhism. Despite the weakness of the generation gap in the CBBA, the majority of Bhikkhunis in the CBBA are seniors that help the association to maintain a good image of compassion with a gentle approach, even when they have to stand up in the line of duty to protect the Buddha’s teachings. Members of the CBBA would rather choose negotiation than confrontation when to defending Buddhism. For instance, in a case on religious laws that might negatively affect Buddhism, the CBBA took a leading role as a negotiator to deal with the government. On April 28, 2014, Bhikkhuni Jianchao, the representative of the CBBA attended a meeting with officials from the MOI in order to discuss the regulations for non- union religious organizations. In order to be recognized and be registered as a religious organization outside the union, a religious organization must make its reports activity records available for the government to access and inspect, including background and details of an organization’s members and officials, bylaws, and functions. The most controversial issue is rule #10 of the regulation which states that a religious organization must report its financial management on how to handle donations and expenses to the government. This regulation made religious communities in Taiwan feel that their privacy and freedom were threatened.

10 Shi. (2013). “The Educational Development of Bhikkhunis in Taiwan (Taiwan Fojiao Biqiuni Jiaoyu Fazhang Gaikuang).” Luminary International Buddhist Society Library Journal. Luminary International Buddhist Society (LIBS), 56:6. 270 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Religious organizations were never previously asked to reveal their financial statements to the government. The CBBA insisted that the government should respect religious freedom, privacy, and independence from political control, according to the Constitution. One month after the first meeting, President Puhui, along with the legal consultant of the CBBA, Huizhu Shen, attended a follow-up meeting at the MOI to negotiate the process of renewing the registration of Buddhist temples.11 Again, on November 9, 2015, the CBBA co-sponsored a conference to discuss religious regulations that will be enacted by the government in the near future. Over 1,000 bhikkhus and bhikkhunis participated in the meeting. The agenda of the meeting was to find a solution to protect Buddhist organizations from the government’s interference. The bhikkhus and bhikkhunis demanded religious freedom and equality under the Constitution of the ROC and to maintain religious autonomy.12 In all cases in which the Buddha Dharma needs to be asserted, bhikkhunis of the CBBA will be there to show their courage and support. After the conference in November, several follow-up meetings also took place as bhikkhunis of the CBBA did their best to protect the Buddha’s teachings. On March 5, 2016, President Puhui and Secretary Jianyin met with Senator Ruihsiung Zhuang in Pingtung to express their concern about an ongoing discussion on the potential discrimination of the legislation towards the adherents of religious organizations.13 Later, on May 24, 2016, both bhikkhunis Puhui and Jianyin went to Taipei to visit Senator Guoyong Xu with a similar intention of seeking support from him.14 Apart from dealing with the legislation to defend Buddhism, members of the CBBA also stood up to protect Buddhist traditions and culture. In 2013, an incident occurred when a Christian priestess, Q. Y. Liang, publicly criticized and attacked both Taoism’s Mazhu and Buddhism’s as evil spirits. On January 16, 2014, the CBBA and other Buddhist organizations in Taiwan called a press conference to demand an apology from Liang.15 The priority of the press conference was not to condemn Liang’s actions, but to call for a respectful, peaceful, and harmonious environment for all religions in Taiwan.

11 Ministry of the Interior of ROC. Retrieved from Web: http://glrs.moi.gov.tw/LawContentDetails. aspx?id=FL033997 on May 6, 2017. 12 Ibid. 13 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on February 9, 2017. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 271

A Stable Finance for Social Charities

Members’ stable financing also helps the association to freely engage in social charities. For the past twenty years, members have worked diligently to assist people in need in Taiwan and overseas. When a disastrous gas blast occurred in Kaohsiung on August 1, 2004, the CBBA donated $100,000 USD to the Department of Social Services of Kaohsiung for relief. Meanwhile, special Buddhist ceremonies were held in order to spiritually sustain those whose lives had been affected by the tragedy. On March 1, 2011, when a huge tsunami struck Japan, members of the CBBA went to Japan twice in order to donate $420,000 USD to those in need. On June 10, 2013, members of the CBBA raised $176,000 USD for the reconstruction of Buddhist temples in Sichuan, China, which had been previously destroyed by a huge earthquake. On June 19, 2015, president Puhui and members gave $266,000 USD to victims in Kathmandu, Nepal, after an earthquake of 7.9 magnitude traumatized the city and the surrounding areas. Three months later, they returned again to Kathmandu to organize a Buddhist ceremony and made financial contributions to 1,300 local Buddhist monks and nuns. On April 4, 2016, the CBBA donated $139,000 USD to those who had lost loved ones in a huge earthquake of 6.4 magnitude that hit the southern part of Taiwan. Again, on August 8, 2016, members arranged a two-day trip to Taitung, to show their support and offer financial aid to those temples that were damaged by Typhoon Nepartak about one month earlier that year.16 Overall, as proven by the CBBA’s charities, compassion and kindness are effective means to bridge differences between religions, countries, and cultures. In the CBBA, bhikkhunis are the sole participants that perform acts of compassionate although the funding may come from lay people’s donations. Members’ entrance and annual fees represent the core funding of the association: all their charitable funds or emergency aid is derived from members’ donations for special occasions or events. Charitable contributions have been the main reasons why Taiwanese recognize the CBBA, despite the main goal of the association being to build up a network and unify bhikkhunis around the world. This recognition may be a warning sign for this bhikkhuni association with respect to the direction it may take in the future. Surely, members of the CBBA do not want to be seen as charity workers, but rather as bhikkhunis with a special role in Buddhism. To participate in social activities and charities is a way, according to bhikkhunis, to show people that Buddhists care about sentient beings as well as their religious practices.

16 Ibid. 272 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The “Buddhism for the human world” that Master Taixu promoted during the 20th century is to encourage Buddhists to act as “a moral agent” in order to follow the path of bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism.17 In contemporary Buddhism in Taiwan, Buddhist masters such as, Xinyun of Fo Guang Shan, Shengyan of , and Zhengyan of Ciji, are promoters of humanistic Buddhism. They do this by approaching and helping people in society while practicing the Buddha’s teaching. However, there are also questions and concerns regarding the ways in which monastic orders are involved in society. How can monastic members maintain pure ethics and doctrines while engaging with the secular world? This may be a future challenge for all Buddhist sanghas in Taiwan.18 The CBBA similarly experiences this dilemma as most of their activities and functions focus on social engagement and charities. In fact, secularization is a problem for all religions. Scholars including the contemporary American sociologist Peter L. Berger, criticized religion’s involvement with modern society, inasmuch as it would damage the purity and morality of a religion, and, therefore, its essence.19 In 1997, after having visited Taiwan for the first time,Bhikkhu Jungun of China wrote an article about how impressed and moved he was by the achievements that Buddhist organizations such as Ciji, Fo Guang Shan, and Dharma Drum Mountain have made around the world.20 Two years later, after his second trip to Taiwan, Bhikkhu Jungun expressed his concern about how Buddhism in Taiwan was so deeply involved in social activities and less focused on Dharma preaching. Bhikkhu Jungun is not alone; there is much debate about whether social involvement can be defined as a sign of secularization in a religion. However, the CBBA’s involvement in social charities has only been a part of their function, therefore the association must not to be labeled as one of the social charitable organizations in the secular world, but rather as a bhikkhuni association that pursues bhikkhuni unity. Despite social involvement, the CBBA held a huge ceremony to remind Buddhists in Taiwan that unity and promotion of bhikkhunis is still the association’s priority. The outstanding event for the CBBA was “The 1st Global Awards for Outstanding Contributions

17 Scott Pacey. (2016). “Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Practice,” The Buddhist World, ed. John Powers, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 419-20. 18 Pacey, “Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Practice,” p. 429. 19 Peter L. Berger. (1999). “The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview,” The Desecu- larization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger, Washington, D.C.: the Ethics and Public Policy Center, p. 1. 20 Pacey, “Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Practice,” p. 429. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 273

of Commentated Bhikkhuni in Celebrating the 20th Anniversary of the Chinese Bhikkhuni Association” at Jhong Jheng Stadium in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, on November 19, 2016. The ceremony aimed to recognize and honor bhikkhunis’ contributions around the world. The CBBA invited bhikkhunis from Asia, Europe, and the United States to attend the award ceremony. There were around 180 members’ temples of the CBBA listed as coordinators of the event.21 The celebration began at 4:30 pm. and finished at 9 pm., with performances by a high school’s marching band and Taiwanese doing aboriginal dance. The biggest moment for the night was the awards conferral ceremony.22 The award ceremony revealed the future plans of the CBBA for making the association international with the creation of a global network for bhikkhunis. The recipients of the award had diverse backgrounds and nationalities and were chosen carefully prior to the day of the ceremony. On June 23, 2016, about five months before the ceremony, president Puhui went with several members to Bangkok, Thailand, in order to visit bhikkhunis Dr. Lee (USA) and Rattanavali (Thailand). They made this trip to invite them to be, respectively, the judge and the secretary of the event.23 Bhikkhuni Dr. Lee is one of the pioneers in raising awareness of gender equality in Buddhism. After the United Nation in New York invited her to give a speech on how to raise awareness gender equality on International Women’s Day on March 8, 2001, Bhikkhuni Dr. Lee began to work with Bhikkhuni Rattanavali and established The Outstanding Awards (OWBA) in 2001. Both the CBBA and the OWBA carry a mission to promote female Buddhists in Buddhist circles. However, there is a slight difference in structure between them; the CBBA is an association only for bhikkhunis, while the OWBA is open to all female Buddhists. Despite their difference in membership, both associations share the same mission in recognizing female accomplishments in Buddhism, in proactively engaging in charities, and in promoting educational opportunities for Buddhist women in order to preach the teachings of the Buddha in the future.24 Creating a bond between these two female Buddhist associations, during the CBBA’s first visit to bhikkhunis Dr. Lee

21 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on April 9, 2017. 22 2016.11.19 The 20th Anniversary of C.B.B.A. Retrieved from Web: http://cbbaroc.org/CBBA- ROC/node/84 on February 7, 2017. 23 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on February 9, 2017. 24 Outstanding Women in Buddhism Awards. Retrieved from Web: http://www.dhammawiki.com/ index.php?title=Outstanding_Women_in_Buddhism_Awards on February 9, 2017. 274 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

and Rattanavali, members donated around $10,000 USD to support the reconstruction of The International Women’s Meditation Center after having heard that the center was intentionally burnt down by an arsonist.25 This support showed that bhikkhunis are all disciples of the Buddha and belong to the same family. The CBBA held its first award ceremony, entitled “The Academy Award”, for outstanding bhikkhunis around the world.26 However, the fact that the majority of the recipients were selected from members of the CBBA is questionable. There were, in fact, 50 bhikkhunis recognized as role models for female Buddhist practitioners, and 30 out of the 50 recipients are members of the CBBA, including the president, vice president, directors, and supervisors. Besides the 30 recipients from Taiwan, the other 20 recipients were, 4 from South Korea and the United States; 3 from China 2 from Thailand and Malaysia; and 1 from Sri Lanka, Singapore, Cambodia, the United Kingdom, and Austria. In addition, recipients came from three of the five continents, North America, Europe, and Asia, but no recipient came from South America, Africa, or Australia. Lack of participants from these continents may create a gap for the association’s intention to unify worldwide bhikkhunis. The geographical distribution of recipients reflects the fact that the CBBA should work harder in order to truly build an international bhikkhuni network in the future. Again, in order to achieve their goal, members of the CBBA have to overcome differences in Buddhist cultures and lineages, nationalities, and show their sincerity regarding unity. In so doing, the CBBA needs to recruit highly educated bhikkhunis who are capable in various languages or familiar with diverse Buddhist cultures to serve the association’s need. Alternatively, the CBBA may need to begin to promote and support bhikkhunis’ higher education in view of future needs of the association. Living in an impermanent and multicultural world, this could be a solution for the association improvement and survival.

The CBBA: A Traditional Role Model or A Burden

The association possesses several features, such as the respect for elders and seniors, and living in harmony, as part of their Buddhist tradition. Many other religions as well as Buddhism are informed by the relationship between seniors and juniors. This relationship

25 Ibid. 26 Taiwan Press Praises Buddhist Nuns. Retrieved from Web: https://sravastiabbey.org/taiwan- press-praises-awards-buddhist-nuns/ 12/1/2016 on April 5, 2017. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 275

in Buddhism determines the time when a bhikkhu or a bhikkhuni receives his/her full ordination. As a typical model of this tradition, members of the CBBA elect the most senior bhikkhuni among these candidates and give the presidency to her. They grant to the senior president the full power of authority to lead junior members. This senior-junior tradition has bounded members together very well. Under senior bhikkhunis’ leadership, the CBBA became a stable, safe haven, and a non-conflict zone for members to practice, communicate, and support each other. Taking leadership positions for bhikkhunis has become very common in Taiwanese Buddhism today. Regarding bhikkhunis’ abilities to serve as leaders, Professor Chun-fang Yu argues that, “generally speaking, it is hard to detect much difference. In terms of their asceticism, ability to work miracles, willingness to sacrifice their lives for the Dharma, expertise in sutra exposition, and ability to achieve great feats of chanting scripture, the nuns noted were in no way inferior to monks.”27 For the past 20 years, the accomplishments of bhikkhunis of the CBBA can be considered as a living example of the significance of bhikkhunis meaning and significance in Buddhist circles and society. The function of the association is also an interpretation of “Buddhist women should lead Buddhist women.”28 Insofar as it is an association entirely administered and run by nuns, from leadership to members, bhikkhunis themselves work as a team for the benefit of sentient beings and defend the teachings of the Buddha in Taiwan. As a traditional Buddhist association with seniors as the highest authority, the CBBA may also create obstacles for achieving their goals. One concern is that the so-called “respect and harmony” system, in which juniors must listen and follow seniors’ direction without objections, may become a traditional hierarchy which blocks younger bhikkhunis’ development. When we compare both CBBA and BAROC, they do share a similar hierarchical structure in the Buddhist tradition with an overlapped leadership and an identical structure. In fact, the majority of current and previous presidents, directors, and supervisors of the CBBA have served as directors or supervisors for the BAROC. This overlapping leadership indicates the close relationship between these two associations and the CBBA is still traditionally under the supervision of BAROC. This bhikkhuni-centered association is not as independent as

27 Chun-fang Yu. (2003). Passing the Light: The Incense Light Community and Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Taiwan, Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, p. 13. 28 DeVido. (2005). Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns, p. 16. This was originally cited from Lingyu Li’s Master’s thesis, “A Study of ‘The Movement of Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns’ Feminism,” Graduate Institute of Religious Studies, National Chengchi University, p. 70. 276 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

we thought from the BAROC bhikkhu-centred association, after all. Members of the CBBA may say this is a way to show their respect to bhikkhus because it is a traditional value and precept in Buddhism. Also, it is understandable that a traditional association like the CBBA does not want to create controversy or make trouble for the association. Obviously, one of the bylaws of the CBBA describes the desire of the CBBA to raise awareness of bhikkhuni contributions and to promote gender equality in the Buddhist circle of Taiwan. In reality, those promises and goals still need to be fulfilled. The first step for the CBBA is to be more specific on what direction the association wants to take in the future. Another concern for the CBBA is a lack of young and highly educated bhikkhunis in the association. The leadership of the CBBA evidences a generation gap as president and vice presidents, received their ordinations between the 1950s to the 1960s. The founder Bhikkhuni Mingzong was born in 1938. The second president Bhikkhuni Shaohong was born in 1936. The current president Bhikkhuni Puhui was born in 1962. They belong to senior bhikkhunis in the Buddhist circle of Taiwan.29 The new generation of Buddhists began when the Bhikkhuni population swelled after the amendment of the Law on the Organization of Civil Groups (LOCG) in 1989, which allowed Buddhist temples to hold annual ordinations with or without the permission from the BAROC.30 The 2012 survey shows that there were 9,747 bhikkhunis ordained from 1989 to 2012 (seven temples did not participate in the survey).31 This new generation of bhikkhunis could provide the main resources for the development of the CBBA, but only members of the association are willing to step out of their comfort zone and thinking outside the box. The CBBA does not need to go too far to find a new generation of bhikkhunis with well-trained and highly educated skills who can help the CBBA’s international network. From the 1990s to the 2010s, highly educated bhikkhunis in Taiwan became a phenomena that fascinated the worldwide Buddhist community due to several universities in Taiwan beginning to offer courses in religious studies. From 1988 to 1997, there were three universities, Fu Jen Catholic University (FJU), Aletheia University (AU), and Hsuan Chuang University (HCU), that started programs in religious studies at the graduate level; FJU was the only university to offer PhD degree at that time in religious studies. From 2000 to 2008, seven universities

29 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on April 8, 2017. 30 Pacey, “Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Practice,” p. 420. 31 Shi, “The Educational Development of Bhikkhunis in Taiwan.” pp. 93-96. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 277

joined the previous three to offer religious studies programs, they are: National Chengchi University (NCCU), Tzu Chi University (TCU), Chung Yuan Christian University (CYCU), Fo Guang University (FGU), Nanhua University (NHU), Tunghai University (THU), and Dharma Drum Institute of Liberal Arts (DILA). In 2013, there were already 94 bhikkhunis and 14 bhikkhus that received M.A. degrees in religious studies from three Buddhist universities, NHU, HCU, and TCU.32 However, I also suggest that there may be more bhikkhunis that should obtain either M.A. or Ph.D. degrees in majors or fields other than religious studies. For instance, two of my Dharma brothers obtained their Ph.D. in recent years respectively in Comparative Literature at FJU and in Oriental Cultural and Thought Studies at Huafan University (HFU). In addition, many bhikkhunis also went to foreign countries to study and came home with their degrees. However, there is no available data or survey to show a ratio between bhikkhunis who earned degrees in Taiwan or those who earned degrees overseas, or how many bhikkhunis earned their degrees in fields besides religious studies. Even though Taiwan has the greatest number of highly educated bhikkhunis compared to bhikkhunis in other countries, studying majors other than religious studies, specifically in Buddhist studies, is still considered as non-traditional and inappropriate for a bhikkhuni. After discovering that I am a student at NCCU, several senior bhikkhunis asked me to transfer to other Buddhist founded universities because there is no reason for a Buddhist nun to study in a secular university. Concerning Buddhist education in Taiwan, both Bhikkhuni Wuyin and Bhikkhu Bodhi of the USA, point out that Buddhist education must focus on Buddhist traditions by combining practical and academic methods. Therefore, both religious and secular educations are deemed important for teaching Dharma effectively in the future.33 The promotion of bhikkhuni education is an unfulfilled dream for the CBBA. It is Bhikkhuni Mingzong, the founder of the CBBA, who emphasized the importance of bhikkhuni education when she founded the association in 1996. Bhikkhuni Mingzong was born in Tainan in 1938. When she was only fourteen year old, she decided to enter a Buddhist order and became a novice nun in Lingyin Temple, in order to get an education. Women did not have many opportunities or options for higher education at that time. After realizing the importance

32 Ibid., p. 98. 33 Xun Zhang. (2011). “The Fair Sky of Bhikkhunis: Review ‘The Sky of Bhikkhunis: 2009 Essays on International Conference in Buddhist Sangha,” Luminary International Buddhist Society Library Journal. Luminary International Buddhist Society (LIBS), 52:6. 278 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

of Buddhist education for a bhikkhuni, she went to study at the Baisheng’s Tripitaka Buddhist Seminary in Taipei, and continuously went to Japan for her education beginning in 1965.34 Education plays an irreplaceable role in Bhikkhuni Mingzong’s life. Therefore, she made bhikkhuni education as one of the founding bylaws of the CBBA. The CBBA carries a mission of promoting bhikkhuni education. However, most of their recognized achievements have come from social charities rather than providing educational opportunities, financial aid, or scholarships forbhikkhunis . So far, all achievements and accomplishments in education from members of the CBBA have come from individual contributions of establishing schools for general education. This includes president Bhikkhuni Puhui and one of the directors, Bhikkhuni Changlu, both found and rebuilt schools in central Taiwan. Bhikkhuni Puhui, having been president of Shen Chai Tan since 1969, received praise as an educator after she became founder and president of the Shen Chai Elementary School, the first Buddhist elementary school in Taichung in 2004.35 On March 8, 2016, Bhikkhuni Puhui received an award at the 15th Anniversary Outstanding Women in Buddhism Awards in Honor of the United Nations International Women’s.36 Bhikkhuni Changlu, an executive director of the CBBA, also served as president of Tzu Ming High School, Taichung. The school was founded in the 1970s, and was relocated, as well as rebuilt after being destroyed by a huge earthquake on September 21, 1999. Two years after the natural calamity, Bhikkhuni Changlu became president, and started 10 year project in order to rebuild the school. Currently, there are about 4,000 registered students at Tzu Min High School, Junior High, and Kindergarten.37 Bhikkhuni Changlu also became the recipient of the 16th Anniversary Outstanding Women in Buddhism Awards in Honor of the United Nations International Women’s Day. Finally, another member of the CBBA, Bhikkhuni Tizheng, did not establish schools as her two Dharma colleagues did, but rather contributed to Buddhist educational programs. Concerning the future development of Buddhist sangha, Bhikkhuni Tizheng regularly holds Buddhist conferences to discuss critical issues in Buddhism.38 The achievements in education of those

34 Yu, Passing the Light, p. 59. 35 Shen Chai Elementary School. Retrieved from Web: http://www.sces.tc.edu.tw on April 20, 2017. 36 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on February 9, 2017. 37 Tzu Ming High School. Retrieved from Web: http://www.tmhs.tc.edu.tw/webc/html/overview/ index.php?num=35&u_power=0 on April 1, 2017. 38 Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved from Web: file:///Users/zenmaster/Desktop/ Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive on February 12, 2017. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 279

three members of the CBBA, Puhui, Changlu, and Tizheng, were begun long before they became key members of the association. The major concern regarding the CBBA’s lack of a plan to promote bhikkhuni education is that they do not financially support thosebhikkhunis who are currently pursuing their M.A. or Ph.D. degrees. In reality, members of the CBBA hold very traditional perspectives. It will be interesting to see if they are willing to support those bhikkhunis who either study at colleges other than Buddhist colleges, or those who study other majors rather than religious studies. Can they support those bhikkhuni students without discrimination? There are so many questions and only time would reveal what direction or method the CBBA will go from here. One thing we can predict: in order to have new generations of bhikkhunis to be part of the CBBA, members of the association must show their sincere support to young and potential bhikkhunis for study, and create opportunities for devoting themselves to the teachings of the Buddha. In order to promote the association to at an international level, the CBBA needs to have intellectual bhikkhunis with highly educated qualifications in different fields and languages with skills in management, communication, and academic research to assist the association to reform, prosper, and achieve the higher goal of protecting the teachings of the Buddha in the future.

Conclusion: Bhikkhunis In Taiwan Are at A Crossroad

Bhikkhunis in Taiwan hold an international reputation because of gender equality, educational achievements and successful application of the Buddha’s teaching. As a bhikkhuni association, the CBBA possess significant characteristics such as, unifying different Buddhist lineages and cultures; functioning under a unique systemized structure; having stable financial resources to engage in social charities, and has become a representative of the Buddhist tradition. For the past twenty years, members of the CBBA have supported each other and created a harmonious environment in the Taiwanese Buddhist circle. It has a democratic election system to make sure the association is not dominated by personal ambition but functions as a whole. In order to create a well-balanced association, members elect officials, presidents, vice presidents, directors, and supervisors from different areas of Taiwan. Members’ diverse backgrounds and lineages provide them an opportunity to learn from each other. Due to the function of the senior bhikkhunis as authorities, the association is much more stable than most Buddhist associations in Taiwan. For the past twenty years, members of the CBBA have not found themselves involved in controversies because of their gentle approach even towards legal problems with the defense of Buddhism against the Taiwanese government. 280 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

This unique way of dealing with complicated issues has allowed the association to acquire a good reputation in Taiwan. However, the CBBA’s unique features may also entail weaknesses and shortcomings. First, the members’ supportive network has been reserved to members only and has impeded a constructive dialogue with non-members. Therefore, their universal, unitarian ideal is only effective for members. Most bhikkhunis, especially those in large bhikkhuni orders, do not participate in the CBBA’s activities. One might argue that members of the CBBA create a non- conflict zone, not because they are peacemakers, but because they maintain a distance from other Buddhist communities, thus building a safety-zone. As previously shown, the CBBA follows Buddhist traditions such as respect for seniors and elders. However, this tradition may be impractical and hinder an international ambition because of lack of opportunities for younger generations to have their voices heard within the traditional hierarchical system. Inasmuch as it maintains itself as a traditional Buddhist association, the CBBA neglects the important issue of promoting bhikkhuni’ education. As Dr. Karma Lekshe Tsomo points out, a lack of qualified Buddhist teachers might be the greatest challenge in contemporary Buddhism around the world. Buddhist temples or associations encourage bhikkhunis to pursue higher education as a contribution to the Buddhist world.39 The founder of the CBBA, Bhikkhuni Mingzong, deems bhikkhuni education as the primary goal for the recognition of bhikkhunis in Buddhism. Today, as we know, those who chose to become bhikkhunis were educated before joining the sangha in the 1980s, with at least a 2-year or 4-year college diploma when they joined the sangha.40 The CBBA can either recruit those highly educated bhikkhunis to take part in the function of the CBBA, or spend part of the association’s funding to support bhikkhunis in academic studies. Both ways may be helpful for the future of the association.

39 Karma Lekshe Tsomo. (2017). “Global Challenges to Buddhist Education: Crisis as Opportunity,” 2017 The Buddhist Sangha’s Inner Practice and Outward Dharma Preaching Conference, Taipei: Associa- tion of Buddhist Sangha Lifelong Education, 2017, p.18. The citation was taken from part of Dr. Tsomo’s speech at the conference on March 4, 2017. 40 Yu, Passing the Light, p. 71. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 281

References

Berger, Peter L. (1999). “The Desecularization of the World: A Global Overview,” The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, ed. Peter L. Berger. Washington, D.C.: the Ethics and Public Policy Center. Buddhist Door Network. To Work for Bhikkhunis and This Should be A More “Feminine” Time – Interview the 17th Karmapa. Retrieved May 14, 2017, from http:// gyalwangkarmapa.blogspot.tw/2016/12/blog-post_31.html. Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association. Retrieved April 22, 2017, from file:///Users/ zenmaster/Desktop/Bhikkhuni/中華佛教比丘尼協進會.webarchive. DeVido, Elise Anne. (2010). Taiwan’s Buddhist Nuns. Albany: State University of New York Press. History in the Making. The First Step Toward Full Ordination for Tibetan Buddhist Nuns. Retrieved May 3, 2017, from http://kagyuoffice.org/history-in-the-making-the- first-step-toward-full-ordination-for-tibetan-buddhist-nuns/. Huang, C. Julia. (2008). “Gendered Charisma in the Buddhist Tzu Chi (Ciji) Movement,” Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions 12:2:31. Ministry of the Interior of ROC. Retrieved May 6, 2017, from http://glrs.moi.gov.tw/ LawContentDetails.aspx?id=FL033997. Outstanding Women in Buddhism Awards. Retrieved February 9, 2017, from http// www.dharmawiki.com/index.php?title=Outstanding_Women_in_Buddhism_ Awards. Pacey, Scott. (2016). “Contemporary Chinese Buddhist Practice,” The Buddhist World, ed. John Powers, London and New York: Routledge. Shi, Zhiyan. (2013). “The Educational Development of Bhikkhunis in Taiwan (Taiwan Fojiao Biqiuni Jiaoyu Fazhang Gaikuang).” Luminary International Buddhist Society Library Journal. Luminary International Buddhist Society (LIBS), 56:6. Shen Chai Elementary School. Retrieved April 20, 2017, from http://www.sces.tc.edu.tw. Shih, Heng-Ching. (2000). “Lineage and Transmission: Integrating the Chinese and Tibetan Orders of Buddhist Nuns,” Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal 13:505. Taiwan Press Praises Buddhist Nuns. (2016). Retrieved April 5, 2017, from https:// sravastiabbey.org/taiwan-press-praises-awards-buddhist-nuns/ 12/1/2016. 282 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Tsomo, Karma Lekshe. (2017). “Global Challenges to Buddhist Education: Crisis as Opportunity,” 2017 The Buddhist Sangha’s Inner Practice and Outward Dharma Preaching Conference. Taipei: Association of Buddhist Sangha Lifelong Education. Tzu Ming High School. Retrieved April 1, 2017, from http://www.tmhs.tc.edu.tw/webc/ html/overview/index.php?num=35&u_power=0. Yu, Chun-fang. (2003). Passing the Light: The Incense Light Community and Buddhist Nuns in Contemporary Taiwan. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Zhang, Xun. (2011). “The Fair Sky of Bhikkhunis: Review ‘The Sky of Bhikkhunis: 2009 Essays on International Conference in Buddhist Sangha_Luminary International Buddhist Society Library Journal. Luminary International Buddhist Society (LIBS), 52:6.2016.11.19 The 20th Anniversary of C.B.B.A. Retrieved February 7, 2017, from http://cbbaroc.org/CBBAROC/node/84.

Sociology of Indian Buddhism

Ven. Vajira Ph.D Candidate, College of Religious Studies Mahidol University, Salaya

Abstract

The aim of this appear is to clarify how Buddhism can take its specifi c position among other counterpart religions and obtain faith of the mass from various social classes in India and fi nd out its missionary method will be signifi cantly explored in terms of sociological aspect together with a few research questions: “why can Buddhism stand up among diverse religions and multicultural societies in India and what is social integration between Buddhism and society in India?”. In this respect, this study will not focus on society, signifi cance of society, important role of society, and the impact of society on Buddhism at all and not talk about how social approval is important for a religion to survive for a long time but will make fully attention only on the Buddhist social concerns, functions, its sociological theory, movement, and social interacting between Bhikkhu order (samgha) and society in India.

Keywords: Buddhism, Sociology, Indian Culture JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 283

Introduction

Buddhism is a humanistic religion originated in India with the idea of kamma and its results, the notion of non-self and libration from continuity of life cycle (samsaræ) surrounded with sufferings; birth, aging, sickness, death, staying with the disliked and departing from the beloved. It is assumed that in 6th century B.C, Buddhism was founded by Gotama Buddha in India. At that time, prior to Buddhism, various beliefs, religions such as Brahmanism and Jainism had already flourished in India and dominated Indian society with the large-scale and the notion of eternal self are also strongly rooted there. It is hard for Buddhism with new ideological presentations against existing outlooks to survive among dominated religions and local beliefs. Buddhism, in fact, could be called reductionism because it presented new soteriological aspect and philosophy of non-self to Indian society reducing the role of eternal soul. This non-self philosophy was a huge challenge for Buddhism and that sort of claim was gravely risky claim and purely new religious movement at that time in India. For Buddhism, the possibility to survive in a society that fits with the belief in eternal soul might be at the bottom and it might probably encounter numerous trouble and interference at the very first beginning of its journey because it is obvious that any new movement against existing one obtained huge social support has to face a wealth of trouble and interference and sometime has to be taken political actions for new movement. Buddhism, however, could stand up and took its important position among various beliefs and religions with new religious movement and philosophy. Thus, it is interested to know that how Buddhism effectively made its missionary works and struggled for its persistence among diverse religions and beliefs in India though it was new religion with new notion. In this paper, how Buddhism can take its specific position among other counterpart religions and obtain faith of the mass from various social classes in India and its missionary method will be significantly explored in terms of sociological aspect together with a few research questions: “why can Buddhism stand up among diverse religions and multicultural societies in India and what is social integration between Buddhism and society in India?”. In this respect, this study will not focus on society, significance of society, important role of society, and the impact of society on Buddhism at all and not talk about how social approval is important for a religion to survive for a long time but will make fully attention only on the Buddhist social concerns, functions, its sociological theory, movement, and social interacting between Bhikkhu order (samgha) and society in India. 284 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Belief and at the time of the Buddha

India is a magnificent and civilized country comprising multi-cultural societies, different social classes and religions from the outset of its history to until present age. According to archaeological evidence, about 3000 B.C, in other words about 2500 years prior to the Buddha, civilization appeared in India. (Warder, 2000, 15) At the Buddha time, India had enriched with many intellects, philosophers, ideological debates and religions. Brahmanism, the Lokæyata (naturalism, ), the Agnostics, Æjøvakism, Jainism and many other asceticism, schools and their teachings had flourished in Indian society in depth before Buddhism and after the Buddha time, ©aivism. Among them, the major religion of Indian people is Brahmanism (nowadays people call Hinduism), it can take great influential role upon Indian society rather than other religions. They believe in Brahma as holy God and their reliance and transmigration of eternal soul. Thus, the Brahmanist concept, “Brahma1 is holy, immortal and omnipotent, that’s to say, the concept of eternal soul” has been strongly rooted in all level of Indian society. Their teachings can be found in the Vedic texts. Veda is holy and sacred text for them. The word Veda means knowledge and refers to sacred knowledge, knowledge about ultimate matters (Gombrich, 2006, 33) and Vedic religion centred on sacrifice fire, the domestic fire, the hearth, received offerings on every ritual occasion. (Ibid, 37) Concerned with Veda, they embraced that there was no composer of Vedic text because ordinary people are not capable of composing holy text. In the light of it, Vedic text is likely to have direct connection with holy beings. Then, their ultimate libration of the soul is “union with the Supreme Being” in the state entirely transcending the empirical universe. (Warder, 2000, 23) Apart from above isms, they follow the belief of traditional sprits, tree spirit, sky spirit, river spirit and so forth. Big tree is a place of adoration for early Indian people. Additionally, the six contemporary philosophers; Pþra¼a Kassapa (amoralist), Makkhali Gosæla (determinist), Ajita Kesakambala (nihilist), Pakuda Kaccæyana (categorialist), Niga¼¥ha Næ¥aputta (relativist and eclectic), Sañjaya Bela¥¥haputta (indeterminist),2 can also be regarded as well-known spiritual leaders in India at the time of the Buddha. They

1 The further expression of Brahma is that “in the early Vedic period, the word Brahma meant a sacred text, with an underlying sense of great or excellent, but later, in the time of the Pauravas, Brahman was personified as the Supreme Being or God Brahma, the original being out of whom the universe evolved”. A.K. Warder, (2000), “Indian Buddhism”, Delhi, Shri Jainendra Press, 20. 2 “ Sølakkhandha Vagga” Pæ¹i, 46 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 285

have the respective speculations upon the entities of the world. Of them, the first one, Pæra¼a Kassapa holds the view of akiriya, it means there is “no good or evil in the world and no its effect as well”, second one claims that there is “neither cause nor condition for being something”, for the third one, “nothing exists in the world, except the four elements” even the parents do not exist, the forth one states that “no doer of something”, in his aspect even if one kills a person, no one committed that killing, just sword passes through the spaces amongst the seven bodies, fifth one rejects “using water” he did not use water after going toilet and the last one takes ambiguous view.3 Each of them was famous as great supreme teachers, ascetics and had many followers. They, in fact, were senior than the Buddha and contemporary philosophers of the Buddha. Their teachings affected upon the people to some extend at that time. So that, it can straightforwardly be understood how Indian society is staggering with myriad beliefs and religions. The early period of India can be considered as Vedic period. The influence of Veda impacted all over the India at that time. So, the notions and traditions in Veda might somehow overwhelm Indian societies and the behaviors and thoughts of Indian people were likely to link with Vedic traditions. It is true that the rites, rituals and cultures of a certain country are mainly adopted from the specific religion thrived there. For instance, Myanmar people tend to assume that 50% percents of Myanmar cultures derived from Buddhism and the rest from and Hinduism. In the same way, the traditions and culture of Indian society at the time of the Buddha had a vast impact of Brahmanism and Vedic traditions. Among Indian traditions and cultures, caste system (the tradition relating to the notion of higher and lower castes people) is one of the most important traditions for Indian society. The status and ability of a person tend to be regarded as higher and lower looking at his or her birth situation rather than his or her capacity, endeavor and present good or bad behavior. Regardless of the wise and the wicked, educated and uneducated, high class mans everlastingly take the role of master, holy and owner, on the other hand, low class mans are slaves, workers and outcastes. In any affairs, low class people have to stay in lower level of social stratification, they have no chance to talk back to high class mans, even staring at high class man is regarded as committing offence. Herein, the social strata of India can be classified into fourfold: 1. Brahmana caste (), 2. Khattiya caste (the members of royal family), 3 caste (the rich and those who are born in trading family) and 4. Suddha caste (those born in outcaste family,

3 Ibid, 50 286 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

workers, cleaners and so on). Their statuses hierarchically stand in Indian society. Brahmana caste can be considered as the highest caste among four classes though Suddha caste person: outcaste mans, workers and cleaners are called as lower class person because in the light of Brahmana tradition, they are assumed that Brahmins have to be born from Brahma’s mouse (holy being’s mouse). After Brahmana caste, Khattiya, Vassa and Suddha castes take the higher level of position successively in Indic society. Nonetheless, both Brahmana caste and Khattiya caste might be endorsed as high class (Ukka¥ha jæti), though Vassa caste middle and Suddha low class (Høna jæti).4 At that time, Brahmins played the role of spiritual leaders, teachers, mediums and intellective philosophers in that society. Whenever trouble, complexities, turmoil, problems and any crisis; natural, social, political or economic touch them in depth, they tended to approach Brahmins in order to ask for benevolent instructions from Brahmins to effectively get rid of these undesirable circumstances. On the one hand, their influences are able to impact on social matters, cultural and ritual occasions as well on a large scale. For instance, ritual, it could not successfully be accomplished unless a certain Brahmin makes that ritual legitimize before the audiences. This is considerably resemblance with funeral ritual of Theravæda Buddhism. Theravædims’ funeral ritual cannot be completed without participation of its monks. This ritual can clearly be seen in Theravæda countries, Thailand, Myanmar and so on. In Myanmar, there is one funeral ritual, that is taking Triple Gems from the monks in front of corpse (in Myanmar, it is called “tharanagune tinchin”). This is compulsory act for funeral ritual, without doing it, the corpse cannot be buried or the rest members of family feel hesitate to bury dead body. Therefore, monks’ engagement in that ritual is significant. Besides these, Khattiya caste concerns with ruling class. They govern country and regulate rules and regulation for the masses of population. All sort of authorities relating to country are in their hand. The can do or assess whatever they wish. The two classes; Brahmana and Khattiya classes, however, are interdependent one another and mutually assist one another to elevate reputations and status of each and protect their position from outside winds. State man and warriors have to acquire spiritual instructions from Brahmins; in return, Brahmins have to obtain supports and guards from the state men. Regarding that, it is important to know the ways Buddhism initiated, flourished and its inclination of people towards the teachings of the Buddha among various religious societies, especially Brahmanist dominated society in terms of belief and cultures.

4 Pæcittiya Pæli, 20 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 287

Social Ideology of the Buddha in Early India

The ultimate objective of the Buddhism is to liberate from samsaræ, (round of rebirth) extinguishing all kinds of defilements and attachment to earthly affairs. Librating from and eliminating all defilements are accordingly called as enlightening or free from various kinds of sufferings, mental or physical. For this purpose, Siddhattha renounced all of his royal positions inclusive of his new born son, Rhulæ. Nevertheless, it can be found that Buddhism itself, in reality, integrated with secular society through its teachings and followers, order of monks, despite claiming of complete renouncing of secular world. In this case, the concept of Buddhist socialization can be divided into two components; ultimate socialization and immediate socialization. (Ratnapala, 1993, 34) Herein, ultimate socialization means librating from defilements, (attainment of nibbæna), whereas immediate socialization refers to making one’s present life pleasant, replace unwholesome things with the wholesome and ensure such a pleasant life in the future both in the life and in hereafter. (Ibid) Buddhism presented its teachings to people in terms of two types of librations; complete libration and temporary libration comparing with unpleasant entities, sufferings; birth, ageing, sickness death which are linking with the samsaræ. Naturally humans strongly disgust suffering, perplexity, hardship, trouble and tragedy, though they desire happiness, peace and pleasant. That’s what, they have eternally to be wandering for the happiness of their lives and their families tirelessly. In fact, the Buddha time could be recognized as transition period of India, that’s to say, urbanization period. Then, India shifted rural community to urban society. During transition period, people have to encounter economic crisis and a heap of the problems and they want solely to be free from their present dilemmas and to get outlet of them. At that time, Buddhism was compatible with the needs of Indian society because Buddhism offered many outlets of suffering with various options while people suffer a lot of mental and physical pains. If a person wishes to attain final peace and happiness (nirvana), then he can obtain it through morality, meditation and wisdom, otherwise, if a person desire to achieve temporary peace and happiness which are worldly happiness and peace, then he can gain it through giving, morality and tranquility meditation. (Spiro, 1982, 95) Moreover, Buddhism offered poverty alleviating method or demerit replacing method to the people. According to the doctrine of Karma, a person’s poverty, demerit and misfortune are able to be alleviated and replaced to pleasurable condition by giving charity and performing good things. Because of these Buddhist teachings related to socializations which offer freedom of sufferings, Buddhism seized an attention from people, and their reinforcements taking a strong position among diverse beliefs and societies within a short time. 288 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Additionally when the Buddha shared the Dhamma, he expounded it not only for other worldly aim but for this present benefits primarily focusing on social ethics. The implications of Buddhist teachings for social behaviors can be found in many suttas as well. In Si³gæla sutta,5 the duties of parents, offspring, teacher, pupils, husband and wife are remarkably mentioned. Besides these, Four Principles of Social Integration (sa³gaha vatthu), giving and distribution (dæna), speaking kindly and beneficial words (peya-væca), rendering of services for others’ welfare (attha-cariya), and equality (treating all alike) and participation (samænatthatæ)6 and five precepts, the four modes of sublime livings (cattæro brahmavihæræ)7. It is clear that all these above-mentioned teachings are neither relating to detachment of secular affairs, nor the attainment of nirvana, just concerned with social development and the ways “how to treat other, how to be dutiful person in life and how to live in peacefully and harmoniously with others respecting their rights. So, in Buddhist teachings, socialization is founded on an ethical basic. Again, the contribution of the Buddha concerning caste system was one of the supporting factors for his teachings by people and his newly social skill as well. His aspect of caste system totally contradicted with what Indian society had already accepted at that time. He disclosed a gravely closed society on caste system claiming the essence of inner qualities rather than outer appearance and accepted all people equally without discriminating on caste. From the sociological point of view, we can assume this sort of claim as the Buddha’s sociology. In fact, if we observe the number of population in the world, we can find the numbers of higher class people are dramatically fewer than lower class people. Even in this contemporary age, rich families take not many children though poor families have many children. In the same way, the number of the Brahmins, royal members and the rich are much fewer than the number of the low class people. The Buddha seemed precisely to realize that point. Therefore, he established his organization regardless of high or low class of people. The Buddhist prominent claim related to rejection of the caste system is “na jaccæ vasalo hoti, na jaccæ hoti brahmano, kammunæ vasalo hoti, kammunæ hoti vasalo”8 “birth alone neither makes the wicked nor the holy, only action can make either the wicked or

5 Pæthikavagga Pæli, 146 6 Anguttaranikæ Atthakathæ, II, 290 7 Four modes of sublime livins; loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. 8 Suttanipæta Pæli, 300 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 289

the holy”. According to this expression, good character, knowledge and morality are more important than one’s caste in life. So, all castes are pure in the Buddhist perspective. Both just being in higher caste or just being in lower caste can not make any thing beneficial sense or holy and it is not sufficient to assess lower or higher just by seeing superficial matters. Claiming such equal notion there is no any discrimination of caste, in my dispensation and will be regarded the status and position by works only, he welcomed his new followers from various castes. Buddhism could effectively recruit new converts by that way. There were many evidences of converting to other beliefs by lower class Brahminist adherents because they are nothing, extremely oppressed in their society, are treated like an animal, untouchable, and they cannot touch public property, even in the school they cannot use public glass or mug to drink water for they are from untouchable class. Thus, they feel suffocate in that society and hate themselves. In that situation, Buddhism with the notion that class system can be changed seemed to be interesting teachings for them to some extend. Despite asserting Buddhism is for all classes of people and has equal chance, some scholars argued that Buddhism was for city men rather than rustics. Concerned with that, Gombrich pointed out that Buddha’s message appealed especially to town-dwellers and the new social classes. (2006, 56) and Max Weber (1958) said that “Buddhism present itself as the product of the time of urban development, of urban kingship and the city nobles”. Again Gokhale (1980) mentioned in his analysis that “more than two-thirds of over 300 monks and nuns came from large towns, most of them from four cities: Sævatthi, Ræjagaha, Kapilavatthu and Vesæli”. It is true that if we read Buddhist texts, we can frequently find good relationship between the Buddha and kingship in many parts of the texts. Buddhist texts very often manifested that the Buddha talked with King Kosala, Bimbisæra, Ajætasattu and rich man Anæthapi¼¥hika and Visækhæ. Alternatively, recording Buddhist teachings emphasizing on interaction between Buddhism and Kings and the rich, seems to be uplifting its social status among counterpart religions.

Social Integration of Monks

The definition of the monk is “one who detaches from worldly possessions and practises to extinguish defilement and unwholesome Dhamma9. In another Buddhist text,

9 Dhammapada Atthakatha II, 248 290 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

monk is defined as renouncer of the secular world (Anagærika).10 So, monk is doctrinally understood as one who is practicing the Buddha teachings to eradicate defilements and as one who renounces secular world. There are also many Buddhist texts that describe the role of monk as wandering ascetic. Nonetheless the doctrinal definition of monk totally contradicts practical application of the order of monks, practically monks have to integrate with society in various ways and take important part of society, culture or politic wherever Buddhism has flourished. In fact, the organizing system of samgha order itself implicated with secular society. The Buddha organized his samgha association depending on four requisites: food, cloth, lodging and medicine offered by laities. The life of samgha order is four requisites. Therefore, the ways to survive for Buddhist monks were completely rooted in secular society. Monks regularly have to go for alms from laities. Through this, they have to conduct with lay people everyday though they are indentified as renoucers of the secular world and this social role of monk make him familiar with all classes of people.11 Besides, it had a message given by the Buddha which can prove that there was social interaction between monks and lay groups or monks were linking with worldly society. The Buddha himself wandered around tirelessly and sent his follower monks to many places for missionary tour as soon as establishing the order of monks. In this case, a motivated sentence of the Buddha to the order of the monks (samgha) in order to spread his teachings was “Caratha Bhikkhave cærikam, mæ ekena dve agamittha12” “O monks, travel from place to place and propagate my teachings to the people for the benefit of them and for the welfare of them along with the whole life but don’t go the same way by two monks”. Herein, the Buddha encouraged his follower monks to convey his teachings to the lay society for their benefits and welfares. In the light of it, it is obvious that the Buddha intentionally sent his followers to secular society so as to propagate his complete teachings in stead of solitary life and secluded place. From the Buddha time to until now, the order of monks is tremendously important for Buddhism in making its progress among diverse religions, protecting it from other forces, pitfalls, maintaining the purity of the Buddha’s teachings originally as the Buddha expounded

10 Dhammapada Atthakatha I, 152 11 Regarding the definition of renouncer of secular world (anagærika), commentator extends the explanation precisely that anagærika means renouncing worldly enterprises such as trading, conveying message to someone as ambassador and giving medical treatment to the lay people; it does not implicitly mean staying away from secular society. (Ibid) 12 Dæganikæya Mahævagga Pæli, 40 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 291

and conveying Buddha’s teachings to the people. Monks, in fact, are the vital links between the Buddha’s teachings and the people of the world.13 Monks firstly received precious teachings from the Buddha and deliver it again to the people. The only cause of lasting long of the Buddha’s dispensation is not other than the order of monks. The Buddha necessarily realized this fact, that’s why, he encouraged them to tour and transmit his teaching to people for their benefits. Moreover, after demise of the Buddha, monk is only one live object among Triple Gem and in the relationship of monks and laities; monks have acted as good friends (kalyæ¼a mitta) to the laity in various ways. (Harvey, 2013, 314) for example, in merit making ritual, monks are considered as the fertile fields of karmic fruitfulness. Buddhist people embrace monk is good fertile field to sow the seed of their merit and offering materials to the monks can gain great benefits rather than offering others. Apart from these, monks involve in variety of social affairs such as economic, political and cultural affairs as spiritual instructors, teachers and mediators, sometime they even personally participate in those affairs. People tend to approach to monks if they experience unexpected problems in their daily affairs to ask for suggestions from them. Regarding social engagement of Buddhism, the event that the Buddha settled down dispute based on the water of Rohinæ between Vijjans and Sakka was good an example to provide it. In this regard, why do people rely on monks for their secular affairs as spiritual instructors though they know secular affairs are noting concerned with monks? The reason is that in Buddhist community, monks have to receive great veneration from the people and monks have always to be placed by Buddhist people at higher level, that’s to say, Buddhists traditionally consider monks as their refuge regardless of the age, possibility and educated or uneducated based on their belief. In early India, the monks were go-between or mediators. (Bailey and Mabbett, 2003, 168) They implicated in social affair as middle man in linking the teachings and people, otherwise in judging something happened in society. At the time of clashes of cultures and an urban and non-urban configuration in India, monks took mediating role in society because people trust on monks as one who detach from worldly affairs and capable of linking gaps between urban and rural traditions. (Ibid) Buddhism could successfully extend and flourish among contemporary rivals because monks were capable of functioning as an instrument of mediation between political and economic forces in Indian society and Buddhist order helped social groups concerned with on-going changes.

13 Dr K.Sri Dhammananda, (2000), “Buddhism for the Future”, 18 292 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conclusion

In conclusion, this paper expressed about social implications of the Triple Gems; the Buddha, his teachings and the order of his followers comparing canonical definitions of them. The focusing criteria for Buddhism was built just upon canonical definition thus “the ultimate aim of Buddhism is to liberate from round of rebirth (worldly existences), whereas, to obtain otherworldly achievement and monk is a saint who does not associate with secular enterprises and endeavoring only for libration”. Based on these ultimate definitions, I have extended my study assuming that Buddhism is somehow linking with social implications practically. Nonetheless, this assumption does not mean that Buddhism does not concern ultimate libration and monk is not renouncer of the secular world at all. In reality, it simply means that Buddhism partly integrates with secular affairs, have social implications and monk somehow engages in social enterprises on their way to libration (nirvana). It can be postulated that Buddhism is more modernize religion than its contemporary religions in early time of Indian society for it is humanistic, more empirical rather than other religions of India and appeared during transition period for rural to urban and the founder of Buddhism, the Buddha is also very skillful sociologic because he knew well how he organizes his community and how he transfers his teachings to the people. Moreover he realized the needs of people at that time, so he introduced his ideology based on middle path, the doctrine of suffering and its libration, kamma and its effects and manifested the value of morality, concentration and wisdom rather than value of caste system. These ideologies lead to final libration, that’s to say, lead to socialization. In early India, without social concerns, it would be hard for Buddhism to survive among diverse religions and cultural societies in India. Due to its socialization, it could flourish among other religions in India. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 293

References

I. Palii Sourses

Døganikæya Mahævagga Pæ¹i, (2005), Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Pæcittaiya Pæ¹i, (2005), Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Pæthikavagga Pæ¹i, (2005), Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Suttanipæta Pæ¹i, (2005) Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Sølakkhandavagga Pæ¹i, (2005),Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Mahæbuddhaghosathera Bhaddanta, (2001), “Dhammapada” commentary, Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press. Mahæbuddhaghosathera Bhaddanta, (1996) “A³guttaranikæya” commentary, Chatta Samgayana edi, Yangon, Myanmar, Missionary of Religious Affair Press.

II. Other Sources

Greg Bailey and Ian Mabbett, (2003), “The Sociology of Early Buddhism”, New York, Cambridge University Press. Gothale, B.G (1965) “The Early Buddhist Elite”, Journal of Indian History. Gombrich, Richard F (2006), “Theravæda Buddhism”, New York, Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Harvey Peter, (2013), “An Introduction to Buddhism”, New York, Cambridge University Press. K. Sri Dhammananda Dr “Buddhism for the Future” Taipei, Taiwan, The Corporate Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation. Milford e. Spiro (1982), “Buddhism and Society”, California, University of California Press. Ratnapala Nandasena (1993), “Buddhist Sociology”, Delhi, Sri Satguru Press. Weber Max (1958), “The Religion of India”, Trans, and ed, Hans H, New York, Gerth and Don Martindale. Warder A.K (2000), “Indian Buddhism” Delhi, Shri Jainerdra Press. The Problem of Incomprehensibility of Vipāka: A Solution

Prof. Dr. Watchara Ngamchitcharoen Faculty of Liberal Arts, Department of Buddhist Studies, Thammasat University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Kammavipāka or vipāka is the effect of kamma. It is unthinkable or incom- prehensible () because the precise working out of the effects of kamma is imponderable or incomprehensible. Moreover, it cannot be shown where it is when it hasn’t yet been produced and another related problem is that kammic effects are usually referred to nāmarūpa (corporeality and mentality) but what is the kammic effect which hasn’t yet been produced but cannot be known where it is. However, the problem of the incomprehensibility of vipāka can be partly solved by explaining its nature and classification, i.e. there are 2 main kinds of vipāka, immediate and subsequent, of which the latter is further classified into primary and secondary vipāka. It is this primary vipāka that plays an important role in the working out of the vipāka of kamma, i.e. the secondary vipāka in the future. This primary vipāka is like a kammic seed, i.e. potential energy or unseen power that cannot be shown where it is and will bring about the secondary vipāka, i.e. body and mind including experience or happiness and unhappiness in the future in this life or next life.

Keywords: kammavipāka, vipāka, acinteyya, unthinkable, incomprehensibility JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 295

Introduction

Kammavipāka or vipāka is said to be unthinkable or incomprehensible. This article is an attempt to explain why it is unthinkable and how it can be understood at least in an academic way.

Incomprehensibility of Vipāka

Kammavipāka or kammaphala or simply vipāka literally means the effect or result of kamma (karma or karman in Sanskrit) or action. According to the law or doctrine of kamma, the action that one intentionally does will produce vipāka, i.e. its effect either in this life or next life or both. However, Kammavipāka or vipāka is said to be one of the four of the unthinkables or incomprehensibles (acinteyya) or what should not be thought of (A.C. 21/77/104). Generally speaking, Kammavipāka or vipāka is said to be unthinkable because the precise working out of the results of kamma is imponderable or incomprehensible. According to Buddhist Scholars, e.g. Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto), the process of the working out of the results of kamma is so exceedingly subtle and complicated that it is beyond capacity of thinking and thus cannot be clearly understood (Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto), 2012, 276). According to the Buddhist scholars, the problem is how the process of the production of vipāka works, in other words, what is the mechanism of the production of vipāka. We cannot see or understand clearly the mechanism or process in which kamma works out its vipāka, for example, the mechanism or process in which a man meets a girl and falls in love with her by the engine of kamma or vipāka. As a result, Kammavipāka or vipāka becomes unthinkable for all sentient beings except the Buddha because it cannot be clearly understood. However, apart from the problem of such mechanism or process, another related important question that should be considered is how kamma as a cause gives rise to vipāka which is its effect because kamma cannot cause any effect that has not been produced immediately at the time of the action; this is due to the fact that, according to the Buddhist doctrine of momentariness (khanikabhaºkhavāda), kamma is an intention (cetanā) or intentional action that ceased to exist since everything is momentary; it disintegrate or perishes a moment after it comes into existence; consequently, it cannot wait until it can produce its vipāka in the future. Therefore, if kamma that is the cause of that vipāka cannot produce such vipāka, then what produces it? 296 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Therefore, though such incomprehensibility of the process of the working out of the effect of kamma may be the most important reason for explanation of the incomprehensibility of vipāka, there are other reasons that should be taken into account. In Milindapañha, according to Kammaphalaatthibhāvapañha (the question on the existence of the effect of kamma), (Milinda.62) in order to answer King Milinda’s question ‘where does kamma exist?, Nāgasena explains that kamma follows like shadow but it cannot be shown where it exists just as the fruits of a tree cannot been shown where they exist in the tree when they have not been produced. In the commentary of Milindapañha, this conversation has been explained that the explanation of kamma here is equivalent to that of vipāka of kamma, i.e. to say that good and bad actions follow that person is to say that the effects of good and bad actions which are nāmarūpa follow that person and that kamma cannot be shown to exist anywhere, i.e. in this or that nāmarūpa until the time of production of the effect. (Milinda.A.158-160) Consequently, according to the commentary, the term ‘kamma’ here can refer to vipāka and the simile as well as the title of this conversation, i.e. ‘the question on the existence of the effect of kamma’, in Milindapañha imply that ‘kamma’ here means vipāka and thus this explanation shows that when vipāka has not been produced, we cannot know where it exists. At any rate, this explanation gives rise to some problems, i.e. it is difficult to understand the real nature or status of this vipāka because it exists but does not exist in any definite or specific place which is absolutely different from other things or phenomena in our experience and there is a puzzle how this vipāka which is said in the commentary to be nāmarūpa differs from vipāka that has been already produced, i.e. nāmarūpa including objects and events or experiences; what is this nāmarūpa that cannot be shown where it exists? and what is the vipāka? if the vipāka that has not been produced is something which is not our body and mind including objects and events or experiences that one encounters when the effect has been produced which is also regarded as vipāka. These problems are also the reasons for the incomprehensibility of vipāka. Again, there is an explanation or belief that kammavipāka is incomprehensible because we cannot know that what is the kamma of which the experience that we encounter now is the effect since it may be the kamma in the past life. This explanation is not a good reason for the incomprehensibility of vipāka because it is not incomprehensible for the person who knows the past life with pubbenivāsānussatiñāöa (the recollection of former lives) and for some experience we can know its cause or kamma because it is the obvious and immediate JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 297

effect of kamma, e.g. the mental phenomena like mental happiness caused by making merit and some punishments caused by wrong actions currently done. In many cases, we clearly know or understand the relationship between the moral cause, i.e. kamma, and its effect, i.e. vipāka and thus ignorance of the kamma which is the cause of the effect, i.e. vipāka is not the real reason why vipāka is incomprehensible. However, even though vipāka is unthinkable or incomprehensible, the Buddha does not prohibit us from thinking or an attempt to understand vipāka; he only warns us that it ‘should not be thought of’ because it cannot be clearly understood by using reasoning (Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto), 2012, 276). It is possible to understand something about this vipāka and its process or mechanism of the working out of vipāka and this understanding of vipāka, especially its nature, can, to the author, help solve the problem of vipāka or make us understand it more.

Nature and classification of vipāka

According to the Abhidhamma doctrine, vipāka is used to refer to vipākacitta (resultant consciousness) only whereas rūpa (corporeality or body and its properties as well as movements) is called ‘kammaja’ (caused by kamma). However, broadly speaking, according to the Tipi aka and its commentary, vipāka refers to everything caused by kamma or it means every kind of the effects or results of kamma, i.e. nāmarūpa including all objects and events or experiences that the doer gets or encounters as the effects of his actions in this life or next life. On the basis of this explanation, the meaning of vipāka is the effect or result of kamma and its nature is concerned with nāmarūpa including all objects and events or experiences that the doer gets or encounters as the effects of his actions in this life or next life. However, these effects or vipāka should be the vipāka that have already been produced. It means that there is another kind of vipāka, i.e. vipāka that has not been produced. The vipāka of this kind can be interpreted as the primary vipāka that causes the other secondary vipāka. In some sutta in the Tipi aka, nāmarūpa or some objects and events or experiences are said to be caused by vipāka or kammavipāka, for example, in Mahāpadānasutta it is said that Vipass´ boy’s divine eye caused by vipāka of kamma appeared (Vipississa kumārassa kammavipākaja× dibbacakkhu× pāturahosi) (D.M. 10/31/23). This term “caused by vipāka of kamma” (kammavipākaja×) shows that this divine eye which is vipāka is caused by another kind of vipāka. So it may be interpreted that the vipāka that causes the divine eye 298 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

is the primary vipāka and the divine eye is the secondary vipāka. Another example is the statement in Khuddakanikāya Udāna that a monk bears the serious painful feeling caused by the effect of past kamma (Bhikkhu…purāöakammvipākaja× dukkha× tippa× katuka× vedana× adhivāsento) (Kh.U. 25/66/102). This statement shows that this painful feeling which is usually regarded as vipāka is caused by the vipāka of kamma. This term ‘kammavipākaja×’ and ‘kammavipākajā’ as well as ‘kammavipākajāni’ which have the same meaning occur in many places in the Tipi aka in such a way that they imply that nāmarūpa or happiness and suffering that are regarded as the effects of kamma are caused by the effect of kamma. Therefore, these are the evidences that give a strong support to this interpretation or the classification of vipāka into primary and secondary vipāka. This primary vipāka is possibly the vipāka that is the first effect caused by kamma before the kamma ceases to exist. This vipāka is not nāmarūpa including all objects and events or experiences that the doer gets or encounters as the effects of his actions in this life or next life. It is the vipāka that has not been produced and thus cannot be shown where it exists because it is not physical object or any kind of ordinary experience that can be shown where it exists. It may be compared to the seed that will later become a tree. It may be interpreted as a certain mental impression or a kind of the potential and kinetic energy that can carry out the process of the working out of the effect of kamma. As Buswell and Lopez put it: ‘The term karman describes both the potential and kinetic energy necessary to sustain a process; and, just as energy is not lost in a physical process, neither is it lost in the process of moral cause and effect’ (Buswell and Lopez, 2014, 420). This karman is a special or mysterious energy or power that act as a law of kamma to carry out the process of moral cause and effect. This karman or kamma can be used to mean vipāka according to the above mentioned interpretation and thus it is a special kind of energy or power that can be compared to potentiality and actuality in Aristotelian metaphysics according to which the vipāka is at first a potential energy and later become an actual energy that can bring about nāmarūpa or happiness and unhappiness when the appropriate causes and conditions are present. In this case, we may say either that kamma or vipāka bears its retributive fruit or that primary vipāka produced by kamma bears its retributive fruit-in other words, kamma bears its retributive fruit through its primary vipāka. Moreover, it is similar to the Unseen Power (adṛṣṭa) which acts as a law of karma in Nyāya, a Hindu philosophical school, bringing about the happiness and unhappiness of human beings according to their past actions (Puligandla, 1975, 189) and this power does not contradict the Buddhist doctrines because it is similar to the supernatural power of iddhividhi JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 299

(psychic power) that is concerned with another kind of the unthinkables, i.e. the jhāna-range of one absorbed in jhāna (jhāyissa jhānavisayo). Once this primary kind of vipāka is accepted, the classification of the vipāka of kamma may be explained in a new way. Vipāka is of 2 main kinds, i.e. the immediate or direct vipāka and subsequent or indirect vipāka which classified further into 2 kinds, namely primary and secondary vipāka. The first is the effect that occurs simultaneously and immediately after kamma has been done; it is the mentality or mental phenomena occurring at the same time as kamma and the immediately occurring mental dispositions that form the habit or personality of the doer while the latter is the effect that has not appeared yet but exists at first as a karmic seed or potential energy and later comes to fruition, i.e. produce another vipāka that is nāmarūpa including objects and events or experiences when the appropriate causes and conditions are present in the future in this life or next life. This may be summed up in the following chart:

Classification of vipāka

Additionally, this proposed interpretation of the nature and classification of vipāka may be objected that the future vipāka or effect like happiness and suffering in the next life should be produced by kamma not by the special kind of vipāka because the statements or sayings with this content appear in many passages in the Buddhist scriptures. This objection may be answered that such statements can be interpreted in 2 ways as follows: 300 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

First, they explain the doctrine of kamma in the broad or inclusive and easy way in order to cover the entire process of the workings of kamma including every kind of vipāka and thus such a special kind of vipāka can be included in this explanation. Second, they may mean that there are 2 kinds of kamma, i.e. kamma that is an intention or action that disintegrates or perishes a moment after it comes into existence and kamma that exists until the time when it can produce its vipāka in the future; however, these statements in this interpretation encounter some problems. The special kind of kamma is also required some evidences to support it but it is more difficult to get such evidence than the special kind of vipāka because some statements in the Tipi aka tend to support such vipāka as shown above. Therefore, the interpretation about the nature and classification of vipāka which is proposed here is more tenable or has much more possibility.

A solution to the problem of the incomprehensibility of kammavipāka

On the basis of the above mentioned nature and classification of vipāka, the problem of the incomprehensibility of kammavipāka may be solved or it can be partly understood. The process of the working out of the effect of kamma can be explained that, in the case of the subsequent vipāka, after kamma caused its vipāka, i.e. primary vipāka which cannot be shown where it exists owing to its unseen or mysterious nature, this vipāka will follow or wait until it can bring about the secondary vipāka, namely nāmarūpa or happiness and suffering in accordance with the primary vipāka and its kamma. Therefore, when vipāka, i.e. primary vipāka has not been produced it cannot be shown where it exists as if the fruits of a tree that have not been produced, and when the appropriate causes and conditions are present, it will produce secondary vipāka that can be seen. Besides, though kamma ceases to exist a moment after it comes into existence, it can be said to produce vipāka in the future because its seed or the primary vipāka still exists and will produce its effect in the future. However, the primary vipāka should not be understood as a permanent entity because according to the doctrine of Threefold Characteristic (Tilakkhaöa), nothing can be permanent and thus this primary vipāka is impermanent but continues to exist according to its causes and conditions in line with the law of Dependent Origination. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 301

In addition, many Buddhist scholars on the Abhidhamma doctrine in Thailand believe that kamma or vipāka has been kept or stored in the bhaögacitta (life-continuum consciousness or unconscious mind). But this belief encounters some problems, e.g. it seems to contradict the explanation given in Milindapañha. So it is not taken into account here.

Conclusion

The solution proposed here is just a rational explanation so as to bring about reasonable understanding of the incomprehensibility or inconceivability of vipāka in an academic way. It cannot absolutely be confirmed that it is completely correct because the information or evidences concerning the doctrine of kamma and vipāka are not clear enough to make a final and complete decision and interpretation, and so can be variously interpreted. Other solutions or interpretation are possible. However, we are in a position to claim that vipāka can be partly understood. 302 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

I. Pali (Thai script)

Milindapañha. 1993. Bangkok: the Association of the Elders. Milindapañha Atthakathā. 1998. Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajvidyalaya. Tipi aka (Siamrat Edition). 1955. Bangkok: Mahamakuta Buddhist University Press.

II. Thai

Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto). 2012. Buddhadhamma. Bangkok: Phalidham.

III. English

Buswell Jr., Robert E. and Lopez Jr., Donald S. 2014. The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Kyabgon, Traleg. 2014. The Essence of Buddhism: An Introduction to Its Philosophy and Practice. Boston: Shambhala. Lopez Jr., Donald S. 2001. The Story of Buddhism: a Concise Guide to Its History and Teachings. New York: HarpreOne. Puligandla, R. 1975. Fundamentals of . New York: Abingdon Press.

The Buddhist Councils: The Movement to Great Schism

Phyu Mar Lwin College of Religious Studies, Mahidol University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

During the history of Buddhism, from the parinibbana of the Lord Buddha up until the current sanghas of today’s societies, There has always been quarrell in regards to interpretations of teachings, in particular in regards the Vinaya. This paper looks to ex- plore the 4 council meetings that were held in order to fi nd cohesiveness in the viewpoints between differing Buddhist texts. The researcher looks to present the notion that these council meetings did more harm than good and they were in fact the cause of new Buddhist sects to emerge. This paper takes a historical analysis of the circumstances surrounding these council’s meetings and the outcomes from them.

Keywords: Buddhism, Council Meeting, Quarrell, Buddhist Sects 304 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Buddhism is unlike the other religions since the founder, the Buddha, was born as a human being. Thus, the Buddha cannot exist eternal and He is mortal as other human beings. After the demise of the Buddha, he did not left any authoritative person instead of Him but His Teaching, Dhamma and Vinaya, would be in the place of Him as a teacher of all Buddhists.1 In the light of Buddha’s remark, the collective recitation to purify doctrine or Buddhist council plays crucial role in the history of Buddhism. The four Buddhist councils are the important turning points in early Buddhism. Despite having counted various number of Buddhist councils held by different schools, the four are highlighted in the World Buddhist history. First, it should be known what Buddhist council is: what it really means. In Pāḷi, the council is termed as ‘saṅgāyanā’ in the sense of ‘reciting together’2 (in Sanskrit, saṃgāyanā which is meant for ‘singing or praising together’)3. It is also known as ‘saṅgīti’ (rehearsal; a convocation of the Buddhist clergy in order to settle question of doctrine)4 in Pāḷi, ‘saṃgīti’ in Sanskrit. According to this term, the purpose of the council is to make a unique of all Teachings of the Buddha after . Behind the purpose, there should be a cause why it was necessary to held. It is clear that different interpretation and various assumptions on the original doctrine arose at that period. As the consequence, what the councils solved out was that schism happened and new sects emerged after the councils. After passing away of the Lord Buddha, during 500 years, many sectarian clashes appeared in Buddhism. It was noticeable link between the Buddhist councils and schisms. ‘Schism’, in Pāḷi ‘Saṅghabheda’, is meant for ‘breaking community’ which is one of five major crimes (Pañcānantariya kamma) 5 in Buddhism.6 The essential factor in Saṅghabheda are_ (1) belief in a dissentient religious view regarding either one or more points of faithor discipline; (2) acceptance of the dissenting view by eight or more fully ordained monks; (3) the division taken among the aforesaid eight monks must show a

1 D II, p.171 2 U Hoke Sein Pāḷi-Myanmar Dictionary, p. 946 : ‘saṅgāyanā’ is derived from ‘saṃ √gā + ya’ in the meaning of to chant or to recite 3 Monier William Sanskrit- English Dictionary, p. 1129 4 Concise Pāḷi Dictionary, p.271 5 Ibid: the five acts that have immediately retribution, viz: matricide, patricide, murdering of a holy person, wounding a Buddha, and making a schism in the community of monks 6 Andre Bareau, ‘The Buddhist Sects of the Small Vehicle’, p. 3 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 305

majority on the side of the dissenters.7 Moreover only the insider of saṅgha order can cause schism not because of laity, that is clearly described in the Cullavagga.8 In the first council, the issue about the Vinaya arose even though there was no schism. A great schism was caused the two main sects: Sthaviravada and the Mahasanghikas after the second Buddhist council. The third council led the divergent of Sthaviravāda into two schools: Vibhajyavādins and Sarvāstivādins. Then, a new school of Sarvāstivādins, Sautrāntikas spring off. Thus, there should be a question whether councils reconcile or make schism. In this essay, the historical backgrounds of the councils are not highlighted much but a few distinct points. What it stresses on is the inconsistency of the purpose of the council and its result. Apart from it, it is also interesting to analyze the cause of schism was gradually generated before the councils and then completely diverged after the councils. There may be considered how much accuracy of the evidence which mentioned about the place and time in which held the four Buddhist Councils. Different traditions describe in very different ways when they recorded about the Buddhist Councils. There might be some arguments whether these councils took place in truth or these were just fictions. However, they could give us a lot of knowledge about how Buddhist traditions gradually changed.

The First Buddhist Council

The First Council was sponsored by King Ajatasatru. It was convened in Rājagŗha three months after the Buddha’s parinivarna. On account of Subhadra who wanted to relax the vinaya rule, the Elder Kāśyapa decided to recite all Dhamma and Vinaya collectively. However, scholars’ view on this first council is that it was not a historical event, but recognized as a cult festival,9 the first council was the earliest attempt to preserve the original of the Buddha words. During the Council, five hundred arhants adopted the Vinaya and Sutra as the accurate teaching of the Buddha. There are some noticeable points about Ānada that (1) he became an arhant at the night before the council but Kāśyapa left a room for him in the group of five hundred arhants; (2) he was criticized because of the failure to request the extension of the Buddha’s life span; (3) he was condemned since he did not ask the Buddha what the lesser and minor precepts are.

7 Nalinaksha Dutt, ‘Buddhist Sects in India’, p.38 8 Cullavagga VII, p.108 9 Chalrles S. Prebish, A Review on Scholarship on the Buddhist Council, p. 242 306 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Related to the first point, Ānada, as the attendant of the Buddha, might not focus and practice the doctrine full time, thus, it is possible that he was not an arhant before council. As he was regarded as the one who memorized all the Buddha’s Teaching, he should be most appropriate to recite the Teaching in council. To be consistent with the occasion, he must enter to the council as an arhant. There is a question that Kāśyapa chose only 499 participants and made a blank for him in purpose. According to Cūllavagga, the bhikşus pointed out,

“Honoured Sir, this Ānanda, although he is still a learner (sekho), could not be one to follow a wrong course through desire, anger, delusion, fear; and he has mastered much shamma and discipline under the Lord. Well now, honoured Sir, let the elder select the venerable Ānanda as well”10

It is clearly mentioned that the participants of the council should be lack of four prejudices (agati): desire, anger, delusion and fear. At the time of event, venerable Ānanda had also been an arhant so that there was no more prejudice in council. Besides, it also means that the recitation in council was identified as pure doctrine. On the other hand, it is doubtful that all Dhamma what the Buddha taught during 45 years might not be only the memory of Ānada. There might be other version like Puraṇa without any record. It may considerable whether there is any other version. If other memory is exclusive, the Teaching of the Buddha what we learn today would be incomplete. Concerning with lesser precept, the question arose in Saṃgha community was why Ānada did not ask which are the lesser. Later, that became dispute in Saṃgha community. On my standpoint, this issue generated the emergence of sectarians in Buddhism. The community could abolish the minor precept if they saw fit as the Buddha said but no one can identify the lesser and minor precepts (khuddānukhuddaka sikkhāpada).11 As the consequence, the recitation of Dhamma and Vinaya was accomplished, and the council decided the penalty to , but they could not reach the agreement in the case of minor precept and Ānanda could not solve out the reproaches by the bhikşus. Herein, I would like to point out three facts related to commencing the Schism although there was nothing to schism after the first Buddhist Council. 1) Complaint to abolish the lesser and minor precepts (it proceeded to the second council in which Vajjian monks broke ten minor precepts)

10 Cūllavagga XI, p.394 11 D II, p. 171 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 307

2) Think about the exclusive memory of the Buddha’s teaching 3) Consequence of the above two ideas, the new doctrine might come out and there also have hair-splitting interpretations derived from the oral tradition.

The Second Buddhist Council-I

The Second Council is generally regarded as a real historical event. It was held at Vaisali, an ancient city in northern India. King Kalasoka was the Second Council’s patron. This Council probably was held between 100 and 110 years after Parinirvana, or about 386 BCE. The meeting took place due to the breach of Vinaya rules by Buddhist monks from Vajjiputtaks sect in Vaiśāli and to examine the validity of the ten practices (dasa vatthuni) 1. Singilonakappa—the practice of carrying salt in a horn, i.e. storing articles of food; 2. Dvangulakappa—the practice of taking meals when the shadow is two fingers broad, i. e. taking meals after midday ; 3. Gamantarakappa - the practice of going to an adjacent village and taking meals there the same day for the second time; 4. Avasakappa—the observance of the ceremonies in various places in the same sima ; 5. Anuma- tikappa — doing something and obtaining its sanction later; 6. Acinnakappa—the customary practices as precedent; 7. Amathitakappa—drinking of butter-milk after meals; 8. Jalogimpatum—drinking of toddy; 9. Adasakam nisidanam—use of a rug without a fringe and 10. Jataruparajatam— acceptance of gold and silver.

A group of monks had decided these rule were impractical and had suspended. These monks also had been accused of breaches in monastic disciplines. By knowing about this, , son of Kāḷanḍaka, organized the bhikşhus from Pātthheyya, Avanti and Deccan in order to complaint the bad behaviours of Vaśālian monks. Then, the seven hundred saṃgha under the leadership of Revata assembled at Vālikārāma in Vaiśālī. Sarvagāmin,12 the elder monk of Vaśālian was questioned about these ten points. The council criticized those are blameful and then concluded with the recitation of Vinaya rules. In the review of Charles Prebish,

12 His upādhyāya was Ananda. 308 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

‘Traditionally, Buddhologists have assigned that origin of the Vaiśāli conflict to the ten points mentioned previously, and some scholars have ever gone as far as to surmise that the ten points were responsible for the first great schism of the sect’. 13

From the scholastic views, apart from this Vinaya violation, Nalinaksha Dutt claimed that there were a few doctrinal disputes. (Dutt, 1978, p.13) On account of five prepositions of Mahādeva are: The 1. are subject to temptation 2. may have residue of ignorance 3. may have doubts regarding certain matters 4. gain knowledge through other’s help 5. The Path is attained by an exclamation. (Dutt, 1978, p.23) Mahādeva has taken up these five points and reformulated them for his own purpose. It is reformulation of .14 It also involved as a great part in the first schism and the origin of Mahasaṅghikas sect, “the great community”. The Mahāvaṃsa describes that the unorthodox bhikşus who subdued by Theras founded Mahāsaṅghika sect. Some scholars said that certain tilt happened between Mahāsanghikas and Mahāyāna even though Mahāsanghikas is the fore founder of Mahāyāna. Later on, many different emerged. The council discussed that matter at length, but could not reach an agreement. The result of council differs in two assumptions. First, the ancient text like Sinhalese Chronicles express that a great schism within the Order after the council which led to the formation of the two divergent sects in Buddhism. The first one adhered to the old traditions of Buddhism and compliance with the original teachings of the Buddha. They were orthodoxy, called The Sthaviravādins. The second group did not find a problem in having a moderate attitude towards the rules prescribed in the Pitakas and the deviations followed by the monks of Vaisali. They became known as the Mahāsaṅghikas. Two or three centuries after Mahādeva, Mahāsanghikas reformulated their own scriptures and they formed a school which later became the Mahāyāna. The schism subsequently led to the formal division of Buddhism into Sthaviravāda and the Mahāsanghikas sects. Thus, the second Buddhist council was a turning point of the Buddhism. Second, modern scholars like Charles Prebish remarked that schism did not occur at Vaiśali council. It happened in another council in Pātaliputra.

13 Charles S. Prebish, ‘A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhist Council’, p.248 14 L.S Cousin, The Buddhist Forum 1988-90, p.45 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 309

The Second Buddhist Council-II

The different tradition of second council was held in Pāṭaliputra, 116 years after the Buddha’s death, during the reign of Asoka (perhaps Kālāsoka).15 Bāşpa was the president of the council; arhants and non-arhants took part in this council; and the king served as the mediator, although he was disqualified in religious judgment. The five theses of Mahādeva was the origin of schism that was accepted by all traditions except Mahāsaṅghika.16 The controversy of five theses among the monks was decided by voting. The rigourous monks who against the five these founded the Sthviravāda shool and the lax monks established Mahāsaṅghika school after the council. On scrutinizing these events, the Vaiśali council took account for Viaya while the Pāṭaliputra council was related to non-vinaya dispute. The original rules and regulations promulgated by the Lord Buddha were reinterpreted and redacted by the monks with lax practices in accordance with their own assumptions. On the other hand, the elders supposed that it was important to retain even minute rules for the long live of the saṃgha community. The Lord laid down these discipline because He certainly knew these are necessitated for sangha community and the consequences. But, why the Buddha also said to Ānanda that monks could abolish the minor precepts if they saw fit? Why the Buddha did not explain what the minor precepts are? There is no definite answer. This is confusion in Vinaya rule to the present day.

The

The Third Buddhist Council was held at Paṭaliputra, about 236 years after the death of the Buddha, during the reign of Asoka. According to Sri Lanka chronicles and tradition, many schisms occurred during the second century after the Buddha’s parinirvana and the diverse sects up to eighteen were established during Asoka’s time.17 In order to rid the Sangha of corruption and bogus monks who held heretical views, the historic meeting was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa and one thousand monks under the patronage of the Emperor Asoka. It was an assembly of the same sects, Sthaviravāda. The Council also made some

15 Nalinaksha Dutt, ‘Buddhist Sects in India, p. 23 16 Charles Prebish, A Review of Scholarship on the Buddhist Council’, Journal of Asian Studies Vol. XXXIII No.2, p.252 17 Bibhuti Baruah, ‘Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism’, 2000, p. 16-17 310 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

additions and alterations to the existing Buddhist Pali Canon by bringing together the Vinaya Pitaka and Dhamma Pitaka with the Kathavaththu of Abhidammam Pitaka. In this council, the debate occurred between two schools of Sthaviravāda. The Sthaviravadins established themselves as the orthodox school of Buddhism, firmly adhering to the original teachings of the Buddha and unwilling to make any compromises. One of them was known as Vibhajyavādins, the Distinctionalist or the Analytical school. They claimed the Buddha Himself as a Vibhajyavādin in the Aṅguttara Nikāya. The other was Savāstivādins, All-is-ist. They asserted that everything in future, past and present exists. The Vibhajyavādins opposed to the existence of the three time periods.18 The council decided in the favour of the Vibhajyavādins. The members of this Council also gave a royal seal of approval to the doctrine of the Buddha, naming it the Vibhajyavāda, the Doctrine of Analysis. It is identical with the approved Theravada doctrine. The council decided that the teachings of the Sarvāstivādins were unorthodox and so the Sarvāstivādins migrated to Kashmir. The Sarvāstivādins became very popular there. They were very well poised there in Kashmir influencing the whole newly Buddhist countries in Central Asia like Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. So, at the third council, the Vibhajyavādins were declared orthodox and they won the debate. As a result, the new sect, Sarvāstivāda thrived and survived in the other place, Kashmir. It is a remarkable observation about the councils that a defeated group did not disappear after every council and they all become popular as a new sects of Buddhism. By the third century BCE, the time of King Asoka, at least 18 different schools were in existence. The Theravadins had broken into eleven sub-sects whilst the remaining seven were a part of the Mahasanghikas. The divisions into these sects were on minor points of doctrine or on interpretations of the monastic discipline. The Asokan inscriptions do not mention any schools or any schism. The edicts said that the Sangha has been ‘made unified’. This can be supposed that there has been some conflict, but it falls short of establishing that a schism had occurred. In any case, even if there had been a schism, the edicts assert that it had been resolved.

18 Etienne Lamotte, ‘History of Indian Buddhism’, p.274 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 311

The Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka

The fourth Buddhist council in Sri Lanka was only for Theravāda tradition. In the first century BCE, during the reign of the King Vattagāmani, the council was held for the sake of preserving the whole Tipiṭaka bearing in memories through oral tradition. The Elder Mahārakkhita and five hundred monks recited all Teachings of the Buddha and then writing down on palm leaves. This was very first time for the art of writing of Piṭaka record in Buddhism. This council was nothing to say distinct like others because there was no split in reciting Dhamma and Vinaya in the line with Theravāda tradition. Here, it is stated as a historical record.

The Fourth Buddhist Council in India

The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in Kashmir by the patronage of in Kashimr or Jalandhar, India abour 72-78 AD. The famous Kushana King who ruled large parts of central Asia and the north in the early Christian era. He organized the fourth Buddhist Council. It was presided over by and Asvaghosha and had to deal with a serious conflict between the Sarvasthivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara. During this meeting the Sarvasthavadin doctrines were organized into a Mahavibhasa containing three large commentaries on the Pitakas. In the fourth council, the Sarvāstivādins were dominant. They debated on the orthodoxy and the authenticity of their teachings at this council. One was the Sarvāstivāda and the Sautrāntika. The Sautrāntika was the school that began to be critical of the realism and pluralism of the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivāda regarded as real while the Sautrāntika regarded them as mentally created. The meaning of the name Sautrāntika comes from the term ’Sūtra’, that is, those who adhere to Sūtra. There is a principal difference noticed between the Sautrāntika and the Sarvāstivāda. The Sarvāstivāda was also called Vaibhāṣika, the followers of the Vibhāṣā or Commentaries. The Sarvāstivādins believed that the Abhidharma was the word of the Buddha whereas the Sautrāntikas did not accept that. At this council, the Vaibhāṣikas, the Sarvāstivādins won the debate and the Sautrāntikas were disgraced. 312 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conclusion

This essay highlighted about the schisms after the Buddhist Councils. It does not mean that every historic meeting tended to schism. But schism happened and new sects emerged after the councils. The relation between schism and the councils proved that the incoherent with the purpose and the result of the councils. The four Buddhist councils recorded are doubtful among scholars in the case of venue, date and time because some are lack of archaeological evidences. Historical record such as Sinhalese chronicle, Dipavamsa, Chinese traditions can give the proximate data to trace the period. On the account of Vinaya rule, the clash between the samgha grew up and then first schism happened. But also the doctrinal propositions were regarded as a cause. The questions about the discipline arose in the first council, even though there was no schism, was inexplicable issue about Vinaya which is the starting point of the following schisms. Every council consists of two parties: one is opponent to other; one points out the other’s fault. Each side firmly uphold its perspective. Thus, there was no consensus in final stage. One party who was honoured by the political authority was probably more favourable in judgement. For instance, in the second council of Pāṭaliputra, it is irrational to assign the king as a judge in religious affairs. Despite of regarding as a fiction or legend, the first council might be pure at most because all the participants and president or judge of the council were Arhants who are free from prejudices. Except it, the other councils carried out by both arhants and non-arhants. Dispute on ten rules by Vajjan monks was supposed as minor except the tenth rule: the acceptance of gold and silver. Besides, Mahādeva’s assumption on Arhant is totally deviated from the real meaning of Arhant. By these two events, deviation from discipline and misinterpretation of doctrine made a great schism into the two main sects: Sthaviravada and the Mahasanghikas. The third council led the divergent of Sthaviravāda into two schools: Vibhajyavādins and Sarvāstivādins. In this case, the diverse interpretation was a problem as well. The Sāvāstivādins’ ontological understanding was another way so that they were condemned. A new school of Sarvāstivādins, Sautrāntikas was defeated in the fourth Buddhist council for the sake of favouring Sutra and Abhidharma. The table below roughly shows the emergence of new sects linking with the councils. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 313

Table 1: The division of the early schools and the Buddhist councils

First Council No schism Second Council Sthaviravada Mahasanghikas (Vaiśali) According to Chronicle, two sects emerged According to modern scholars, no schism Second Council Sthaviravada Mahasanghikas (Pāṭaliputra) Third Council Vibhajyavādins Sarvāstivādins Vaibhasika Sautrantika Fourth Council Theravāda Sarvāstivādins Sautrāntikas (11 Sects) Yogacara

Eventually Theravāda and Mahāyāna came to be regarded as two distinct divisions of Buddhism. A third emerged, known as the Vajrayana, the Diamond or Thunderbolt Vehicle by the 8th and 9th centuries C.E. Vajrayana Buddhism had spread into much of East Asia, Tibet, Japan and Korean. Vajrayana is based on , texts that describe esoteric teachings and practices. The divisions within the Buddhist Order did not weaken the development of Buddhism, though they caused a lot of confusion and disorder. Since the followers of Buddhism came from different social, geographical and cultural backgrounds, there might be multiplicity. They were able to choose the best path according to their inclinations and inner aspirations and the peculiarities of their own environment. 314 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

Bareau, A. (1955). Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Vehicule. (G. M. Sangpo, Trans.) Baruah, B. (2000). Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. Carpenter, T. R. (1967). The Digha Nikaya. London: Pali Text Society. Cousin, L. (1988-90). The Five Points and the Origins of the Buddhist Schools. The Buddhist Forum Vol II, 27-60. Dutt, N. (1978). Buddhist Sects in India. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. Dutt, N. (1980). Early History of the Spread of Buddhism and the Buddhist Schools. New Delhi: Rajesh Publication. Freedman, M. (1977). The Characerization of Ananda in Pali Canon of the Theravada: a Hagiographic Study. Hamilton, Onario: McMaster University. Lamotte, E. (1988). History of Indian Buddhism from the Origins to the Saka Era. Louvain- Paris: Peter Press. Nattier, J. &. (1977, Feb). Mahasamghika Origins: The Beginning of Buddhist Sectarianism. History of Religions, 237-272. Pischel, H. O. (1964). The Vinaya Pitaka Vol II, Cullavagga. London : Pali Text Society. Prebish, C. S. (n.d.). Cooking the Buddhist Books: The Implications of the New Dating of the Buddha for the History of Early Indian Buddhism. Journal of Buddhist Ethics. Prebish, C. S. (Feb 1977). A Review of Scholarhip on the Buddhist Councils. The Journal of Asian Studies, 239-254. Right Thought: A Noble Pathway to World Peace

Ven. Asst. Prof. Dr. Rangama Chandawimala Thero, Buddhist College of Singapore Email: [email protected]

Abstract

There is nothing in all the world more beautiful than the prevalence of universal brotherhood among mankind and there is no greater blessing in all the world than peace. It is true that only human being can bring peace to this world making it a heaven like place. However, by creating violence, he can turn this world into a hell as well. It is evident that in various cultures certain great persons have been elevated to divinity. This implies that one can be a god or a demon based on his thoughts and deeds. Religions and social philosophies teach and guide people to refrain from vicious thoughts, speech and deeds and to practice good instead. For instance, the Dhammapada summarizes the entire teaching of the Buddha into one stanza of four lines. “Not to do all kinds of wrong doings, to perform wholesome 1 acts, cleansing of one’s mind, this is the admonition of all the Buddhas”. In this teaching, without exception, all sorts of bad actions which are condemned by the civilized world as harmful are rejected whereas whatsoever good action is there for the benefi t of all beings are praised. So, in brief, what we all need for a meaningful life is recommended therein.

Keywords: Buddhism, Right Thought, World Peace

1 Sabbapāpassaakaraṇaṃ - kusalassaupasampadāSacittapariyodapanaṃ - taṃbuddhānasāsanaṃ, The Dhammapada, 183 verse. 316 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

In the religious context, what is Right Thought (sammāsaṅkappo)of Buddhism? It is the second factor of the Noble Eightfold Path (MajjhimāPaṭipadā). As it has been defined in the teachings of the Buddha, right thought means thought of renunciation, thought of non-ill will, and thought of harmlessness. Right thought can be applied as a remedy to minimize our inner and outer turmoils caused by wrong thought and misunderstanding. In this discussion we will examine how this concept can be applied to our daily life to practice global peace with universal brotherhood. Wrong thought becomes a cause for the arising of many problems whereas right thought is conducive to solve problems and create peace. Wrong thought affects the society directly or indirectly and disrupts human relations and peace. This would become a global issue when people are misguided and deceived by wrong views, ideologies, or misconceptions. We are experiencing such problems in some parts of the world today. For instance, religious intolerance has become a greater problem in some countries. Life without rightunderstanding and right thought is like a cart withouta charioteer. We know that a cart is drawn by bullocks but guidance is given by a charioteer. In the absence of the charioteer, the cart will be drawn by the bullocks where they desire to go. But a skillful charioteer who knows the routes correctly could reach his destination. Likewise, right thought will direct us to reach our goals and expectations. Another point is that we should correct ourselves if we are wrong in the same way that a charioteer canes the bollocks to drive them on the right path. This is called mindfulness based self-correction. If people practise in this manner, world crises will be diminished and global peace will be the ultimate result. The MahāvedallaSuttateaches two conditions for the arising of right view: the voice of another (paratocaghoso - which means by listening to others) and the wise attention (yonisocamanasikāro). These are the two conditions for the arising of right view”.2 One can learn good things from teachers, parents, elders, good friends, etc. After listening to others, he can wisely reflect on the facts, which lead to right understanding. Right understanding leads to have right thought which leads to practise of non-attachment, non-hatred and non- violence. This is the beginning of peace within oneself which is called inner peace which leads to practiselove and brotherhood locally and globally going beyond all boundaries. As we believe there shouldn’t be any restriction for any person to read and understand religious others and explore their knowledge in various religions for a better life specially,

2 The Middle Length Discourses of the Buddha, Bhikkhu Bodhi tr., p.390. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 317

with mutual understanding. This should be a fact that both the world leaders and the religious leaders should take into considerand work together to enlighten their peoplein other faiths so that they could be free from religious extremism, fundamentalism, fanaticism, and chauvinism. I believe that we are not late and still this can be put into practice. Right thought is extremely important regarding the practise of any religion. What is the purpose of practising a religion? Of course, the main objective is to achieve happiness and peace of mind. We are living in a global village and many countries have become multinational, multicultural and multi-religious places. Within such kind of atmosphere people have to bear and tolerate with different faiths, cultural practices of fellow countrymen, neighboring countries and the whole world. Religious tolerance is one of the important paths to enter the world peace. Regarding this issue right thought plays a big role promoting social and religious integration among the people. What is the point of disparaging one’s religion, its related practices and cultural differences? As a responsible person one should act to promote peace and harmony within and without while diminishing all sorts of social, geographical or biological boundaries which damage the universal friendship or brotherhood. Buddhism as a religion offers such a great teaching which emphasizes the practice of four illimitables, namely, universal loving-kindness (mettā) and compassion (karuṇā) altruistic joy (muditā) and equanimity (upekkhā). It is due to ignorance people attach to wrong views and misconceptions and do harm which is unwelcome by any civilized society. People do not know the difference between dharma (wholesome things) and adharma (unwholesome things). Today the whole world is facing a hectic situation due to lack of peace, harmony and safety whereas terror, insecurity and fear are increasing instead. Because of lack of understanding, people are creating unnecessary problems among them. Right thought is conducive to promote harmony, unity, and peace. Again we can say that the ultimate result of right thought is nothing but peace and happiness. As we mentioned earlier, Buddhism as a religion, teaches a universally applicable Dhamma which promotes brotherhood, unity, peace, equanimity, love and compassion among the humankind and all the other beings. Buddhism removes itself from all sorts of boundaries either social or religious and it advocates realism, naturalism, pragmatism, pluralism etc. while avoiding whatsoever pessimistic and optimistic views on humanity. Some people have, therefore, prefer to call Buddhism ‘a way of life’ rather than treating it as a religion. In many suttas the Buddha has explained social ethics should be followed by people for their own benefits and also of others. Instead of being good, certain people, with corrupted mind, 318 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

are making this world an awful place. Spread of love means not just to love and care only about one’s own kith and kin, his race, people of his own faith but to love all the people in the world. The Buddhist teaching of love means to spread boundless love towards every being like a mother who loves and protects her one and only child. And Buddhism proposes that living with metta, universal friendship or brotherhood is called the highest living in this world. (Mettañcasabbalokasmiṃmānasaṃbhāvayeaparimānaṃ…. thaṃsatiṃadhiṭṭheyyabra hmametaṃvihraṃidhamāhu). 3This moral life which is praised by the Buddha is essentially wholesome, peaceful, perfectly harmonious and blessing. Before the conclusion, I would like to quote an interesting passage from the BījaSutta. “Suppose. Bhikkhūs, a seed of neem, bitter cucumber or bitter gourd were planted in moist soil. Whatever nutrients it would take up from the soil and from the water would all lead to its bitter, pungent, and disagreeableflavor.Forwhat reason?Because the seed is bad. So too, for a person of wrong view…” 4 This teaches us that whenever one holds a wrong view, the result always becomes harmful or bitter. When the mind is impure, the action becomes impure as well (cittebyāpannekāyakammampibyāpannaṃhoti).5 Therefore, think rightly, act rightly and behave rightly. This is the way to world peace. B. this is not an academic paper but my speech to be read at the conference

3 Suttanipāta, p.26. 4 The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha, Bhikkhu Bodhi tr., p.1485. 5 A. I, p.262. ASEAN Integration: Human Dignity and Responsibility to Humanity from a Buddhist Perspective

Lim Kooi Fong Universiti Kebangsaan, Malaysia. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Human beings, as individuals, are free to choose their own course of action for achieving liberation. Humans are a mindful species, and as such: human responsibilities and human rights should complement, not supersede one another. Emphasizing social and moral responsibility must not lead to a removal of that basic intuition of human rights that seeks legal protection for the individual’s freedom of self-determination. On the other hand this right cannot prevail without any limitations. It fi nds its limits - as already stated in the Human Rights Declaration from 1948 - at the right of others and “the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare”. Community wellbeing must not be cashed by unfettered individual liberty. This is the basis and foundation for the mindful development of a healthy and sustainable integrated ASEAN community.

Keywords: ASEAN, Human Dignity, Buddhist perspective 320 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

The celebration of human freedom runs through Buddhist practices, institutions, and doctrines. Human beings, as individuals, are free to choose their own course of action for achieving liberation. Religious teachings should not prevent human beings from taking individual action for their liberation. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights asserts: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”1 2 The Buddhist view of human rights and religious liberty arises from the conviction that human beings are bom with complete freedom and responsibility. The historical Buddha strongly affirmed that human beings have their destiny in their hands. Emphasizing self reliance in each individual, human equality in dignity and rights is clearly recognized. Buddhist texts such as the Sampasadaniya Slitter stress the importance of personal effort, human endeavor, strength, and responsibility. Buddhahood itself is open to all human beings without any limitation. The fundamental Buddhist ethical principle that underpins the concept of human rights is that “all life forms have a basic desire to safeguard themselves.” This ethical perspective gives validity and strength to the principle of universal love (mettci) advocated by all Buddhists. Buddhist texts assert this crucial ethical standpoint in various ways: for example, the Dhammapada states that “all beings desire happiness” (10:3) and that “life is dear to all living beings” (10:2). This Buddhist ethical position further proposes to “compare one’s situation with that of another and avoid resorting to violence” and depriving another of its right to life. From this Buddhist perspective, the ideal life is one in which one lives “with friendliness and compassion towards all beings”.3 As in many other world religions, there is no doubt that Buddhist teachings also can be drawn to support the view that religious liberty is firmly grounded on a conception of the dignity of the human person. In addition, however, Buddhist doctrines maintain that the free exercise of “will” is the key for both material and spiritual wellbeing of the human person, who is “free to choose and open to seek” an individual program of religious regiment that enables each individual to taste the fruit of liberation.

1 http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ 2 Digha Nikaya III: 113 3 Digha Nikaya I: 70 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 321

The best illustration of this unconditional acceptance and recognition of liberty and human freedom is found in the Kalama Sutta4 5. Here the Buddha advises on how one should design their religious enquiry by transcending any biases that come into play when human persons make critical decisions in adopting a religious tradition or practice. The historical Buddha advised the Kalamas (a group of critically-minded people) “not to accept anything on the grounds of revelation, tradition, or hearsay,” not to “accept because they are mentioned in the collections of the scriptures or because they are based on reasoning or because they are in accordance with logical arguments or because they conform with one’s own preconceived notions or because of inadequate reflection on them or because they fit to a context or because of the prestige of your teacher.”4 The historical Buddha’s provoking statement here is an illustration of religious freedom that the Buddha himself advocated in relation to his own teachings as well as those of other religious teachers. The Buddha recognized the importance of living, working, and cooperating with all human beings in an integrated society. Compassionate attitudes extended towards others and non-violent values translated into positive mental, physical, and social actions are extremely important for religious harmony and social progress. One’s spirituality depends on and is enhanced by a positive contribution of the other. A healthy, open, and conducive environment, in which ideas and practices can be studied, discussed, critiqued, and appropriated for positive human action in the wider community is absolutely essential for modern democracies. In the Parinibbana Sutta\ the Buddha outlined seven conditions for community growth, which are: • hold well-attended gatherings frequently • assemble and disperse peacefully • enact or repeal laws constitutionally • respect and seek the counsel of elders • uphold the honor of women and maidens • respect and honor existing places of worship as their forefathers have done, and • protect and honor the holy ones.

4 AnguttaraNikayal: 189 5 Digha Nikaya II: 74-75 322 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Facilitating between extremes

One of the core philosophical tenets of Buddhism in fact is to avoid taking position of extremes. The Buddha Himself is a product of extreme conditioning. He was a Prince, wealthy and luxuriant, before deciding to give it all up to become a practicing ascetic. Doing so, he starved himself to the point of death. Only then did he realize that salvation is found neither in luxury nor self annihilation, but to cultivate a balance, or centeredness in practice. In this, He expounded the Middle-Way (Majjhimapadipada), the path of enlightenment that spurns both the extremes of nihilism and existentialism. The Buddha advises against personal cultivation up to the point of personal destruction (the anti-social stance) and wanton materialism (the anti-spiritual stance). The well rounded individual, as Buddhism espouses, is one who takes upon him or herself the personal liberty to advance spiritually while maintaining a mindful circumspection of society at large. As discussed earlier, a healthy individual is predicated upon a healthy community, and vice versa. If a community allows for the development of mindful and contemplative individuals - i.e. in terms of spiritual substance rather than outward forms of religiosity - such individuals in return can help to nurture the evolution of a community which encourage conducive environments that supports spiritual development. Such evolved communities by their natural tendencies can play a role in putting a check into destructive elements from taking hold - elements forewarned by the Buddha as destructive to human and society endeavor such as greed, hatred and ignorance (the three evil roots). It is not surprising that today’s clamor for religiosity in general has heightened because of the perceived threat of wanton capitalism and unfettered openness. In some ways, religious extremism and the rising face of terror, is somewhat linked to this ubiquitous display of unlimited liberties. It can even be said now that what we are seeing is the confrontation of one extreme with another, that is, the clash of nihilism and existentialism.

I he ทา iddle way (MajjhimapadijKida) JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 323

The Buddha adv ises against personal cultivation up to the point of personal destruction u beami-social stance) and wanton materialism (theanti-spiritual stance).

On one hand, we have people who would be driven to destroy their lives to make a point - such as Daesh or ISIS6 On their other hand, there is the tactless and materially driven culture, promoting gross vulgarity in the name of free speech, such as those demonstrated by the equally crude and immoral Charlie Hebdo7 publishers.

Asian Values and Human Rights

Such views lead US to the centre of what in the international human rights debate of the last years has come to be known under the term “Asian-Values”. During the nineties political leaders of various Asian states, headed by Malaysia and Singapore and markedly supported by China, have repeatedly criticized the human rights idea as being too Western and contended in particular that the individualism on which it is based is opposed to the community oriented “Asian Values.”8 For some countries like China, Vietnam, Myanmar and others it is only too obvious that this argument is used in order to distract from considerable violations of human rights within their own states or for withdrawing them from international criticism. And yet, without doubt, this is not the last word on the topic of “Human Rights and Asian Values”. Underlying some of the Asian voices is the genuine concern that a liberal individualistic ethos in conjunction with a legalistic, aggressive and consumerist attitude does not meet traditional values of Asian societies, that is, values such as social harmony, respect for family and authorities and in particular emphasis on duty and responsibility rather than on claimable rights. Such concerns should not easily be dismissed. The Indian-British scholar of political science, Bhikhu Parekh, has rightly pointed out that on the one hand emphasizing “Asian Values” “... is vulnerable to the collectivist danger and unlikely to create a culture conducive

6 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic state of Iraq and the Levant 7 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie Hebdo 8 http://hmb.utoronto.ca/HMB303H/weeklv supp/week-02/Langlois Asian Values.rtf 324 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

to the development of individuality and choice”, but that on the other hand a one sided liberal stress on rights is hardly able “to nurture the spirit of community and social responsibility”. To my mind this statement marks a good starting- point for understanding that both sides - the representatives of “Asian Values” and the defenders of a “Western Liberalism” - could learn from one another and in a sense complement each other.9 But - and this “but” is very crucial - not on exactly the same level, that is not on the legal level of those minimal protective rights, which shall guard the freedom of the individual against the force of powerful communities and institutions! It is true that emphasizing such individual protective rights is not enough for promoting moral sensitivity and social responsibility. Responsibility exceeds that what can be secured legally. For this reason it makes a lot of sense to mindfully identify in addition to the Declaration of Human Rights: an intercultural and inter-religious basis for a Declaration of Human Responsibilities as it is intended within the context of “global ethics”.

Conclusion

Humans are a mindful species, and as such: human responsibilities and human rights should complement, not supersede one another. Emphasizing social and moral responsibility must not lead to a removal of that basic intuition of human rights that seeks legal protection for the individual’s freedom of self-determination. On the other hand this right cannot prevail without any limitations. It finds its limits - as already stated in the Human Rights Declaration from 1948 - at the right of others and “the just requirements of morality, public order and the general welfare”. Community wellbeing must not be crushed by unfettered individual liberty. This is the basis and foundation for the mindful development of a healthy and sustainable integrated ASEAN community.

9 Bhikhu C. Parekh, “Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory”, Harvard University Press, 2002 Evaluating the “Unconscious in Dream” between Sigmund Freud and the Buddhist Tipitaka

P.B. Tan Department of Buddhist Studies, Mahidol University, Thailand. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian psychologist, psychoanalyst, psychiatrist and neurologist, is best known as the founder of psychoanalysis, which has had a signifi cant impact on psychology, medicine, and sociology. Among the achievements of Freud, one of the most important is the development of a three-component structural model of the psyche (consisting of “id”, “ego” and “super-ego”). Although almost every fundamental postulate of Freudian theory was criticized by prominent scientists and writers, his contribution to the creation of psychotherapy does not lose its value, and what he did is considered incomparable. This paper presents an attempt to compare the concept of unconscious in dream in the works of Sigmund Freud and in the Buddhist Tipitaka. Although it does not seem possible to fi nd an exact term from the Buddhist corpus to match Freud’s notion of the unconscious, there may be some terms or a grouping of them, which come closer to it.

Keywords: Evaluating, Unconscious in Dream, Sigmund Freud, Buddhist Tipitaka. 326 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

Sigmund Freud, based on his clinical psychoanalysis, distinguished three different systems of psyche: ‘unconscious’, ‘preconscious’, and ‘conscious’ and relate them to the respective concepts of ‘id’, ‘ego’, and ‘superego’. A constant movement of impulses of stored unconscious data is passing from the ‘id’ to the ‘ego’ and becoming ‘preconscious’, and through the efforts of the ‘ego’, undergo the modification process and become ‘conscious’. The unconscious system is the source origin of memory data that transmit to the preconscious system and the conscious system. The Preconscious and Conscious items were all evolved from the Unconscious. The preconscious is involved with data retained in the ‘id’ that can readily be brought to conscious form. The preconscious mind rejects all the undesired elements Freud called ‘defenses’ - to deny elements of the Unconscious (all that are uncertain or unknown) in order to safeguard our self-esteem, self-ego, etc. The ‘superego’, which is at least partially conscious, serves as a censor on the ego functions and comprises the individual’ S awareness of the present perceptions, feelings, and thoughts, towards family and society, at any particular moment. Freud uses the term ‘unconscious’ in several ways, but the term is used primarily to designate a functional system of the mind which acts as an archive of memory data and exists independently of the individual’s conscious awareness. Dreams and slips of the tongue are examples of the unconscious. To find an exact term from the Buddhist corpus to match Freud’s notion ofthe Unconscious would be futile, except finding only its surface meaning used to describe general situations. However, there may be some terms or a grouping of them, which come closer to it.

The ‘unconscious’ in the Id and the Ego

Freud’s theory postulated the ‘unconscious’ as both a repository for repressed traumatic memories (for example, the ‘Oedipal Complex’) as well as the stimuli source of inducing anxiety to individual from certain socially or ethically unacceptable behaviors (for example, an offence of a religious taboo). These unconscious events are not directly observable. In the following sections, I shall extend the explanation of ‘unconscious’ to include its other peculiarities and the Buddhist renderings for it. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 327

Characteristics of the ‘Id’

Freud describes the characteristics of id as: an impulse to get satisfaction for instinctual needs with no recognition of the passage of time; it has no negatives but its content elements are energized with either greater or lesser strength. It is interesting how Freud explains this degree of intensity of the id content:

“...no means of showing the ego either love or hate. It cannot say what it wants; it has achieved no unified will. Eros [sexual instinct] and the death instinct struggle within it; we have seen with what weapons the one group of instincts defends itself against the other.”1

This aspect of the id-forces of unconscious is precisely the point I made, according to the Abhidhamma, how our latently stored mental concomitants will behave:

joint-forces by several factors to achieve a common purpose; the good supplementation and harmonization of isolated qualities were used mistakenly as the opposing forces instead of using as supporting forces.”2

Pleasure Principle and Death Instinct

The unconscious system of the ‘id’ works on the “Pleasure Principle”, demanding immediate gratification of its urges, to the extent of even disregard the undesirable effects (for example, stealing, rape, incest). The id unconscious elements also act on the “Death Instinct” of dangers or obsessional neurosis, either as ways of defusing them, emotionally unmoved, or acting confrontationally as Freud describes it:

1 Smith, Ivan (compiled, 2011), Freud, Sigmund (auth), strachey, James & Freud, Anna (ed.). The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. “The Ego and the Id” (UK: Hogarth Press, 1974), p. 3992. 2 PB. Tan. An Anatomy of Mind. Being Essence of the Dhammasangani in Abhidhamma. (Germany: Grin Publishing, 2015), p. 231. 328 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

“... instinctual diffusion and the marked emergence of the death instinct call for particular consideration among the effects of some severe neuroses3; ...and death instincts are in part “rendered harmless by being fused with erotic components, ...diverted towards the external world in form of aggression, ...continued in their internal work unhindered.”4

The ‘ego’ operates mainly in conscious and preconscious levels, but it also contains unconscious elements because both the ‘ego’ and the ‘superego’ are also furnished by the ‘id’. The ‘ego’ works on the ‘reality principle’ which takes the most strains to either satisfy or deny the id urges as soon they arise, and simultaneously respond to the restraints imposed by the ‘superego’ or reality of the physical world. The function of the ‘ego’ is liken to an arbitrator, controlling and organizing the id instincts, as well as balancing the conflicting drives of both ‘id’ and ‘superego’. Inappropriate desires are not satisfied will be suppressed by the ego and these repressed memories are retained in the unconscious ‘id’.

The unconscious neuroses of ‘Rebirth’

Freud also mentions the clinical implications of the unconscious notion of ‘Rebirth’. Freud’s attributes the phantasy of ‘rebirth’ to the imaginative life of the neurotics such as the mutilated version of the homosexual wishful phantasy, and in another euphemism, the phantasy of incestuous intercourse with the mother or father (the womb-phantasy).5 Freud’s notion of the unconscious ‘rebirth’ is a psychoanalytic approach to neuroses. In contrast, the Buddhist explanation of the unconscious in its sense of the afterlife and rebirth, could be quite surprising. According to Tibetan Buddhism:

3 Smith, Ivan (compiled, 2011), Freud, Sigmund (author), strachey, James & Freud, Anna (ed.). The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. “The Ego And The Id” (UK: Hogarth Press, 1974), p. 3975. 4 ibid., p. 3988. 5 Smith, Ivan (compiled 2011), Freud, Sigmund (author), strachey, James & Freud, Anna (ed.). The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud. “From The History Of An Infantile Neurosis”. (UK: Hogarth Press, 1974), p. 3579-3580. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 329

“... after having been unconscious for up to three and a half days, you will be awaken from unconsciousness and wonder, “What has happened to me?” So, recognize this to be the intermediate state []... ”6; “If you are to be born as a male... If you are to be born as a female... experience the perceptions... [Emotional arousal] will cause you to enter a womb... in the midst of the meeting between the sperm and the ovum. From that state of bliss you will faint into unconsciousness, and as time passes, the embryo will come to maturity in the womb .. ,”7

It is not easy to find the best rendering of the Freudian version of ‘unconscious’ in the Buddhist literature as there is no direct parallel. I will include these terms as the closest for discussion: (the factor of becoming or existence); anusaya (the underlying tendency); asava (the metaphorical “canker” or “intoxicant”).

The idea of ‘Collective Unconscious’

Interestingly, Freud comes up with the notion of ‘collective unconscious’8 9 but no significant progress had been made as it was not easy to translate the concepts of individual psychology into group psychology. Similarly, very little had been mentioned in the Buddhist doctrines about the topic of “collective unconscious”, which I presume it to have a direct relationship to the aggregate of “kamma”, of either the individual or the collective mode as group. The research on “collective unconscious” should be a profound and rewarding attempt.

The concept of Bhavanga

When we keyword-search for the term ‘bhavanga’ in the Theravada Tipitaka, we can see the term appearing in only two collections - mainly however: inside the Abhidhamma.

6 (comp.), Gyurme Doije (trails.), Graham Coleman & (ed.). The Tibetan Book of the Dead. (US: Penguin Group, 2005), p. 236. 7 Ibid., p. 289-290. 8 Freudj Sigmund (autli.), Jones, Katherine (trails). Moses And Monotheism (UK: Hogarth Press, 1939), p. 208 9 Thank you to Dr. Dion Peoples, the editor of the JIABU, for doing a keyword-search on the Digital Pali Reader Firefox browser-software, for this term, and for providing a screenshot of the authentic results, and for making a correction in Illy text to reflect the accuracy of the information. 330 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Whenever the mind is in a state such as a dreamless deep sleep, or at the final moment of death, or right after the end of every thought process, or stop receiving a fresh external object or thought-freed (vlthimutta), we say the mind is in the state of ‘bhavanga’. Thus, we can also say bhavanga acts like a buffer as it arises and perishes between two consecutive thought-process. likens bhavanga to ‘subconscious’, ‘stored-up memory’, ‘kamma’, rebirth’, ‘life-continuum’, which seem closer to the Freudian sense of the dynamic ‘unconscious’:

“Since time immemorial, all impressions and experiences are, as it were, stored up, or better said, are functioning, but concealed as such to full consciousness, from where however they occasionally emerge as subconscious phenomena and approach the threshold of full consciousness, or crossing it become fully conscious. This so- called ‘subconscious life-stream’ or undercurrent of life is that by which might be explained the faculty of memory, paranormal psychic phenomena, mental and physical growth, karma and rebirth, etc. An alternative rendering is ‘life- continuum’.”10

s.z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids view bhavanga as a functional moment of subconsciousness, a subliminal consciousness, but disagree for it to be treated as a sub­plane from which thought emerge from the substrate to surface:

“Bhavanga means function... a functional state or moment of subconsciousness... below the threshold’ of consciousness by which we conceive continuous subjective existence as possible. ... a flow of momentary states of subliminal consciousness... constitutes the stream of being... The stream IS liable to be interrupted constantly by thought... it cannot be regained as a sub-plane from which thoughts ‘rise to the surface’.” 11

10 Nyanaponika Thera. Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms & Doctrines. (Kandy: BPS, 1980),p. 70 11 S. Z. Aung (trans.), Mrs. Rhys Davids (eds.). Compendium of Philosophy: Being a Translation of Abhidhammattha- Sangaha. (Oxford: PTS, 1910), p. 266-267. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 331

In my view, bhavanga does not correspond to a sub-plane; it is not a subliminal consciousness, nor is it a functional state of subconscious existence. The author’s description as “below the threshold” of consciousness, and “continuous subjective existence” is suggesting the coexistence of subconscious and consciousness, but there are no two types of consciousness that can coexist according to Abhidhamma - they arise and perish in an infinitesimal split-moment. The following illustration of bhavanga by Mrs. Rhys Davids as a vibrating node in two consecutive thought-moments (second and third) of the total seventeen thought-moments (khana) would totally rule out bhavanga as a repository of either the subconscious or unconscious:

“...in every such act, seventeen moments or flashes of consciousness took place, each moment being considered to involve the three time-phases of all ‘becoming’ namely, a nascent, static and dissolving phase ... after one citta-moment (1) has passed, enters the avenue [or focus] of sight, the life-continuum (bhavanga) vibrating twice (2) (3) ... then seven flashes of full perception, or apperception (javana) (9­15); finally, if the percept is sufficiently vivid, two moments of retention or registering consciousness (16, 17) ... After that comes subsidence into the life- continuum [bhavanga].”12

Dr. o. H. De A. Wijesekera concludes that ‘bhavanga’ can be equated with Freud’s notion of the id forces of unconscious:

“At the non-empirical state, vinnana is unconscious and becomes conscious only when confronted by the obj ective world in the perceptual process... Freud’ S concept of the human psyche consisting of id-forces and the Unconscious may therefore be considered to a large extent parallel to the Buddhist notion of bhavanga which, according to our understanding, is constituted by the sankharas or physical forces combined with vinnana which in the empirical state appears as consciousness which Freud attributed to the ego or the empirical agent.”13

12 Mrs. c. A. F. Rhys Davids. Buddhist Psychology... (London: G. Bell & Sons, 1914), p. 180- 181. 13 O.H. de A. Wijesekera (1979). The Freudian Unconscious and Bhavanga. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 1, p. 65-66. 332 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

In my view, this is confusing. At the non-empirical state (or prior to the first vibrating bhavanga), not only is vinnana stays at unconscious, the sankharas are also in unconscious. Sankharas are not physical forces but is the term designated in Suttanta, and for which in Abhidhamma are being translated into 50 mental factors excluding vedana (feeling) and sanna (perception). It is perhaps only true to say that, according to Theravada Abhidhamma, some of the biased 52 mental factors arising with the different consciousness as a result of influence by corporeal objects (or mental visuals), and together as a whole constitute a working process similar to Freud’s notion of the empirical ego-forces.

Anusaya (latent tendency)

The term ‘anusaya’ is seemed comparable to the Freudian id-forces. The PTS’s Pali- English Dictionary defines ‘anusaya’ as: “bent, bias, proclivity, the persistence of a dormant or latent disposition, predisposition, and tendency. Always in bad sense.” According to the in Abhidhamma, there are 7 latent tendencies of the: (1) sensual craving (kamaraganusaya), (2) aversion (patighanusaya), (3) conceit (mananusaya), (4) fallacy (ditthanusaya), (5) scepticism (vicikicchanusaya), (6) craving for existence (bhavaraganusaya), (7) ignorance (avijjanusaya).14 These English renderings has the characteristics of the dormant and lurking tendencies, latent proclivities, thus making the term ‘anusaya’ closer to the Freudian sense of ‘unconscious’ repository.

Asava (personality-canker)

The term ‘asava’ is also closely resembles that of the ‘id’ unconscious of Freud’s. Rhys Davids (The Expositor’ [Atthasalinl], 1976, p. 63) interprets ‘asavas’ as “intoxicants” of the mind, likens it to juices of the Madira fruits which become intoxicants after long- fermentation. U Kyaw Khine (The Dhammasanganl, 1999, p. 535) interprets ‘asavas’ as “defilements” that befuddle the mind. PTS Pali-English Dictionary defines ‘asava’ as “outflow”. Other translated renderings for ‘asava’ include “canker, pollutant, taint”, and so on. The metaphorical “canker” implicates more closely to the ‘id’ unconscious mechanism as it means the affective capability of corroding the minds covertly, quietly, gradually, and durably. The 4 kinds of ‘cankers” refer to the attachment and clinging to: (1) sensuous

14 Cf. SamyuttaNikaya: 45.175; Yamaka: 7.27, 7.28; Nyanatiloka Mahathera (2007). Guide Through the Abhidhamma Pitaka. (Kandy: BPS), p. 138. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 333

pleasures, (2) existences, (3) fallacious views, (4) ignorance as to the Four Noble Truths and theory of the Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada).15

The ‘unconscious’ in the dreams

Freud emphasizes the value of dreams as sources of insight into the unconscious desires, especially the infantile roots of unconscious wishes in dreams. Fascinated by the anomaly that the things we hide in the day appeared in disguise in the dark of night (such as the incestuous acts^ murderous thoughts, etc.), he wrote’“The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind.”16

Reinforcement from the ‘unconscious’

Every dream is an attempted gratification of some unconscious wishes. That is to say, the dream would not happen if the conscious wish were not reinforced from the unconscious. According to Freud, in our sleep, unconscious wishes always remain active and ready to “off-load” their intensity whenever they find an opportunity to unite themselves with the emotions from conscious life. The more intense the emotion in the awaking hours, the more chances the unconscious wishes will manifest in dream. An example is children often have bad dreams after a day of intense activities. The stronger the unconscious wishes, the more they will dominate the dream content: worry, guilt, jealousy, envy, lust, as examples.

Irrationality of the ‘unconscious’

Although the unconscious system of id is a dynamic and an affective base which influence all aspects of our conative and cognitive personality (perception, feeling, emotion, and so on), it, however, contains passion, instincts, and is “irrational” in contrast to the ego which operates on reasoning and sanity. Just imagine how many times the dreams that we had in the past were rational and expressed logic? Rationality and logic do not hold for the unconscious mechanism of the id, typified in dreams.

15 Cf. Dhammasanganl: par. 1465. 16 Freud, Sigmund (auth.), strachey, James (ed.). The Interpretation of Dreams.(US'. Basic Books,2010), p. 604. 334 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Sexual symbolism

To Freud, the representation of sexual material in dreams is symbolical in which unconscious sexual desires play an enormous part. Apart from dream, Freud said: “Identification is most often used in hysteria to express sexual community” whichhas remained in the unconscious.”17 It is possible that unconscious phantasies could have given in to the dominating sexual emotions or libido. These unconscious phantasies come to their expression not only in dreams but also in hysterical phobias and in other symptoms.

Interpretations of dream in Theravada Buddhism

There is not much that had been explained of dreams in the Theravada Buddhist scriptures but a little are mentioned in a few places in the Theravada Tipitaka. Their explanations, which were the later additions, are controversial. It is interesting to bring out here, of what had been recorded, into a critical review particularly pertaining to consciousness, and how the id- unconscious fits into the arguments. In of Abhidhamma (Kv: 22.6), there was a Theravadin asking Uttarapathakas about the morality of dream. Uttarapathakas maintained that even though a person may commit evil thoughts and crimes in dreams, but all the consciousness in dream should be treated as just ‘ethically neutral’. He argued because the Buddha has said that dream-consciousness was negligible.18 According to S. z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids, the commentary (Parajikanda-Atthakatha) remarked in response to the answer by Uttarapathakas, that: “There is volition, and that volition is negligible.”19 Some may argue that because the visuals in the dream are vague and indistinct presentations and hence his consciousness was irrational and absurd. But one can tell with certainty in his dream that his consciousness after the usual three bhavanga vibration and arrested by the two thought-moments of senses-based cognitive consciousness, passed subsequently through “receiving”, “investigating” and “determining” thought-moments - has actually lapsed into the seven ‘javana’ or ‘impulsion’. If his thought-moment had arisen at ‘javana’, then his dream activity has to be judged as either moral or immoral because

17 Freud, Sigmund (auth.), M. D. Eder (tran.). Dream Psychology. (US: Feedbooks, 1920), p. 49. 18 Cf. Kathavatthu: 22.6. 19 S.Z. Aung, Mrs. Rhys Davids (1969). Points of Controversy. Being a Translation of The Kathavatthu. (Oxford: PTS, 1969), p. 261. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 335

kamma takes place at ‘javana’.20 It doesn’t matter whether it is just a dream or ‘power of will’ in dream is too weak to effect kamma because his apperception is bound by his volative consciousness (or unconscious) as what the Buddha said:

“O Bhikkhus! Volition [intention] is what is called kamma, and having willed, one acts by body, speech and thought.”21

Furthermore, questions are raised by S. z. Aung and Mrs. Rhys Davids22 regarding: whether consciousness coming from the thought in dream and activity acted on the dream is moral, immoral, or unmoral? How far do the dream-thoughts carry on influencing his character (kamma)? My view is that whether the episodes of consciousness in the dream is moral, immoral, or unmoral have to be verified by thorough recollection of one’s intentions and motives (volition) by going through a detailed checklist of cetasikas and their categorized constituents. Whether the activities happened in dream must be dealt with is an ethical question. For example, the guilt consciousness that follows because the dream is true which continues to prick on his conscience. But in some cases, the dreams simply have to be ignored altogether because they are either irrelevant or illogical which are characteristic of the unconscious when only a little part of the brain is working. These Buddhist views of dream provide useful guide to Freud’s concept of the ‘id’ and unconscious. An interesting example relevant to the concept of ‘id’ is about the emission of semen during a dream as recorded in the Vinaya-Pitaka.23 At one time, because of good food and unworried life, a monk discovered he had emitted semen during a dream. This was reported to the Buddha who answered that a formal retraining program did not apply in that case. Monk’s intentional emission of semen during a dream constitutes a monastic disciplinary offence. But why was it not applicable as replied by the Buddha? My view is that the thought- moment had not reached the phase of impulsion or the thought-moment had ceased when intention was just about to form. For example, it is also natural that for no other reason than sleeping in the warm blanket of a very cold night, an adolescent full of sap woke up to

20 Narada Mahathera (1956). A Manual of Abhidhamma, Being Abhidhammattha-Sangaha of Bhadanta Anuruddhacariya. (Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society), p. 49-51. 21 Samyutta Nikaya 12.25; 35.146; Majjhima Nikaya 136; Anguttara Nikaya 10.217. 22 S. Z. Aung (trans.), Mrs. Rhys Davids (eds.). Compendium of Philosophy: Being a Translation ofAbhidhammattha- Sangaha. (Oxford: PTS, 1910), p. 52. 23 1. B. Homer (trans.) (1949). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka), Vol. 1 (Suttavibhanga). London: PTS. p. 195-196 336 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

discover that he had nocturnal emission. This matter of semen emission during dream was one of the five controverted points in the debates on Arahants, brought up by of the Mahasamghikas but rejected by the Sthaviras (antecedent of Theravada).24 In my view, the matter is a valid question. It is because only the Buddha is able to verify the validity status of an Arahant. My earlier discussion oil the case in the Kathavatthu concerning thought- moments, volition and consciousness in dream applies similarly here. All these facets of the Buddhist records on dream bring US closer to the subject of ‘unconscious’ symbolized by the Freudian concept of ‘id’.

Unconscious mind arises out of quantum field

Mark Germine (MD), wrote about the role and mechanism of the unconscious and preconscious in dreams by referring to the work of Freud, and explained them, to some extent, with the quantum theories.25 I add a few lines to discuss the quantum view of the unconscious because of their close correlation to each other. Many people find it enigmatic and confused about the quantum reality of superimposed potentialities. But the paradox of our latent ‘unconscious’ resonates very well with the paradox of the quantum field theory. The expected possibilities of the quantum wave function become unpredictable and less real when they are involved in an interaction with the agency of observation (wave of our consciousness). The same when we enter the unconscious world of dreams, the less real we become. The arbitrary reality arising out of our conscious observation of the quantum wave function was what caused Einstein to say unbelievingly: “God does not play dice with the universe”, and “spooky action at a distance.” Quantum reality exists in the limitless worlds of possibilities, which is precisely how our world of the unconscious mind functions; it is even capable of going back in time albeit with limited scientific validation. According to physicist Timothy Ralp, although it has been possible to simulate time travel with tiny quantum particles, the same result might not be repeatable for larger groups of particles like atoms.26 To a certain extent, it is perhaps true to say that, we visit quantum reality every night in our unconscious - in dreams.

24 Prebish, Charles and Keown Damien (2006). Buddhism—The Ebook, Third Edition. (US: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books), p. 124-125. 25 Mark Germine (1998). On the Quantum Psychodynamics of Dreams. Retrieved from: http:// www.goertzel.org/dynapsyc/1998/QuantumDreams.htrnl 26 Martin Ringbauer, Timothy c. Ralph, et al. (2014). Experimental Simulation of Closed Timelike Curves. Nature Communications, 5, 4145, p. . Pdfretrived from Cornell University Library: http://arxiv.org/ abs/1501.05014. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 337

According to Genuine, a dream cannot be formed by the unconscious alone because unconscious, even though is the primary process of dreams, it links with the secondary process which lies with the preconscious mind. Our dream is the preconscious borderland between two worlds, namely unconscious and conscious. He adds that the process of the unconscious, which is the quantum field, works in a “bi-directional” hierarchy of systems: “the whole gives rise to the parts, and the parts also give rise to the whole”. In effect, this is the principle of dependent co-arising or reciprocal causality (Paticcasamuppada). However, there is a distinction between our inclined id-forces of unconscious and the quantum unconscious, which is, in his words:

“In the quantum unconscious, everything is a whole. In the depths of the unconscious, everything is “I”.”

Conclusion

From what are examined above, I would draw a conclusion to the theme that there is none from the Buddha that can be used to describe exactly the Freud’s notion of the unconscious system. Freud’s approach of the id-forces of unconscious was intended on the ontological dualism of brain-mind relation and the materialism-neurosis interconnection, whereas the Buddha explained it in the ways of Abhidhamma, which is the lurking mental factors as the unconscious reality - collaborating with consciousness, and all that is corporeality. For US it is unconscious, but the unconscious latency in itself is an undiscovered wisdom of ‘superconscious’, the key to unlock secrets of our personality. Dreams occur in the boundary between the unconscious and the conscious. It thus answers why certain dreams are illogical, nonsensical but some appear as if so real— because the process of dream works on the principle of dependent causality in which the id-forces of unconscious and the conscious of superego can either be partially active or fully dominant, even totally dormant. Dreams are real only in the reality of mind, and in this regard, dreams provide US the opportunities for the profound insight into our true personality. Whether content of the dream is ethically moral or immoral, it requires an honest self-anatomy into the category components of the id-forces or cetasikas, which reflect our predispositions and dispositions. 338 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Notes

“God does not play dice”: One of Albert Einstein’s famous statements, who expressed his contempt for the notion that the universe is governed by probability - an idea fundamental to quantum theory. Oedipal Complex: The erotic emotions of the son directed at the mother joined by rivalry and violence or resentment toward the father, during the phallic stage of growth. Physiological Events: Physiology refers to a branch of biology that studies the functions and processes of living organisms including the organs, tissues, and chemical phenomena involved. Physiological events may include sensual organs impingements, arousal levels, and other physical variables that may affect behavior. Pleasure principle: The psychic force, which drives individuals to seek out immediate pleasure of instinctual, libidinal urges, etc. It overcomes the id and operates most greatly during childhood. During adulthood, it is opposed by the ego’s reality principle. Reality Principle: The ability of the mind to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon an impulse accordingly, as opposed to acting on the pleasure principle. “Spooky action at a distance”: A statement Einstein used to refer to quantum mechanics, which describes the strange behavior of the smallest particles of matter and light. He was referring, specifically, to quantum non-locality of “entanglement”, the idea that two physically and remotely separated particles can have correlated properties, with values that are uncertain until they are measured. Womb Phantacy: The state of envy experienced by some males for the reproductive ability of females, thought of as an unconscious drive to discriminate females; or the drive experienced by a transsexual. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 339

References

DTgha-Nikaya in Theravada Tipitaka Majjhima-Nikaya in Theravada Tipitaka Samyutta- Nikaya in Theravada Tipitaka Anguttara-Nikaya in Theravada Tipitaka Khuddaka- Nikaya in Theravada Tipitaka Dhammasangani in Theravada Abhidhamma Kathavattu in Theravada Abhidhamma Yamaka in Theravada Abhidhamma Freud, Sigmund (Author), James Strachey (editor), Anna Freud (editor), (1956-1974). The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (The Standard Edition), 24 Vols. London: Hogarth Press. (Compiled by Ivan Smith, 2011. http://www.holybooks.com/sigmund-freud-the-complete-works/) Freud, Sigmund (auth.), Strachey, James (Ed.). (2010). the Interpretation of Dreams. US: Basic Books. Freud, Sigmund (Auth.), M. D. Eder (Tran.) (1920). Dream Psychology. US: Feedbooks. Freud, Sigmund (auth.), Jones, Katherine (trans.) (1939). Moses and Monotheism. London: Hogarth Press. I. B. Homer (trans.) (1949). The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka), Vol. 1 (Suttavibhanga). London: PTS. Mark Germine (1998). On the Quantum Psychodynamics of Dreams. Retrived from: http: // www. goertzel. org / dynap sy c/1998/QuantumDream S. html Martin Ringbauer, Matthew A. Broome, Casey R. Myers, Andrew G. White, Timothy c. Ralph. (2014). Experimental Simulation of Closed Time like Curves. Nature Communications, 5, 4145. Mrs. c. A. F. Rhys Davids (1914). Buddhist Psychology: an Inquiry into the Analysis and Theory of Mind in . London: G. Bell and Sons. Narada Mahathera (1956). A Manual of Abhidhamma, Being Abhidhammattha-Sangaha of Bhadanta Anuruddhacariya. Malaysia: Buddhist Missionary Society. Nyanaponika Thera (1980). Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms & Doctrines. Kandy: BPS. Nyanatiloka Mahathera (2007). Guide Through the Abhidhamma Pitaka: A synopsis of the Philosophical Collection of the Buddhist Pali Canon. Kandy: BPS. O. H. de A.Wijesekera (1979). The Freudian Unconscious and Bhavanga. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 1. 340 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

P. B. Tan. (2015). An Anatomy of Mind. Being Essence of the Dhammasangani in Abhidhamma. Germany: Grin Publishing. Padmasambhava (compiled), Gyurme Dorje (trans.), Graham Coleman & Thupten Jinpa (ed.) (2005). The Tibetan Book of the Dead. US: Penguin Group. Pe Maung Tin (trans.), Rhys Davids (eds). (1976). The Expositor (AtthasalinI) - Buddhaghosa’s Commentary on the Dhammasangani. Oxford: PTS. Prebish, Charles and Keown Damien (2006). Buddhism—the Ebook, Third Edition.US: Journal of Buddhist Ethics Online Books. Shwe Zan Aung (trans.), Mrs. Rhys Davids (Eds). (1969). Points of Controversy or Subjects of Discourse. Being a Translation of the Kathavatthu. Oxford: PTS. Shwe Zan Aung (trans.), Mrs. Rhys Davids (eds). (1910). Compendium of Philosophy: Being a Translation of Abhidhammattha-Sangaha. Oxford: PTS. T. W Rhys Davids and William Stede, eds. (1921-1925). The Pali-English Dictionary. Oxford: PTS. U Kyaw Khine (Trans.). (1999). The Dhammasanganl: Enumeration of the Ultimate Realities Vol 1. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications. The “Holy Mans” Uprisings in the Thai Political Dynamics: Merits Counted

Venerable Yuande Shih Mahidol University, Thailand Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In the following passages, I am going to bring out several self-proclaimed “Holy Men” emerged during the long-history of Thai Political dynamics. Among them, someone came up from the center of different parties of contesting powers for the throne, the symbol of the highest power of human realm; someone rose up as the military leader to defend the external invasions; some others, even led the people to claim the state-independence from the central court. Apart from their ambitions, they were mainly active in central Thailand, the region closer to the central power, Ayutthaya in history, though their origins could be traced back to the Northern or Northeast Thailand. It should also be noted, I am intending to avoid any political standpoints in the paper. Rather, I just locate my ambition to bring out several variances of “Holy Men”, occurring in Thai political dynamics, based on the categories laid out by the western scholarships above. It is also worthy to point out that I am going to outline “Holy Men”, by following the dynastic axis of Thai polity respectfully.

Keywords: Holy man, Thai political dynamics, Military Leader 342 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction: Who is “Holy Man”?

Since the end of World War II, the Western scholars had again turned their attention to Thailand. Among them, such as Dauplay, Keyes, Murdoch, and even Wyatt, had shed their respective lights on Northern Thailand where the cultural, religious variants were obviously accommodated, with different approaches. Their studies on the “Holy Man” Movement occurred across Northern and Northeast Thailand, which was strongly identified in French- Laos also, had deeply interested me these days when I was going through the Thai history. Who is the “Holy Man” (PhuMi Bun and Thao Thammikarat in Thai, literally Lord of Law or Ruler of Justice1 )? Or, what kind of person can be a “Holy Man” in the ’s mind? I asked myself this many times. According to Cohen, Northern Thailand has a long tradition of “Holy Men” practice, which was shared by other Thai-speaking regions, such as Thai-speaking areas of Laos and even the communist controlled Sipsongpanna2 In his careful study on the “Holy Man” Rebellion appeared across Northeast Thailand and Southern Laos, Murdoch quoted from the current reports from both Thai and French Authorities, and stated that two “Holy Men” from Kha tribes of Laos, known as Bac May and Ong Keo were attracting an increasing following with their alleged magic powers, as well as various healing rituals probably.3 Dauplay reported, in several Buddhist temples of the Saravane region Laos, there appeared a white cotton panel depicting Ong Keo as a Thevada (god) enjoying the blessings of a Buddhist Paradise.4 By this time, probably around May of 1901, the practice of “Holy Man” was reportedly growing in Northeast Thailand, with some oral and written prophecies about the coming of some threatening catastrophe. Wyatt offered the following version of this kind of prophecy, in details as:

Gravel will become gold and silver and gold and silver will become gravel. Gourds and pumpkins will become elephants and horses, albino buffalo and pigs will become man-eating yaksa [giants]. Thao Thammikarat (a Lord of the Holy Law) will come to rule the world5

1 Murdoch, 1976, p. 57. 2 Cohen, 2001, p. 230. 3 Murdoch, 1976, p. 57. 4 Murdoch, 1976, p. 56. 5 Wyatt, 1984, p. 214. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 343

Another version of this written propaganda message cited by Keyes says that those who follow the “Holy Man” will not only be delivered from harm, but prosper:

Whoever wishes to remain free from these evil happenings should copy or retell this story and make it generally known. If one is pure and has not performed any evil or bad karmic deeds (or if one wishes to become rich), one should collect pebbles so that Thao Thammikarat can transform them into gold or silver.6

Summing up all these fragments cited above, a “Holy Man” is thus the one allegedly with some magic power, professional ritualist, blessed by the Buddha, able to foretell the future and free the people from sufferings (catastrophes). Meanwhile, they are unnecessarily monks though, yet always accompanied by the monks. In 1901, a thoughtful monk named Phra Yanarakkhit from Northeast Thailand, observed nearly all the monks around him talking about “Holy Man”.7 Monks were also attracted to perform the appropriate rituals.8 Cohen has his own “Holy Man”, Ton Bun in Northern Thai tongue, literally meaning “Source of Merits”.9 Agreeing with the Millennialist opinion that those “Holy Men”, to some extent, acted as the “savior saints”, Cohen suggests several Thai monks active in Northern Thailand at the dawn of 20th century, such as Khruba Khao Pi, Phra Phor Pan and so on, could be the much recent models of “Holy Man”, in honor their consistent protest against the centralization of governing administration and institutionalization of Thai Buddhism both promoted by V court.10 Taking this in account, a “Holy Man” can also come from monks who are widely believed to be the source of merits in Theravada Buddhism, themselves. Based on the previously mentioned scholars’ descriptions, simply put, a “Holy Man” may be either a layperson or monk, appearing at the opportune time when some political or economic chaos occurs, or some ideological confusion - a king of savior saints to free the people from various sufferings. He, usually wins charisma by self-claiming his embodiment of magic power, conducting the healing rituals, prophesying future devastations, and standing up on behalf of commoners to challenge authorities. He always associated with Buddhist temples, or is at least never far from Buddhist sacred elements. Seemingly, his stronghold

6 Keyes, 1977, p. 296. 7 Keyes, 1977, p. 297. 8 Murdoch, 1976, p.57. 9 Cohen, 2001, p. 227. 10 Cohen, 2001, pp. 228-233. 344 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

almost never, went beyond the Northern and Northeast Thailand border, the region relatively undeveloped, full of superstitious practices, and lacking of rational thinking in most of modern Thai people’s eyes. Nevertheless, we usually can find some historical variants.

Varieties of “Holy Men” in Thai History

Almost indisputably, until the middle of 14th century Ayutthaya court, a state- kingdom founded and started to distinguish from the long-time power wrestling with its northern counterparts in Lan Na, centered in ChiangMai. A powerhouse based in Phayao, the center of Thai politics, culture and even religion was located in its northern Part where the Sukhothai court is best known by its third King, Ramkhamhang (1279-1298?). They finally gained the independence from the Angkor Empire, already on its course of decline around the end of the 13th century.11 It is worth our attention: no individualized kingdom untimely ruled over another. Rather, they just, to some extent, had dominated one another through militarily displays at some certain time. Whilst, even the aim of their wars against one another were rather to capture the needy wealth and manpower from their rival rather than to destroy one another.12 Scholars believe this is attributed to the heavily applied ruling structure in Southeast Asian Buddhist kingdoms, whereas the rulers were ruling according to their different levels of merits inherited from previous lives, as well as accumulated within the present life by ruling according to the kingly virtues.13 In short, the more meritorious one could ascend to the higher ladder of the Mandala. Therefore, even a lesser meritorious one still deserves existence in this structure where the meritorious pay tribute in versions of wealth and slaves. The Chinese practiced differently. They seek the unity and stability or harmony in Chinese terms. For this goal, they were ready to eliminate any one in the way.14 Another consideration, which should not be ruled out, is the teaching of impermanence emphasized in Theravada Buddhism is enthusiastically followed by people in these Buddhist Kingdoms, since the 11th century. Under this very teaching, the merits contributed to one’s privilege in this life would be consumed. Rulers were unexceptional. By that time, the rising of new meritorious ones challenge and dominate the one whose merits decline, seemed quite normal for the Thais and their Buddhist counterparts. Under this premise, the “Holy Men” highlighted in the following paragraphs rose up and faded down on the scale of merits, which set by historical witnesses, yet usually lacked the necessary justice due to the traceless nature of merits. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 345

According to traditions embodied in the chronicles of northern Thailand, the state of Haripunjaya was founded at Lamphun, the lower Northern part of Thailand at that time, by a number of holy men, former Buddhist monks with connections in Lopburi located in the central Thai plain, to the south, on 19 February A.D. 661.15 They turned to the Buddhist King of Lopburi to provide them a ruler. The later sent them his daughter, Camadevi, who arrived in Haripunjaya with large retinue of Mon and established a dynasty that lasted until the eleventh century. Both during the rule of this Mon Dynasty and afterward, Lopburi continued to serve Haripunjaya and the north as cultural and religious center where Buddhist monks went for training and study.16 Later archeological discoveries in the modern age stand as strong evidence to reveal the prosperity of this Buddhist state initiated by this group of “Holy Men”. Though the usual magic power characteristically practiced by a “Holy Man” was not noted by modern historians, their charisma as “Holy Men” must be undeniable due to their successful establishment of a state. What impressed best is that they held no interest to keep power, rather requesting for a right ruler from Lopburi, probably, the ever Buddhist center, and more possibly, the commercial center for the overland trading at that time (?). I always believe the Buddhist prosperity is built on strong social prosperity. Supporting the big number of holy yet unproductive monks and their regular activities, just as building the splendid monuments really cost something. The maritime trades flourishing from 14th century and onwards across the Southeast Asian coasts had stolen most of the spotlight from the overland trading activities across the Inland Southeast Asia. However, the inland traders, accompanied by the Buddhist monks landed at the southern coastline of Thailand, such as Nakhon Si Thammarat, and had penetrated through and settled down in the vast central plain and then reached the Angkor Empire.11 Perhaps, that group of “Holy Men” had some connection with that Lopburi court, or purely admired its prosperity. Anyway, a new Buddhist center probably with a certain degree of commercial prosperity, was found under the cause of their non-craving of power. Not all the “Holy Men” did not attach with power. On the fall of Ayutthaya in 1569, the Burmese installed Maha Thammaracha (r. 1569-90) on the throne, thoroughly looted the city, and led thousands of prisoners, both commoners and nobles, away to captivity in ancient- Myanmar. To control their new vassal state, they relied both on Thammaracha’s obligation to them and on a small military garrison and the promise of swift retaliation should Siam prove

11 Wyatt, 2003, p. 29. 346 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

belligerent. In 1581, the Ayutthaya court was unnerved by an enigmatic popular rebellion led by a self-proclaimed holy man in the countryside between Ayutthaya and Lopburi, in which the minister of civil affairs (the Mahatthai) was slain. The rebellion was quelled almost by chance when a ‘foreigner” - perhaps an Indian or Portuguese shot this “Holy Man” to death and then his followers dispersed’12 Again, in the official chronicles, usually there is no room left to tell this “Holy Man’s background and how he took advantage of the weakness of the current court and converted his followers to rebel. Undeniably, charisma of the virtuous kings was usually pervasive over the “Holy Men”. Notwithstanding, the brutal violence he applied in his rebellion had seemingly refrained us from connecting him with being a Holy Buddhists, as he should have applied non-killing as the first and primary precept. In a Buddhist perspective, his demerit causally ripened into a violent death upon himself, and ended his movement, consequently. The next “Holy Man” to discuss, draws us back to ChiangMai, the political center of the Northern Thai Kingdom, Lan Na, which frequently fell in and out of the control of both Ayutthaya and ancient-Myanmar, until King Taksin (1767-1782) of Thonburi drove the Burmese armies out in 1775.13 In 1727, under the King Thai Sa (literally, “end of the lake), whose ruthless father was King Sua (King Tiger) of Ayutthaya14 - a rural Lao living outside Chiang Mai, Thep Sing, gained a large following in the countryside as a phu-mi-bun, a holy man, one with access to supernatural power. He first defied the Burmese of the city, later entered it, and assassinated him. Thep Sing ruled the city for only a month or so before the remaining Burmese in the region gained the assistance of Khmon Noi, a Lii prince of Chiang Huang who already had a long political career in the Lao world and had briefly been king of Luang Prabang - the Burmese with Khamon Noi, deposed Thep Sing.15 Apait from “Holy Man” Thep Sing’s violence, he demonstrated his political ambition to become the ruler of Chiang Mai; and successfully escaped death under the hands of the Burmese and the Lao contender Khmon Noi (discussed later). Another ambitious “Holy Man”, named Bun Khwang (or Tam Tien16) rose from a rebellion in the Nakhon Nayok territory, another central province in Thailand, at the time

12 Wyatt, 2003, p. 87. 13 Sng, 2015, p. 89. 14 Wyatt, 2003, p. 109. 15 Wyatt, 2003, p. 106 16 Mishara, 2004, p. 64. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 347

of King Phetracha (1688-1703). In 1690, just two years after Phetracha’s accession to the throne as usurper after killing King Narai’s (1656-1688) two half-brothers - the legal successors.17 Not only labeling himself as a “Holy Man”, he ambitiously self-claimed himself as the brother of King Narai to justify his rebellion against Phetracha legitimacy of being the King.18 The later was said to have risen up during King Narai ‘s reign - despite being just the son of his mother, who was the ever wet nurse of Prince Narai with whom he was raised together as brothers.19 Though King Taksin (1767-1782), a Lukchin (Child of the Chinese) by a Teochiu Chinese man and a Siamese woman, founded the short-lived Thonburi Dynasty,he had never claimed himself “Holy Man”; yet, his incomparable charisma and quick rise to power, in some way, attributed to his incredible merit. Wyatt insists that Taksin, an entirely self made man without influential and generous parents20 - his most important asset in those troublesome times was his personal charisma, an ability to convince others that he was indeed a “man of merit”. He was someone whose karma from previous existence and his meritorious actions were so strong, that it allowed him to lead other men and vanquish all opponents. People needed his leadership, courage and vision.21 However, when the Burmese threat was neutralized, the surviving Ayutthaya nobles who found their previous privileges blocked due to their non-support towards Taksin in the beginning, started to doubt King Taksin’s legitimacy to occupy the throne as a half-Chinese.22 They organized a palace coup to overthrow King Taksin and justified their conspiracy with Taksin’s demerit: offended monks who were the primary and major sources of merits.23 Terwiel concludes King Taksin’s fate and qualities that were virtues for a general who won battles, became liabilities to a sedentary monarch. As an army commander, Taksin could shift officers who lacked courage, or to men he disliked, for being sycophants, but not as a peaceful king.24 In short, the fall of King Taksin was caused by his own restless, irascible and intolerant personality. Further discussion will inevitably go beyond the purpose of this paper.

17 Wyatt, 2003, p. 108. 18 Mishara, 2004, p. 64. 19 Wyatt, 2003, p. 105. 20 Sng 2015, pp. 58-59. 21 Wyatt, 2003, p. 123. 22 Baker, 2014, p. 25; Wyatt, 2003, pp. 113-114. 23 Wyatt, 2003, p. 113. 24 Terwiel, 2005, p. 61. 348 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

If Cohen was right to have regarded monks as “Holy Men”25, I would also like to draw attention to another monk. The well-known Thai historian Prince Damrong, in his “Thai rop Phama” [Our Wars with the Burmese], which still remains as a famous published history book, besides treating the two sackings of Ayutthaya in 1569 and 1767 as the great national disasters that brought about national disunity, especially within the nobility, also introduces ordinary people into the national story in the tale of Bang Rajan, a village that fought bravely and hopelessly against the Burmese in 1767, with no help from the capital yet inspired by a natural loyalty and marshaled by a solitary Buddhist monk.26 My colleagues, disagree that Phra Thammachot was leading the armed villagers, rather he was just acted as the consultant to give some strategic or tactical suggestions to the village fighters - history books are not so clear. We can recollect the leading monastic figure in the popular movie- series of “King Naresuan”, who had not fought on the battlefront to combat the Burmese, yet, was always the central think-tank for leadership.27 Apparently, neither the monk himself or faithful followers, like to see monks violate precepts in which monks were expected to refrain from battle affairs.28 Then, skillfulness was always applied to escape any transgressions. In Bodhisattva practice, for the welfare of the masses, even some transgressions are acceptable, and some may become meritorious deeds. In a number of Jataka stories, some rivals of the bodhisattvas got the bad end of violent deaths, which were directly or indirectly caused by the bodhisattva who was accumulating merit to prepare for his ultimate enlightenment as the Buddha. Therefore, even monks joined in battles as “Holy Men” - during their own respective occasions, probably remained immune from blame, as long as he was doing for the benefits of the victorious masses, at least from a bodhisattva-perspective. On the other hand, this proposition might work to justify uprisings (fights, rebellions) of the “Holy Men” outlined above. At least, from their standpoint, they were fighting for the interests of the masses.

25 Most of my senior Thai monk and lay colleagues believe “Holy Men”, traditionally, should be laypersons. At the same, they never deny the possibility that some monk might also be holy. I raised this question to my colleagues in Prof. Matthew’s [the chair of PhD program of College of Religious Studies, Mahidol University] lecture regarding to “Buddhism, Polity and Power” on the morning of 24 August, 2016. However, in Cohen’ S paper (Cohen, 2001), there were several monks active in the northern Thailand. 26 Damrongrachanuphap, 2001; Baker, 2014, p. 73. 27 “King Naresuan” produced by Saha Monkol Media in 2010. Retrieved from Web: https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=TGOZ4SJOgMk on 22 August, 2016. 28 Bhikkhu , 2007: monks are obscured to stay in the army camp for more than three overnights. Retrieved on Web: http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/vin/sv/bhikkhu-pati.html on 21 August, 2016. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 349

Concluding Remarks

In summarizing the stories of the “Holy Men” highlighted above, it would be not unsafe to say their legendary movements were unexceptionally short, and short of value to gain total and officially historical light. Yet, their stories remain as merit-themed folktales for the masses in the grassroots households. I was in awe of “Holy Man” stories told by one local monk from Ayutthaya, who had gotten his doctor degree on Buddhist Philosophy from the motherland of Buddhism, in India. According to him, only the one who had enough merit, can become the ‘Holy Man”. The more merits he gained [probably from the intractable previous lives, and the salutation to the Buddha, and Dharma], he could attain more magic power and get more followers. In other words, his charisma would be stronger and more pervasive while the campaign might last longer, he added. Taking this premise in account, probably, King Taksin ’s merit was relatively more and superior than the other “Holy Men” above, though his reign was widely regarded as short-lived, as a founding- king. Further, I boldly asked whose merits were more and superior compared to “Holy Man” against the virtuous kings in history. He was silenced for a while, and then thought of an answer: the merit of virtuous kings is incomparable to “Holy Men”. Probably, this is why their stories never get enough historical attention though some campaigns had enough impact upon the society of that time, widely and deeply. For instance, the “Holy Man” claiming to be the brother of King Narai the Great, almost toppled the throne; Taksin’s successful military campaign saved Thailand from the Burmese - however, history never belonged to them, due to insufficient or expired merit. Buddhism does nothing wrong to promote merit through the practice of giving and morality (simply put, right-deeds).29 Definitions of morality are always various and favor the ones in power. Resulting from this, merits could be used as an instrument to justify ambitious political players’ accession to power30, while the losers are unjustly treated, or easily forgotten, because their merits were not enough. Victors write the pages of history. Furthermore, because of this widely-accepted merit-principle, political players can also construct or reconstruct the Buddhist sentiment, friendly to them, by demonstrating symbolic merit-making ceremonies.31 Don’t forget: dictators with the tragedy of their society’s blood upon their hands, are often shown making merit in Buddhist temples. Merit, if interpreted rightly, it could bring peace,

29 Spiro, 182, pp. 98-103. 30 Fox, 2013, p. 45. 31 Fox, 2013, pp. 46-47. 350 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

happiness and harmony for the individuals and the whole society because merit mainly comes from morality. Nevertheless, more and more people just focus on ceremonial merit-makings, mainly manifested in material-support to the temples, while the core teaching of Buddhist merit (morality) is usually ignored. Investigation on the causality of those “holy men’s” upnsings is always politically complex, and inevitably results in more debates. Yet, only counting merit to exam them is also wrong, even though under Buddhist principles. Rather, I intend to suggest to everyone, especially the ones with political power: meditate on morality, rather than playing merit- games. If this is done, I think there would be no “holy man” rising-up to challenge your authority, because you would have built merits accumulated from morality; and, I don’t see any “Holy Man” rising up, any time soon.

References

Baker, Chris., & Pasuk Phongpaichit. (2014). A History of Thailand. (Third edition). Sydney: Cambridge University Press. Bhikkhu Thanissaro. (2007). (Trans.). Bhikkhu Patimokkha: The Bhikkhu’s Code of Discipline. . Retrieved on Web:http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/vin/sv/ bhikkhu-pati.html on 23 August, 2016. Cushman, Richard D. (2006). The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya: A Synoptic Translation. (David K. Wyatt, Ed.). Bangkok: The Siam Society. Damrongrachanuphap, p. (2001). The Chronicle of Our Wars with the Burmese: Hostilities between Siamese and Burmese when Ayutthaya was the Capital of Siam. Bangkok: White Lotus. Fox, Jonathan. (2013). An Introduction to Religion and Politics: Theory and Practice. London & New York: Routledge. Keyes CF, 1977 ‘Millennialism, Theravada Buddhism, and Thai Society’ in Journal of Asian Studies, 36 (2), pp. 283-302. Keyes CF, 1991 ‘ and Buddhist Fundamentalism in Burma and Thailand’, 367-407. In M Marty and RS Appleby (eds.), Fundamentalisms Observed Chicago: University of Chicago Press. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 351

Ladwig, p. (2014). Millennialism, Charisma and Utopia: Revolutionary Potentialities in Pre- modern Lao and Thai Theravada Buddhism. Politics, Religion & Ideology, 75(2), 308-329 Mackenzie, Rory. (2007). New Buddhist Movements in Thailand: Towards an Understanding of and Santi Asoke. London and New York: Routledge. McDaniel, Justin T. (2011). The Lovelorn Ghost and the magic Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand. New York: Columbia University Press. Murdoch, J. B. (1967). The 1901-1902” Holy Man’s” Rebellion. Sciences, 5, 78-86. Sng, Jeffery. & Phimpraphai Phisanbut. (2015). A history of the Thai-Chinese. Singapore, Bangkok: Editions Didier Millet. Wyatt, David K. (2003). Thailand: A Short History. (Second Edition). Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books. A Comparative Study between Quantum Mechanics and Yogācāra Buddhism on Properties of Material Objects

Ven. Hui Chen Department of English Language and Culture, Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. Email: chanfi [email protected]

Abstract

With the development of quantum mechanics, the knowledge of properties of material objects has been greatly changed, quite different from what people have taken for granted as well as that in the classic physics. Since Yogācāra is considered to be one of most compatible Buddhist theories with modern science, in order to see exactly how close Yogācāra is to quantum mechanics, this article aims at comparing quantum mechanics and Yogācāra on properties of material objects from three aspects, the source of material objects, their substantiality, and the interference from the mind. By doing this, a conclusion is made that the two have same opinions at a general level but different, to certain extents, from each other at a specifi c level.

Keywords: quantum mechanics, Yogācāra, material objects JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 353

Introduction

In classic physics, a material object is often considered to be a kind of substantial existence with certain amount of mass and is made of fundamental physical elements such as atoms, and is often considered to be different and dispensable from the mind. These properties, though quite consistent with the sense of ordinary human beings1, is actually contradictory to one of the most important Buddhist ideas Yogācāra, which believes that there is nothing substantial in the world except consciousness and there can be no fundamental physical elements that make up physical objects.2 However, with more and more puzzling findings emerging in quantum mechanics, science, specifically quantum mechanics, seems to have been put closer to Buddhist theories especially Yogācāra. So here the questions are 1) What does the quantum mechanics say about properties of a material object? 2) What does Yogācāra say bout about properties of material objects? 3) To what extent are they similar to each other on this point? In order to answer these questions, this article is trying to compare quantum mechanics and Yogācāra Buddhism on these three properties of material objects: 1) the source of material objects 2) the substantiality of material objects 3) influence from the mind on material objects. This comparison will start with the analysis of properties of material objects in quantum mechanics, followed by the analysis of that in Yogācāra, concluded at last concerning the similarities and differences of the analyses above.

1 Korman, Daniel Z., “Ordinary Objects”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . 2 Master Xuanzhuang, Zhijie (A Direct Translation and Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition), tr. Lin Guoliang, (Shanghai: Fudan Press, 2007), pp. 14-16. 354 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Properties of Material Object in Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a kind of physics that mainly studies the features of the substances and their motion and interaction at the atomic level. These substances are mainly electrons, protons, neutrons, quarks etc.3 Different from the description of matter in traditional ways, these substances don’t take any form of matter, since they don’t have mass, nor do they take any space. They are measured by the unit of energy, quantum. Quarks are considered to be the smallest elements that constitute material objects. So far hundreds of quarks have been found. There are so many kinds of quarks that Leonard Susskind and others considered it necessary to unify all of them into one. Therefore, he proposed the theory called String Theory which states that all of the quarks are actually different forms of vibrating strings of energy. Different frequency and form will result in different kinds of quarks, thus different atoms. That is to say all of the material objects have the same source which is strings of energy. At the subatomic level, there is a phenomenon called particle entanglement, where if two particles are entangled and one spins towards one direction, the other will automatically spin towards the opposite direction. No matter how far the particles are from each other, the result will always be the same. It’s obviously not possible for these particles to have any signal connecting them because these particles are moving in the speed of light and nothing can move faster than the light. So even there’s signal, it can’t connect them. Many scientists try to explain this phenomenon with other theories. One of these theories seems to be plausible is Holography Theory, which believes that the entangled particles the scientists have detected are actually not two separated particles, but two images projected in different angles from a deeper entity that has not yet been detected. It has the same mechanism as the surveillance system, in which different screens show different sides of one person who’s being shot by the cameras fixed at different corners of the room, so when this person moves, all of the images in different screens move. If someone doesn’t have any knowledge of surveillance system, he will probably think each screen displays the image of one person, and he’ll surely be confused why these people move at such a surprisingly concerting pace. There is another phenomenon in quantum mechanics that is superposition, which refers to the state in which particles possess different forms of existence at the same time.

3 Ismael, Jenann, “Quantum Mechanics”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 355

For example, the radioactive Atom B-212 has been proved to possess the status of decaying and not decaying at the same moment after 60 minutes’ existence. However, this kind of phenomenon sounds rather strange and one of the scientists Schrodinger carried out a famous experiment in order to prove the absurdity of the existence of superposition. In this experiment, a cat is put into a concealed case together with a small case containing Atom B-212. And the small case is fixed with a string with the end tying a hammer, below the hammer is a little bottle containing toxic liquid. When Atom B-212 decays, the string will plummet, and the hammer will smash the bottle, and the toxic liquid will turn into toxic gas which will eventually kill the cat within the larger case. If the the atom does not decay, then the cat will be alive. According to the statement of superposition, after 60 minutes, the Atom B-212 will be in the status of both decaying and not decaying, which means the cat will be in a status of being both dead and alive. This, of course, is highly unlikely according to our human experience as well as commonsense, because when opening the case, there can be only one result, that is the cat is either dead or alive. Actually the explanation to is this comes from another phenomenon called collapse, which means different statuses of a particle in superposition is reduced to only one status because of an interference, an observing behavior from man. In this experiment, the behavior of opening the case and seeing whether the cat is dead or alive has ended the superposition phenomenon, if the cat is found to be alive, the status of being dead has collapsed because of the observation, vice versa. That is to say fundamentally the existence of material objects is influenced by man’s mind and it depends on the mind.

Properties of Material Objects in Yogācāra

Yogācāra is one of the most influential schools in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Its contribution to the development of this tradition is mainly known for its theoretical construction of Mahāyāna Buddhist doctrines both cosmologically and espitomologically. The word derived from Sanskrit Yogācāra has the implication of its justification based on meditation practice. Another commonly known word Consciousness-Only, translation of the Chinese word Weishi, points out the essential teaching of this theory which is that the existence of every phenomenon depends on consciousness. According to Yogācāra, man has Eight consciousnesses. Among the Eight, Ālaya Vijñāna the Eighth Consciousness, also called Store Consciousness, is the fundamental one from which both the other seven consciousnesses and the physical world are generated by the seeds, the potential energy, stored in Eighth Consciousness. Because it stores numerous 356 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

seeds which are all kinds of potential energy that can produce all of the phenomena that one cognizes, which is named manifest activities. The storage of the seeds have no beginning nor ending. They have been accumulated from countless lives of an individual and they are stored in the form of the Eighth Consciousness, which is so subtle that ordinary beings are not able to realize its existence at all. However, when conditions, both internal and external factors, become mature, these stored seeds are able to be activated and present themselves as manifest activities, and this process is called producing. The manifest activities, on the other hand, have their influence on the original seeds simultaneously, and this reverse effect made on the seeds are called perfuming. Once the original seeds are perfumed, new seeds will come into existence on the basis of the original ones also at the same time, and thus called seeds generating seeds. The Eighth Consciousness functions through such a continuous process of producing and perfuming among these seeds and manifest activities. By these non-stopping and repetitive pattern of producing and performing, new seeds as well as new manifest activities appear constantly, each resembles the previous one both on the side of seeds and on that of the manifest activities. Following is the diagram showing this pattern, with seeds (S) represented by the arrow above and manifest activities (MA) below.

Chart 1 Seed and manifest activities

According to this theory, material objects, including the external world and the human body are manifest activities produced by the seeds stored in the previous lives, and are still changing due to the producing process of the seeds newly perfumed in this life. According to Yogācāra, material objects are not substantial, just like in a dream. The reason why people normally think material things are real is because of their dharma attachment.

S’ S- S+ S JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 357

seeds which are all kinds of potential energy that can produce all of the phenomena that one ... Therefore all attachment to dharmas has as an object apparently real cognizes, which is named manifest activities. The storage of the seeds have no beginning dharmas that appear from the mind but are grasped as real dharmas. However, the nor ending. They have been accumulated from countless lives of an individual and they are images of apparently real dharmas are produced from conditions and are therefore stored in the form of the Eighth Consciousness, which is so subtle that ordinary beings are like illusory phenomena. These “real” dharmas as objects of attachment are falsely not able to realize its existence at all. However, when conditions, both internal and external imagined and thus do not really exist.4 factors, become mature, these stored seeds are able to be activated and present themselves as manifest activities, and this process is called producing. The manifest activities, on the This text from Cheng Weishi Lun shows that the material objects outside as one other hand, have their influence on the original seeds simultaneously, and this reverse effect perceives are actually not substantial, unreal. made on the seeds are called perfuming. Once the original seeds are perfumed, new seeds Even though the images of this self and dharmas are within consciousness, will come into existence on the basis of the original ones also at the same time, and thus still, due to imagination, they appear to be external. From beginningless time, sentient called seeds generating seeds. The Eighth Consciousness functions through such a continuous beings consider them to be real selves and dharmas as a result of this grasping. process of producing and perfuming among these seeds and manifest activities. By these One is like a dreamer whose mind, because of the power of the dream, appears non-stopping and repetitive pattern of producing and performing, new seeds as well as new in the form of various external things and who consequently considers them to be manifest activities appear constantly, each resembles the previous one both on the side of really external things.5 seeds and on that of the manifest activities. Following is the diagram showing this pattern, with seeds (S) represented by the arrow above and manifest activities (MA) below. This text explains the essence of material objects is just like a dream. However, because of the attachment of the ordinary people, they appear to be real. Chart 1 Seed and manifest activities The process of one cognizing the physical world is essentially within the consciousnesses. In order to understand this, one must know the structure of the consciousness. For each consciousness, there are two parts, different aspect of cognizing ability of the consciousness, the seeing part (cognizing part) and the seen part (cognized part). The material objects actually are produced by the Eighth Consciousness as its seen part, and the First to Sixth Consciousnesses will produce similar image of the material object as their seen part, and their seeing part then cognizes the seen part. So the whole process indicates that the material object can only exist within the consciousnesses, as the Chart 2 shows:

According to this theory, material objects, including the external world and the human body are manifest activities produced by the seeds stored in the previous lives, and are still changing due to the producing process of the seeds newly perfumed in this life. According to Yogācāra, material objects are not substantial, just like in a dream. The reason why people normally think material things are real is because of their dharma 4 Hsuang-tsang, Demonstration of Consciousness Only, tr. Cook, F.H., (Berkeley: Numata Center attachment. for Buddhist Translation Research, 1999), p. 40. 5 Hsuang-tsang, Demonstration of Consciousness Only, tr. Cook, F.H., (Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation Research, 1999), p. 40.

S’ S- S+ S 358 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Chart 2 Cognizing Process within Consciousnesses

For example, when one sees a flower, the whole process of this seeing starts from Eighth Consciousness which produces the flower as its seen part, and Eye Consciousness will produce a similar image of the flower as its seen part, and the seeing part of Eye Consciousness then cognizes the image of the flower. Therefore, the material objects are not able to exist apart from consciousnesses.

Conclusion

For the source of material objects, both quantum mechanics and Yogācāra theory think that the source of material objects is energy, strings of energy in the former and potential energy in the latter. As for whether material objects are substantial, both give a negative answer, illusory images projected by a deeper entity in the former and objects in a dream attached by ordinary human beings in the latter. Concerning the influence of mind on material objects, both show that material objects can only exist with the support of mind, collapsing from mind in the former and the producing and the cognizing processes within consciousnesses in the latter. Chart 3 below shows the result of the comparison:

First to Sixth Consciousnesses: Eye Consciousness, Ear ~, Seen Part: Nose ~, Tongue ~, Body ~ , Eighth Seen Part: A Similar material Mental ~ Consciousness The material object object Within Consciousnesses Seeing Part Seeing Part Cognizes JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 359

Chart 2 Cognizing Process within Consciousnesses Chart 3 Comparison between Theories in quantum mechanics and Yogācāra theory

Differences

Material Objects Similarities Theories in Quantum Yogācāra Mechanics

Source Energy Strings of energy Potential energy

Illusory images Objects in a dream attached Substantiality No projected by deeper by ordinary human beings entities

The producing and the Influence from the Collapse caused by the Yes cognizing processes within mind mind consciousnesses

For example, when one sees a flower, the whole process of this seeing starts from From the comparison above, it is easy to have the conclusion that generally quantum Eighth Consciousness which produces the flower as its seen part, and Eye Consciousness mechanics and Yogācāra have same answers to the questions concerning some aspects of the will produce a similar image of the flower as its seen part, and the seeing part of Eye nature of material objects, but specifically they have different elaborations on the general Consciousness then cognizes the image of the flower. Therefore, the material objects are not answers. And it seems difficult to say if these different elaborations are caused by different able to exist apart from consciousnesses. language usage or by incompatible opinions. Analysis of this is to be expected in future researches. Conclusion

For the source of material objects, both quantum mechanics and Yogācāra theory think that the source of material objects is energy, strings of energy in the former and potential energy in the latter. As for whether material objects are substantial, both give a negative answer, illusory images projected by a deeper entity in the former and objects in a dream attached by ordinary human beings in the latter. Concerning the influence of mind on material objects, both show that material objects can only exist with the support of mind, collapsing from mind in the former and the producing and the cognizing processes within consciousnesses in the latter. Chart 3 below shows the result of the comparison:

First to Sixth Consciousnesses: Eye Consciousness, Ear ~, Seen Part: Nose ~, Tongue ~, Body ~ , Eighth Seen Part: A Similar material Mental ~ Consciousness The material object object Within Consciousnesses Seeing Part Seeing Part Cognizes 360 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

References

I. Primary Sources

Hsuang-tsang, tr. Cook, F.H.. Demonstration of Consciousness Only. Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation Research, 1999. Master Xuanzhuang. Cheng Weishi Lun (Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition). Tang Dynasty, China. Master Xuanzhuang. Bashi Guiju Song (Stanzas on Regularity of the Eight Consciousnesses, Chinese Edition). Tang Dynasty, China. Master Kuiji. Cheng Weishi Lun Shuji (A Commentary to Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only, Chinese Edition). Tang Dynasty, China. Vasubandhu, tr. Master Xuanzhuang. Weishi Sanshi Song (Triṃśikā-vijñaptimātratā, Chinese Edition), India. Vasubandhu, tr. Master Xuanzhuang. Dacheng Bai Fa Ming Men Lun (Mahāyāna-śatadharma- prakāśamukha-śāstra, Chinese Edition), India.

II. Secondary Sources

Hong Chaoji. Tu Jie Fojiao Ba Shi ( An Introduction to Eight Consciousnesses in Buddhism with Illustrations, Chinese Edition). Taipei: Xiangshulin Wenhua, 2013. Ismael, Jenann, “Quantum Mechanics”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2015 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . Korman, Daniel Z., “Ordinary Objects”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = . Shun’ei, T. Living Yogācāra: An Introduction to Consciousness-Only Buddhism. Charles Muller (tr.). Boston: Wisdom Publications, 2009. Zhu, Q. “Physics Approaching Ālaya Conciousness (Chinese Edition)”. URL= . Zhu, Q. “Physics Stepping into Chan’s Status: Dependent Origination and Emptiness (Chinese Edition)”. URL= . Zhu, Q. “Quantum Consciousness: the Conjunction of Modern Science and Buddhism (Chinese Edition)”. URL= . Mindfulness Message: Compassionate Communication For Effective Interpersonal Relationship

Pintong Mansumitrchai, PhD Faculty of Language and Communication, National Institute of Development Administration. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

In this article, the writer points out the impact of mindfulness message in the com- passionate communication for effective interpersonal relationship, which is a message of loving-kindness, understanding, unbiased, non-judgmental and unprejudiced interpretation. Moreover, it also contains a wise attention towards the audiences in order to make them happy without any suffering or sorrow. The writer has named this message as “Mindfulness Message” which penetrates with the Dhamma Teachings of the Buddha as its main focus and framework on the Four Divine States of Mind by applying Yonisomanasikāra, Subhàsitavàcà (well-spoken speech) with Kālāmasutta. The result shows that compassionate communication process is a non-separated phenomenon. The technique suggested here is a mindfulness message with loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity or a contemplation of Brahmavihāras – as being called in this article as “Mindfulness Message”. An individual can practice and train oneself by radiating into six directions from an inner self then moves on to another who are the good, neutral, diffi cult ones, then, the four equally and gradually to the entire universe. It eventually creates the atmospheric absorption of benevolence, compassion and communion in the world. By following this concept, people can communicate non-violently with more understanding and human beings can live happily together with both inner peace and outer peace.

Keywords: Mindfulness Message, Compassionate Communication, International Relationship, Psychology of Communication 362 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

In the current social situation, people live in a very hastened and fast track lives. Both the economical pressured atmosphere and the materialistic consumptive livelihood which is an aftermath of expand and open society. People receive dissimilar information from many channels and such data results in the belief, opinion and paradigm differences. One of the reasons is from the diversity in culture, geography, belief, religion, nation, language, etc. These factors barge an ethnic conflict as well as a continuous violence to the society. By looking back at the history of Thailand, it seems that the social violence is increasing as it begins to incline from the level of individually internal conflict then move up to the conflicts in family, community, organization, public and private sectors. These finally lead to the international conflict and violence, which as regards result in an intense social condition and a lack of peace in both anima and society. Anyhow, the conflict phenomena and the violence issues are very common to the society as long as human beings live together with interconnection in positive or negative ways. One of the main causes that create confliction and disagreement has been resulted from the external and internal factors. To clarify, external conflict factors include public interest, power, relationship, value, data and structure conflicts (an interview with Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ven. Phramaha Hansa Dhammahaso, 2014)1. Moreover, internal conflict factors include an unwholesome course of action (Akusala ) and mental diffusion (Papancā), namely craving, dogma and conceit. From the above statement, one of the main factors that result in conflict and violence is an informational conflict, meaning a deficiency in the communication process. Accord- ing to the research of National Statistical Office (2010: p.13)2, Institute for Research and Development, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU) about the family relation- ship in Thailand, it indicates that, mostly, the major problem comes from the lack of skills in communication. This gives an effect in mutual understanding between the sender and the receiver in the family. Basically, it is due to the fact that people are not interested in the communication issue as well as they do pay much attention neither on the self-learning or

1 An Interview with Phra Maha Hansa Dhammahaso, Assoc. Prof. Dr. (15 December 2014). The topic of Communication for Peace. Peace Studies Room: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. 2 National Statistical Office (2010). Institute for Research and Development, Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University (STOU). Research on The Study and Development of the Model in Family Security and Assurance. Bangkok: Sukhothai Thammathirat. P.13. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 363

self-development. They are more aware on the financial and career issues in order to serve their natural survival instinct. In reality, in the real world, it is very essential for people to consider in living their way of life by learning through the ankle of cooperation also. This includes learning how to live together in harmony by focusing on the four basic developments namely self or body development, behavior development, mind development and wisdom development. People in either the family or the society have to learn how to develop their efficiency in adaptation in accordance with their interactive participants and diversified social situations. They should be aware of a compassionate concept of living a daily life with others in order to obtain a happy and peaceful well-being. From the above-mentioned problem in the communication process, this article points out the issues relevant to one dimension in the process, informational conflict, which is a ‘message’ that people are using to communicate with each other; whether in the family, community, society or even in the international relationship between countries. The writer tries to present the concept about ‘message’ in communication that should basically be based on loving-kindness, understanding, unbiased, non-judgmental thoughts with compassionate intention as can be called the message of mindfulness or ‘Mindfulness Message’. It should also integrate the knowledge of psychology of communication in the Buddhist dimension as well as with a touch of peaceful aromatic ingredients. Of which, the writer believes that these areas should not stand in separation but rather an integrated relationship in the process of communication for effective interpersonal relationship which leads to a non-violence society and a peaceful co-existence.

Communication: Source of Conflict and Violence

According to Donna Bellafiore (2013)3, it is undeniable that the conflict between people is a fact of life. Conflicts occur at all levels of interaction. One of the main conflicts that people are facing in the society is a conflict of information; a language or a message used in the communication process. The message being sent is sometimes absorbed, decoded and interpreted differently from the sender’s intention. For example, the same message maybe received and reacted individually and differently. People are not born the same and it is no

3 Donna Bellafiore (10 October 2013). Interpersonal Conflict and Effective Communication. Retrieved on 7 December 2015, from http://www.drbalternatives.com/articles/cc2.html 364 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

surprised that we are unique in many dimensions. There are many factors such as educational background, upbringing environment, mental basis, personal interest, experience, religion, economics and social status that form us to be who we are right now4. There is no surprised that the message we use to communicate is not the same in each person although in the same context and situation. Also, there is no wonder why the way we decode and interpret the message received in our brains is not the same as well. Nevertheless, people try to conform to the society by communicating with others because we are afraid to stay alone and left out from the group. This idea complies with the Maslow’s third basic need of human beings in love and belonging5. People need to be loved and accepted in their social groups, whether they are large or small. In order to maintain the healthy relationships at school, at work, among friends, within families, between partners or in the communities; people should learn how to communicate with other parties in effective and compassionate way. There must be a way to communicate the message effectively and efficiently; to make the sender and the receiver feel happy and satisfied while sending and receiving the message; and to have a mutual understanding in the message not in the other way around. In reality, it looks easy to say but very difficult to do. One of the main reasons is because most or some people lack of knowledge and understanding in both Buddhism and Psychological perspectives. This tends to cause the conflict in the relationships6. It is the fact that we cannot read another person’s mind because we neither are a mind detector nor a person with mental power or telepathy. With the lack of such knowledge, sometimes people get confused in sending and receiving messages leading to unsatisfied, ambiguous, uncertain, confused and unhappy feelings of many people. Consequently, it causes worry, sadness, and anger as they are trapped in the maze of communication process.

4 Faculty of Lecturers from Psychology Department (1994). Harmonize can be made. Faculty of Psychology. pp. 12-13. Bangkok: University. 5 Mark E. Koltko-Rivera (2006). Rediscovering the Later Version of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Self-Transcendence and Opportunities for Theory, Research, and Unification, in: Review of General Psychol- ogy. Vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 302-317. American Psychological Association. 6 An Interview with Phra Maha Hansa Dhammahaso, Assoc. Prof. Dr. (15 December 2014). The topic of Communication for Peace. Peace Studies Room: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 365

Psychology of Communication

Communication is about using symbol to communicate as to show intentions of the senders to the receivers, in case of human-beings; we use language as a symbol to commu- nicate among us. The process of communication among human-beings is usually a natural occurred phenomenon. Sometimes, it happens automatically and so fast that people do not notice that the process of communication is already starting, going on and almost ending. Technically, a communication process means the exchange of information (normally a mes- sage) between two or more people. In 1948, Shannon and Weaver7 introduced the standard of communication model which had three primary elements which were sender, channel and receiver; of which later on expanded into eight elements. In 1960, David Berlo8 expanded Shannon and Weaver’s linear model of commu- nication and introduced the SMCR or Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of Com- munication. He mentioned about the concepts that the sender and receiver are different in certain realms namely communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, social system and culture. Furthermore, he also added that there are five sensory organs towards the channel namely hearing, seeing, touching, smelling and tasting. In 1954, Wilbur L. Schramm9, a forefather in the growth of a basic model of com- munication, also expanded his model from the Shannon-Weaver transmission model of communication. Wilbur Schramm’s 1954 model magnifies on this thinking by highlighting the process of encoding and decoding the message. Schramm proposed this process as a reciprocal circular communication between the sender and the receiver. In contradiction, the Shannon-Weaver model is a more mathematical and technological one, but Schramm incorporates the study of human behavior in the communication process. Schramm added the field of experience into the process of communication which consists of an individual’s beliefs, values, experiences and learned meanings both as an individual or part of a group. In addition, Schramm suggested that the message can be complex by different mean- ings learned by different people. Meanings of the message can be either denotative or con-

7 Shannon, C. E. A (1948). Mathematical Theory of Communication. Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379-423 and 623-656, July and October, 1948. 8 Berlo, D. K. (1960). The process of communication. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. 9 Schramm, W. (1954). How communication works in W. Schramm (Ed.), The process and effects of communication (pp. 3-26). Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. 366 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

notative. Denotative meanings are common or dictionary meanings and can be the same for most people. On the contrary, connotative meanings are expressive or evaluative and based on individual experience. A message can also have external and hidden meanings. Other features of messages that impact communication between two individuals are: intonations and pitch patterns, accents, facial expressions, quality of voice, and gestures. Furthermore, Dr. Schramm believed that all of these elements were important functions of communication in the society. He added that people in a society need information on their environment and methods of communicating in order to make choices10. An individual’s knowledge, experi- ence and cultural upbringing also play an important role in communication. From the above different models from renowned scholars, we can see that people from different cultures, religion or background tend to interpret the message in dissimilar ways. Human communication can be marked by intention and anticipation of the reactions and communication in humans can be verbal when mediated by language or non-verbal when no language is involved. Communication can also be direct when a certain pattern of behavior evokes a particular type of response or subtle and indirect when behaviors are not predictable or ambiguous and not even completely comprehensible11. According to Saberi Roy (2009)12, she clarified that Psychology of Communication mainly includes three differ- ent elements or stages of communication in an individual which are absorption (or taking in information), interpretation (or deriving meaning of the information) and reaction (or responding to the information). As can be seen, a large portion of our lives is spent communicating with others. Sharing our thoughts and understanding another person’s feelings are essential skills for functioning in any society in the world. Moreover, it is no surprised then that difficulty with communication is the number one issue that brings people to couples counseling13, and is at the core of many other things that we are struggling with. The following is a simple model of communication that can help illustrate how communicating with others really works.

10 CommTheories (2015). Wilbur Schramm. Retrieved on 5 December 2015, from http://com- mtheories.wikispaces.com/Wilbur+Schramm 11 Roy, S. (11 September 2008). The Psychology of Communication. Retrieved on 5 December 2015, from http://ezinearticles.com/?The-­Psychology-­of-­Communication&id=1488330 12 Saberi Roy (2009). Reflections in Psychology (Part I) : The Psychology of Communication. LuLu Publishingdotcom : Mneme Publishers. 13 Elizabeth Kane. Marriage Counseling-Part 2- Why Couples Seek Counseling. Retrieved on 7 December 2015, from http://www.families.com/blog/marriage-counseling-part-2-why-couples- seek-counseling JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 367

Diagram 1: Communication Process

From the above-mentioned statements, when the sender encodes the message into the communication process, it is the receiver who decodes or absorbs information through sense organs whether it is the sounds and colors, the spoken words, the non-spoken words, the facial expressions and all external data provided in the process. This absorption is an objective process. Then the decoder has to analyze and interpret the information going on in the process by involving the use of brain mechanisms and analyze external stimuli as well as details such as expressions and subtle verbal and/or non-verbal cues. The interpretation here is considered as a subjective process. Following this process is the response to the stimuli which uses physical commu- nication channels such as speech, language and/or expressions through facial and bodily movements. Here, reaction is the result of both subjective and objective process. The reason behind this is because when the receiver is presented with certain messages or stimuli, he/ she has a set of predictable responses which are objective but depending on how the receiver decodes or interprets the situation subjectively. Basically, everyone has a set of different schemata or prior experience and knowl- edge in each of us. So, the ways we receive, interpret and react to the message are different. In the same situation with the same information, what we perceive, think, judge and react 368 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

might not always be the same as others. This is where the conflict gets started. It may sound difficult but it is so true that the importance of mindfulness and consciousness in communicating our messages should be, at all time, aware and acknowledged by people in the communication process.

Communication in Buddhism

Buddhism is a nontheistic religion with the belief in cause and effect. Dhamma or the teachings of the Buddha related to the communication process is not only learned through just only the five senses as in the Western scholars define. However, Buddhism identifies ‘six senses’ as opposed to the Western identification of ‘five senses’14. The six internal sense bases are eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind. In the communication process, all the five sense bases are considered to be ‘body’ of a sender (Berlo, D.K. 1960)15. However, in the Buddhist world, we believe that ‘mind’ plays more important role than the body. It is the mind itself that controls the body to move, feel, touch, smell, speak, listen and so on. The functions of body process, learning and acquiring process, decision making process as well as communication process are based on the mind as a main leader in controlling and telling the body to perform different functions and actions. This is why an individual reaction to the same situation is diversified due to the fact that people with dissimilar behaviors have different minds. However, still we have to live together in this natural chaotic world. In an earlier section, the writer mentions that people communicate together in order to conform to the society and as to fulfill our basic need. In order to tell one’s inner needs and wants, a person uses verbal-communication, which is speech or spoken language and non-verbal communication, such as body language, gestures, dress, act, etc. In some cases, conflicts arisen because of the misunderstanding between the two parties as mentioned be- fore. Sometimes, a person does not give full attention to the dialogue being said and that leads to the misinterpretation. In Buddhism, there is one discourse on the accomplishment of “wise attention” called the Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta (S 45.55)16 which is succinct

14 Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya. (Part IV is “The Book of the Six Sense Bases (Salayatanavagga)”). Boston: Wisdom Publications. 15 Berlo, D.K. (1960). The Process of Communication: Introduction to Theory and Prac- tice. San Francisco: Richard Press. 16 See Yoniso Sutta S 45.55/5:31 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 369

statement on wise attention spoken by the Buddha to an assembly of monastics. It means technically mentation, or more simply “direct the mind or attention in a certain way.”17 The term “wise attention” can be translated more broadly as “wise reflection, reasoned attention and methodical consideration”. By speaking the truth only and listening to the truth, without any delusions or biases, this will promote the arising of the wise attention in oneself, as we have the right understanding of true reality. This clears out the blockage in the stream of communication process and flows a mutual understanding among the parties.

Mindfulness Message: What?

Along the line of communication process, sometimes people send the message which is not a factual message but rather the message that has been touched up by personal opinion. This is a message with prejudice (Agati) whether it is a prejudice caused by love or desire (Chandàgati), prejudice caused by hatred or enmity (Dosàgati), prejudice caused by delusion or stupidity (Mohàgati) or prejudice caused by fear (Bhayàgati)18. All of these kinds of prejudiced message will eventually lead to messages creating hostile feeling or so- called ‘Hate Speech19’ which is one of the causes rooted in interpersonal and social conflicts such as family quarrels, school problems, workplace poor communication and social gap. According to the Communication theory, it provides some insight into the harms caused by hate speech in both physical and emotional effects. In psychological perspective, the message of each person can imply that person’s behavior, attitude, value, lifestyle, background, or childhood about how he or she perceives and understands the world as distorted or real; and what that person thinks or feels at the moment. Emotional, fear, hatred, hostile and distrust messages are food for the conflict to cultivate. They break a chain of effective communication by a faulty message.

17 Yoniso Manasikāra Sampadā Sutta: The Discourse on the Accomplishment of Wise Attention (S 45.55/5:31), translated by Piya Tan (2007, 2010). PTS: Yoniso Sutta – The Discourse on Being Wise, The internal condition for the noble eightfold path. pp. 169-172. 18 Phra Brahmagunabhorn (P.A. Payutto), 31st Edition (2015). Dictionary of Buddhism. pp. 149. Bangkok: Pli Dhamma Publishing Company. 19 John T. Nockleby, “Hate Speech,” in Encyclopedia of the American Constitution. Ed. Leonard W. Levy and Kenneth L. Karst. Vol. 3. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. p. 1277-1279. 370 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

As communicators send and receive messages, there is an enormous opportunity for slippage in the sequence of what is meant, said, heard, or understood.20 Sometimes, the conflict parties communicate words and non-verbal messages by what they want to say and fail to say. This usually ends up in miscommunication or misunderstanding between the senders and receivers. Adversely, if a person sends out a message filled with well-intention, mindfulness and understanding, this helps creating a bridge of compassionate connection between senders and receivers. In this article, the writer attempts to identify the word ‘Mindfulness Message’ as a piece of verbal information or non-verbal message being sent by a human being to another party in the communication process, through various channels. This contains a ‘disarming’ language with benevolent, compassionate, careful, precise and friendly words and it uses questions rather than statements or dictations. Also, it should contain non-hostile intonations, non-accusatory pauses, and/or other non-verbal messages that, at all time, convey the feelings of loving-kindness, compassion and non-hostility between senders and receivers. The nature of Mindfulness Message should be based on the Four Divine States of Mind or Brahmavihāras, which are a series of the four Buddhist virtues and the meditation practices made to cultivate them; namely loving-kindness (Mettā), compassion (Karuṇā), empathetic joy (Muditā) and equanimity (Upekkhā). They are also known as the Four Im- measurables or Appamaññā which are:

1. Loving-kindness (Mettā) towards all. It is the hope that a person will be well; “the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy”. 2. Compassion (Karuṇā) is the hope that a person’s suffering will diminish; “the wish for all sentiment beings to be free from suffering.” 3. Empathetic joy (Muditā) is the joy in the accomplishments of a person–oneself or another; sympathetic joy; “the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in happiness and virtues of all sentient beings”. 4. Equanimity (Upekkhā) is the learning to accept loss and gain, good-repute and ill-repute, praise and censure, sorrow and happiness, all with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity is “not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded

20 Otomar J. Bartos and Paul Wehr (2002). Using Conflict Theory. USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 152-154. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 371

tranquil state of mind–not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation.21

In the Pali canon, the Buddha recommended cultivating these four virtuous mental states to both householders and monastics. When one develops these four immeasurables, the Buddha counsels radiating them in all directions: abundant, expansive, immeasurable, free from hostility and free from ill-will.22 Such so, in order to engender a Mindfulness Message, there are certain factors that should not be underestimated around the message as shown in the below diagram.

Diagram 2: Mindfulness Message

These virtues are also highly regarded by Buddhists as the powerful antidotes to negative mental states (non-virtues) such as avarice, anger and pride23. Whenever, there is an uprising of the arming language or any kinds of hostile message within an individual mind, if one is often trained and practiced oneself by taking each of the immeasurables in turn and

21 Buddhist Studies for Secondary Students. UNIT 6: The Four Immeasurables. Retrieved on 17 December 2015, from http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/bs-s15.htm 22 Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas (AN 3.65), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 17 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065.than.html 23 Brahmavihāra. Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. Retrieved on 13 December 2015, from http:// www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmavihara 372 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

applying it to oneself, and then to others nearby, and to everybody in the society, and so on to everybody in the world. There is no wonder that the practitioners can gradually diminish the non-virtues and appreciate the present moment of peace, happiness and tranquility.

Mindfulness Message: How?

In this section, the question is on “How can one achieve Mindfulness Message in the communication process?” The writer strongly beliefs that it has to start within one’s own self. A person, either the sender or the receiver, has to embrace loving-kindness and also feel benevolent to oneself first before he or she can send out the loving-kindness and compassion to another. One can send out a Mindfulness Message naturally when he/she learn to practice and cultivate Brahmavihāras with an insight contemplative meditation. This is one of the path in permanently attaining companionship, peace and happiness; and communion with ethnic groups, social communities and the world. In the Tevijja Sutta24, the Buddha was asked the way to communion with Brahma. He replied that he personally knew the world of Brahma and the way to it; and explained the meditative method for reaching it by using an analogy of the resonance of a shell of .

A monk suffuses the world in the four directions with a mind of benevolence, then above, and below, and all around – the whole world from all sides, completely, with a benevolent, all-embracing, great, boundless, peaceful and friendly mind … Just as a powerful conch-blower makes himself heard with no great effort in all four directions, so too is there no limit to the unfolding of heart-liberating benevolence. This is a way to communion with Brahma.25

The best way of cultivating wholesome attitudes towards all sentient beings is through meditation. Among the many topics of meditation taught by the Buddha, there are four specifically concerned with the cultivation of loving-kindness, compassion, appreciative joy and equanimity. These four are called the Four Immeasurables because they are directed to an immeasurable number of sentient beings, and because the wholesome karma produced

24 A Discourse to Knowers of Veda: Tavijja Sutta, A Discourse of the Buddha on the Path to the Divine. Translated by Prof. T.W. Rhys Davids, With Introduction and Notes by Paul Debes, (BPS Online Edition, 2008). Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. The Wheel Publication No.57-58. 25 Majjhimanikaya, translated by Kurt Schmidt, Kristkeitz, Berlin (1978). P. 261, trans. Tony page. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 373

through practising them is immeasurable. The four are also called the Sublime States of Mind because they are like the extraordinary states of mind of the gods. By cultivating the wholesome attitudes over the Four Immeasurables; namely loving-kindness, compassion, appreciative joy and equanimity, people can gradually remove ill will, cruelty, jealousy and desire. In this way, they can achieve happiness for themselves and others, now and in the future. The benefit in the future may come through rebirth in the fortunate realms. In addition, the Four Immeasurables have been explained in “The Path of Purification” (Visuddhimagga, Chapter IX)26, written by Buddhaghoṣa, Theravada Buddhist scholar and commentator, in the 5th century. This tradition approach signifies the successive stages of mediation during which one progressively cultivates benevolence and compassion towards friendship and non-violence in six directions which are: 1. Oneself 2. A good friend 3. A neutral person 4. A difficult person 5. All four of the above equally 6. And then gradually the entire universe

Traditional practice includes reciting of specific words, phrases and non-verbal language in order to evoke a boundless warm-hearted feeling; or visualizing suffering and wishing well for those sentient beings. Practitioners or message senders speak and/or use gestures to receivers with cares, independent of approving or disapproving of them, or expect nothing in return. This will sequentially bring up a non-referential compassion or a pure compassion, involves experiencing the wish and care for another sentient beings to end their sufferings. Consequently, one can experience the true happiness in another beings’ happiness, like one’s own self. By adopting the Buddha teachings into practice, there is no ground for being attached to some and hating others since there is no one sentient being, who has not been one’s friend and relative in this unknown and beginning-less cycle of existence. Hence, ones should develop and meditate on equanimity to surpass all ill-wills when sending a mes- sage and equally accept everyone as companion in this Samsara.

26 Visuddhimagga. The Path of Purification by Buddhaghoṣa Thera. Translated by Somdej Phra Buddhajarn (Arj Asabha Mahathera), (2008). R.O.C.: The Corporation Body of the Buddha Educational Foundation. pp. 482-500. 374 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The question relevant here is “How to be a mindful and contemplative sender in Buddhist perspective?” According to the Buddha doctrines, it is the ‘Right Speech’ (Sammā Vāċā) that belongs to the virtue division of the Noble Eightfold Path which is an abstaining from the lying, from divisive speech, from abusive speech and from idle chatter27. A person can be successful in communicating with the others by purifying one’s verbal action in four ways as mentioned in the earlier content.

“Abandoning false speech, he abstains from false speech. He speaks the truth, holds to the truth and is firm, reliable, no deceiver of the world.” “Abandoning divisive speech, he abstains from divisive speech. What he has heard here, he does not tell there to break those people apart from these people here. What he has heard there, he does not tell here to break these people apart from those people there. Thus, reconciling those who have broken apart or cementing those who are united, he loves concord, delights in concord, enjoys concord and speaks things that create concord.” “Abandoning abusive speech, he abstains from abusive speech. He speaks words that are soothing to the ear, that are affectionate, that go to the heart, that are polite, appealing and pleasing to people at large.” “Abandoning idle chatter, he abstains from idle chatter. He speaks in season, speaks what is factual, what is in accordance with the goal, the Dhamma and the Vinaya. He speaks words worth treasuring, seasonable, reasonable, circumscribed and connected with the goal.”

Moreover, there are five keys for an individual to communicate a statement with the Right Speech. Such statement endowed with the (following) five factors is well-spoken, not ill-spoken, blameless and unfaulted by knowledgeable people28. For such speech:

“It is spoken at the right time. It is spoken in truth. It is spoken affectionately. It is spoken beneficially. It is spoken with a mind of good-ill.”

27 Magga-Vibhanga Sutta: An Analysis of the Path (SN 45.8), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 13 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn45/sn45.008.than.html 28 Vaca Sutta: A Statement (AN 5.198), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (3 July 2010). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 13 December 2015, from http://www.ac- cesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.198.than.html JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 375

In congruence with this idea, there is a basic morality in virtue of verbal action that an individual should observe at all time, namely ‘Well-Spoken Speech’ (Subhàsitavàcà). This means that an individual mind is made pure by self-purification through a well-chosen speech29.

“One should speak only that word by which one would not torment oneself nor harm others. That word is indeed well spoken.” “One should speak only pleasant words, words which are acceptable (to others). What one speaks without bringing evils to others is pleasant.” “Truth is indeed the undying word; this is an ancient verity. Upon truth, the good say, the goal and the teaching are founded.” “The sure word the Awakened One speaks for the attainment of nibbana, for making an end of suffering, is truly the best of words.”

For an individual to obtain the Right Speech, there are certain factors that circle around the mindful and contemplative speaker which can be shown in the below diagram.

Diagram 3: Mindfulness Sender

29 Vaniga (Thag 21), translated from the Pali Version by John D. Ireland (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 13 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ tipitaka/kn/thag/thag.21.00.irel.html#poem-05 376 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Following the above-mentioned, the other end of the communication process that needs an attention is the receiver. The question raised here is the same that “How to be a mindful and contemplative receiver in Buddhist perspective? In our daily life, we can ask ourselves that how many times that we interrupt another person while he or she is talking and is not yet done that conversation. Often, there are so many times that we are formulating our thoughts, thinking about what to say next, sometimes, even before our colloquists are done speaking. It is not easy to be a good and mindful speaker but it is more difficult to be an attentive and good listener. Most of our problems in life, at home, at school, at work or in the society, happen because of this reason. We do not listen mindfully to the other person in the communication process. We may jump to a conclusion very swiftly, and we often become judgmental too quickly. There is one research study regarding the communication of examined different parameters of emergency medicine residents taking a medical history30. The study concluded that only 20% of patients completed their presenting complaint without interruption. In other words, 80% of the patents were interrupted during their initial presenting complaint. The average time to interruption was only 12 seconds. Similarly, in a clinical study of Dr. Piyal Walpola31, a mindful listening can also increase the efficiency of a medical practice. In the Buddhist texts, there is one teaching of the Buddha in Sussusa Sutta about listening well. This Sutta explains the process of listening with mindfulness, as taught by the Buddha. This disclosure was mainly taught by the Buddha to teach his disciples how to listen to Dhamma (his teachings). But the writer believes it can also be applied to people in other situations in life as well. This Sussusa Sutta has been translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu32 as follows:

“Endowed with these six qualities, a person is incapable of alighting on the lawfulness, the rightness of skillful mental qualities even when listening to the true Dhamma. Which six?”

30 Karin V. Rhodes, MD (2004). Resuscitating the physician-patient relationship: emer- gency department communication in an academic medical center. Annals of Emergency Medicine: An International Journal, vol. 27, issue 3, pp. 262-267. 31 Dr. Piyal Walpola (23 September 2007). “Just Shut Up and Listen” How to be a mindful listener – in Buddhist perspective. Wisdom Through Mindfulness. Retrieved on 14 December 2015, from http:// wisdomthroughmindfulness.blogspot.com/2007/09/just-shut-up-and-listen-how-to-be.html 32 Sussusa Sutta: Listening Well (AN 6.88), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhik- khu (4 July 2010). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 14 December 2015, from http://www. accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an06/an06.088.than.html JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 377

“When the Doctrine & Discipline declared by the Tathagata is being taught, he does not listen well, does not give ear, does not apply his mind to gnosis, grabs hold of what is worthless, rejects what is worthwhile, and is not endowed with the patience to conform with the teaching.” “Endowed with these six qualities, a person is incapable of alighting on the lawfulness, the rightness of skillful mental qualities even when listening to the true Dhamma.” “Endowed with these six qualities, a person is capable of alighting on the lawfulness, the rightness of skillful mental qualities even while listening to the true Dhamma. Which six?” “When the Doctrine & Discipline declared by the Tathagata is being taught, he listens well, gives ear, applies his mind to gnosis, rejects what is worthless, grabs hold of what is worthwhile, and is endowed with the patience to conform with the teaching.” “Endowed with these six qualities, a person is capable of alighting on the lawfulness, the rightness of skillful mental qualities even while listening to the true Dhamma.”

From the above Buddha teaching of how to listen mindfully, it can be summarized into six applicable steps which are listed here. 1. Listen (Receive) with full mindful attention. 2. Try to remember what has been told. 3. Investigate for yourself. 4. Discard what is not useful to you. 5. Accept what is useful to you. 6. Apply to your life.

Further area of Buddhism in receiving information is about the friendship or an interaction between people in the conversation. As a matter of fact, we cannot live alone as we have to connect and make contact with others, remain in friendships and communicate to another. In some or many occasions that we just believe what we have been told from the sources that we trust. We, sometimes, jump to the conclusion without any hesitation whether that story is real or not. This kind of trust and believe can create major misunderstanding and conflict if the story being heard is not the truth. Even worse, if we spread out the story, which is not true, to another party, then it creates a lying, distrust, or rumor with a feedback 378 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

of resentment and anger among people in the process. In one sutta, a friendship where one has an admirable people as friends, companions and colleagues is considered the “whole of the holy life” (SN 45.2). A statement spoken by the Buddha to Venerable Ananda in Upaḍḍha Sutta (SN 45.2)33 is identical to that of the Kalayāṇa Mittatā Sutta (S 45.49)34 about an admirable friendship. The Awakened One here addressed that:

“Admirable friendship, admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie is actually the whole of the holy life. When a monk has admirable people as friends, companions, & colleagues, he can be expected to develop & pursue the noble eightfold path.”

This can also be applied to the real world, for the writer’s opinion, that if a person has an admirable friendship, it can penetrate right view, right understanding and right speech from the sender to the receiver very smoothly and easily. In congruence, by so having, an individual need to listen and receive information with wise attention to what being said. This will prevent the wrong view from happening. There are two ways in which ‘wrong views’ arises i.e. through listening to others (Parato Ghosa) and through unwise attention (Ayoniso Manasikāra). According to Ghosa Sutta: Voice (AN 2.125-126)35, the passage states that:

“Monks, there are these two conditions for the arising of wrong view. Which two? The voice of another and inappropriate attention. These are the two conditions for the arising of wrong view.” “Monks, there are these two conditions for the arising of right view. Which two? The voice of another and appropriate attention. These are the two conditions for the arising of right view.”

33 Upaḍḍha Sutta: Half (of the Holy Life), (SN 45.2), translated from the Pali Version by Thanis- saro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn45/sn45.002.than.html 34 Admirable friendship: Kalyanamittata, edited by Access to Insight. (30 November 2013). Ac- cess to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/ dhamma/sacca/sacca4/samma-ditthi/kalyanamittata.html 35 Ghosa Suttas: Voice (AN 2.125-126), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http:// www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.125-126.than.html JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 379

There is a discourse taught by the Buddha about justification before one believes in something that has been taught and told. The instruction of the Kalamas (Kālāma Sutta)36 is very famous for its encouragement of free inquiry; the spirit of the Sutta signifies a teach- ing that is exempt from fanaticism, bigotry, dogmatism and intolerance37. In this Sutta, it is indeed the whole course of training for wisdom culminating in the purity of the consummate one. It is intimately bound up with examination and analysis of things internal that are: the eye and visible objects, the ear and sounds, the nose and smells, the tongue and tastes, the body and tactile impressions, the mind and ideas. Simply put into words, in this Sutta, it is active in rejecting the bad actions and adopting the good way by using one’s own judgment and wisdom in the sense of right and wrong. The Ten Charter of Free Inquiry or the Kālāma Sutta are listed in the followings:

1. Do not simply believe what you hear just because you have heard it for a long. 2. Do not follow tradition blindly merely because it has been practiced in that way for many generations. 3. Do not be quick to listen to rumors and hearsay. 4. Do not confirm anything just because it agrees with your scriptures. 5. Do not foolishly make assumptions. 6. Do not abruptly draw conclusions by what you see and hear. 7. Do not be fooled by outward appearances. 8. Do not hold on tightly to any view or idea just because you are comfortable with it. 9. Do not accept as fact anything that you yourself find to be logical. 10. Do not be convinced of anything out of respect and deference to your spiritual teachers.

For the receiver, by adopting this Sutta into daily life, he/she can go beyond his or her opinion and belief. A well-trained receiver can justifiably reject anything which; when listened, accepted, practiced and perfected, leads to more aversion, conflict and violence.

36 See Kalama Sutta AN 3.65 37 Kalama Sutta: The Free Charter of Free Inquiry, translated from the Pali Version by Soma Thera. (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http:// www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wheel008.html 380 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conversely, the receiver can accept anything which; when listened, accepted and practiced, leads to harmony, unconditional love, compassion, empathetic joy and wisdom. Furthermore, by applying these ten points into the communication process by the receiver, any view or belief must be tested by the results it yields when put into practice. This will help the receiver to guard against the possibility of any bias or limitations in one’s understanding of those results. Also, they must further be checked against the experience of people who are wise. The ability to question and test one’s beliefs in an appropriate way is called appropriate attention. The ability to recognize and choose wise people as mentors is called having admirable friends38. Hence, in order for one to be a mindful, compassionate and contemplative receiver, he/she has to train and practice one’s mind continuously through the Dhamma teachings. So, an individual can be attentive with mindfulness while listening and receiving, there are certain factors around the contemplative receiver as shown below.

Diagram 4: Mindfulness Receiver

Mindfulness Message: Why?

All sentient beings desire happiness and peace in life, they do not desire misery and suffering. By practice using the Mindfulness Message, based on the contemplation of Brahmavihāras in the communication process, in some way or another one can avoid using

38 Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas (AN 3.65), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhik- khu. (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http:// www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065.than.html JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 381

harsh and hostile language which is one cause of social conflict and violence in the family and community. This will induce changes in the society and bring happiness and peace to all sentient beings with a number of benefits–both physical and mental health for all well- being. There are a few psychological studies about the impact on human beings such as one study at Stanford University suggests that a short–seven minutes–practice of benevolence can increase social connectedness39. Research by APS William James Fellow Ed Diener, a leading researcher in positive psychology, and APS James McKeen Cattell Fellow Martin Seligman, a pioneer of the psychology of happiness and human flourishing, suggests that connecting with others in a meaningful way helps us enjoy better mental and physical health and speeds up recovery from disease; furthermore, research by Stephanie Brown, at Stony Brook University, and Sara Konrath, at the University of Michigan, has shown that it may even lengthen our life spans40. Furthermore, in traditional Buddhism, there are 10 benefits mentioned in the Pali Canon from the practicing of benevolence meditation including:

One sleeps easily, wakes easily, dreams no evil dreams. One is dear to human beings, dear to non-human beings. The Devas protect one. Neither fire, poison, nor weapons can touch one. One’s mind gains concentration quickly. One’s complexion is bright. One dies unconfused and – if penetrating no higher – is headed for the Brahma worlds.41

39 Cendri A. Hutcherson, Emma M. Seppala, and James J. Gross (2008). Loving-Kindness Meditation Increases Social Connectedness. the American Psychological Association. California: Stanford University. Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 720 –724. 40 Emma Seppala (2013). The Compassionate MindScience shows why it’s healthy and how it spreads. Observer: Association for Psychological Science, Vol.26, No.5 May/June, 2013. Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publica- tions/observer/2013/may-june-13/the-compassionate-mind.html 41 Metta (Mettanisamsa) Sutta: Good Will (AN 11.16), translated from the Pali Version by Thanis- saro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 23 July 2013. Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an11/an11.016.than.html 382 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Conclusion

In human communication, the processing information devices are people engaged in the dialogue that are the senders and the receivers who use language to convey ideas or mental representations. In some or many occasions that information along the process, as celled ‘message’, is missed out through slippage or misunderstood and misinterpreted by different receivers. In the same situation, one can perceive, interpret and react to a message differently depending on some factors such as education, value, background and so on. Ironi- cally, in the real world, a pinch of sugar that one thinks is already sweet for his/her drink might not be sweet or sometimes too sweet for another. Congruently, in many circumstances that people in the communication process tend to perceive information based on their own personal knowledge, judgments, values and beliefs then formulate a message that neglects the sender’s perspectives. This is always attached with biases, judgmental perspectives and own point of views. This creates a conflict of information between the senders and the receivers in the communication process. Consequently, the following diagram shows the compassionate communication for a person to achieve effective international relationship.

Diagram 5: Compassionate Communication for The Effective Interpersonal Communication

Accordingly, sometimes, a conflict of information arises due to personal collision or disagreement in ideas, feelings, desires, or antagonism to principles between individuals or groups. More or less, it begins with a little cause but ends up with a big result for people to pay. So, the participants have to pay attention to mindfulness in sending out and receiving in a message as communication is a socially situated process of “here and now” because it is JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 383

an instantaneously process with an autonomous response. The techniques suggested here is a mindfulness message with loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity or a contemplation of Brahmavihāras – as being called in this article as “Mindfulness Mes- sage”. An individual can practice and train oneself by radiating into six directions from an inner self then moves on to another who are the good, neutral, difficult ones, then, the four equally and gradually to the entire universe. This eventually makes a fine tune in creating the atmospheric absorption of benevolence, compassion and communion in the world. Notwithstanding, in Buddhist perspectives, some certain characteristics to be a con- templative sender and receiver has been mentioned. A contemplative and mindfulness sender should acquire basic Dhamma in maintaining the Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Effort, Mindfulness and Wise Attention while, at all times, encoding the message. On the same basis, a contemplative and mindfulness receiver should also practice the Buddha Dhamma in the process of decoding; namely Parato Ghosa, Kalayāṇa Mittatā, Kālāma Sutta, Right View, Right Thought, Right Effort, Mindfulness and Wise Attention. In Buddhism, we as Buddhists have been taught to believe in Karma which can be classified into three levels namely bodily action (Kàya-Karma), verbal action (Vacã-Karma) or mental action (Mano-Karma). Karma refers to the spiritual principle of cause and effect where intent and actions of an individual (cause) influence the future of that individual (ef- fect). Generally, good intent and well deed contribute to good Karma and future happiness of a person and vice versa. Truthful speech, non-hostile language and compassionate verbal action – through way of Mindfulness Message – will bring good Karma, happiness and peace to the senders and the receivers during the process. By doing so, people can live in a society with harmony and reconciliation. 384 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

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Upaḍḍha Sutta: Half (of the Holy Life), (SN 45.2), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/ sn45/sn45.002.than.html Admirable friendship: Kalyanamittata, edited by Access to Insight. (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http://www. accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dhamma/sacca/sacca4/samma-ditthi/kalyanamittata.html JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 387

Ghosa Suttas: Voice (AN 2.125-126), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 15 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an02/an02.125-126.than. html See Kalama Sutta AN 3.65 Kalama Sutta: The Free Charter of Free Inquiry, translated from the Pali Version by Soma Thera. (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/soma/wheel008. html Kalama Sutta: To the Kalamas (AN 3.65), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. (30 November 2013). Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.065. than.html Cendri A. Hutcherson, Emma M. Seppala, and James J. Gross (2008). Loving-Kindness Meditation Increases Social Connectedness. the American Psychological Association. California: Stanford University. Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 720 –724. Emma Seppala (2013). The Compassionate MindScience shows why it’s healthy and how it spreads. Observer: Association for Psychological Science, Vol.26, No.5 May/June, 2013. Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.psychologicalscience.org/ index.php/publications/observer/2013/may-june-13/the-compassionate-mind.html Metta (Mettanisamsa) Sutta: Good Will (AN 11.16), translated from the Pali Version by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (Legacy Edition), 23 July 2013. Retrieved on 16 December 2015, from http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an11/an11.016. than.html The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature in Mahayana Buddhism

Tony Sin-Heng See National University of Singapore. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

The term Buddha-nature, which is a translation of a Sanskrit term “Buddhadhatu”, refers to one of the most important concepts of Mahayana Buddhism. First texts that mention the Buddha-nature were composed around 4th century C.E. In general terms, this concept states that all sentient beings possess the nature of the Buddha and can attain Buddhahood. However, according to some Buddhist scholars, the idea that sentient beings possess something permanent seems to contradict the Buddha’s teaching on non-self (anatta), which is in turn one of the most important teachings of early Buddhism. This is most probably the reason why the doctrine of Buddha-nature has been a source of debates. The author suggest that rejection of this concept as “non-Buddhist” is rooted in misunderstanding about the Buddha-nature and makes an attempt to refl ect and analyze some critical perspectives on the Buddha-nature to examine whether their arguments are valid. This will be followed by a note on the teaching of non-self and its compatibility with the doctrine of Buddha-nature.

Keywords: Buddhadhatu, Buddhahood, Buddha-nature, Mahayana, Dharmakaya JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 389

Introduction

The doctrine of Buddha-nature (Buddhadhatu) is one of the most important doctrines in Mahayana Buddhism. This doctrine can be found in a number of Mahayana texts that were composed at least by the 3rd to the 5th century C. E. Traces of this doctrine can be found in the development of Chinese, Korean and Japanese Buddhism. The doctrine of Buddha- nature basically teaches that all sentient beings have the Buddha-nature and that they can all attain Buddhahood. The Buddha-nature is described as pure and immaculate, free from emotional and conceptual defilements that plague sentient beings. This is apparently a very positive teaching that affirms everyone’s potential to attain Buddhahood. However, this is quite an independent question from whether it is a “Buddhist” teaching. The idea that sentient beings possess something that is permanent seems to reintroduce the very thing that the historical Buddha rejected, namely, the idea of “self.” This is most probably the reason why the doctrine of Buddha-nature has been a source of contention in scholarly debates. The doctrine of Buddha-nature may be regarded as a deviation from the historical Buddha’s teaching of “non-self.” However, as we shall see, this stems from a misunderstanding about the Buddha-nature. In the following sections, we will critically reflect on some scholarly perspectives on the Buddha-nature, and examine whether their arguments are valid and sound. This will be followed by a note on the teaching of non-self and its compatibility with the doctrine of Buddha-nature.

The Buddha-Nature Texts and Doctrines

The term “Buddha-nature” can be found in a number of Buddhist texts that are composed around the 3rd to 5th century and forms an important part of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. The term “Buddha-nature” is a translation of the Sanskrit term “Buddhadhatu,” and it can refer either to a “site”, “location”, or a “potential” for Buddhahood (Takasaki 1966, 74-94). In the history of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, a number of different terms have been used to describe the Buddha-nature. Some of these include the “Store of the Tathagata” (tathagatagarbha) which refers to the Buddha-nature in its hidden state, and the “Body of Dharma” (Dharmakaya) which refers to the Buddha-nature in its absolutely pure and original state. Modern scholarly research on the doctrine of Buddha-nature is relatively new and did not gain momentum until recent decades. There were, until the 90s, only a limited number of academic works that focused on the Buddha-nature (Ruegg, 1969; Verdu, 1974; Ruegg, 1989; Brown 1991). Research on this doctrine only intensified after Obermiller’s translation 390 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

of the Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra. The next important study which followed was David Seyfort Ruegg’s La Theorie du Tathagatagarbha et du Gotra: Etudes sur la Soterologie et la Gnoseologie du Buddhism in the sixties. In the seventies, Alfonso Verdu’s Dialectical Aspects in Buddhist Thought: Studies in Sino-Japanese Mahayana Idealism expanded our understanding of the doctrine of Buddha-nature in the East Asian contexts while Ruegg’s study Buddha-nature, Mind and the Problem of Gradualism in a Comparative Perspective in the seventies also contributed to our understanding of the Buddha-nature in the Tibetan tradition. In the period stretching from the early eighties to the early nineties, there were also many studies on the Buddha-nature. Here, we will examine three of these interpretations, namely Liu Ming Wood’s The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature in the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-Sutra (1982), Brian Edward Brown’s The Buddha Nature: A Study of the Tathagatagarbha and Alaya-vijnana (1991) and Sallie Behn King’s Buddha Nature (1991). Some of the Buddha-nature texts include the Tathagatagarbha-sutra, the SrunaladevTsimhanada-sutra, the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-sutra. The Tathagatagarbha- sutra is a relatively short sutra, which consists mainly of nine metaphors that illustrate the various different ways in which sentient beings possess the Buddha-nature (Grosnick, 1995; Zimmermann 2002). The text uses a number of metaphors to teach that sentient beings have a Buddha-nature and that they can all attain Buddhahood. The Buddha-nature, for instance, is like a treasury of gold that is hidden in a storehouse etc. This idea is echoed in the SrlmaladevTsimhanada-sutra, a text which mainly consists of a dialogue between the queen Sri Mala and her interlocutors. This text teaches that sentient beings have a Buddha-nature by way of the saying that they have a treasure, a “Store of the Tathagata” (Tathagatagarbha), which is hidden from sight. This text also further identifies the tathagatagarbha with the “Dharma body” (Dharmakaya) of the Buddha itself. Furthermore, it also uses positive language to describe this, such as “permanent,” “unchanging” and it is possessed of innumerable excellent qualities that are merely obscured by defilements and we only need to uncover it (Wayman and Wayman, 1974). Another text which teaches the doctrine of Buddha-nature is the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-sutra. This text purports to record the Buddha’s last teachings prior to his entrance into nirvana, and it has a parallel version in the Theravada tradition. Like the other texts, it also teaches that sentient beings have the Buddha-nature, but what makes this text unique is that it explicitly uses the term “Self’ (atman). The text teaches that the Buddha only denied the self because we are attached to the self where there is no self, but this is not a categorical denial of self. Just as we can be mistaken when we see a self where there is none, we can also be mistaken when we see no-self when there is actually a JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 391

“self.” Of course, the text qualifies this by saying that the “self’ that is spoken of here is not the identical to the self that is preached by the other non-Buddhist thinkers, that this “self’ is the dharmakaya of the Buddha (Williams 108-109; Zimmermann 2002, 83). Although the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-sutra clearly maintains that there is a self, some scholars have argued that this text does not teach that we have a self. In Liu’s “The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature in the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana-Sutra” (1982), for instance, an argument is made in which the sutra teaches that sentient beings can only “have” the Buddha-nature in the future, and that they do not have the Buddha-nature currently (Taisho vol. 12 I-25-C, 1-10) (Liu 1982, 80). Liu also maintains that sentient beings do not have the Buddha-nature because the Buddha-nature is said to “abide nowhere” (Liu 1982, 70, 80). These two interpretative claims, however, seem to contradict other passages in the sutra, which clearly states that we have the Buddha-nature. Furthermore, it is also mistaken to claim that “not abiding” means “not existing.” In the language of Mahayana Buddhism, the term “not abiding” does not mean “not existing.” Rather, it means that the bodhisattva does not abide in either samsara nor in nirvana. Thus, in retrospect, Liu’s argument cannot be accepted as an accurate reflection of what the text is trying to say. In addition to the sutras, the doctrine of Buddha-nature is also more systematically elaborated in a number of sastras in Mahayana Buddhism. These are namely the Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra (Chinese: Pao HsingLun), the Buddha-Nature Treatise (Chinese: Fo Hsing Lun) and the Mahayana Awakening of Faith (Chinese: Da Cheng Chi Hsing Lun). The Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra, more commonly known as the Uttaratantra in the Tibetan tradition, also teaches that the tathagatagarbha and the dharmakaya are in reality the same thing. This text clarifies that what makes them different is in terms of their modalities – when it is tainted by defilements it is called tathagatagarbha, and when it is free from taint it is the dharmakaya. In this state, it is radiant, pure and non-dual (Williams 1989, 110). Another text that teaches the doctrine of Buddha-nature is the Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra. This text is unique in that while it teaches that there is a Buddha-nature and that it is empty of defilements, it also emphasizes that the Buddha-nature is not empty of positive qualities. The Buddha-nature has its own “intrinsic existence” and short of calling it a “self,” the text suggests that the aim of Buddhist practice is not nihilistic nothingness (Williams 1989, 112). In addition to the Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra, another important text that teaches the Buddha-nature is the Mahayana Awakening of Faith. The text teaches that although the mind is one, it can also have two different aspects, namely, the phenomenal aspect and the transcendental aspects. In other words, the text teaches that the mind has two aspects – “the 392 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Mind as Suchness” which is Absolute Reality itself, and “the Mind as phenomena,” which is the same Absolute Reality when it is obscured by defilements. While the use of the word “mind” may be interpreted as a “substratum,” there is in fact no reason for thinking so, just as the Theravada would recognize the use of the term “citta” for mind without falling into the view that it is a “substratum,” likewise, there is actually no scholarly reason for thinking that this text reads the “mind” as a Brahmanic substratum. The text teaches that defilements come from the differentiation of subject-object in phenomena, and that this arises through fundamental ignorance of one’s true nature (Hakeda 1967; Williams 1989, 116). Thirdly, the Buddha-Nature Treatise is also an important text that teaches the doctrine of Buddha-nature. The treatise is usually attributed to Vasubandhu by tradition, although modern scholarship deems it to have been composed by its translator Paramartha. Thus, overall these texts teaches that sentient beings have the Buddha-nature and that it can exist in one of two states – in its original pristine condition it is called the dharmakaya, and in its defiled condition it is called tathagatagarbha. Although the sastras teach that sentient beings have the Buddha-nature and presents systematic argumentation to prove this, some scholars try to prove otherwise. In Buddha Nature (1991), King admits that the sastra teaches the doctrine of Buddha-nature, but argues that the Buddha-nature is not a thing with “ontological” status and that it only refers to “action” or “Buddhist practice” (King 1991, 174 - 192). King quotes directly from the text to argue that the “essence” of the Buddha refers to the Buddha-nature, while the “functions” of the Buddha refers to his wisdom, great compassion and meditation. In saying that the “essence” of the Buddha’s is not separate from the “functions” of the Buddha, it implies that the Buddha-nature is not separate from the wisdom, great compassion and meditation of the Buddha (Taisho 81 lb-c). Next, King goes on to subsume wisdom, great compassion and meditation under the category of “action.” Thus, King claims that the Buddha-nature is none other than “action” (King 1991, 56). King states, “Thus, the “essence” of Buddha nature is its functions; that is, the actions constitutive of great compassion, meditation, and pragma are the essence of Buddha nature. Actions, then, or “functions” is the essence of Buddha nature, and the particular character of this action is soteriological: the salvation of oneself and others” (King 1991, 56). When we examine the quotation in question, however, we see that this interpretation is problematic, not least because it seems to commit a non sequitur argument of arguing from the inseparability of “essence” and “functions” to their identity, but also from the fact that it contradicts what the sutra themselves say. In the Abhidharma system of both the Mahayana and Theravada systems, we know that the mind (citta) and JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 393

the mental functions (citta) can arise together and are not separable, but this does not mean that they are identical with each other. While scholars have tried to reinterpret the doctrine of Buddha-nature, others have straightforwardly denied that it is a “Buddhist” doctrine. The Critical School of Buddhism, for instance, represented by Matsumoto Shiro and Hakamaya Noriaki, argued that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “non-Buddhist” (Swanson 1997, 6). They argue that the idea of Buddha-nature conforms to a “substance ontology” that has more to do with the Hindu notion of “self’ than with Buddhist teachings (Matsumoto 1997, 165-173). It is a form of a form of dhatu-vada or “monistic ontology” and the term dhatu in the term buddhadhatu originally refers to “a place to put something,” a “foundation” or a “focus,” with no sense of an original “cause” or “potential” for Buddhahood (Matsumoto, 169). Furthermore, since dhatu-vada is the very thing that is rejected by the Buddha’s teachings of no-self (anatman) and the doctrine of dependent-origination (pratltyasamutpada) in the Mahavagga, hence, it cannot be regarded as “Buddhist” (Matsumoto, 165). Secondly, Matsumoto also argued that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “non-Buddhist” because it supposedly gives rise to social discrimination and justifies social oppression (Matsumoto 1997). Although the doctrine sounds positive and seems to give the impression of teaching equality, he notes that in practice it implies a form of monistic “locus,” a “generative monism” or “foundational realism” which maintains the status quo because it suggests that good and evil, strong and weak, rich and poor, right and wrong, are fundamentally “the same.” This monistic ontology does not give rise to any incentive to correct any injustice or challenge the status quo (Swanson 1997, 7). Likewise, Matsumoto argues that the doctrine of “original enlightenment” (hongaku) in Japan promotes strong ethnocentric sentiments that glorifies the unique Japanese essence. Although the doctrine suggests that that enlightenment is open to everyone regardless of age, sex, wealth, the doctrine in practice perpetuates the belief that everything is essentially the same, including moral distinctions and the notions of right and wrong. This suggests that there is no need to fight injustice at all, because it is as good as justice (Matsumoto 1997, 167-169). The singular structure of Buddha-nature thought, therefore, does not eliminate differences in spiritual lineage between people, but only serves to make absolute the social discrimination between people (Matsumoto 1997, 170-173). Therefore, Matsumoto Shiro argues, the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “non-Buddhist” because it does not merely submit to a form of monistic ontology but is also promotes social inequality. While there are many ways of arguing that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “not Buddhist,” most of these rely on the commonly held assumption that Mahayana Buddhism 394 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

was influenced by Brahmanism and that the influence was unidirectional. While this opinion has been perpetuated for generations, scholarly research has already shown that this view is becoming increasingly untenable. While it is true that Buddhism as a religion may have been influenced by Brahmanic beliefs, and scholarly and archeological findings have demonstrated this, it remains to be seen how Buddhism as a philosophical system has been shaped by Brahmanism. In fact, there is evidence that the Buddha-nature texts were composed much earlier than the Gaudapada period in the 7th century C.E. and that Sankara, the founder of Advaita , was influenced himself by Mahayana Buddhist teachings. Just to mention two examples, which are more relevant for our purposes, Richard King’s work in the mid- nineties, specifically hisEarly and Buddhism: The Mahayana Context of the Gaudapadiya-Karika (1995), already gave a sample evidence that the philosophical system of Advaita Vedanta was influenced by Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Recently, Warren Todd’s The Ethics of Sankara and Santideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World (2013), a comparative study on the philosophical ideas of Sankara and Santideva, also seems to point in the same direction, although it seems to maintain a more conservative view that the two systems were not opposed to each another in terms of their views regarding the self and non-self (atman/anatman) (Todd 2013). It is beyond the scope of this paper to elaborate on the relationship between Mahayana Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta, nevertheless, we can conclude that where we see similarities between Buddhist ideas and Brahmanic ideas, that it is not a simple and straightforward case of having Buddhism influenced by Brahmanism. Matsumoto also launched a second argument in support of the idea that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “non-Buddhist.” He says that it is a monistic ontology, which may lead to a justification for oppressive conditions. While we agree that monistic ontologies may lead to a legitimation for oppression, we are also hesitant in accepting the idea that it is “non-Buddhist.” This is because it seems to maintain the untenable position that whichever idea is susceptible to political manipulation that it is therefore “non-Buddhist.” We know that this assumption is untenable and does not hold true to our knowledge because even what is commonly regarded as Buddhist teaching can also be susceptible. Just to name one case study, specifically the one by Brian Victoria Daizen Zen and War, which demonstrated that Zen monks in Japan were susceptible to Imperialist Japanese propaganda to the extent of supporting the war effort. While the behavior of the Zen monks were abominable and should be condemned, and we could even argue that they were “non-Buddhist,” this by no means suggests that the tenets that they hold on to are “non-Buddhist.” We cannot jump to conclusions without an explicit study of their Zen teachings. Suffice it here to say that we cannot reason from the obvious “non-Buddhist” qualities of their behavior to the conclusion JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 395

that their teachings were “non-Buddhist.” Likewise, even if we should take a second look at the history of the various Buddhist traditions, we might be surprised by the violence perpetuated by those who proclaim themselves Buddhist. However, this does not merit our ascertaining that their teachings are “non-Buddhist.” Therefore, there is a need to review the claim by some scholars that the doctrine of Buddha- nature is “non-Buddhist” simply because it may have been misused for political ends. Even if this were the case, it calls for greater vigilance against misinterpretation and misuse of the teachings, and not a categorical denial of the teachings’ potential for liberation.

The Theory of Subjectivity in Buddhism

Having analyzed the interpretations that say that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is “non-Buddhist” or that the Buddha-nature is non-existent, we must now consider whether it is a “Buddhist” teaching. This is an important question, at least for a Mahayana Buddhist because it pertains directly to the philosophical basis of his or her practice. However, it would be a difficult, if not, impossible task to do so within the limits of academic setting, as competing and sometimes contradictory evidence may seem to emerge. In this paper, we will do so indirectly by comparing the doctrine of Buddha-nature with some tenets in Theravada Buddhism. This by no means directly proves that the doctrine of Buddha-nature is a “Buddhist” teaching, but it at least indicates that the distance between the two traditions is not that great. It is generally accepted that the doctrine of “non-self’ is foundational to Theravada Buddhist philosophy. This doctrine is usually interpreted in a metaphysical sense, and not in an epistemic or phenomenological sense, as a denial of the existence of the self (anatman). Paul Williams, for instance, translates anatman as “not-Self ’ and interprets the doctrine as a denial of the metaphysical self (Williams 2009, 125). The idea of that there is no self, however, is philosophically problematic not in the least, because it seems to go against the Buddha’s explicit warning against falling into nihilism, but also from a philosophical standpoint: if there is no self then what undergoes karmic retribution? The examples found in the dialogues with King Milinda, for instance, about the candle flames moving from one candle to another does not say that there is nothing in the strong sense of the word. At the end of the day, the candle flame is indeed impermanent, but it is still something! This is why other scholars such as Steven Collins have offered us a more sophisticated account, in his Selfless Persons (1982), by presenting us with a picture in which how it is possible for there to be no permanent self, and yet, having the possibility of psychological continuity 396 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

(Collins 1982: 7, 10, 71). A reexamination of what the Buddhist texts themselves say shows that it is not so clear that a metaphysical self is denied in Buddhism (Harvey 1995: 7). The usual interpretation of the Buddha’s teaching of the five aggregates (khandhas) is that there is no self. In opposition to the idea of a fixed, independently existing self, the Buddha asked if the self can be found in any one of the five constituents that make up the human personality, namely: material form, feeling, cognition, volition and discerning consciousness, and the point of this is that it cannot be found in any of the five constituents (Harvey 1995). One may object to this, saying that this denial of the self in the five aggregates does not preclude that a self cannot be found elsewhere. When we reexamine the teaching on the five aggregates, we read that they are separated from each other at the moment of death, but the last aggregate of “consciousness” is passed on to the next life. This means that we need to reconsider our usual assumption that the doctrine of “non-self” means that there is nothing, which continues to the next life. This is perhaps why Harvey interprets the doctrine of “non- self” in a heuristic sense, taught with the aim of having the students let go of things in this world, to see that they do not belong to his “self,” and to enable them to stop clinging to things that appear to be permanent and pleasant but which are in reality impermanent and give rise to suffering. It IS not meant to give rise to the metaphysical view that there is “no self” (Harvey 1995, 45-46). Thus, it would be better to replace the translation of “no self” with the negation of the possessive term as “non-self.” From this perspective, the Buddha was not teaching the nihilistic doctrine of nothingness but that permanence cannot be found in the five aggregates (Harvey 1995: 8). The idea of a substratum was thought to be necessary in Buddhist philosophy because Buddhism is also committed to the view that the individual being undergoes repeated rebirth until they attain enlightenment. If there is no substratum to provide for a basis for continuity, then there is no basis for personal transformation or the religious life (Harvey 1990: 32-46). Of course, accepting the idea that there is a substratum does not mean that this substratum must be permanent. As some traditional scholars have said clearly, this “substratum” is like a torrent of river that flows endlessly. The accepted view that Buddhism teaches no self then would imply that it is committed to the inconsistent position of denying the self and yet maintaining that there must be some entity that can serve as a basis for continuity through different lives at the same time. Another reason for accepting the idea of a substratum consciousness is that, as mentioned, without such a postulate, Buddhist teachings would be regarded as a “nihilism” that promotes extinction. This is clearly not the intention of the Buddha’s teachings as stated in the canonical texts, which advises against the belief in eternal JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 397

unchanging soul, just as we are also to avoid the nihilistic view that there is “no self.” Thus, it is very likely that Buddhism holds that what we usually mistake for “self’ is nothing more than a fictional identity that is used to label the coming together of these five factors, but this does not mean that there is nothing, which serves as a basis for the continuity of this fictitious self. Thus, we find that in some canonical Buddhist texts, there are suggestions of that a “Great self’ is assumed in Buddhist thought. The self is identified with one’s consciousness or mind (citta) itself (Harvey, 1995: 54-55). One of the most important characteristics of this mind is that it is an experience of having broken down the barriers between one’s own “self’ and “others” in a way that resonates with the idea of a pro-individual or trans-personal manner (M I. 139). The religious aspirant here is to rely on himself so that he or she is not trapped by phenomenal and dogmatic images of thought, so that he can return to his primordial experience of being at one with others. Here, It may seem that we arrive at a somewhat paradoxical situation because the religious aspirant must separate from others and be at home with his own “self” (citta) as an island, before he can be truly be at one with others. Finally, he arrives at a condition in which he considers himself a man that is a not a thing that has overcome the boundaries between oneself and others (M III. 45) (Harvey 1995: 62). In the commentarial tradition, this mind (citta) is considered to be “radiant” (Harvey 1995, 170). An important Theravadin commentator, Buddhaghosa, for instance, refers to this radiant mind as a sort of “naturally pure becoming-mind” (A. A. I. 61). This is quite near to the doctrine of Buddha-nature in Mahayana Buddhism. Furthermore, it also states that this consciousness is not simply a static thing but as a sort of “becomingness” (bhavanga) (A. A. I. 60) (Harvey 1995: 166, 170). Thus, the mind is considered a “becoming” that can change depending on what kind of thoughts it holds. The mind is considered radiant because it is said to possess the natural qualities of “loving-kindness” (metta) (A I. 8-10 and 10-11). This is only covered by defilements such as greed, hatred and delusion (M I 91, Harvey 1995 167). This is the basis for the Mahayana view of the Buddha-nature (Buddha-dhatu) and alaya-vijnana in Yogacara thought (Harvey 1995: 175). This conception of the mind, whether it is called “Buddha-nature” or “bhavanga,” is actually quite similar to the doctrine of the mind in Yogacara Buddhism. In the Yogacara tradition, for instance, human experience is explained in terms of the theory of eight consciousnesses. These are namely the five types of sensory consciousnesses, the sixth mind-consciousness which receives sensory impressions from the five senses, and the seventh “defiled” klista-manas consciousness, which divides the received experience into 398 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

subjective and objective poles, the eighth store-consciousness (Alaya-vijnana) which is a repository, which collects and gives rise to further impressions (Williams 1989, 97). This eighth consciousness serves as a “substratum” for the other consciousness and it has been theorized by and Vasubandhu, the founders of the Yogacara Buddhist tradition to explain karmic continuity between one self and another self. This substratum, however, is not the same thing as permanently existing “self’ (atman) as taught in the non-Buddhist schools. Vasubandhu likens this “substratum” to a great torrent of water or a river, which changes from moment to moment, but which yet preserves a sort of identity as they share the same karmic energies. In this “substratum” is a collection and repository of maturing and reproducing “seeds” (bija), a torrent of tendencies and impressions (vasanas) that mutually affect and give rise to each other, forming an identity in the process (Williams 1989: 97). It is clear that this Alaya-vijnana refers to the Buddha- nature when it exists in a state of perturbation. Understanding the concept of Buddha-nature from the perspective of the theory of Alaya-vijnana in Yogacara Buddhism, we come to see that there is much more in common with the concept of mind in Theravada Buddhism than we have previously thought. In the Theravada theory of mind, for instance, the mind is also analyzed in terms of six different types of sensory consciousnesses. We get a better glimpse of this when we turn to the well- known , for instance, which makes many references to the first five consciousnesses together with the sixth consciousness. In the Salayatana Vagga section as found in the Samyukta Nikaya, for instance, the Buddha delimits our commitment to the “All” by teaching that there is no “All” apart from our six consciousnesses. He states: “What is the All? Simply the eye and forms, ear and sounds, nose and aromas, tongue and flavors, body and tactile sensations, intellect and ideas. This, monks, is called the All” (Sabba-sutta). This passage makes it clear that early Buddhism recognizes different types of consciousnesses in order to facilitate meditative practices. This does not mean that the two systems are identical. Whether they depart from each other is that while Theravada Buddhist teachings seem to stop at the sixth consciousness, the Yogacara texts pushes further to assert that there is a seventh and a eighth consciousness. This, however, does not mean that the two theories are incompatible or contradictory to each other. Again, it is beyond the scope of this paper to engage in a comprehensive study of all the similarities between the Mahayana and Theravada Buddhist theory of mind, however, suffice it here for us to say that a more nuanced reading of the Theravada theory of mind suggests that it is not entirely absent of language which refers to the mind in positive and affirmative terms. In an important passage JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 399

in the , for instance, there is a passage in which the historical Buddha is recorded as saying that there must be something permanent underlying our experience for liberation to be possible. In this passage, the historical Buddha is recorded as having taught that: “There is, o Bhikkhus, an unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, unformed. Were there not, o Bhikkhus, this unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the bom, originated, created, formed. Since, o Bhikkhus, there is an unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, unformed, therefore is there an escape from the born, originated, created, formed” (Conze, 2014). This passage clearly suggests that while the Buddha would deny that there is a “self’ in our afflicted experiences, he would also advise us not to abandon the idea that there remains something, which is unborn, unoriginated, uncreated, etc. In summary, if our interpretation is correct, then Theravada Buddhism also recognizes a state of mind that is pure, shining and filled with positive qualities, although this is not the same as the Brahmanic “self.” From the Mahayana perspective, this innately pure and shining mind is none other than the Buddha- nature.

Conclusion

The doctrine of Buddha-nature in Mahayana Buddhism has been a highly controversial teaching in modem Buddhist studies, not least because it seems to reintroduce the notion of “self” that has been rejected in early Buddhist teachings. However, this stems from a broader intellectual prejudice which started in the early nineteenth century, which holds that Mahayana are different from and opposed to Theravada and that they can have nothing in common. Another commonly held assumption is that Buddhist teachings are defined by “non-self’ and “impermanence” and that anything that is contrary to this is “non-Buddhist.” It is perhaps due to reasons like these, which motivated some scholars have offered various interpretations in order to “prove” that the Buddha-nature does not exist or is “non-Buddhist.” However, as we have shown, even the Theravada teachings do contain teachings that describe the state of Buddhahood in positive terms, and that there is a region in which things are not “impermanent,” “non-self” and “suffering.” Hence, it is important at this stage of Buddhist studies to re-examine some of the assumptions held so dear for decades. In any case, it is our hope that this research suggests that the differences between the two traditions in terms of its understanding of the self or Buddha-nature, may have been over-exaggerated, and that there is more affinity between the Mahayana and the Theravada concept of mind than meets the eye. 400 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

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King, Sallie Behn (1997), “The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is Impeccably Buddhist,” Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press Lai, Whalen (1977), “Chinese Buddhist Causation Theories: An analysis of the Sinitic Mahayana Understanding of Pratityasamutpada,” Philosophy East and West, vol. 27 Matsumoto, Shiro (1997), “The Doctrine of Tathagata-garbha Is Not Buddhist,” Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism^ Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press Ng, Yu-kwan (1993), T’ien-t’ai Buddhism and Early Madhyamika, Honolulu: Tendai Institute of Hawaii Buddhist Studies program, University of Hawaii. Obermiller, E. (1931), Ratnogotravibhaga-sastra, otherwise known as the Uttaratantra of . Ruegg, David Seyfort (1989), Buddha-nature, Mind and the Problem of Gradualism in a Comparative Perspective: On the Transmission and Reception of Buddhism in Indian and Tibet, Cambridge, School of Oriental and African Studies. Ruegg, David Seyfort (1969), La Theorie du Tathagatagarbha et du Gotra: Etudes sur la Soterologie et la Gnoseologie du Buddhisme, Publications de TEcole Francaise d’ Extrene- Orient, vol. 70, Paris: Ecole Francaise d’Extreme-Orient. Swanson, Paul (1997), “Why They Say Zen Is Not Buddhism,” Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm over Critical Buddhism, Edited by Jamie Hubbard & Paul L. Swanson Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press Takasaki, (1966), “Dharmata, , Dharmakaya and Buddhadhatu - Structure of the Ultimate Value in Mahayana Buddhism,” IBK 14 (March) Takasaki, Jikido (1966), A Study of the Ratnogotravibhaga (Uttaratantra): Being a Treatise of the Tathagatagarbha Theory of Mahayana Buddhism, Rome: Instituto Itahano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente. Todd, Warren Lee (2013), The Ethics of Sankara and Santideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, Ashgate Publishing Company. Verdu, Alfonso (1974), Dialectical Aspects in Buddhist Thought: Studies in Sino-Japanese Mahayana Idealism, International Studies, East Asian Series, no. 8, n.p: Center for East Asian Studies, the University of Kansas. Victoria, Brian Daizen (1997), , New York: Weatherhill. 402 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Lai, Whalen (1977), “Chinese Buddhist Causation Theories: An analysis of the Sinitic Mahayana Understanding of Pratityasamutpada,” Philosophy East and West, vol. 27 Wayman, A and Wayman, H. (1974), The Lion’s Roar of Queen Srlmala: A Buddhist Scripture on the Tathagatagarbha Theory, New York and London: Columbia University Press. Williams, Paul (1989), Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, 2nd Ed. London, New York: Routledge. Zimmermann, M. (1999), “The Tathagatagarbha Sutra: Its Basic Structure and relation to the Lotus Sutra,” Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at the Soka University for the Academic Year 1999, Tokyo: The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology Zimmermann, M. (2002), A Buddha Within: The Tathagatagarbha Sutra - The Earliest Exposition of the Buddha-Nature Teaching in India, Bibliotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, Tokyo: The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University. Buddhism and Disability: Toward a Socially Engaged Buddhist ‘Theology’ of Bodily Inclusiveness1

Bee Scherer Director, International Centre for Inclusion and Social Justice Canterbury Christ Church University, United Kingdom Email: [email protected]

Abstract

This article testifi es to the fact that focusing on the body can facilitate history, speaking to the presence - without the necessity of anachronistic categorizations and retro- diagnoses. This does not preclude - or devalue the usefulness of - diachronic phenomenological and philosophical meanderings, in particular when the focus, limitations and parameters of such enquiries are clearly defi ned. With these caveats, I would like to open up a dialogue between contemporary critical disability theory with Buddhist thought, moving in this chapter from investigating selected variable bodies within the circumscribed yet still somewhat fl uid, fuzzy and messy discursive context of Buddhist practices, narratives and philosophies to infusing ‘variability’ as a critical angle with Buddhist ‘theology’ (i.e. Buddhist constructive-critical thought).

Keywords: Engaged Buddhist, Buddhism and Disability

1 This article is slightly adapted from Scherer, Bee. 2016: “Variable Bodies, Buddhism and (No-) Selfhood: Towards Dehegemonized Embodiment.” In The Variable Body in History (QP in Focus 1), edited by Chris Mounsey and Stan Booth, 247-263, Oxford: Peter Lang. 404 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction:

Following on from current discourses within critical disability studies, I investigate the parameters, opportunities and challenges of some Buddhist responses to variable bodies. Negotiating the different Buddhist modes between ‘karmatic’ sociology and ‘nirvanic’ soteriology, I develop outlines of Socially Engaged Buddhist ‘theology’ of bodily inclusiveness, arguing for a person-centered, non-judgmental approach to bodily variability and neuro- diversity. I conclude with critical ruminations about oppressive normalcy and by pointing out some pathways to navigating variability-affirming ‘anthroposcapes’ - landscapes of embodied human experiences. Recently, Chris Mounsey has proposed a shift in critical disability studies, away from the Foucauldian emphasis on the notion of compulsory ableism - as e.g. in McRuer’s Crip Theory2 - toward a fuller emphasis on and an appreciation of the individual embodied experience.3 Mounsey theorises this approach under the concept of variability, “same only different”4 as a discursive replacement to ‘disability’. Consciously or not, Mounsey’s radical reconceptualization and celebration of sameness in difference contrast-imitates Homi Bhabha’s observations on the oppressive fixation as “a ‘partial’ presence” of the colonial subject through “the ambivalence of mimicry (almost the same, but not quite)”5 The postcolonial critique of oppressive identity construction through mimicry is transformed for critical disability theory into the variability approach: Mounsey’s same only different affords, without center and margin, any variable body the complete autonomy of an embodied presence while leaving empathic, unoppressive recognizability in sameness intact. This article testifies to the fact that focusing on the body can facilitate history, speaking to the presence - without the necessity of anachronistic categorizations and retro- diagnoses. This does not preclude - or devalue the usefulness of - diachronic phenomenological and philosophical meanderings, in particular when the focus, limitations and parameters of such

2 Robert McRuer, Crip Theory: Cultural Signs of Queemess and Disability (NYU Press: New York, 2006). 3 Chris Mounsey, “Introduction: Variability - Beyond Sameness and Difference,” in The Idea of Disability in the Eighteenth Century, edited by Chris Mounsey (Bucknell University Press: Lewisburg, 2014), 1-27. 4 Ibid., 18. 5 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (New York and London: Routledge, [1994] 2012), 123; emphasis in the original. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 405

enquiries are clearly defined. With these caveats, I would like to open up a dialogue between contemporary critical disability theory with Buddhist thought, moving in this chapter from investigating selected variable bodies within the circumscribed yet still somewhat fluid, fuzzy and messy discursive context of Buddhist practices, narratives and philosophies6 to infusing ‘variability’ as a critical angle with Buddhist ‘theology’ (i.e. Buddhist constructive-critical thought). I aim to demonstrate how embodied and body-oppressive normativities - and the margins they produce - can successfully be challenged through the lens of the conjunct Buddhist principles of interdependency, cause & effect; and no self. In conclusion I dare to finish this non- Foucauldian article with a (post-)Foucauldian critique of oppressive normalcy and I will attempt to point out some pathways to navigating variability-affirming ‘anthroposcapes’7 - landscapes of embodied human experiences.

Buddhist Variable Bodies

Buddhist approaches to the body flow from two pivotal angles: soteriology and sociology, i.e. aspiration and (conditioned) socio-cultural reality. On the level of aspiration and soteriology the Buddhist traditions approach bodies as fields of transformative virtue while, on the level of socio-cultural realities, bodies are seen as limiting or expedient expressions of past actions and ripened conditions. Both approaches are based on the key Buddhist tenets of karma as the law of cause and effect; and of the pratltyasamutpada - ‘dependent arising’. Buddhist bodies are constructed within the parameter of Buddhist (virtue) Ethics or virtuosity.8 However, variant embodied abilities, while linked to past actions, are not attributable to individualized (non-)virtue, since the Buddhist key tenet of ‘no-self (anatman) precludes the judgmental attribution of causal agency to an individual core, self or soul:

6 In this article, I do not attempt to provide a survey of the vast streams of Buddhist traditions in their relationship to ‘disability’. A useful - yet by its lack of direct access to primary texts quite lim- ited - compilation of literature on Buddhism and disability in Asia is M. Mills, ‘Buddhism and Responses to Disability, Mental Disorders and Deafness in Asia. A bibliography of historical and modem texts with introduction and partial annotation, and some echoes in Western countries’ (West Midlands, 2013), http:// cirrie.buffalo.edu/bibliographv/buddhism/. (accessed 12 April 2016). 7 Bee Scherer, ‘Crossings and Dwellings: Being behind Transphobia,’ paper given at the conference Fear and Loathing: Phobia in Literature and Culture, 9-10 May 2014, University of Kent, u’k. Available at the Queering Paradigms blog, http://queeringparadigms.coni/2014/08/ll/crossings-and-dwellings-being- behind-transphobia/ (accessed 12 April 2016). 8 Susanne Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies: The Physical Dimensions of Morality in Buddhist Ethics (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2007). 406 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

instead, phenomena and empiric persons manifest as karmic continuities without essential identities attached. The ensuing conundrum of cause & effect and rebirth without a Self is itself the subject of intensive philosophical and doctrinal debate9; however, Buddhist Modernisms10 have mostly solved the riddle by firmly pointing to the nonontological­ nature of the Buddhist teachings: Without ontological assumptions of, e.g. ‘self, ‘soul’ or even ‘mind’ and without any essentialized notion of ultimate reality, a particular meaningful way to understand the framework of the Buddhist intention-led, yet subject-essence-free karmatic theory arises as an exercise in deconstruction of essentialism by practice (orperformance in [Judith] Butlerian terms). In this pedagogical or ‘andragogical’11 reading of Buddhism and Buddhist praxis - i.e. thought and performance -, questions of ontologically essentialized selfhood and truths are rendered obsolete in favor of the soteriological pragmatics, experience-oriented andragogy aiming only at showing methods to enduring happiness. In the famous Simile Suita of the Pali canon’s Middle Length Discourses, the Buddha as interlocutor proclaims “I only teach suffering and its ending.”12 This can be read as the Buddha saying that he does not concern himself with essentialized identities; ontology, cosmology and other conceptualizations of reality. Instead, the focus of his teachings is freedom from dukkha: ‘pain’, ‘unsatisfactoriness’ or‘suffering’. Dukkha in Buddhist terms is juxtaposed to sukha\ ‘happiness’, and points to the lack (duh-) of permanent happiness (kha). The Buddhist concept of suffering includes the inextricably interpolated complexes of individual psycho-physical integrity as the dukkha- dukkhata, the pain of experiencing pain, within ever-changing and fluid conditioned reality as the sankhara-dukkhata, the pain of karmatic flux, and the ensuing experience of lack, due to the constant change, the viparinama-dukkhata.

9 B. Scherer, “Karma: The Transformations of a Buddhist Conundrum,” in Vajrayana : History and Modernity, edited by Chetyrova, L.B. et al. (St Petersburg state University: St. Pe- tersburg, 2009), 259-285. 10 David L. McMahan, The Making of (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2008). 11 Scherer, ‘Karma’, 265 and 277-8. 12 dukkhanceva pannapemi dukkhassa ca nirodham M 22 I 140. Pali texts referred to are the editions of the Pali Text Society, London. Abbreviations follow the Critical Pali Dictionary (see the Epilegomena to Vol. 1 and online at http://pali.hum.ku.dk/cpd/intro/voll_epileg_abbrev_texts.html, accessed 12 April 2016). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 407

The Buddhist notion of karma without individually essentialized agent and of rebirth without anyone who is reborn, hence, points to the experience of our ever-changing spatial, temporal and ‘cosmic’ (psycho-spiritual) context as a continuity without ontological, fixed identity - a flow without essence. In this reading of Buddhist philosophy, widening Butler’s concept of performativity to the extreme, reality itself is performance. The view of simple, variable causalities without self - without judging, blaming, shaming, and guilt-trapping variable embodiments - mitigates the Buddhist karmatic views on ‘disability’ or embodied variabilities: it can be argued that that from a Buddhist point of view body variances express genealogies or actualizations of generic human potentials rather than essentialized, individual histories of (non-)virtue. This non-judgmental and in its potential arguably dehegemonic Buddhist approach does not preclude the moralizing of (un)virtuous Buddhist bodies in cautionary narratives; nor has it on the level of socio-cultural organization and expression prevented Buddhists and Buddhisms from variability-based discriminatory practices - most importantly on the level of the monastic discipline. All extant and still valid and mostly enforced Buddhist monastic codes preclude applicants with physical and mental variabilities from ordination. For example, in the Theravada tradition the Pali canon’s section on monastic discipline or vinaya congenital and acquired impairment are physiomorally grouped together with those having received corporeal punishments - such as branding, scourging, marking as robber, cutting off of hands, feet, ears, nose, fingers, thumb, toidons - with congenital and/or acquired variabilities - such as webbed fingers, humpback, dwarfism; deformity; blindness, dumbness, deafness, lameness and other walking impairments; paralysis - and general medical problems such as infirmity, bad health, contagious disease; goiter; elephantiasis.13 The list IS quite consistent across the five extant early vinaya traditions.14 Equally, those seen as having non-normative sex/gender - i.e. the ‘neither-male-nor-female’ pandakas and the ‘both-and’ intersex15 - were and are prohibited from ordination; interestingly, were they inadvertently

13 Mahavagga Vin I 71 i 91; cp. IX, 4, 10-11 i 322; Vin I 76 i 93-95 adds leprosy, boils, eczema and epilepsy. 14 For the parallels on ‘cripples’ in the other four early Buddhist vinaya traditions see the references in Erich Frauwallner, The Earliest Vinaya and the Beginnings of Buddhist Literature (Is.M.E.O.: Rome, 1956), 77. 15 Vin I 61 i 85-86; see Bee Scherer, “Variant Dharma: Buddhist Queers, Queering Buddhisms” in Queering Paradigms VI (Oxford: Peter Lang 2016). 408 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

ordained their ordination was deemed annulled16 while the inadvertent ordination of those disqualified due to impairments such as various degrees of blindness, deafness, skeletal deformation etc., was and is still deemed as valid.17 Ordination to the Buddhist monastic community was and is not governed by soteriology but according to social context and societal pragmatics. The vinaya rules establish a physiomoral elite in-group, which feels the need guard itself from societal damage both by behavior and by association. However, Buddhist modernisms are challenging the elite status of the monastics by privileging soteriology above sociology. Modernist lay movements in particular in the Global North vocally advocate equality of virtuosi status for householders and non-monastic ‘yogis’ in Buddhist praxis; transnationally, many ‘new’ lay Buddhist modernists move their traditions along onto a path of democratization, dehierarchization and counter-heteropatriarchal reform. In this context, it is relevant to keep in mind that the traditional monastic rules are, indeed, limited to the governance of monastic elite: they cannot be argued to establish a universal ethical governance or code, which could be utilized to encouraging discrimination. In doctrinal terms, the imperative of universal compassion is absolute paramount in Buddhisms and explicitly includes ‘out-groups’ and the marginalized. All variabilities - within and without the normative boundaries - are seen as manifestation of karma. Those physically and/or socially afflicted by these manifestations are prominently deserving of love-in-action. In canonical stories we can find that caring for ‘the blind and old parents’18 is narratively constructed as a valid reason for refusing to become a monk, as happened in the case of the potter Ghatikara; and Buddhist rulers regularly are praised in chronicles as sustaining institutions for the blind and sick and otherwise variable.19 From a Buddhist modernist point of view it can be argued that, what has opened up Buddhist traditions to discriminatory interpretations of - and practices with regard to - variabilities, is the popular and unsophisticated utilization of karma theory in the form of attributing guilt and shame for past(-lives) actions. This form of moralizing ignores

16 Vin IX, 4,10 i 322. 17 Vin IX, 4, 11 i 322. 18 andhe jinne matapitaro M. 81 ii 48 and 51-52. 19 For example, the Lesser Chronicle of the Buddhist rulers of Sn Lanka, the Culavamsa, mentions such charity for the 4th century CE king (Mhv 37. 148 and 182); the 7th century CE ruler Aggibodhi (Mhv 45.43) and the 8th century CE king Udaya I (Mhv 49. 20). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 409

the intricacies of Buddhist psychologies of (no-)selfhood and is based on cautionary explanations of karma abounding in Buddhist scriptures. In the Buddhist canonical texts karmatic ‘foolishness’, equaling to non-virtuous behavior, is directly linked to nonfavorable­ physical variability, e.g. prominently in the Theravada Pali canon in the Discourse on the Fool and the JVise20; although the judging and moralizing is aimed at the non-virtue which causes the variability it is difficult to ignore the real socially stigmatizing consequences for the subjects of embodied variability whose physicality is trac^ back to human non-virtue - however non-essentializing and ‘no-self-ed’ such causality philosophically is meant to be. The non-virtuous fool (bald) experiences embodied aspects of his moral deficit in a variety of impairments, combined in the following stock phrase list in the Pali canon: ‘ugly (or: of inferior class), unsightly, deformed, diseased, or blind or crooked or lame or paralyzed’.21 This mnemonic list is usually preceded by a paragraph detailing (re-)birth into a socially abject group or caste (nicakula) such as the untouchables.22 The list-heading teim dubbarmo, ‘of bad color’, implies both aesthetical and social abjection23: the overlaying of physical and social appearances is paramount in the South Asian social context of the Buddhist sources, in which social inferiority was and largely still is equivalent with corporeal unattractiveness. The description of a boy in the Buddhist Sanskrit -Satakam, a collection of religious- didactic poetic narratives probably redacted around the first century CE, drastically exemplifies this marriage of social abjection to the non-normative physicality: the youngster is depicted as “ugly (or: of inferior class), unsightly, deformed, his body smeared all over with feces, and foul­smelling”.24

20 Balapandita-sutta,M. 129, iii 167-178. 21 dubbanno duddasiko okotimako bavhabadho, kano va kuni va khanjo va pakkhahato va, Vin II 90 S I 194 AI 107, II 85, III 385 Pug 51; the Balapandita-sutta M 129 III 169 substitutes khanjo ‘lame’ for khujjo ‘humpbacked’. 22 E.g.Mill 169; SI 194AI 107, II 85, III 385 Pug 51. Additionally, parts of the stock phrase occur separately throughout the Pali canon. 23 Sanskrit (Pali vanno) denotes both color and caste. 24 durvarno durdarsano avakotimako ‘medhyamraksitagatro durgandhas ca Av 50 i 280; p. 125 Vaidya (abbreviations and editions of Sanskrit texts refer to Franklin Edgerton, Grammar and Dictionary (1953) with occasionally relevant alternative or newer editions added by editor’s name only). 410 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

The Buddhist “physiomoral discourse of the body”25 26 includes abject class and non­normative sex/gender21’ and the inferior female birth 27 Any progress on the Buddhist path towards enlightenment is impeded by physiomoral problematic rebirth as the Pali commentarial list of eighteen ‘impossible states’ (abhabbatthana) shows28: among humans, the list features the physical abject as blind, deaf, dumb, deformed and leper together with the sex/gender abject and the social abject as ‘barbarian’, slave, notorious criminal and heretic.29 Within the early Sanskritic Buddhist traditions, such ‘inopportune’ (aksanaprapta) birth as result of karma is described in the Pravrajyantaraya-sutra as quoted in Santideva’s 8th c. Compendium of Discipline:

He is born blind, stupid, dumb, an outcaste - certainly not privileged, a notorious slanderer; a sex/gender deficient and deviant {sandaka and pandaka), a perpetual slave, a woman, a dog, a pig, a donkey, a camel and a poisonous serpent.30

Another Mahayana discourse quoted in the same compendium, the Inquiry of the Girl Candrottara, enumerates being ‘blind, lame, without tongue, and deformed’ among the karmic results of sense-attachment or desire ()31: “Those who lead the low-life of lust become party to the various multitude of defects.”32 Again, as in the case of the earlier quoted Pravrajyantaraya-sutra, mental disabilities or learning difficulties33 and various animal

25 Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies, Ch. 4. 26 pandaka and intersex; see above Scherer, Variant Dharma. 27 itthibhava (cp. Mrozik, Virtuous Bodies, 70-71). See, for example, the list in the para-canonical verses in the Jataka commentary ( J-a 144) and the statement in the Milindapanha Mil 93 PTS on the inferiority (ittarata) of woman (itthi, note the wordplay!). 28 Suttanipata commentary Sn-a i 50 and Apadana commentary Ap-a 141. 29 See Toshiichi Endo, Buddha in Theravada Buddhism: A Study of the Concept of Buddha in the Pali Commentaries (Buddhist Cultural Centre: Dehiwala, Sn Lanka, 2002), 160-164, andMrozik, Virtuous Bodies, 71. 30 jatyandhas ca jadas cajihvakas ca candalas [caj {na} jatu I sukhito bhavaty abhyakhyanaba- hulas ca sandakas ca pandakas ca nityadasas ca I stri ca bhavati sva ca sukaras ca gardabhas costras ca asTvisas ca bhavati tatra jatau I Siksasamuccaya Siks p. 69; all translations are my own unless indicated otherwise. 31 kanas ca khanjas ca vijihvakas ca I virupakas caiva bhavanti ragat Candrottaradarikapariprc- cha, Siks p. 80. 32 bhavanti nanavidhadosabhajas carantiye kamacanm jaghanyam (ibid.) 33 Elere denoted by the term visamjna cp. above jada. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 411

rebirths are included in the shortly following summary of such physiomoral expressions of causality: “Truly, those lustful will continuously be bom as blind, deaf, and idiotic.. ,”34 With the self-referential ‘cult of the book’ emerging within Mahayana praxis, disregard for the respective scripture becomes another karmic cause for disadvantageous births with variable bodies. The Lotus Sutra illustrates this when it claims that “those who do not have faith in this discourse I dispense, when they are born human again are then born idiots, lame, crooked, blind and dull.” The blasphemer, “foolish and deaf, does not hear the dharma (liberating teaching)”; “and when he obtains human birth he becomes blind, deaf and idiotic; he is a slave, always poor.”35 However, the karmic ripening of impairing conditions within one’s lifetime does not necessarily preclude spiritual progress and realization. The canonical texts testify to the achievement of variable-bodied and/or impaired monastics; famously, the Ven. Bhaddiya ‘the dwarf is depicted in the very terms of physiomoral rejection discussed above as ‘ugly (or of inferior class), unsightly, deformed’ and as ‘shunned by most monks’36 - yet he is praised by the Buddha for his high spiritual achievements. Another example is the story of the blind Elder Cakkhupala as told in the commentary to the famous collection of doctrinal verses, the Dhammapada. The narrative illustrates the Dhammapada’s very first verse on intention- led and mind-governed karma; it relates how Cakkhupala, by accepting the loss of its sight during rigorous asceticism dissolves a great karmic obstacle on the spiritual path. As has become clear, the Buddhist physiomoral encoding of variable corporealities through the doctrine of karma can be - and is only - resolved by the nirvanic soteriology. Such nirvanic or bodhi orientation projects a utopia of invariable bliss and translates this salvific impetus into the healing activities of enlightenment. In fact, the Buddha had compared the non-essentializing pragmatics of his liberating teachings to a physician removing a poisonous

34 jatyandhabhava vadhira visamjna I [...] bhavanti nityam khalu kamalolah 11 Siks p. 80. 35 Saddharmapundanka-sutra SP 3 verses 122; 129ab; 132 a-c: purusatmabhavam cayada labhante te kunthaka langaka bhonti tatra I kubjatha kana ca jada jaghanya asraddadhanta ima sutra mahyam 11 122; na capi so dharma smoti balo badhirasca so bhoti acetanasca I 129ab; manusyabhavatvamupetya capi andhatva badhiratva jadatvameti parapresya so bhoti daridra nityam 3.132a-c. 36 dubbannam duddasikam okotimakam yebhuyyena bhikkhunamparibhutarupam Ud VII 5, 76. 412 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

arrow without the delay of forensic over-scrutinizing.37 38 39 40 41 42 Following on from Early Buddhist praises of the Buddha as the unrivalled physician of humanity, the ‘supreme surgeon’43 who removes the poisons of attachment, aversion and ignorance which fuel the ego-delusion, Mahayana scriptures metaphorize the spiritual transformation of suffering as healing rays born out of the deep contemplative trance and fueled by the higher compassion of enlightened beings.44 For example, the influential Mahayana scripture Discourse of the Golden Light describes in its second chapter the healing contemplation rays emitted by the Bodhisattva (enlightenment-being) Ruciraketu, whose name can be translated as ‘Radiant Brightness’45:

And all the beings in this triple-thousand great-thousand world-sphere by the Buddha’ S power became possessed of divine happiness. [... ] And beings blind from birth see forms with the eye. And deaf beings hear sounds with the ear. And unconscious beings regain their mindfulness. And beings whose minds were distraught were no longer distraught in mind. (9) And naked beings

37 M 63 i 429. 38 sallakato anuttaro Sn 560; Mil 215. 39 For Buddhism and Healing see [Paul Demieville], Buddhism and Healing: Demieville’s Article “Byo ’’from Hobogirin, translated by Mark Tatz (University Press of America: Lanham, 1985); Raoul Bimbaum, The Healing Buddha (Shambhala: Boston, 1989); Tadeusz Skorupski, ‘Health and Suffering in Buddhism: Doctrinal and Existential 40 Considerations,’ in Religion, Health and Suffering, edited by J.R. Hinnells and R. Porter (Kegan Paul International: 41 London, 1999), 139-165; andAnalayo, ‘Healing in Early Buddhism’ Buddhist Studies Review 32nl, 2015, 19-33. 42 Suvarnaprabhasottama-sutra Sv 8-9 sarve casmimstrisahasramahasahasralokadhatau sattva bud- dhanubhavena divyasukhena samanvagata babhuvuh I jatyandhasca sattva rupani pasyanti sma I vadhirasca sattvah sattvebhyah sabdani srnvanti I unmattasca sattvah smrtim pratilabhante ‘viksiptacittasca smrtimanto babhu-\ vuh I nagnasca sattvasclvaraprdvrta (Bagchi 5) babhuvuh \jighatsitdsca sattvah paripurnagatra babhuvuh I trsitasca sattva vigatatrsna babhuvah I rogasprstasca sattva vigataroga babhuvuh I hmakayasca sattvah paripurnendriya babhuvuh 43 (I have omitted [... ] ‘Beings whose senses were incomplete became possessed of all their senses’, which is most likely 44 an interpolation duplicating the concluding sentence quoted and only found in the Tibetan and Chinese versions, but not 45 in the Sanskrit manuscript^ Nobel conjected and added this passage as aparipurnendriyah sat- tvah sarvendriyasamanvagata babhuvuh). JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 413

became clothed in robes. And hungry beings became full-bellied. And thirsty beings became thirstless. And disease-afflicted beings became diseaseless. And beings whose bodily organs were defective became possessed of complete organs (tr. Emmerick46).

The salvific power of the Bodhisattvas is described in similar ways in the Ratnolkadharam as quoted in Santideva’s Compendium, Chapter Eighteen.47 The Enlightenment-being’s salvific aspiration is founded upon the wish for universal happiness. Hence, the confessional aspiration liturgies include the prayer that all varieties of suffering in sentient beings cease. The Discourse of the Golden Light includes in Chapter Three, the ‘confession chapter’ (desana-parivarta), such an elaborate aspirational prayer of hope and healing for all kind of variably disadvantaged48:

And may the blind see the various forms, the deaf hear delightful sounds, the naked obtain various garments, poor beings obtain treasures [...] May the experience of woe harm no one. May all beings be good-looking. May they have beautiful, gracious, auspicious forms and continually have a heap of numerous blessings (tr. Emmerick49).

The popularity of the aspirational hope for those in disadvantaging variabilities is evidenced by the intertextual variation of key formulations found throughout Buddhist literatures. For example, most influentially, the seventh to eighth century CE Buddhist poet-philosopher Santideva, in the concluding chapter of his seminal Entering the Path to Enlightenment (Bodhicaryavatara), concisely includes an only slight alteration to a central verse in the Sutra’s wishing prayer: ‘May the blind see and may the deaf hear always.’50 What

46 Ronald E. Emmerick, The Sutra of Golden Light: Being a Translation of the Suvamabhasot- tamasutra (Pali Text Society: Oxford, 2001), 4. 47 See in particular Siks 341-2. 48 Sv verses 3.81-83 (p. 39 Nobel) andhascapasyantu vicitrarupan vadhirasca srnvantu manojnag- hosan 11 81 nagnasca vastrani labhantu citra daridrasattvasca dhanamllabhantu I 82ab ma kasyaciddhavatu duhkhavedana sudarsanah sattva bhavantu sarve I abhirupaprasadikasaumyarupa anekasukhasamcita nitya bhontu 11 83 49 Emmerick, The Sutra of Golden Light, 16. 50 Bodhicaryavatara BCA 10.19ab andhahpasyantu rupani srnvantu badhirah sada (ed. Minaev 1889; the tenth chapter is missing in Prajnakaramati’s commentary ed. by de la Vallee Poussin 1904- 1914). 414 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

emerges from the discussion above are contradicting and idiosyncratic Buddhist approaches to embodied variance and impairment, which exemplify attempts to negotiate different hegemonic social regimes of bio-power with soteriological universalism and inclusiveness. Buddhist modernisms with their main modes of detraditionalization, demythologization and psychologization51 52 have found creative ways to propagate the demarginalization of the Buddhist‘un-ordainable’, including, in modern terms, convicts; LGBT people; sex workers; and the ‘disabled’ variable. Within the heterogeneous plethora of contemporary Buddhist modernist groups and flows called ‘Socially Engaged Buddhism’ karma is inventively rethought in terms of social justice and human rights advocacy.53 Socially Engaged Buddhists most visibly aim their activism at ecological and socio-economic cause and they campaign for peace and gender equality; but just as in the case of Buddhist LGBT liberation, Buddhist ‘disability’ activism appears to be comparably underdeveloped54, with the exception of Buddhist and Buddhist-derived approaches to depression and anxiety such as Mindfulness- Based Cognitive Therapy or Mindfulness Based Stress Reduction,55 Still, variable-bodied people are able to self-narrate meaning and hope through Buddhism.56 Buddhist Modernist disabled’ writers such as postpolio paraplegic Lorenzo Milam in his CripZen: A Manual for Survival, and right-hand-lacking Joan Tollifson in her Bare-Bones Meditation are utilizing the experience of variability for spiritual transformation and offer pathways to variable Buddhist empowerment.57 The time seems ripe for Socially Engaged Buddhist Crip Liberation and a fuller Buddhist ‘theology’ of embodied variability. The idiosyncratic and contradictory orientations

51 McMahan, The Making of Buddhist Modernism, 45-57. 52 Cp. Christopher Queen, ‘Introduction: From Altruism to Activism, ’ in Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism, edited by Christopher Queen, Charles Prebish and Damien Keown, pp. 1-35 (RoutledgeCurzon: London, 2003), 18. 53 See Sally B. King, Socially Engaged Buddhism (University of Elawai’I Press: Elonolulu, 2009). 54 See King Socially Engaged Buddhism, 163-164. 55 See, e.g., Jon Kabat-Zinn, ‘Some Reflections on the Origins of MBSR, Skillful Means, and the Trouble with Maps’, Contemporary Buddhism, 12nl, 2001, 281-306. 56 For example, see Darla Y. Schurnm and Michael Stoltzfus, ‘Chronic Illness and Disability: Nar- ratives of Suffering and Elealing in Buddhism and Christianity \ Journal of Religion, Disability & Health, 11:3, 2004, 5-21 andKampol Thongbunrrum, Bright and Shining Mind in a Disabled Body (Friends ofMorak Society: Bangkok, 2007). 57 See Susan Squier, ‘Meditation, Disability, and Identity’, Literature and Medicine 23nl, 2004, 23-45. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 415

of social marginalizing and soteriological inclusiveness found within Buddhist thought on human embodied variance by karma theory can firmly be reintegrated and dissolved by refocusing embodied experience from an essentialized individual subject and its misconstrued individualized past, to the opportunity in the here and now for the future. As the leading socially engaged, Buddhist Theorist points out: Karma is better understood as the key to spiritual development... When we add the

Buddhist teaching about not-self [...] We can see that karma is not something the self has, it is what the sense of self is [... ].58

By utilizing a twofold Buddhist of preliminary (socio-cultural) and ultimate (soteriological) contexts, I argue accordingly for a Buddhist liberation ‘theology’ and praxis as non-judgmental, demarginalized and dehegemonized, celebratory approaches to bodily variability and neuro-diversity, in the full acknowledgment of the universal principle of samsaric conditionality and the individual expression of samsaric challenges. Despite the multiple examples of missed opportunities to challenge embodied and body-oppressive normativities - and the margins they produce - in Buddhist cultural contexts, I maintain that Buddhist notions such as (re)birth as a ‘continuity without identity’, ‘no-self and ‘interdependency’ or ‘inter-being’59 and as karma taking charge of the future rather than paying a debt to the past offers a wide array of emancipatory impulses, which can provide new tools to critical ‘disability’ theory and advocacy. Oppressive body- normalcy as regimes of bio-power can be successfully critiqued through Buddhist (modernist) social theory, which provides pathways for navigating variability-affirming anthroposcapes.

Conclusion

Buddhist realities, Buddhist utopias clash, and their battleground are real, historical defined and culturally refined embodied experiences of variance, marginalization, stigmatization, but also experiences of emancipation, transformation and liberation. The shift advocated in this edited volume toward telling historical bodies, far from heralding an end

58 David R. Loy, Money, Sex, War, Karma: Notes for a Buddhist Revolution (Wisdom: Boston, 2008), 61. 59 ‘Inter-being’ is a term coined and popularized by Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese Zen teacher who also is credited with coining the term ‘Socially Engaged Buddhism’. 416 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

of theory, ought to decisively (in)form contemporary practical philosophy, social theory and cultural critique from the grassroots and is bound to co-create new accents and insights in critical theory, including Foucauldian derived approaches; Feminist; and Queer Theories. The human journey through the temporal and spatial landscape of our embodied experiences manifests within primary parameters of identity and difference; inside and outside; sameness and otherness; inclusion and rejection. Rather than being binary absolutes, the fundamental parameters of identitarian belonging form in protean, shifting ways with situation, context, time and space always in orientation to an underlying ‘prototype’60 center attracting the most enduring, extreme and recognizable example. The Lakoffian prototype distribution and its center(s) for psycho-social identitarian recognition is hence paradoxically oriented at an almost impossible (hence extreme) ideal; while each individual’s embodied human experience is unique and varied, it is co-shaped by parameters gauging its distance to the center of the human prototype, which in many cultures through history manifests as the essentialized ideal of the (binary, cisgender) male (patriarchal bias; sexism; cisgenderism; transphobia); racially elite-constructed (as for example in white supremacy; racism; colorism); heterosexual (homo, lesbo-, bi-, queerophobia); abled-bodied (ableism), young (ageism), healthy (nosemaphobia) and beautiful (lookism; beauty-fetishism; fat-ism; cacophobia) person. The closer to the center individuals performs their embodiment, the stronger is their participation in psycho-social power (the phallus in Lacan’s terms). In particular, in relationship to transphobia, homophobia and sexism I have suggested to think of the underlying power dynamic as aphallophobia61: the very fear of losing that individually channeled societal power of the essentialized, ideal center. Extending the aphallophobia-principle to intersections beyond heteropatriarchal oppressions with regard to gender and sexuality, I maintain that the key struggle for inclusion and social justice lies exactly in the rethinking of the illusion of identitarian stabilities, essentialism or in other words the ideal yet illusionary and random centers of belonging. The radical acceptance of human variability transforms the struggle to include variabled embodiments within a projected center of ‘ontological security’62 into the celebratory recognition of belonging as being the same, only different: varyingly performed embodiment, flowing from time and

60 George Lakoff, Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind (University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London, 1987). 61 Scherer, ‘Crossings and Dwellings’. 62 Anthony Giddens, Modernity and Self-Identity: self and Society in the Late Modem Age (Polity Press: Cambridge, 1991), Ch. 2. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 417

space and context and situation. Inhabiting such variable anthroposcapes without center and margin restores the possibility of (biographically fluid or relatively static) individual body- performances without creating oppressive body-normativities. In terms of post-phallic forms of governmentality, after heteropatriarchy and theocracy, the ethical imperative of social action can re-establish itself as aiming at the full protection of the integrity of the variably embodied individual. Where freedom from harm and suffering is established as highest legal good, competing societal discourses of meaning-making are disempowered to affect oppressively the variable embodied individual. These discourses include the two dominant exponents of oppressive cultural modes, the medical-pathologizing and the religious-stigmatizing discourses.63 Culturally harmful practices, disconnected from hegemonizing and essentializing discourses, can be discontinued for the benefit of the suffering individual. If the individuals’ rights to being asserted within their own variable center and their freedom from harm become the key parameters of trans-national solidarity, embodied experiences can become the pivotal angles to challenge oppression without the need to navigate a jungle of competing hierarchies of rights and cultural relativisms: this individual, ‘body-without-center-and- margin’ angle changes the evaluation of both contested and mainstream harmful practices, including the binarist sex inscription through mutilation of healthy infant intersex bodies; the pseudo-medical and/or religious scarring and penile desensitizing of healthy male infant bodies in the form of circumcision; the dramatic heteropatriarchal mutilation of healthy female bodies in the form of Female Genital Cutting (FGC); and the ageist, sexist and misogynic re-’normatizing’ mutilation of healthy bodies through cosmetic surgeries, only to name a few examples. Within these debate, the proposed dehegemonic and aphallic affirmation of variable-bodily integrity differs from some arguments around individual ‘agency’, which dominate contemporary postcolonial, feminist and queer intersectional discourse and which in their well-meant privileging of decolonization and postcolonial and subaltern agency sometimes disempower inter-human solidarity and hence ignore the real, embodied suffenng of the subject constructed as agentive. The here proposed approach is capable of devaluing the oppressive contexts (rather than affirming it), which co-shape ‘agentive’ decisions manifested as pseudo-agency or disempowered agency such as is the case in women’s complicity to oppressive heteropatriarchy in the context of, among others, dowry; behavioral prohibitions and prescriptions, e.g. regarding clothes; FGC and

63 Bee Scherer, ‘gweerThinking Religion: Queering Religious Paradigms’, Scholar & Feminist Online 2016 (forthc.). 418 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

other culturally harmful practices; or in the case of developing‘Stockholm syndrome’ among queer subjects in fundamentalist queerophobic religious contexts.64 Infusing the concept of variability and, more broadly, critical social theory with the opportunities afforded by Buddhist (modernist) philosophies I maintain that pathways appear for navigating variability-affirming ‘anthroposcapes’. By relaxing the artificial boundaries of our anxious Selfhood into the ravishing of ontological uncertainty and fluidity we are able to perform compassion without essentialized Self; solidarity without colonizing and hegemonizing overpowering; and dehegemonized embodiment, same only different.

64 Ibid. A Case Study Transition Rãmañña Dhammãcariya Association From A Traditional Hierarchy to A Modern Decentralized Organization

Ven. Arlawka College of Religious studies, Mahidol University. Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In this study, the researchers studied transition Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association from a traditional hierarchy to a decentralized organization in , Myanmar. This research took the qualitative approach, utilizing data collected from documents, including electronic sources, as well as interviews and observation during fi eldwork. For the case study, the research focused on the association in particular and Rāmañña Mon Sangha organization in general, and it mainly focused only on the transformation of the association. The participants were interviewed on transitional studies and then asked to share their experiences of practicing in administration, decision-making of the association after being appointed from the general members. The results of the study showed that the approach of decentralization phase in the transition from hierarchy to decentralized organization was the deconcentration phase and the process towards to the stage of delegation. However, at the period of the commission, the association transforming was also stepping on devolution, its transform was weakening traditional hierarchical power and growing of democratic and decentralized power. These approaches slightly conformed that transforming of the association had transformed the attitude and practice of the executive members and the mission to reform the movement was active implementation. Besides these, the study will have contributed to the literature on transition, in Mon version, to the summit of Rāmañña Mon sangha, Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, and especially Rāmañña Rottha Buddhist University.

Keywords: Rãmañña, Dhammãcariya, Modern Decentralized. 420 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Introduction

The research will study the case of that transitions of the Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association from a traditional hierarchical organization to a decentralization one. Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association (RDA) is an ecclesiastical association established by the Rāmañña Nikāya Mon Sangha (RNMS) since 1972 (up to the present). The headquarter of the association is in the 2500-monastery, Mawlamyine, Mon State, Myanmar. There are the economic, political and social changes in recent Myanmar politic. Due to the impact of this transformation, the administrative structure of the organization has been changed from a traditional hierarchical to a decentralized one. It is the purpose of this research to analytically study the attitudes, perspectives, the process of modernization, decentralization of this association transform; it is also to inquire how the association overcomes its tension. In case of modernizing the institution is the forceful process of decentralizing hierarchical power and democratizing traditional system. Ideologically, public institutions need to be democratized like institutional power needs to be decentralized. By democratizing of hierarchical structure power, association can make a process of decision making which is accessible for everyone. And by decentralizing the structure, association can transfer the authority from a central to the other local units. As for the consequences of hierarchical power structure system, and conservative traditionalism principles, it is really difficulty for the association to provide the democratic values and decentralized structure in order to move forward. Therefore, modernization in structure became the aim of the new generations who are educated monks since they have encountered the Western rationalism during their Mon sangha’s monastic life time. RDA has existed under Rāmañña Nikāya Mon Sangha furtherance. Rāmañña Nikāya Pariyatti (RNPar), Rāmañña Rattha Buddhist University (RRBU) and Rãmañña Nikāya Parahita (RNP) are under the central line of RDA. Even it has three branches; the central executive committee has a control over these branches. As with much conservative religious organization, the above-stated organizations were formed in the hierarchical structure. Even though some senior’s monks are comfortable with the old, hierarchical structure junior’s monks want changes. Some innovative functions acted by reformist monk were forbidden from cooperating and participating in an activity of the association. Therefore, in these association, there are two different main types of ideas, and it is raising the conflicts that undermine on truth building and teamwork. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 421

Traditionally, in monastic life, juniors usually pay respect to seniors in terms of hierarchy and seniority. At the same time, for conservative monks, there are prevailing ideology that preserving the traditional hierarchical principles is the responsibility from the aspect of religious value. Subsequently, the different ideology of committee members was deeply dissenting among themselves. The side of conservative senior monks seriously traces to practice in hierarchical structure power, while the other reformist monks side traces to decentralize. If it lets the contentious ideology and structure continues for the future, the association will face social-political transformed into modernization. Lastly, the nature of these dissentions is often found in tradition of hierarchical power structure. Thus, the continuing challenges to the present and future is a way to handle this issues that Rãmañña Dhammãcariya association need to be decentralized and modernized on reform movements. This present study argues that the inevitability of the transition from traditional values to modern organization is the process weakening traditional hierarchical power and a growth of democratic and decentralized power. When facing with the issues of social-political change, the conservative senior and junior monks are still living in traditional, conservative way rather than employing modern approaches. Despite this the reformist seniors and junior monks are convinced that need to reform and modernize the traditional hierarchical structure into a modern decentralized structure. The committee monks of the association in this study consider their association principles apply to utilizing the modern monastic tradition by the Mon cultural practices and value. They are proud of themselves being faithful servants of the monastic community (Sangha) to serve to promote the development that improved the Sangha in all areas. However, even they have a generosity towards the modernizing of the administrative system through both modern and traditional. They consider themselves as applying a transforming role to seriously the chance of these association to carry out the benefit for the monastic community and Mon society. Self- perception of the non-official Nikāya stimulates them to interest in the function of the association to get access to sufficient organization. Their benefaction conducts their benevolent reformist view that uncountable merit can give physical and mental development. With their best regard, it is hopefully glowed to reform situation for the modernity for the invaluable transition. 422 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

Modernization, Democratization and Decentralization

A. Modernization Nowadays, in Myanmar, the theory of modernization has been challenged and does not capture the entire experience of monastic society as scholars Kawanaaini, Mcmahan and Swearer have written about. Thus, modernization is a threat to traditional hierarchical culture. Nevertheless, as Kawanaaini described, people have nature and ability to opposes the repression and control. This nature is democratic (Kawanaaini, 2016). As “Modernization” has been defined in many ways, it is necessary to define how this term is used in this study. According to Kumar stated that modernization is a continuous and open-ended process (Kumar, 2016). The Cambridge dictionary has defined “modernization as “the process of starting to use the most recent methods, ideas, equipment, etc. so that something becomes or seems more modern.” Another widely quoted definition is Kawanaaini (2016) definition of modernization as “a transitional process and involves a process of secularization. It systematically challenges religious institutions, beliefs, and practices, by substituting them with reason and science.” Thus, the meaning of modernization in this section is modernization as the focus is on Kawanaaini. In modern Southeast Asia Buddhism, the sangha organization has been increasingly formalized and centralized, along with the bureaucratic system of the government (Tavivat, 2013). As we were known, the state indirectly imposed organizational structure on the Sangha. For instance, is not only structured by the official state- imposed system of the Sangha administration, but also by a complex and fluid network of unofficial relations between the Buddhist laity and individual monks and monasteries Prince introduced Western rationalism into Buddhism to make it more logical and secure (Tavivat Puntarigvivat & Standford, 2013). Another instance, under military government, knows as the New Win government, introduced the centralized sangha order. With the context of purification, perpetuation, and propagation of the law, this is a kind of modernization in its local background (Lall, 2016). However, despite given these reasons, the real intention of the government is to control the Sangha in favor of the government system. In conclusion, modernist scholars have stated that modernization is a process of individualization, differentiation, specialization, and abstraction. But, it was the process which lacks spiritual welfare, and more values on materialistic society as a result of modernized and developed societies. The religious and traditional scholar had the experience of the crisis of the modernity. Even though they do not explicitly state that if it is to be developed it has to JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 423

be modernized, we usually try to be a modern society, the institution with what today world did as a recent. Otherwise, your belief system and the practical value will be disappeared. The process of modernization has to base on the development of both psychically and spiritually value and has to step on the path of the middle way.

B. Democratization and Decentralization Today, decentralization has been being discussed in the developing countries. Since 2010, Myanmar’s governance structure has been transformed into the open policies and transparent political systems. With the effect of the globalized economy and personal politic, decentralization is a significant process in the transition of the country. This study argues that the process of decentralization is inevitable if we want to reform and modernize the traditional hierarchical structure into a democratic system. As scholars pointed out, many countries in Southeast Asia are influenced by religious belief and social performance. Theoretically, the assumption of politic and economic of these countries was dominated by religious values. Myanmar, especially, was embraced by Buddhism as well as Thailand. As Kawanaaini (2016) stated that, Theravada Buddhism contains many ideas that are highly incompatible with liberal democracy (Kawanaaini, 2016). Generally speaking, monks usually hold the leader position in Buddhist societies in Theravada Buddhism. According to Rondinelli, decentralization has four types: Political decentralization, administrative decentralization, fiscal decentralization, and economic or market decentralization. Among these, administrative decentralization aims to redistribute authority, responsibility and financial resource for providing public service. Indeed, these processes were transferring of responsibility for the planning, financing, management of specific public. In the fact that, international development organization prescribed decentralization as a part of the structural adjustments need to strengthen democracy and promote good governance. Therefore, the decentralized system can be conducive in promoting the improvement and efficiency of the administrative system. In part, decentralization creates and strengthen democracy. Decentralization has four types; political decentralization, administrative decentralization, fiscal decentralization andeconomic or market decentralization. Theoretically, democracy can be happened by decentralizing within these four realms or four typologies. Practically, decentralization often fails because of low-level administration and management capacity. Decentralization would probably increase the potential for the elite to control and work in their favor. In the design of decentralization, human resource management should be seen as an essential component. Yes, in democratization, by empowering the ability of mass can keep and create democratic 424 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

value, and by innovating good governance with transparent, representative, accountable, and participatory system institutions and produces for public decision making, can establish and produce the process of democratization Religion origination are hierarchical in nature. They can be contradicted to democratization and decentralization. As religion was the hierarchy, the politicians and state want to influence it for its benefit. Thus, the influence of the state on religion and the influence of religion on state can clash. In our analysis of transition of the hierarchical organization to decentralization, then ideological practices are vitally important: reformation, modernization, and decentralization.

A Brief History of Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association

Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association (RDA) is an ecclesiastical organization first established in 1972 to translate Pāli Tipitaka into Mon Language and to publish it in a book. To respond to the rapid changes and challenges to RMS, to work for the welfare of Sāsana and people brightly, they have built up a Dhamma hall which is called Laviman in 1997. After built the Laviman 1, RDA has grown significantly in size, scope, and breadth, including the handling of the Rāmañña Nikāya Pariyatti of the Mon’s monastic education. Today, RDA continues to provide the academic educational services that initially motivated its establishment Rāmañña Rottha Buddhist University along with diploma in Pāli program, its establishment Rāmañña Nikāya Parahita program focusing on holistic community growth, Mon monastic education development, and revitalization of Rāmañña Sāsana in Mon Land. RDA particular team for the translation project is dedicated to translating Pāli commentary through the monastic education and publishing it and Mon Tipitaka book sealer. Programs and services are offered to create empowerment and ideal tools for Mon monastic educational development and to separate the Rāmañña Sāsana into the patriotic of Mon community. The assembly developed a hierarchy to regulate Rāmañña Nikāya Sangha at the Mon national levels via committees and devised a central governing body of 15 members called the central committee of Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, which would be responsible for all Rāmañña Buddhist monks in the Mon people. The committee also developed regulations to force Rāmañña monks to participate and support. The committee which consists of 15 members, including a chairperson, two vice-chairpersons, one secretary, two vice secretaries, one financials, joint financials one, one accountancy and two vice accountancies, all of whom are appointed in the Rāmañña Dhammācariya assembly. Until 2014, appointment terms lasted a year. Since 2014, the association has cut term lengths, with a quarter of seats changed every three years. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 425

In theory, the Committee oversees the violation of the constitution, the traditional regulatory framework of Rāmañña Dhammācariya association Buddhist monk. In practice, the Committee appointment terms were permanent and based on his desire whether to continue or to resign. This body has participated in non-religious affairs. This association has the following responsibilities: • To enhance race and religion, and education. • To compilation of Buddhist Treatises Pāli-commentary into Mon literature. • To publish the Buddhist Treatises in Mon to the whole Mon land. This committee is responsible for enhancing race, religion and education activity with Mon in Myanmar and abroad. It also undertakes the translation of Pitakas and compilation of Buddhist Treatises. The Rāmañña Nikāya Pariyatti and the Rāmañña Rottha Buddha Takkasi (Mawlamyine) and Rāmañña Nikāya Parahita fall under this committee. Founded in 1982, The Rāmañña Nikāya Pariyatti is a community-based education and examination team organization with over 300 members and over two programs(Kaesara, 2007, p. 64). Each year, it provides for the Pariyatti monks to recite Pāli course as oral examination and to answer the question as the paper examination that has two monastic educational programs, in formerly. But, late gradually, they left the oral exam and just provided for paper examination. At first, the committee had faced a lot of challenges: inner and outer. The committee holding examination even does not have venues and to sit in the test, and the student’s monks have to sit on the floor around the pagoda. Some years, because of the raining, even the exam paper was wet and destroyed by rain. So, they had the bad experienced like this (Jondaobāsa, 2007, p. 50). After they accessed to the place where the headquarter of Mahāsangha Sāmaggī and built an examination hall the test was the relief to many monks (Koñtīsāra, 1997, p. 35; SĪlacarra, 2009) Rāmañña Nikāya examination has been the symbol of Mon monastic education until now. In 2018, it reached on 34rd and had huge participants listed more than 2000 monks, including Nun. Historically, it examination itself full of the political background and it was an identity of Mon and Mon Buddhism (Jondaobāsa, 2007, p. 49). According to an educated young monk explored in his social media post, “the Mon monastic education of Rămaññanikăya includes the concepts of Mon national identity. 1) The Mon Sangha of Rămaññanikăya is the main stable wall in maintaining the Mon monastic education and the Mon literature. 2) The waves of Mon monastic education of Rămaññanikăya influences on the Mon society. 426 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

3) The impacts of Mon monastic education strengthen the Mon national identity. 4) The Mon monastic education is conducive to nationalism. 5) The Mon monastic education of Rămaññanikăya is worried about its future.

Therefore, though Mon monastic education is under threat of its future, the concept of Mon monastic education of Rămaññanikăya includes an idea of maintaining the Mon Buddhist culture and tradition, the influences on the Mon society, national identity and nationalism.” On 14 January 2011, RRBU was formally established at a primarily based conference of the Buddhist monk in Mon, with the mission of promoting modern Pariyatti education on Mon. its Pāli name is Rāmañña Rattha Buddha Takksī, which means Buddhist University of Mon land. RRBU have formed in response to the Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, the whole Mon land. In 2015, RBBU educational committee launched the program of Diploma in Buddhism. In Myanmar Sangha society, nine sects have been officially recognized by the government since 1980. Among of these sects, Mon sangha especially Rāmañña Nikaya including in Central Working Committee as Suddhamma Nikaya. Reformed by the government, Rāmañña Nikaya sangha is left to recognize as Rāmañña Nikaya sects. In 1972, Rāmañña Mon Sangha established Rāmañña Dhammācariya association. Rāmañña Dhammācariya association can be regarded as one of the most influential ecclesial organizations among on Mon ethnic group (Koñtīsāra, 1997, p. 17). This association represents in Mon ethnic affairs, and adviser similar to New Mon State party, Mon political parties, and others secular organizations.

The Problems of Hierarchy in Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association

Rāmañña Dhammācariya association in the traditional period which it before 2007, stabled and had full authority in its association. However, the association has problems and challenges when faced with social and political changed. Changing and transformation were mainly brought about by the young monastic members who have experience of 2007 . Indeed, this association has been engaged in the process of modernizing. Here, we would like to point out that under the traditional condition, the association had had activities such as performing rituals and religious ceremonies successfully. Ideally, it is possible. But, practically, whenever an association or an individual cannot retain and modernize by the changing of society and politics, it will have fewer chances for development. JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 427

In the context of Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, even though its administrative system was the hierarchical system (Koñtīsāra, 1997, p. 18), the association is can earn respect and praise by other communities because of their successful activities. For example, they have many programs such as ritual ceremonies, monastic examination, translating text from Pāli to Mon. Similarly, under the military regime at the national level, the government organizational system is a hierarchical structure one. In the same way, in favor of the structure which is currently existed, the religious institution has also been centralized. For instance, Ney Win made the formation of Myanmar sangha to centralize structure for the purpose that there would be the political influence on religion. Second, in the contemporary period, the religious and social pattern in Myanmar and many organizations such as Rāmañña Dhammācariya had been changed in light of political reform that occurred since 2010. From a socio-political perspective, within the Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, there are four different causes of reform movements can be distinguished. They are the criticism and activities of young, educated monks, the co-operation of young Mon sangha, the participation of modernly educated monk and the planning for a modern educational institution. Under the four categories, the section will use what we have observed to categorize and point out the causes of the transformation of Rāmañña Dhammācariya association and its consequence and reaction to the various social and political condition in the process of transition. The ideological and structural transition of RDA has changed from traditionalism to modernism in the context of evolving social-political reformation. The historical context in traditional period, the association had an utterly conservative conventional system and hierarchical structure incident. The reformist’s movements on the transitional period of RDA have transformed in the context of changing societal attitude. As contemporary context, the association that has reformed its traditional value and practice after facing the modern distinction that participating in modernization and decentralization on administrative structure.

A. The Criticism and Activities of Young Educated Monks Throughout Myanmar politic history, most of its reform movements, such as 8/8/88 boycott by university students, 2007 saffron revolution of young Buddhist monk are all started and based on the activities of the youth. In the life timeline of human, such being reformist for social, political belief and practice in the growing period, as also being conservative for social status and title. Consequently, since ancient times the humankind faces the conflict that issue typically from the different ideas produced by the young and the old(Rāmañña Center, 2007, pp. 46–48). By replacing the what the present situation need that argued by 428 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

young reformist, the development and enlightenment process takes place in the society. So, the argument and the needs of the new generation are instrumental in the tools to develop and modernized. (Rāmañña Center, 2007, p. 50)

B. The cooperation of Young Mon sangha The first encounter between the elder conservative monks and the younger reformist monks in Mon society occurred along with the social and political change in Myanmar. This encountering is to improve the associational functions and its structure. To counter the top- down system, the reformistic monks introduced modern practice into the association to develop the organization. The association believed that the cooperation from the young monk could help modernize the organization (Kaesara, 2007, pp. 64–66). It is, therefore, necessary to introduce the reformistic and anti-traditional aspects of young monks into the conservative, hierarchical practice.

C. The participation of modern educated monk The young, educated monks who had university educational backgrounds from aboard, such as India and Siri Lanka, have been participated in the association more and more. After 1996, many Mon young monks want to aboard to study in University. aforementioned was possible because they passed the higher level of the ecclesiastical Pāli examination, known as the pariyatti examination in Myanmar. Many of Mon laities realize that to improve the education and the development of Mon people, they need to support the young to study aboard. Especially, urban middle-class Mon society has established the foundation that help the monk and give scholarship for them to inquire aboard. Moreover, Mon sangha who stay in overseas countries also invite the elder monks who are in high position and conservative to visit their country. The trip is aimed at to fill the gap between the seniors and the juniors. This trip will help reduced the conservative of the elder as well as change the way of their thinking. At the same time, they also will know the necessity of study English, and the learn the modern organizational system that can be employed in social affairs such as administrative system, project planning, etc. As a result, the young, educated monks were accepted.

D. Planning for A Modern Educational Institution There are critical moments in the history of modern Mon society. These moments led to the establishment of the program for building Mon monastic University. The effort to create University initially started in 2007 and was not successful. Later, when it was launched by the young, educated monks is successful, and the academy is called Rāmañña Rottha Buddhist Academy. Today the academy provides basic courses on Buddhism such as Diploma JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 429

in Buddhism. The constructions of the University are initiated in 2011 and up to present. Started from August 2015, the system of modern education has carried in Mon sangha.

The Discussion on Traditional and Hierarchy in Rāmañña Dhammācariya Association

A transition is compared and discussed by three periods: traditional, transitional and contemporary period. It is a comparative discussion on organization between the conservative and the reformist. With different age group, attitude, different perspective an of the organization will be discussed. A conservative hold in traditional view, a reformist a more modern view. The conventional hierarchical structure in the RDA has undergone transition and decentralization. RDA also, conservative and reformist cannot be categorized by age. However, elder monks tend to be conservative; young monks be reformist. In Mon monastic tradition, the organizational structure was formed in the hierarchy, which follows the Buddhist monk tradition.

A. Traditional Period A hierarchical system is described as a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority. In contrast, modernization is a continuous and open-ended process. It refers to the transitional process of moving from traditional or primitive communities to modern societies. For instance, while the conservative understanding on modernization as the threat to hierarchical traditional culture, the reformist believed on it as the process that involved not only structural changes but also shift in outlook, including new attitudes toward an openness, liberation, plurality, and individuality. Nowadays, Sangha societies have been facing with the challenges of modern social- politic system. In fact, with the consequence of the state transition in Myanmar since 2011, the religious institutions and its value and practice system had been shifted to meet the challenges of modernization. Ven. Kae Sara stated as follow: “According to the saying from Pāli ‘Kala Desa Dhana Agha’ the time of yesterday and today are not similar. Time is always changing for it is also the impermanent nature. Therefore, those who are not able to catch up with the times will be left behind while others who can keep with the pace become modernized. The same is true to any organization as well. A modern organization will be prosperous and developed while the out dated organization will be left out dated. The undeveloped and old-fashioned organization will always be left behind.” (Kaesara, 2016, pp. 430 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

33–34) (McMahan, 2008). Indeed, Buddhism is the institution which had deeply relied on its lay societies supporting, and the Buddhist institutions had been informed accordance with it societal attitude changing. For change in outlook and perception, modern Sangha institutions tend to be governed by constitution, regulation. With the notion that modernizations are socially constructed and changed in society, the challenges of modern value have forced the religious societies to shift its participants’ outlook and practice. To cope with the problems that organizational disunity, the association need to reform its existing hierarchical structure. It is important to note that in these association there are two different main types of ideas and it is raising conflicts that undermine on team building of all these effect causes be these consequences. of course, the religious association, in particular, RDA dependency on strong leaders. Ven. Teaja, explained his view on the hierarchy as follow: “We have to change; currently, the whole of association practices is conservative. We just are organizing people in some traditional way and not using in some modern style. You see, now we are doing traditional and ancient style. Give speech, talk and then not sharing the tasks and responsibilities. The chairman, can do whatever he wants or not; sometime, some person had overwhelming on the other work-space. Thus, it was increasing the conflicts.” According to Ven. Teaja have mentioned, this kind of practice is the primary task that to increase the dissenting, conflict and, inversely, to decrease the consolidation of the association. Conservative traditionalism in the organization has hierarchical structure power that effects on their administrative and structural transition to be decentralization, democratization, and modernization. Currently, as a result, observation shows that the transitional movement in RDA has been hindered by religious, traditional practices and systems even though the Southeast scholar had stated that teachings, practices, and monastic institutions of Buddhism in Myanmar had been transformed with the dramatic changes in Myanmar Buddhist word. So, more details concerning the transition that reformation in patterns of ideologies, modernization in structure and decentralization in administration will be explained in the following section.

B. Transitional Period The transitional process of moving from traditional communities to modern societies refers to the process of modernization. In the understanding of development and acceptance of new technologies, the self-realization and the self-consciousness are the heart of modernity. According to McMahan, the modernity is a condition that refers to a condition of social existence that is radically different to all past forms of human experience (McMahan, 2008). In contrast, according to the oxforddictionaries.com given definition on conservative is holding JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 431

to traditional attitudes and values and cautious about change or innovation, typically about politics or religion. After had presented the modernization that refers the process and the modernity that refers to the condition, the transitional phase is the period that takes place and exits between the traditional period and the contemporary periods. The attitude of the elder committee arrangements for the transform of the structure of the association was stepped back. As Swearer (2010) had pointed, the traditional Buddhism was the heart of the Buddhist society of Myanmar. But the roles of monks have been seriously challenged in contemporary condition. This is clarified by Ven. Kaetu Mālā who said: “Even though we want to apply the modern system in this association, most of the central committee members are still roots in the traditional hierarchical system. RDA activities are just like the festival, unlike a national level movement. In reality, we have to show up for the new generation more and more developed and helpful such as monthly Dharma journal, yearly supporting scholar monks who can study modern education aboard. Otherwise, RDA was holding for them monastic examination only. It is not able to follow with the new development.” As a result, to ensure the development of Mon people, the monastic community which could be progressive by planning and promoting the modern education. The elaborate this initiative action in which these monks undergo seem far removed from the Pariyatti tradition.

C. Contemporary Period The socially constructed and changed in the traditional and modern society were the result of the notions behind the modernization. A new form of Buddhism is the result of a process of modernization that has been taking place not only in the West but also in Asia countries for over a century. As Ven. Kae Sara had stated that those who are not able to catch up with the times would be left behind while others who can keep with the pace become modernized; and, the undeveloped and old-fashioned organization will always be left behind. In addition to, according to the definition of Kawanaaini, modernization as “a transitional process and involves a process of secularization. It systematically challenges religious institutions, beliefs, and practices, by substituting them with reason and science.” Thus, Mcmahan (2008) mentioned that modernization involved not only structural changes but also shift in outlook, including new attitudes toward such as openness, liberation. For change in outlook, modern institutions tend to be governed by constitution, regulations, and reform to be democratized by the decentralized system. Kumar (2016) had stated that modernization carries the institution and values of society along with it. 432 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

For instances of Thai and Myanmar such as King Minguk, U Nu and Ne Win, the Sangha organization had been increasingly formalized and centralized, along with the bureaucratic system of the government (Kawanami, 2016; Tavivat Puntarigvivat & Standford, 2013; Walton, 2016). With the impact of Myanmar’s governance structure has been transformed Since 2010, the monastic institutions, and particular the RDA has been discussing on the process of modernization which include reforming and decentralizing that were the challenges it. Therefore, this section presented that the process of modernization and decentralization are inevitable if we want to reform and modernize the traditional hierarchical structure into a democratic system.

Conclusion

The committee monks of the association in this study consider their association principles apply to utilizing the modern monastic tradition by the Mon cultural practices and value. They are proud of themselves being faithful servants of the monastic community (Sangha) to serve to promote the development that improved the Sangha in all areas. However, even they have a generosity towards the modernizing of the administrative system through both modern and traditional. They consider themselves as applying a transforming role to seriously the chance of these association to carry out the benefit for the monastic community and Mon society. Self- perception of the non-official Nikāya stimulates them to interest in the function of the association to get access to sufficient organization. Their benefaction conducts their benevolent reformist view that uncountable merit can give physical and mental development. With their best regard, it is hopefully glowed to reform situation for the modernity for the invaluable transition. Their vision arises to be following the ideologies of the modern monks that modernization is more flexible to be stable in the social-politically condition in democratic society of Mon. In reality, young-reformist-led monastic association irregularly accomplishes in modest lifestyle. As a result, the unlimited-age-reformist-led organization was integrated into the gradualist-led administrative system in few years after the amended constitution of the association in 2014. The first amended constitution enabled the young monks to access and introduce the organization to the decentralized structure that provides the democratic practice and value. The Rāmañña Dhammācariya committee monks and the administrative structure of the association took an actual meaning state in religious and national aspects of ancient and modern Mon’s society. The association and its committee members played basic ethical-social and nation educational value in the culture of Mon activist masses who in turn became the JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 433

revelatory person to lift the monastic community and the Mon people. In the contemporary period, even though the monastic community practice re-constructed its authentic value and developed structure, the perception of society has changed. In this day and age, monk and lay, young and elder learn at the modern subject using both by religious and by secular in their performance. Traditionalist and reformist of the Rāmañña Dhammācariya association have to face challenges related to the secular social and political situations. In socially, the committee team was tolerant that the modern reformists misunderstood on an arrangement of its transitional process. Unstable military government’s ruling effects caused the tension; in the relationship management sector, the association communication effort was the trend to the underground system, narrow space, lack openness, ambiguousness and obscuration especially for general and board membership. With the attempt to resolve these problems, the religious association such as monastic community also have to deal with challenges like providing proper management, using apply to systematic administrating and facing some restrictive indication by the state Sangha to ensure control over any ethnic monk activities of the religious sect. Related to the context of religious official nine sects, the activities of the association such the Rāmañña Dhammācariya association, which it had the political tension with the military government of Ne Win since 1962, has in addition to such challenges. Specifically, the other struggle has the concern with their ethnic and religious identity. Such kind of problems includes less modern technical approach, the biased religious tradition of their existence and their performance concerning their volunteer position in the monk lifestyle. To cope with the challenges caused by social and political modernization, the committee membership team in the association need to step more on the decentralization and democratization theory. With the changing from military to civil governance system, the threat of unstable government can be overcome. Consequently, the association has to provide the path, the channel to established effective commutations system and to build transparency relationship with other religious networking such as domestic and international. In response to the modern intimidation regarding their work, the reformist committees of the association apply the non-confrontational method in decision-making cases and non- acquiescence method in some. The senior’s opinion is to prioritize the decision-making and then give junior’s performance access to planning. The reformist takes a harmonious view of the central administrative body. By doing that, the association function enables winning the cooperation of the association and the smooth transition of their reform process. Even though the transform has the risk, the association can be organized to the modern manipulation. 434 JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018)

However, the traditionalists also take a non-acquiescence approach to modernization by using their spiritual integrity and their benevolence stimulate for their volunteer aid. The discrimination that based on the relationship between teacher and pupil is a traditional stereotype of the monastic community. By allowing and accessing young reformist to the core field of the association, the central committee can be provided the credibility of the team. They reckoned on the reformist educated ability, trust building, team working, religious practices, perseverance and tolerant. The reformist also belief and respect to the central committee that has representation on Mon monastic community and can extend the dedication to them. The traditionalist, especially in central committee effort, is also the inspiration on the whole Mon religious community and Mon civil society. In addition, even in Mon ethnic army force, the association charismatic has been influenced along with its revolutionary historical evident. To contribute to the task what they responded is to retain the former primary objectives of the association. On the other hand, how to promote and achieve that results of the functions are the main thing in this transforming process? In the way of the membership who had recognized themselves as the volunteer, not like the permanent staff, it was a hub difficulty in the management operation. With the form of the volunteer, in the level of helping on association and in the concept that gives service on the monastic community (Sangha) get the return back merits in according with the practice of ascetic perfection, it is making hinder to form into the modern administration and democratic system. Specifically, Budgets lacks allowance on the title of community development is the central issues of overall challenging. To raise hierarchical organizational structure up to the decentralized system, the association have to expand the financial constraints on the line such as contextual awareness, peripheral vision, design thinking and a multi-disciplinary approach for taking care of the vulnerable project, instead of the controlling the association must to empowering. With the changing elder perception on the role of young as the pupil, they must be recognized as members. Even not necessarily need to changes in the overall relationship stereotypical attitudes, the association has accepted the criticism from outside. The general impression of the changing of the association was from the educated young of social-political realms. Similarly, in the religious realm, young participation seems to be equal and not necessarily to be ageism. The young involvement in the decision-making space that has to relate to the association. The senior does not necessarily consider of young thoroughly enough maturity and have to think on their knowledge. Young position in an independent relationship with creativity and ideology what dominated by modern education, it not based JIABU | Vol. 11 No.2 (July – December 2018) 435

on traditional and cultural norm such kindship, teacher and pupil, conductor and follower. The value of monastic tradition and culture have shaped and infl uenced by the traditionalist who extremely on religious function. Also, due to the sangha state ideology of Sangha Mahā Nayaka hierarchical system, the association need to carry out their federations ideology what had been shaped by ethnic politic inherent. Mons organization which formed by ethnicity automatically rooted in the decentralized structure because of they have experienced from the social sense. Nowadays, in the modern organizational system, the equal position such as the networking form, decentralized structure led to purpose from profi t. To sum up, the hierarchical management mode is no longer suited for the challenges of the modern society. Every pillar of a traditional organization is now in fl ux. Even though conventional monk’s utilities the monastic hierarchical system to enhance the exceptional reputation of the authority, it has been the path to transform the traditional attitudes to modern practice in global lifestyle. By shifting from profi t to purpose, hierarchies to networks, controlling to empowering, planning to experimentation, privacy to transparency, the association can be seen that traditionalist tend to participate in the modern administrative realm. In senior levels, by comparing with the contemporary developed association, the religious position can be enhanced in equal to current status. Eventually, the traditionalist mindset shits for organization transformation is the value for monastic members in the future.

References

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