Chapter-8 Fundamentals of Anatomy, Physiology and Kinesiology

DEFINITION AND IMPORTANCE OF ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY AND KINESIOLOGY Defining Anatomy Anatomy explains the structure and location of the different components of an organism to provide a framework for understanding. Human anatomy studies the way that every part of a human, from molecules to bones, interacts to form a functional whole. Anatomy provides information about structure, location, and organisation of different parts of the body. Thus, we can say that it is the study of the structure and relationship between body parts. Defining Physiology Physiology is the science of the normal function of living systems. Physiology studies the processes and mechanisms that allow an organism to survive, grow, and develop. Physiological processes are the ways in which organ systems, organs, tissues, cells, and bio-molecules work together to accomplish the complex goal of sustaining life. Human physiology studies the functions of humans, their organs and cells, and how all of these functions combine to make life, growth and development possible. Thus we can say that physiology is the study of the function of body parts and the body as a whole. Importance of Anatomy and Physiology in Physical Education The knowledge and conscience of anatomy and physiology is therefore, essential for any physical educator, coach or sport scientist. The importance of anatomy and physiology in the field of physical education and sports can be better judged from the below points. 1. Capacity: Knowledge of anatomy and physiology helps to evaluate the capacity of an athlete’s such as anaerobic and aerobic capacity of an athlete, etc. 2. Effects of exercise: Knowledge of anatomy and physiology helps to study the effects of exercises on human body such as effects on muscular system, skeletal system, cardiovascular system, respiratory system, circulatory system, digestive system, etc. 3. Body structure: Knowledge of anatomy and physiology helps to provides information of every aspect of athlete’s i.e. either positive or negative aspects of a player’s bodily structure such as height, weight, body types, etc. 4. Prevention: Knowledge of anatomy and physiology helps to preventing sports injuries during physical activity or competition. Example: First aid given to according to the types of injuries like strain or sprain, bone and joint injuries. 5. Uses of food: Anatomy and physiology helps to providing adequate information of sports nutrition. It gives the information of food nutrients and its uses. Like benefits of balanced diet, uses of protein in strength sports, etc. which is helpful in the enhancement of sports performance. 6. Selection of sports: Anatomy and physiology helps to selection of sports such as short structured athletes are good for weightlifting; tall athletes are good for volleyball and basketball, an athlete who has more fast twitch fiber is good for 100 m race and 110 m hurdle race and an athlete who has more slow twitch fiber is good for marathon, etc Meaning of Kinesiology The word kinesiology is derived from the Greek word ‘kinesis’, meaning ‘motion’ and ‘logos’, meaning ‘to study’. So we can say that the meaning of kinesiology is the study of motion. Kinesiology also deals with causes affecting the use of put into practice, such as force, friction, motion, leverage, elasticity, projectile motion, and angle of release, etc. Kinesiology is the study of human body movement from the point of view of the physical sciences. The study of kinesiology is an essential part of the educational experience of students of physical education, athletic training, physical therapy, orthopedics, dance, sport and physical medicine. Importance of Kinesiology in Physical Education and sports 1. It gives knowledge to understand and analyse movements of the human body. 2. It gives the fundamental principles behind any movements. 3. It helps to understand the foundation of motor skills and how to carry out efficient movement. 4. It gives facts regarding mechanical basis of human motion i.e. analyse walking and running, etc. 5. It gives information regarding basic principles required to receive impact and avoid injury i.e. sports safety gears design like helmet, batting pad, life guard, shin pad, batting gloves, high jump and pole vault landing mats thickness, etc. 6. It gives understanding regarding how to make efficient movements to achieve optimum quality of function. 8.2 FUNCTION OF SKELETON SYSTEM, CLASSIFICATION OF BONES AND TYPES OF JOINTS Skeletal System Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated cartilages and joints of human body. Skeleton can be defined as the hard framework of human body around which the entire body is built. Almost all the hard parts of human body are components of human skeletal system. Joints are very important because they make the hard and rigid skeleton allow different types of movement at different locations. If the skeleton were without joints, no movement would have taken place and the significance of human body, no mere than a stone. Human skeleton system is composed of three main components, bones, associated cartilages and joints. 1. Bones: Bone is a tough and rigid form of connective tissue. It is the weight bearing organ of human body and it is responsible for almost all strength of human skeleton. 2. Cartilages: Cartilage is also a form of connective tissue but is not as tough and rigid as bone. The main difference in the cartilage and bone is the mineralisation factor. Bones are highly mineralised with calcium salts while cartilages are not. 3. Joints: Joints are important of human skeleton because they make the human skeleton mobile. A joint occurs between “two or more bones” and “bone and cartilage”. The 206 named bones of the human skeleton are divided into two groups: axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton forms the long axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage. Generally speaking these bones protect, support, or carry other body parts. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles (shoulder bones and hip bones) that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. Bones of the limbs help us move from place to place (locomotion) and manipulate our environment. Functions of Skeletal System The one of the most important function of the skeletal system is to provide the body support and shape. There are many other functions of the skeletal system that helped in many other processes in the human body systems let us discuss the various functions of skeletal system are: 1. Support: Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its soft organs. For example, bones of the lower limbs act as pillars to support the trunk body when we stand, and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall. 2. Protection: The fused bones of the skull protect the brain. The vertebrae surround the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps protect the vital organs of the thorax. 3. Movement: Skeletal muscles, which attach to bones by tendons, use bones as levers to move the body and its parts. As a result, we can walk, grasp objects, and breathe. The design of joints determines the types of movements possible. 4. Mineral and growth factor storage: Bone is a reservoir for minerals, most importantly calcium and phosphate. The stored minerals are released into the bloodstream in their ionic form as needed for distribution to all parts of the body. Indeed, deposits and withdrawals of minerals to and from the bones go on almost continuously. Additionally, mineralised bone matrix stores important growth factors. 5. Blood cell formation: Most blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis, occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones. 6. Triglyceride (fat) Storage: Fat, a source of energy for the body, is stored in bone cavities. 7. Hormone production: Bones produce osteocalcin, a hormone which is not only helpful to regulate bone formation, but also protects against obesity, glucose intolerance, and diabetes mellitus.

Classification of Bones The 206 bones that compose the adult skeleton are divided into five categories based on their shapes. Generally, bones are classified as long, short, flat, irregular and seasemoid. Bones are classified according to their shape: 1. Long Bones: A long bone is one that is cylindrical in shape, being longer than it is wide. Keep in mind, however, that the term describes the shape of a bone, not its size. Long bones are found in the arms (humerus, ulna, radius) and legs (femur, tibia, fibula), as well as in the fingers (metacarpals, phalanges) and toes (metatarsals, phalanges). Long bones function as levers; they move when contract muscles. 2. Short Bones: A short bone is one that is cube-like in shape, being approximately equal in length, width and thickness. The only short bones in the human skeleton are in the carpals of the wrists and the tarsal of the ankles. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion. 3. Flat Bones: The term flat bone is somewhat of a misnomer because, although a flat bone is typically thin, it is also often curved. Examples include the cranial (skull) bones, the scapulae (shoulder blades), the sternum (breastbone), and the ribs. Flat bones serve as points of attachment for muscles and often protect internal organs. 4. Irregular Bones: An irregular bone is one that does not have any easily characterised shape and therefore does not fit any other classification. These bones tend to have more complex shapes, like the vertebrae that support the spinal cord and protect it from compressive forces. Many facial bones, particularly the ones containing sinuses, are classified as irregular bones. 5. Sesamoid Bones: A sesamoid bone is a small, round bone that, as the name suggests, is shaped like a sesame seed. These bones form in tendons (the sheaths of tissue that connect bones to muscles) where a great deal of pressure is generated in a joint. The sesamoid bones protect tendons by helping them overcome compressive forces. Sesamoid bones vary in number and placement from person to person but are typically found in tendons associated with the feet, hands, and knees. The patellae are the only sesamoid bones found in common with every person. Types of Joints There are three different types of joint. These are classified dependant on the movement available. 1. Fibrous or Fixed or immovable joints: It is also known as fibrous or synarthroses joints. They are fixed joints at which there is no movement. The articular surfaces are joined by tough fibrous tissue. Often the edges of the bones are dovetailed into one another as in the sutures of the skull. An example is the joints between the different bones of the skull. 2. Slightly movable joints: It is also known as cartilaginous or amphiarthroses joints. They are joints in which slight movement is possible. A pad of cartilage lies between the bone surface and there is a fibrous capsule to hold the bone and cartilage in place. The cartilages of such joints also act as shock absorbers for example the intervertebral discs between the bodies of vertebrae where the cartilage is strengthened by extra collagen fibers. Therefore, there is a small amount of movement permitted at these joints which are separated by cartilage such as in the joints between the vertebrae. (A) Symphysis: In this joint the adjoining bony surfaces are connected by each other. e.g.: between bodies of vertebrae etc. (B) Syndesmosis: Bones are far away and space is connected by ligaments. e.g.: as between lower ends of tibia and fibula etc. 3. Freely movable: It is also known as synovial or diarthroses joints. These contain synovial fluid inside a synovial membrane which surrounds the joint. An example is the knee joint, elbow joint and hip joint etc. (A) Ball and socket joint: These types of joints allow freedom of movements in all directions such as hip joint and the shoulder joint. (B) Hinge joints: Such type of joints making allow movement only in one direction. Examples are the elbow joint and knee joint. (C) Gliding joints: This type of joint allows for gliding movements, such as intercarpal and intertarsal joint. (D) Condyloid joints: This type of joint allows movement in to direction such as palmer flexion, dorsi flexion, ulnar deviation and radial deviation of the wrist joint. (E) Pivot joint: It is acts like a pivot. Example: At the atlas which allows us to turn our head sideways (right or left).

8.3 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF MUSCLES Properties of Muscles: All muscles types share the following unique properties that allow them to function properly: 1. Contractility: It is the ability of a muscle tissue to shorten and contract forcefully. Once the muscles have received stimulation, the muscle is capable of actively shortening (contracting) to do a particular task. 2. Excitability: It is the ability of a muscle tissue to generate an action potential in response to a stimulus. With the application of force, muscle can be stretched without damage. 3. Extensibility: It is the ability of a muscle tissue of muscle to stretch or get longer. Muscle can be stretched to its normal resting length and beyond to a limited degree. 4. Elasticity: It is the ability of a muscle tissue to return to its original shape. Whenever a muscle has been shortened or lengthened, it has the ability to return to its resting shape and length. Functions of Muscles The muscular system of human body is composed of smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles. Smooth muscle is found in your blood vessels, eyes, hair follicles and the walls of hollow organs like your stomach and intestines. Cardiac muscle is the muscle of your heart and contracts involuntarily. Skeletal muscles are primarily responsible for moving the body voluntarily or by reflex. Overall, the main functions are: 1. Protection: The muscles of your lower back and abdominal muscles help to protect your vital organs and big muscles protect your bone also like Glutius muscles protect your hip bone and joint, etc. 2. Pumps Blood: Heart is responsible for receiving blood back from your muscles, pumping it into your lungs, receiving the blood from the lungs then pumping it out into your arteries to supply your entire body. 3. Create Movement: The main function of skeletal muscle is to produce voluntary gross and fine movements. It includes running, walking, playing sports, typing, writing and talking, etc. 4. Helps in digestion: The smooth muscles of stomach and intestines work to process the food you eat. The involuntary contractions in stomach and intestines aid in digestion and in moving the food along digestive tract, ultimately directing indigestible substances to rectum. 5. Heat Generation: Skeletal muscles release heat when they work. To prevent overheating, the body gives off heat through the skin and glands in the skin produce sweat. 6. Muscle Tone: Skeletal muscles not fully relax, as they always remain slightly tense. This tension of muscle makes the muscles ready for action. Example skeletal muscle tone helps to keep the torso and head erect when walking, sitting or standing. The human body sends nerve impulses automatically to maintain muscle tone. 7. Blood Flow: Blood moves throughout the body by the cardiac muscle. Heart contractions or heart beats, set the pace of blood flow throughout the body. 8.4 FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Respiratory System The respiratory system may be defined as the organs and tissues through which air is passed into and out of the body to allow the necessary gaseous exchanges to take place. Respiratory system is the system of respiratory passages, lungs and respiratory muscles of human body. It is responsible for exchange of gases between the human body and the surroundings. In the process of exchange of gases, human body gains oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide. Other gases of the atmosphere have no significant role in human respiratory system. It is extremely important for human body because the process of respiration cannot be stopped even for a few seconds. If the process of respiration stops even for a minute or two, the condition will become serious and will ultimately end in death. The respiratory system comprises of the nose, throat, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. Let us discuss about these parts of the respiratory system: 1. Nose: Nose a basic framework of bone and cartilage attached to muscle and the outer skin lined with mucous membrane. The internal structure of the nose is connected to the pharynx by two openings called internal nostrils. 2. Pharynx: Pharynx is shaped like a funnel. First portion of pharynx is known as nasopharynx. Middle portion as oropharynx. Lowest portion as laryngopharynx. 3. Larynx: The structure of ligaments, muscles and cartilage in the larynx control the tension in the cords. Epiglottis is a piece of elastic cartilage which is situated at the base of the tongue and is joined, while a flap of the cartilage can move freely. 4. Trachea: Trachea or wind pipe is approximately 10 cm long and its walls are supported by incomplete cartilage rings which provide support but also flexibility. Inner walls of trachea are covered with mucosal lining. The trachea then divides into the left and right bronchus. 5. Bronchi: Trachea divides into left and right bronchi which are similar in structure to trachea and lead into left and right lung respectively. The bronchi then branch into secondary bronchi, then tertiary bronchi and the process of branching continues. It is further divided into bronchioles branch into respiratory bronchioles then into alveolar ducts and finally into the alveolar sacs and the alveoli. 6. Lungs: Lungs are cone shaped and extend from the collar bone to the surface of the diaphragm. The midline of each lung contains a region known as the hilus, the area through which blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves and primary bronchi enter and leave. Each lung is divided into lobes, three in the right lung and two in the left, within which there are smaller divisions known as lobules. Functions of Respiratory System The respiratory systems of human body consist of nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs. The various functions of respiratory system are: 1. Trachea forms a passage for air to travel from larynx to lungs. 2. Bronchi help in gaseous exchange within lungs. 3. Once the air reaches the alveoli, exchange of gases occur. Diffusion of gases takes place across the thin capillary and alveolar walls. Oxygen is passed into the capillaries for supply to body tissues and carbon dioxide is passed from the capillaries to the alveoli to be expelled from the body during exhalation. 4. The filtered air flows through the internal nostrils into the pharynx. 5. Pharynx has three major functions, the passage of air and food, forms a chamber for vocal sounds produced by larynx. Also pharynx transports air and mucus downwards. Laryngopharynx acts as passageway for food, fluids and air. 6. Larynx produces vocal sounds when air is expelled over the vocal cords, two membranes vibrate to produce sound. 7. Thus the primary function of the respiratory system is to supply the blood with oxygen in order for the blood to deliver oxygen to all parts of the human body.

STRUCTURE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Circulatory System The human circulatory system is an organ system that is mainly concerned with transportation of nutrients, gases, blood cells and hormones throughout the body, through a network of blood vessels. It is also the main cooling as well as transportation system of the body. The RBC’s carry nutrients and oxygen to the cells while the blood cells in the circulatory system act as cleaners and start functioning whenever we are exposed to cold, infection or cut. The main components of circulatory system are arteries and veins. Many times the veins consist of blood from which the oxygen and nutrients have been delivered already. These have low oxygen or no oxygen molecules and nutrients and are called deoxygenated blood. Such blood is very dark red in colour. The regular blood looks bright red. Some veins specially carry oxygenated blood while there is one artery which only carries deoxygenated blood. The circulatory system consists of the heart, blood vessels and blood itself. 1. The Heart The heart is a spectacular muscular organ that beats every second, of every day. It is positioned behind the ribcage and between the lungs. It tilts slightly to the left. It also supplies your body with what it needs to live, fresh oxygenated blood. Structure of Heart: It is divided into four main sections the left and right atrium and the left and right ventricle. The blood enters the heart from its long journey around the body through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium. Then it passes by the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. After the right ventricle contracts, the blood is forced past the pulmonary semilunar (crescent shaped) valve, and into the pulmonary trunk which is an artery. The pulmonary trunk splits into the right and left pulmonary artery where the still oxygen deficient blood travels through the lungs. The blood becomes enriched with oxygen and travels back toward the heart. The blood enters the heart via the right and left pulmonary vein which come directly from lungs. The blood then enters the left atrium. The bicuspid valve opens up and the blood falls into the left ventricle. The ventricle contracts and the blood goes rushing passed the aortic semilunar valve and into the aorta which is the largest artery in the body. Now the blood is on its way back to the body. The heart pumps oxygen into the blood and collects carbon dioxide from it to be expelled through the lungs. To see how big your heart is, make a fist. Our heart never stops for rest or repair. The heart weight about 10 ounces. Circulation: There are two circuits within the body through which blood flows. In between each circuit the blood returns to the heart. A. Systematic Circulation: This circuit takes oxygenated blood from the left side of the heart, around the body. When the blood returns to the right side of the heart, it is deoxygenated, as the oxygen has been mostly used by muscles and organs in order to make energy. B. Pulmonary Circulation: This circuit takes deoxygenated blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs where it can pick up more oxygen. It then returns this newly oxygenated blood to the left side of the heart where the cycle begins again.

2. Blood Vessels: There are three types of blood vessels within the circulatory system: (A) Arteries: 1. Carry blood away from the heart. 2. Carry oxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary artery which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs). 3. Thick, strong, elastic walls. 4. Smaller arteries are called arterioles. (B) Veins: 1. Carry blood back to the heart. 2. Carry deoxygenated blood (with the exception of the pulmonary vein which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart). 3. Contains valves to make sure the blood travels in the right direction when under lower pressures. 4. Thinner walls. 5. Smaller veins are called venules. (C) Capillaries: 1. The smallest blood vessels which connect veins and arteries. 2. Travel deep inside muscles and organs to supply the nutrients and oxygen. 3. Have walls only one cell thick to allow exchange of these substances. (D) Blood: Blood has four main components: A. Red Blood Cells: These are disc shaped cells which carry hemoglobin to combine with oxygen. B. White Blood Cells: These fight against disease by using antibodies and antitoxins. C. Platelets: These are fragments of cells which help blood to clot a wound. D. Plasma: This is a coloured liquid which carries all the blood cells as well as hormones, waste products and digested foods. Functions of Circulatory System The circulatory system works in coordination with respiratory system as well as digestive system to supply nutrients and oxygen to different body parts. The messenger hormones or chemicals present in the blood are secreted by the endocrine system. Thus the circulatory secreted by the endocrine system. Thus the circulatory system also performs the function of circulating hormones for proper communication between the organs. The functions of the circulatory systems are: 1. Heat exchange through the body surface. 2. Carry oxygen from lungs to tissues and carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs there by aiding in the exchange of gases. Supply of oxygen is needed for proper functioning of the cells. Removal carbon dioxide is also equally essentials it becomes toxic to cells when present in high amount. 3. Helps to maintain pH of the blood by buffering system present. 4. Prevent over bleeding by forming blood clot by the platelets. 5. It helps in fighting against infections. 6. The circulatory system provides a mode of transport for hormones. 7. The circulatory system disposes of waste products and poisons that would harm the body if they accumulated. 8. The circulatory system carries digested food substances to the cells of the body.

8.5 EQUILIBRIUM—DYNAMIC AND STATIC, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND ITS APPLICATION IN SPORTS

Equilibrium is the condition of an object in which all the forces acting upon it are balanced. A body or object is said to be in equilibrium when the sum of the forces acting on it is equal to zero and the sum of the torques acting on it is equal to zero. In other words, there are no unbalancing forces or torques. Types of equilibrium are given below: 1. Static Equilibrium: It is a type of equilibrium that occurs when an object is at rest or motionless. It refers to the object either having no net forces acting upon it or having all of its net forces equal or balanced. Therefore the object in static equilibrium state or condition is not moving and will not start moving unless an external force is applied upon it. 2. Dynamic Equilibrium: It is a type of equilibrium that occurs when an object is at motion or moving at a steady speed. Any object in dynamic equilibrium state is moving at a constant speed in a straight line and will not alter speed or direction unless acted upon by an outside force. Principles of Stability The principles of stability that follows are stated in terms of enhancing balance and stability. However, they could also be stated in terms of reducing balance and stability, thus, enhancing the potential for mobility. 1. If the area of the base of support of an object is greater than before, this tends to raise the stability of the object. 2. The lower the centre of gravity is on top of the base of support the more stable the object tends to be. (This is true even though the size of the base of support is unchanged.) 3. Objects that are more huge tend to be more stable. 4. For balance to exist, the lines of gravity have to intersect the base of support. 5. For an object, the beyond the line of gravity’s intersection is from the edge of its bottom of support the more stable the object tends to be in that direction. States of Equilibrium 1. Stable Equilibrium: When the centre of gravity of a body lies below point of suspension or support, the body is said to be in stable equilibrium. Example: An object is lying on a horizontal surface is an example of stable equilibrium. Other examples of stable equilibrium are bodies lying on the floor such as chair, table, etc. For example, a book lying on a table is in stable equilibrium. 2. Unstable Equilibrium: When the centre of gravity of a body lies above the point of suspension or support, the body is said to be in unstable equilibrium Example: An object or pencil standing on its point or a stick in vertically standing position. A gymnast stand on his/her toes while performing floor exercises. Other example of unstable equilibrium is vertically standing cylinder and funnel, etc. 3. Neutral Equilibrium: When the centre of gravity of a body lies at the point of suspension or support, the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium. For example: rolling ball. Example: If a ball is pushed slightly to roll, it will neither come back to its original position nor it will roll forward rather it will remain at rest. This type of equilibrium is called neutral equilibrium. Center of Gravity The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the whole mass of the body is considered to act. The centre of gravity is a point at which all the mass appears to exist. Center of gravity is the point in a body around which the resultant torque due to gravity forces vanishes. The centre of gravity (CG) is the point of action of the entire weight (Force) of an object. If the location of the centre of gravity is exactly known, then one can balance the object on a pin point at this location. Objects in free flight will rotate about their centre’s of gravity if an external force is applied at any of the centered location. If an external force is applied at the centre of gravity, it will not cause the object to rotate.