INDEX

Abdali, Ahmad Shah, invasion of Ahmedabad Mazdoor Mahajan 10, Punjab by 114 51 Acland, George 144 Ahmedabad Millowners’ Adamji 92, 122 Association 32, 73n Adamji group 114, 116, 120, 148 Air , Tatas collaboration with bankruptcy of 112 state in 161 Aden, merchants’ migration to 222, Ali, Mir Laik 112 229 Ali, Wazir 84, 112, 120 Agarwal Shekhawati bases/dharam- All India Trade Union Congress shalas 209 (AITUC), and Congress 10, Agarwals, from 194, 195 50 in banking 209 Ambedkar, B.R. 52, 67n agriculture, capitalist development American Civil War 214 in 245 Amin, Shahid 263 commercialization of 190 Anderson, Benedict 263 commodification of 173 ‘Anglo-Muslim’ legal system, on income, introduction of 57 succession 118 non-taxation of 16 Anjuman-i-, creation of 77 output, stratification of 123 Arasaratnam, Sinnapah 154 rain-fed 190 Ardhakathanak 177 riverine 188, 189 Aroras, of Punjab 189, 194 agro-industrial sector, new entrepre- Arya Samaj 77, 83 neurs in 180 ‘Asiatic’ immigrants 234 Ahmad, Imtiaz xi Assam Ahmedabad, big businessmen in 27 agricultural income tax in 57 cotton textile industry in 139 anti-Marwari riots in 201, 206 as important industrial centre 140 Congress and elections in 30 mill-owners in 28, 49 Marwari merchants’ dominance in agreement with Vallabhbhai 180, 202, 206 Patel 59 Associates Cement Company (ACC) in Congress politics 48 89–90, 146, 158 272 INDEX Azad, Maulana Abul Kalam 90, political reforms in 81 102n prospect of partition of 90–1 reserved constituency in 32 Bagchi, Amiya 140, 144, 153 Congress 92 Bagla, Rameshwar Prasad 32 Bengal National Chambers of Bajaj, Jamnalal 6 Commerce 32 Balabhai, Sakarlal 73n Bengalis Banarasidas, Ardhakathanak (autobio- agitation against, in Assam 180 graphy) of 177 middle-class, educated 175 Bangalore, rise of business activity in ‘indigenous’ 207 141 Muslim capitalists 113, 122 as technology-driven city 216 traders, displacement of 172 Bangladesh, independence of 97 Berar, Congress defeat in 31 banias (caste) 194, 202, 260 Berbera, Indian merchants’ settlement in mercantile and industrial sector in 229 180 Bettelheim, Charles ix, x political skill of 195 bhadralok, of Calcutta 84 role in Cattle Revolution of 1759 Bhaiband, merchant network from in Surat 261 Hyderabad 239 Banjaras, role in trade 211, 212 Bharatiya Janata Party 180 Bank of Madras 138 Bhatias 189 banking families/bankers 199 merchant network from Thatta, of Marwaris and Gujaratis 198–9 238 and merchants’ role in Rajasthan of Sind and Kutch 194 265 see also Kutchi Bhatias traditional, in India 173 bhomias 189 banking houses, granting of state monopolies to 21 agricultural income tax in 57 banks, reorganization of 172 conflict in factories in 53 Bayly, C.A. 21, 114, 153, 178, 193, Congress victory in 30, 33 195, 257, 259, 265, 267 Cow Protection agitation in 77 ‘bazaar’, notion of 196, 197, 257 funds for elections in 30 Benaras, merchant houses of 192 Marwari dominance in 202 Bengal, British conquest of 193 sugar industries’ overproduction commercial class in 175 crisis in 42 famine in 141 trouble in Tata factories in 60 jute mills strike in 39 Bikaner, migrants from 199 labour disputes in 39 Birla, G.D. 6, 17, 28, 38, 44, 65n, Marwari traders/merchants in 207 67n, 81, 92, 94, 96, 101n migration of merchants from 229 and Congress 93, 162 Muslim majority in 84 as follower of Gandhi 84 Muslim politics in 85 on movement 88 Pakistan and 93 view on Bengal affairs 84–5 INDEX 273 Birla brothers x, 81 provincial elections in 86 house of 161 relation between Ahmedabad textile Bogdan revolt, Ukraine 202 manufacturers and 49 Bohra community 117, 189, 192, relations between Congress and big 194, 202, 204 business 48, 64 Bombay government trade with China and 129, 130 Congress Party and 17 Bombay Millowners’ Association 88 relationship with business 48, 64 constituency of 32 trade unions and 51 Bombay Plan 14, 15, 90, 116, 161 Bombay province/Presidency ix, 28, Bombay Provincial Congress 62 Committee 51 anti-labour and pro-capitalist stand Bombay Stock Exchange 143 in 64 Bombay Trade Disputes Act 18, 51, big businessmen of, and Calcutta 62 businessmen 143, 144–9 Bose, Sarat 92 as business centre in colonial Bourdieu, P. 176 period 128–49 bourgeoisie class 169 business opposition in 58 Indian concept of 19 and Calcutta as business centres xi Brahmins Communist influence on labour in 175, 176 movement 9 in trade in the Deccan area 196 Congress ministry in 17, 32 Britain, trade with India 44, 45 cotton market in 148 British Board of Trade 44, 56 cotton textile industry in 46, 138, British business 139, 142 boycott of 28 entrepreneurs and 142, 144 in Calcutta 93 Hindu-Muslim divide in commer- conflict between Indian and 148 cial sector 86 on Congress policy 64 imported items, consumption of in dominant position of 4 hinterlands of 136–7 British capital, trade in India and industrial advisory board in 68n 124, 130, 139, 203 intra-business tensions in 8 British capitalists, Bombay business and Lancashire mill-owners’ alliance with 28 pact 161 domination of 258 liberal ideas of business circles in textile mills of, in Kanpur 45 13 in United Provinces 46 merchandise export trade from British company law, introduction 129–31 of 172 Muslim business elites in 113 British colonial (Indian) administra- opium trade in 142 tion population in 131 banias on 254 as a port 137 consolidation in the subcontinent prosperity in 130 194 274 INDEX contracts to Hindus 120 relationship with Partition xi expansion of pan-India merchant relationship with politics ix networks 196–213 tax 16 and Indian business 61, 64, 193 business class/houses/men on political future of India 87 as agents of economic change weakening of 163 253 British colonialism 264 and British authorities 64 and Indian merchant communities and Congress Party relationship 257 3–22, 50–61 ‘resistance’ to 264 on Congress policy in the Provinces British trading firms 247 44–50 and Indian firms 153 financing political parties 21 intermediaries in 4 gains from economic policies of steel industry in India 163 government 54 British textiles and Indian nationalism 258 Indian market and 203 and the Partition of India 75–97 reduction in duties on 44, 47 political attitude/behaviour of 3, British Guiana, male and female 28, 30 migration to 225 small, sympathy towards 11 brokers, Hindu and Parsi 119, 174 and Swaraj Party 6 Brooksby, James 156–7 budget for 1939–40 56 Cabinet Mission Burma plan of 1946 91 British annexation of 230 proposals of 102n census on Indians in trade 248 Calcutta Chettiar finance in 247 award of, to India 92 development in 231 big businessmen in 27 growth of Indian population in and Bombay as business centres xi, 230 128–49 Indian merchants in 230, 233 businessmen and Bombay Indian traders and moneylenders businessmen 145–6 in 234 collapse of indigo market in 142 migration of Hindus and economy, decline in 147–8 to 222, 223, 226 entrepreneurial responses in Burmah Shell 158 142 business European firms and capital in 133, big, for a unitary India 90, 91 134, 138 circles, discontent with Congress hinterland growth in 149n 49 imported items, consumption in division on communal lines 82 hinterlands of 136–7 groups, growth of 7 jute mills and 36, 138, 139, 143 interests, importance of 20 Marwaris, dominance in markets lobbies 240 of 8 INDEX 275 polarization between Scots and Carnatic, British annexation of 146–7 128 port 137 caste Calcutta Census of 1911 200 assimilated, among merchants and Calcutta Stock Exchange 143 entrepreneurs 180 ‘Cambridge School’, rise of 170 -based organizations 77 capital distinction, importance of among family firms and 177 Marwaris 209 markets in Europe 215 and family, for merchants 178, migrant merchants, outflow of 244 179 trading network and circulation of and middle class 179 235 relationship 174 see also British capital system, and industry 117–18 capital-gains tax, shelving of 17 and trading networks 235 capitalism, Indian ix, 15, 264 Castle Revolution of 1759 in Surat and foreigners’ exploitation of India 261 11 Cawnpore Labour Enquiry Com- Islam’s relationship with 105, 106 mittee, appointment of capitalists (Indian) 8, 13, 153 45 as anti-imperialists 18 Census of India and bourgeois paradigm 22 of 1921 108 condemnation of ‘socialistic’ views of 1931 106, 108 20 of 1941 108 and Congress 20, 48, 55 Central Asia, merchants’ trade dealings with industrial workers in with 221 United Provinces 46 Central Legislative Assembly, division in the ranks of 28 businessmen’s elections to 33 economic development committee Ceylon of 14 merchants’ migration to 233 impact of Congress ministries on migration by Hindus to 225–6 61 Chand, Manik 193 indigenous class 12 Chandavarkar, V.N. 100n investments by 18 Chandra, Bipan 18, 79, 258 and nationalist leadership move- Charulata (film) 177 ments 5, 18, 19 Chatterjee, Kumkum 261, 262 opposition to imperialism and Chatterton 13 ‘feudalism’ 24n Chaudhuri, K.N. 254 ‘package deal’ with Congress 17 ‘Chayanovian’ model 153 participation in National Planning chemical and metallurgical industries Committee 14 12 on status quo in the countryside chemical and pharmaceutical indus- 63 tries 144 success of 15 Chettiar, Muttaih 31 276 INDEX Chettiars community and Brahmins in Tamil Nadu 175 consciousness 76, 77 as financiers in Burma 229, 247, relationship 174 251n, 252n Congress High Command 37, 40, firms of 248 50, 54, 93, 94 as trading merchants 240 FICCI’s influence over 27 Chhotalal, Ranchhodlal 174 on relations between Indian China business class and provincial Bombay’s trade with 129, 130 ministries 50–6 demand for opium from India 130 see also Congress Party Parsis of Bombay migrating to 230 Congress Labour Committee, resolu- Chinese market 142–3 tion of 40–1, 68n Chinoy, Sultan 112 Congress Party 14, 19, 87 ‘Chulia’, Muslim trading group 240 Ahmedabad session (1902) of 4 Civil Disobedience Movement All India Trade Union Congress (1930–1) 6, 11, 86 10 abandonment of 26 Allahabad session (1888) of 4 business support to 28 budget of 1938–9 43 civil works, expenditure on 34, 66n business interests 12 client networks, in the countryside 33 business/merchant class coastal regions, role of in sea trade relationship 21, 56–61, 212 228 in Bombay x, 3, 4–8, 15–17, 22, coastal shipping, Muslims in 112 50–61 Cohen, Abner 250n before the advent of Congress Coimbatore ministries 28–34 big businessmen in 27 in provinces 34–8, 55 cotton textile industry in 139 businessmen’s support to 6–7, 8, as industrial centre 140 20 colonial period, Bombay and 128–49 capitalists and 20, 23n commerce, reserved constituency for election manifesto of 38, 41 30, 31 elections of 1937 29 commercial failure in Madras province 30 middle class in Bengal 175 FICCI and 50 migrants 233, 241–2 Gujarati connections and 9 ‘commercialization’, of power 21 Indian economics and 12 Communal Award, opposition to labour and 39, 53, 61–2 84 leadership and 50, 88 communal politics, in India 83 Left and 11–12, 14, 28, 54 communalism Lucknow session (1899) and 4 in India 76 Madras session of (1894) 4 in capitalist society 98n members 10–11 Communists 62 millowners and 59 influence in labour movement 9 ministries in provinces 34 INDEX 277 moderate leadership and the Left cotton textile industry/mills 4, 12, wing of 10 174 modern industries and 37 in Bombay 132, 139, 142 Muslim League interim impact of Partition on 96 government and 16 role of Lancashire men in 164n national movement and 7 wage increase to workers in 44 Partition and 94 cotton textile machinery, import of policy of, 1885–1957 3–22, 137, 140 38–50, 61–3 Cow Protection Agitation of 1890s problems of governance and 7 77 provincial governments and x, credit 26–65 availability of 124 resolution of 1885–1905 4 control by Hindus 82 rule after 1947 65 merchants and 178 socialists and 10, 22, 46 Cripps, Sir Stafford 87, 88 support from reserved Curzon, Lord 158 constituencies 33 trade unions in 1937 elections Dadabhai & Co. 242 36 Dalal, Ardeshir 89 trade union movement and 18 Dalal, A.R. 74n underground bulletins of 11 Dalmia, Seth 30, 66n underprivileged masses, Dalmia factory, in Bihar 53 commitments to 18 Das, C.R. 84 victories in provinces 30 Das, Gokul (Parikhji) 199 Constituent Assembly 94 Das Gupta, Ashin 256, 257, 261 Constitution of 1935, on provincial Daudi (Shia) Bohra merchants, in autonomy 26 Thailand and Malagasy 238 consumerism, growth of 176, 179 Davar, Cowasji 143 corruption, institutionalization of 21 Davis, Kingsley 233 cottage industries Dawood, Adamji Haji 81 Congress policy on 17 Deccan government aid to small-scale and disturbances/riots in 1875 202, 43 214 cotton growth of cotton in 135 boom 214 Marwari traders in 201–2 cultivation in Uganda with Indian trading class in 196 interest 247 Deccan Riots Commission Report demand for removal of excise duty 201 on 4 defence building, by India and export of, from Bombay 135 Pakistan 93 markets and 8, 148 , rise of business activity in trade, from Bombay 131–2, 143 141 yarn exports to China 143 demographic pressure 123 278 INDEX Depression of 1930s 13–14, 34, 37, development and 34, 97, 176 141, 244 impact of merchant network on Desai, A.R. x 213–17 dharmashalas 241 Marwaris in 216–17 differential duties 160 nationalist policy on 13 Dirks, Nicholas 259, 260 ‘new’ 180 ‘discriminative’ protection 5, 174 ‘old’ 180 policy of Tatas and 158 progress, capitalist response to 13 ‘drain of wealth’ 12 regeneration 12 ‘dry zone’ Economic and Industrial Survey expansion of merchants from, Committee 68n under British rule 196–213 economic nationalism 13, 121 spread of merchants from 188–96 changing face of 12–16 ‘dual dominance’ in nationalist programmes 5 era of 1860–1920 132–9 and political and social order unfolding of 129–30 19–20 under fire 130–41 education dukawalla, in East Africa 232 development of 4 Durban, Indian merchants’ migration entitlements, problem of 83 to 230 government expenditure on 43 Dutt, R.C. 12 of Muslims, backwardness in 117 Dutt, R.R. 18 electorates, for Muslims 78 Dutt, Rajani Palme 169 Employees’ Association of Northern ‘dyarchy’ regime 29 India 45 employment tax 57 East Africa Empress Mills, of Tatas in Indian merchants’ migration to Nagpur 143, 152, 155, 156 230–2 English-educated professionals, and success of Indian businessmen in the middle class 167, 170, 175 244 entrepreneurs East India Company 182n, 198 agro-industrial sectors 180 armies of 197 growth of 174 commercialization of power under mercantile sectors in Indian society 22 172–6 maritime trade by 114 merchants and middle class East India Cotton Association, as 167–81 reservation of seats for 32 responses in Bombay and Calcutta Eastern Federal Insurance Co. 115 142–4 economy Erskine 73n, 74n Calcutta 147–8 ‘ethnic’ solidarity, Marwari merchants colonial India and 4, 132 and 208–9 Congress policy on 16, 54, 63, 91; European Agency Houses, in see also Congress Party Calcutta 145 INDEX 279 European businesses 111 foreign trade 140, 190 commercial companies and 254 Forum of Free Enterprise 162 Gujarati merchants and 193 Fox, Richard 170 Hindu and Parsi brokers and 119 fundamental rights, declara- traders, in Calcutta 133 tion on 61 European domination, in Furber, Holden 254 international shipping and trade 145 Gaborieau, Marc xi, 105n European societies, and ‘oriental’ Gadgil, D.R. 189, 255 societies 168 Gaekwar of Baroda 121 excise revenues 16 Gandhavaniks, displacement of 173 expatriate firms 153 Gandhi, Mahatma 5, 13, 19, 175, exports 267 from Bombay and Bengal 134, and the business world 6, 9 135, 137 charisma of 263 from India to Pakistan 101n critique of industrialism 13, 14 as mediator in labour conflict in family Ahmedabad 5 dominance of 216 merchants’ allegiance to 212, 215 merchants and entrepreneurs 174, as political leader 6 177, 181 and prohibition 35 Fazl-ul-Huq ministry, in Bengal 85 rural bias of 13, 37 Federation of Indian Chambers of seva (service) and 178 Commerce and Industry theory of ‘trusteeship’ of 10 (FICCI) 27, 49, 89, 94, 116 Gandhi Sevak Sangh 51 and Congress 50, 82 Gandhian/Gandhians 11, 63 resolution of 1947 91 movements 179 female education 178 ‘orthodoxy’ 15 Fiji, merchant migration to 223 Plan 15 finance/financial Gangetic basin 190 constraints and business-Congress merchant world of 257 relations 36 Muslim merchants in 114 crisis of 1930s 34 Geertz, Clifford 105 Indians working in 222–3, 225 George, Lord 164n markets, reorganization of 172 Ghaffur, Mulla Abdul 114 opposition to, in Bombay 58 Ghia, M.C. 70n policy, of Congress governments Ghuznavi, A.H. 112 16 Girdhardas, Narayandas 72n sector, in Bombay and Calcutta Giri, V.V. 38, 51, 69n 138 Goenka, Rai Badridas 84, 219n Fiscal Commission 5 gold standard, Congress on 4 Five Year Plans, in Soviet Union 14 Gordon, A.D.D. x, 8 ‘forced commercialization’ 260 Gosains 211, 212 280 INDEX governance, impact of 16–18 migration of 125, 226 Guha, Ranajit 260 in Mocha 249n Gujarat monopoly in business by 123 annexation of, in 1800–3 129 and ‘moral economy’ 176 famines in, and migration of in Muscat 249n merchants 246 Muslim businessmen and 148 merchant diaspora from 238 on Partition of Bengal 92 migration of merchants from 228 nationalists 181 Gujarati networks 238 banias 194 rate of growth 264 businessmen/merchants 5, 111, revivalist movements 77 188 Hindutva 180–1 European traders and 193 Hirachand, Lalchand 33 migration to Sind 246 Hirachand, Walchand 33, 48, 53, Gupta, S.P. 189 144 gurudwaras 241 hundi currency (bill of exchange) 191 Habibs 122 of shroffs of Shikarpuri 238–9 as bullion traders 112 Hunter, W.W. 132 Hakim, Abdul 112 Hyderabad firms 245 Hamilton, George 158, 164n Hyderabad (state) handlooms, quotas of 17 bankers in 21 Hardiman, David 260 technology-driven city of 216 Harischandra, Bharatendu 267 Haroon, Abdullah, ‘sugar king’ 113, immovable property tax 58 114 ‘imperial preference’, policy of 28, Hasan, Yakub 67n, 112 160 Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) 51 imports Hindi ban on, of manufactured goods Marwari support to 213 175 movements for propagation of 77 to Bombay 131, 134–7, 140 Hindu to Calcutta 134, 135, 137, 140 ‘bourgeoisie’ class 79 India’s increase in 137 capital 89, 124 income tax 35, 43, 57, 204 joint family 118 indebtedness, growth of 123 Mahasabha 32, 85, 92 in rural areas 63, 107 merchants (banias)/businessmen indentured labour, from India 222, 66n, 236 231 commercial and financial Independent Labour Party 67n domination of 108 India Office 234 of ‘dry zone’, under Mughal Indian Banking Enquiry of regime 192 1929–30 245 in the Indian Ocean 230 Indian Chamber of Commerce 32 INDEX 281 Indian Financial Enquiry Committee information, trading networks and of 1936 35 235 Indian merchants’ chamber consti- intermediaries tuency 32 British 173, 174 ‘Indian ’, in Ceylon 249n class of 4, 168 Indian National Trade Union among Hindus and Parsis 119 Congress (INTUC) 18, 51 Marwaris as 203 Indian nationalism 78, 84, 133, 159, iron trade, from Bombay 143 168–70, 263 irrigated agriculture, development of and business communities 258 245–6 indigenous firms, and expatriate Islam xi firms 78, 153 relationship with capitalism 105, indigo 106 collapse of market in Calcutta in South Asia 105 142 ‘Islamicization’ 77 trade in, from Bombay 131 Ismaili Bohra families, as business indirect taxation 16 elites 113 Industrial Policy Statement of Ismaili 1945 90 business by 120 industrialists as traders in East Africa 236 emergence of class of 175 Ispahani, A.H. 66n ideology of paternalism among 10 Ispahani businessmen in Calcutta industrialization 13, 64, 214–15 114 industries/industrial group 122, 148 conditions of 4 Ispahani, M.A.H. 81, 85, 92, 123 Congress government policy on and Muslim League 93, 122 49 development 116, 175 J.K. Singhania group 140 disputes, settlement of 51, 54 J.T. Chanrai & Co. 243 establishment, by religious affilia- Jagat Seths tions 110 house of 192, 193, 199, 254, government policy on 42, 61 262 growth in 139 political role of 21 investments by Hindus 121 Jain merchants 176, 192 Muslim businessmen and 116–22 Jainism 195, 212 relations, favouring capitalists 62 Jaipur resource allocation to 34 local trading class in 189 state aid to 13 migrants from 199 undeveloped, in Muslim-majority Jalal, A. 87, 94 areas 107 Jammu and Kashmir 106 ‘informal’ credit Japan 12, 28 existence of 153 Japanese textiles, threat to Indian for migrating merchants 241–2 market 160–1 282 INDEX Jardine, William, and Jamsetji Karachi Jejeebhoy 145 British occupation of 198 Jeevanjee, A.M., in Kenya 244 declaration on fundamental rights Jehangir, Cowasji 66n in 61 Jha, Prem Shankar 170 port 137 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali 69n, 80, 82, trade in 136, 140 85, 90, 92, 115, 116, 121, 122 Kasimbazar, as trading centre 193 and Muslim leaders of Bengal and Kasturbhai group, in Ahmedabad Punjab 87 140 and Muslim League 86 Kathiawar separatist demand of 87 maritime trade from port of 238 Jivanji, Karimji, in Zanzibar 244 merchant diaspora from 237 joint-stock companies, in India 138 trading network in 236 in Bombay 141 Kayasthas 257 in Calcutta 141 Kayias, Marwaris in Assam 206 shareholding in 148 Kenya, merchant/labour migration to Joshi, V.C. x 225 jotedars , trading network in 236 in Bengal 94 khaddar 13, 24n Muslim, in eastern Bengal 84 government aid for production of Jung, Salar 112 43 Justice Party 28, 31 Khadi (Name Protection) Act 69n jute mills/industry Khaliquzzaman, Chaudhary 100n, in Calcutta 92, 139, 143, 144 101n impact of Partition on 96 Khalsa Sikhs 195 import of machinery for 140 Khan, Liaqat Ali 16, 95, 102n jute trade, Muslims in 112 Khandelvals, from Rajasthan 194 Khatau 144 K. Chellaram & Sons 243 Khatri Hindu merchants, from K.A.J. Chotirmall and Co. 243 Punjab 189, 194, 195, 205, Kalecki 170, 171 239, 257 Kaleckian model 167, 168 Kher, B.G. 51, 52, 70n, 71n, 72n kangani labour migration 231 Khojas 189, 192, 194, 204 Kannangara, A.P. 5 business elites 113 Kanpur on law of succession 118 big business in 27 in western India 80, 117 fight against Mazdoor Sabha in Killick, Nixon 72n 49 kinship-based Indian firms 153, as industrial centre 62, 140 154 labour trouble/strike in 36, 40, 44, Kirpalani & Sons, in Trinidad 243 45, 48 knowledge, forms of 267 rural constituencies of 33 , migration of merchants from Kapol bania merchants 256 229 INDEX 283 Konkani Muslims, trading by 173, Lalji, Husseinbhoy 122 204 Lancashire Koran and Bombay cotton’s competition injunctions and 119 142 laws on succession and inheritance delegation from 55–6 118 loss of Indian market for 140 and prohibitions 118 trade in cotton textiles from 203 Kosambi, D.D. 169 land revenue 16, 34, 66n Kothari, C.M. 72n landlords 37, 83 kshatriya status 11 ‘learned professions’ 170 Kutch leather and skins trade, by Muslims famine of 1817 in 236 109, 110, 112 trading network in 235, 236 Lees-Mody pact of 1933 28, 161 Kutchi Bhatias 23 Leftist groups 14 Kutchi Lohanas, in East Africa 236 on economic policy 15 Kutchi Memons 202, 204, 240, 247, rise of 19 248, 250n legal system, British-inspired 172 as traders in East Africa 236 legislation against foreign merchants 234 labour in favour of small industries 17 bias against 18 liberalization policy (1991) 162, 167, conflict in Ahmedabad 5 180, 181, 187, 268 and Congress 53, 62 ‘licence ’, rise of 162, 174, 179 issues, state intervention in 10 licenses, for industries 55 legislation by Congress provincial Linlithgow 60, 70n, 71n, 73n, 88 governments 18 liquor trade, by Parsis 204 migration of 223, 233 Liverpool 130 militancy 36, 38 lockouts, and strikes in Bombay 52 movement 9, 36, 61 ‘lodges’, of Nattukottai Chettiars at and nationalist relations 9–10 ports 241 policy of government 10, 16, 17, Lohanas 189, 195 48, 51, 61, 62 Amil and Bhaiband segments problems/conflicts 9, 36, 38, 39, 194 50, 156, 265 in Uganda 251n process 17, 21 London 130, 133 recruitment in Bombay 134 Low, D.A. x relations 61 Ludden, David 262 supply in Calcutta 133 Lumley, Roger 46, 47, 59 Lahore Electric 90 laissez-faire 13, 182n M. Dialdas & Sons 243 Laithwaite 67n Macaulay, T.B. 168, 171 Lalbhai, Kasturbhai 6, 44, 58, 73n, ‘Macaulayan’ model 167 154, 255 Macpherson, Kenneth 111 284 INDEX Madras Presidency 29, 133, 136 market(s) as business centre 128 constraint 154 businessmen’s opposition to hierarchy in colonial India 263 Congress ministry 64 integration of 89 Congress ministry in 17 penetration by state 263 government on labour conflicts 51 unification of 215 labour disturbances/strike in 39, Martin Burn 146 40 Marwar, migrants from 199, 201 opposition to sales tax Marwari proposals 59 anti-, riots in Assam 201, 206 ‘radical conservatism’ in 64 Association 32 sales tax bill in 58 business community 6, 9, 38, 61, sea-borne trade in 140 111, 189, 194, 196 Madras Industrial Disputes Investi- diaspora 204 gation and Settlement Act 51 ‘domination’ in Calcutta 8, 81, Madras Sale of Cloth Act 69n 84–5, 146–7, 175 Madhvanis, in Uganda 244 from eastern India 173, 200, 202 Mahajans 194 as ‘immigrant’ community 180 Mahalanobis, P.C. ix migration from Rajasthan 188, Maharaja of Darbhanga 121, 146 199–200 Maharaja of Jodhpur 207 moneylenders 201–2, 214 175 partners 80 Maheshwaris, in opium trade 209 successful 115 from Rajasthan 194 support to cow protection 213 Malabar Merchants Associations 240 Marxists Malagasy, migration of Muslims to on bourgeoisie and proletariat 169 226 on Indian capitalism and national- Malaviya, M.M. 84 ist movement 18 Malay, labour and non-labour migra- Indian historical writings of 19 tion to 223, 230, 232–3 Massawa, Indian merchant settlements Malwa, opium trade in 130, 198 in 229 Manchester 130 ‘Mathura Seths’, bankers in India manufacturing industry 109–10 173, 199, 267 Mappillai merchants, in Ceylon and Mauritius, Indian migrant traders in Burma 240 225, 229, 250n Marakkayars of Gujarat Mazdoor Sabha 41, 45–6, 69n, 71n business interests in Southeast Asia fight against 49 121 recognition of 53 trading group in Malaya 240 Mehta, Bezonji Dadabhai 155 empire, annexation of 129 Mehta, Chunilal 65n Maratha War 197 Mehtas, in Uganda 244 ‘maritime’ history 255 Memons 189, 192, 194 maritime merchants/trade 114, 227 on law of succession 118 INDEX 285 trading merchants in Mauritius and middle class South Africa 237 and caste 179 in western India 80, 117 commercial 169 see also Kutchi Memons educated 169, 178 mercantile sector 172–6 growth of 182n mercantile organizations 210–11 industrial 169 merchant class, bankers 191 landed 169 and big businessmen 27 merchants and 167–81 and British colonialism 257 values and 176–81 circulation in South Asia 187–217 millowners committees in ‘dry zone’ 188–96 in Bombay 58 and Congress 212, 215 Congress and 59 diaspora in the Indian Ocean 230 on Textile Enquiry Committee 47 and English education 175, 180 of western India 5 entrepreneurs and middle class in Misra, B.B. 169 the twentieth century 167–81 Mitra, Asok 170 and female education 178 Mocha, Yemen, Indian merchants in guilds, in medieval India 262 229 and Hindu nationalists 181 Mody, H.P. 67n influence of 21 Mohamed, Jamal 112 migration patterns of 213–14, moneylenders/moneylending 174, 221–48 244–5 networks xi, xii, 174, 180, 206, by Banias 119 208, 266 Marwari 207, 214 impact on economy 213–17 by Muslims 127n outside India 220–48 Rajput rulers’ appointment of position on market 266 192 princes of Bombay in Congress and trading 201–2 activities 4 from western Punjab, Sind, and role in agrarian economy 260 eastern Bengal 93 role in state formation 265 Monopolies Inquiry role in transition to modernity 258 Commission 165n and ruler relationship 21, 22 Montagu-Chelmsford reforms 91 support to Gandhian movements Moolgaonkar, S. 162 179, 212, 215 Morris, Morris D. 154 and values 176–81 Mountbatten, Louis 102n and vernacular regional cultures Mughal empire 21, 191 175 Hindu merchants under 192 see also Hindu merchants merchant networks under 210 Merchants’ Chamber of United Mukherjee, Aditya 258 Provinces 32 Multanis 189, 191, 204, 239 Metcalf, Barbara 262 Muscat, Indian merchants’ settlement Metcalf, Thomas 262 in 227, 229 286 INDEX Muslim businessmen ix, xi, 33, 66n, population, in Bengal 80 106 80, 94 role in economic life of India in Bengal, politics 85, 90 106–11 ‘bourgeoisie’ class 79 in rural areas 106 connection with movements 77 rural interests, in Bengal and elite 111–16 Punjab 93–4 families in India 112 in trade 86, 108–9, 126n, 194, and Hindu businessmen 82, 236 148 urban, in Punjab 109 and industry 116–22 urbanized 106, 125n migration to Pakistan 96 weak position of 121 and Muslim League 64 Muslim League 33, 34, 52, 64, 69n, in the 1920s and 1930s 120 78, 80, 84, 85, 87, 93, 122 participation in communal in Bengal 91, 92 associations 80 and Congress interim government Partition and 91, 122–3 16 in post-1947 India 125 reorganization of 86 religious faith of 78 ‘Muslim’ politics 79 in South Asia (1900–50) 105–25 in Bombay and Madras in western and southern India presidencies 94 86–7 Muslim separatism 83, 122 Muslim Chamber of Commerce 32, Mysore Iron and Steel 165n 81, 115, 116, 148 Muslim communalism/movements Nanakpanthis 195 78, 79 Nanda, Gulzarilal 59 Muslim community Naoroji, Dadabhai 12 agriculturists and 107 Narang, Gokul Chand 83 capitalists and 79 Narang group 90 commercial class in Bengal 85 National Agriculturist Party 32 as cotton industrialists 112 ‘national bourgeoisie’ 18, 258 entrepreneurs 80, 111 National Planning Committee (NPC) family structure and industry 118 14, 15, 55, 60, 63 as industrialists 80 National Trade Union Federation joint families of 118 (NTUF), and Congress 50 jotedars of eastern Bengal 84 nationalist movement/struggle 19, landless, in rural Punjab 83 215 and middle class 79 Indian capitalism and 5, 18 migration of, to Ceylon 249n labour’s relationship with 9–10 in minority 106, 107, 109 nationalization 62 non-inheritance by women 118 Nattukottai Chettiars outside India 225 Association 240 politicians, and demand for Nattukottai Chettiar banking com- Pakistan 88 munity INDEX 287 in Burma, Ceylon and Malaya formation of 80, 107 239–40, 243 and India trade 96 ‘lodges’ of, at ports 241 movement 88 in Tamil Nadu 31, 175, 204, 244, Muslim industrialist migration 252n to 122 Nawab of Bengal 193 Palasi conspiracy 262 Nawab of Bhopal 115 pan-Indian merchant networks 187, financial support to Muslim 263 enterprises 121 Panipat disaster 266 Nehru, Jawaharlal 16, 20, 48, 50, Pant, Pandit Gobind Ballabh 43, 45, 102n, 161 69n Nehru, Motilal 6 paper trade, from Calcutta 143 New Delhi, rise of 139 Papanek, Hanna 111, 117, 122 Niemeyer, Otto 35 Parsi community Niemeyer Award 35 and British government 212 Nizam of Hyderabad 112, 116, 121 capitalists, growth of 124 non-Muslim businessmen, migration liquor trade by 204 to India after Partition 96 merchant migration to China 230 North West Frontier Province, role in business in Bombay 86, Congress victory in 30 111, 144, 202 Nyasaland, migration to 222 Partition of India benefits from 96 O. Steel 146 businessmen on 75–97 Om Prakash 254 Congress opposition to 90 opium Muslim businessmen on 75, Bengal and 198 122–3 smuggling from China 198 Muslim organizations at 81 trade 114, 131–2, 134, 142 question of 89, 94 ‘organized’ sector, Hindu ‘passive revolution’ 19 predominance in 110 pastoral economy 188 Oriental Spinning 143 Patel, Sardar Vallabhbhai 7, 15, 48, ‘Orientalism’, impact of 168, 254, 49, 51, 54, 55, 60, 70n, 71n, 264 94, 102n Orissa 30, 107 Patel, Sujata xi Oswals, paternalism 10, 13 from Blundu 198 Pathans in military contracting 209 credit provision by 119 from Rajasthan 194 role in south-eastern India 192–3 Ottawa agreement 28, 44, 160 Patidar traders, in East Africa 238 Patil, L.M. 51 Padshash, Burjorji J. 155 patronage 27, 55 Pakistan Pax Britannica 197, 212 demand for 87 Peabody, Norbert 265 288 INDEX Persian Gulf, Hindu bania settlement merchant communities’ trade in in 229 Central Asia 239 Peterson, John 164n Muslim-majority and demand for ‘petty bourgeoisie’, rise of 170 Pakistan 93 Pillay, V.M. 243 power structure in 83–4 Planning Commission 55 Pohoomull Bros 243 Rahimtoolla, Ibrahim 66n, 112 political economy, of colonial India Rai, Lala Lajpat 83 19–20, 132, 154, 161, 163 railways 133, 137, 138, 172 political parties, financing of 21 Raj, K.N. 170 Pollock, Sheldon 267 Rajagopalachari, C. 54, 58, 64, 72n, poppy cultivation 198 73n, 88 population growth, rate of Bombay Rajput princes, merchant commu- and Calcutta 137 nities and 212 Portland Cement 143 Rajputs 189, 195 Porwals, from Rajasthan 194 Ranade, M.G. 12 post-war boom 5 Rani Sati, cult of in Rajasthan 207, Pouchepadass, Jacques xi 219n poverty 176, 189 Ravenstein, E.G. 189 power, ‘commercialization’ of 21–2 Ray, P.C. 144 Prasad, Rajendra 15, 29 Ray, Rajat 62, 196, 257 pre-Independence period, Congress Ray, Satyajit 177 Party and business in 3–22 Raychaudhuri, Tapan 254 Presidency Banks Act of 1876 172 reforms of 1935 34, 35 princely states, absence of income tax Reifeld, Helmut xi in 173 religion/‘religious’ private ‘monopolies’, state-financial community consciousness 7 support to 21 composition of merchant popula- private sector, growth of 14, 15, 162 tion 225–6, 228 profit-maximization firms 153, 154 reform movements 76 prohibition 35, 69n heterogeneous 77 protectionist policy 5 remittances, from Bengal and Bombay provinces/provincial presidencies 173 autonomy 26, 29, 34–8 revenue collection, merchants and 21, governance 7 191 revenue, sources of 27, 34 Revolt of 1857 172, 173, 212 public sector, growth of 162 rice trade, Muslims in 112, 114 Pune bankers 266 Robb, Peter xi, 262 Punjab Roghay, Muhammad Ali 98n demand for partition of 101n Roscoe, Robert 156–7 Hindu communalist views in 83 Roy, B.C. 32 invasion by Ahmad Shah Abdali Roy, Tirthankar 264 114 Roychand, Premchand 143 INDEX 289 rural sector Sindhi Bhatias, trading in Oman Congress policy on 17 236 development of 43, 62–3 Sindhi Khojas, merchant network in urban linkages with 63 Muscat 238 Russian Revolution 205 Sindworkie community 228, 230, 232, 239, 242, 245, 246 Saha, Hiranand 192 Singh, Vikramjit 66n Saklatvala, S.D. 32 Singhania, Lal Padampat 32, 45, 46, sales tax 58, 59 49 Sangh Parivar 180 Sisson, Richard x, 3n Sarabhai, Ambalal 6 small industries 17 Sarabhai group, in Ahmedabad 140 Smith, W.C. 75, 76, 79 Sarkar, Nalini Ranjan 32, 85 Sobhani, Umar 112 Sarkar, Sumit 258 ‘social economy’, of merchant Sassoon, E.D. 146 networks 209–10 Sayid, Sultan 229 socialists 15, 64 Scindia of Gwalior 121 anti-capitalist commitment of 11 Scots, in Calcutta 146–7 demands of 15 Seal, Anil x South Africa, Indian trading popula- Sen, A.K. 153 tion in 231–4 Servants of India Society 50, 178 South Asia ‘service’ activities 178–9 Indians in textile trade 248 Sethia, Madhu Tandon 265 Muslim business in (1900– shari’a 118 50) 105–25 Sharma, G.D. 192 trading networks in 234–40 Shi’a Islam 113, 195 South Asian diaspora 220 Shi’a group 117, 192 Soviet Union Shikarpuris 244, 251n centrally planned economy in 14 shroffs banking network 238 Five Year Plans in 14 Shravaks, in Rajasthan 194 influence of 14 Shri Ram, Lala 88, 89 Srivastava, J.P. 32, 45, 56 shudra caste 11 Srivastava, Kailash 66n Siddiqi, Asiya 144 steel Sikhism 195 industry in Jamshedpur 138 Sind 107, 189 production at Tisco 144 Congress victory in 33 trade in, from Bombay 143 diaspora from 238 Steel Industry Protection Act of migration from 229 1942 160 networks in 208, 236 Steel Protection Bill 160 separation from Bombay Presidency Stein, Burton xi, 152n, 170, 171, 86 188, 262, 268 Sind Encumbered Estates Act 245 Sterling companies, capital for 138 Sindhi Associations 240 Stock Exchange 143 290 INDEX Straits Settlements, Indian traders Tata, Dorab 159, 162 in 230, 249n Tata, J.N. 155, 157, 158, 159, strikes 52, 53 164n Subedar, Manu 72n Tata, J.R.D. 15, 162 Subramanian, Lakshmi 261 Tata, Naval 162 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay xi, xii, 152n Tata, R.D. 157 Suez route 133, 134 Tata, Ratan 162 sugar Tatas ix, x, 8, 144, 146 in Bombay 131 in Bihar 53, 60 in Calcutta 143 China trade and 157 Muslims in 112 and Congress 162 sugar industry FICCI and 49 overproduction crisis in 37 financial practices of 156 policy in Bihar 42, 68n labour policy of 156 trade in Bombay 131 marketing network of 156 Sugar Syndicate 42 relationship with colonial state Suhrawardy, H.S. 91, 92, 101n 155, 158–60 Sultan, Tipu, policies of 22 Tata Airlines 161 Sunni Muslims Tata Conglomeration 158 in business 113 Tata Construction 158 trading networks of 192, 236 Tata cotton mills 160 Surat, merchant diaspora from 229 TELCO 161, 162 Swadeshi Tata Iron and Steel Co. (TISCO) companies 54–5 138, 152, 155–9 goods, government policy on 42 formation of 164n movement (1904–7) 5, 12, 121, monopoly position of 160 143, 144, 159 orders from railways 165n Swaraj Party 160 steel production at 144 and Indian businessmen 6 Tata paradox 152–63 Swatantra Party 162 tax/taxation forms of 16, 17 Tabatabai, Ghulam Hussain 261 as instrument of social change 17 Tagore, Dwarkanath 145 law 173 Tamil Nadu levy of, in United Provinces Brahmin and non-Brahmin middle 56–7 class in 175 tea companies 138, 203 financial enterprises of Nattukottai technical education 12 Chettiars in 175 Teggart, Charles 219n migration of merchants from 228 telegraph 211, 243 networks in 236 Tenancy Bill of 1939 63 , from India in Ceylon 249n textile industry 157, 172 tariff boards 165n in Bombay Presidency 59 tariffs 14, 160 crisis in 1939 59, 60 INDEX 291 strikes in 9 Unionist Party, government in Punjab standardization of wages in 47 83, 84 Textile Labour Enquiry United Provinces Committee 46–7, 59 budget presentation in 43, 56 Thakurdas, Purshottamdas x, 15, 44, businessmen on financial policies 65n, 66n 57 Thorner, Alice xi, xii capitalists and industrial workers Tilak Swaraj Fund 6 in 46 Timberg, Thomas 199, 201, 209, Congress and 30, 44, 48 255 Cow Protection agitation in 77 Tomlinson, T. 153 crisis in sugar industry 42 trade/trading communities 234 labour disturbances in 39 by Indians outside India 222–3, Muslim separatism in 86 225 opposition to Congress ministry and ‘middlemen’ abroad 246–7 in 64 migrations by Indians 229–34, political division among 32 245–8 radical populism in 64 monopoly, abolition of in recognition of Mazdoor Sabha 1833 182n 53 negotiations between India and United Provinces Congress Com- Britain 44 mittee 69n networks ix, 235 United Provinces Chamber of Com- and politics 262 merce 32 role in Cow Protection United Provinces Merchants’ Agitation 77 Chamber 63 see also merchants Upper India Chamber of Commerce trade unions 10, 18, 36, 40, 41, 50, 32 54, 68n Tripathi, Dwijendra xi, 255 Vacha, Dorabji Maneckji 242 ‘trusteeship’, Gandhi’s theory of 10 Valika Muslims, as business elite Tyabji, Shalebhoy 112 113 Tyabji brothers 98n Vanias, from Gujarat 194, 237 Tyabji family, of Bombay 122 ‘Victorian’ values, in Britain 177, Tyabji Muslims, as business elites 179 113 Visvesvaraya, M. 14

Uganda waderos (Muslim landowners) 190 Hindu migration to 225 Walliullah, Shah 114, 123 Indian migration to 222 wartime restrictions 89 Kutchi Lohanas as traders in 236 Washbrook, David 245, 259 Union Bank, crisis in 145 Wavell, Lord 69n Union Powers Committee, report of western-educated middle class 4, 168, 95 170 292 INDEX wheat Wright, Theodore 117 increase in exports 135 Muslims in trade 112 Yang, Anand 203, 260, 262, 263 Wolpert, Stanley x, 3n Yule, A. 146 working class movement Young Party 85 birth of 13 zamindars, wealth of 8 and nationalist struggle 9 Zanzibar World War, First, impact on Indian Kutchi Bhatias as financiers in slave business class 5 trade 236 merchants migration to 223 World War, Second, impact on migration of Muslims to 226 Calcutta 141 Sultan of 230