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The Routledge Handbook of Religion and Cities

Katie Day, Elise M. Edwards

Ethnographic approaches

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429351181-4 István Keul Published online on: 31 Dec 2020

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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 frameworks, andshiftsoffocusthatoftenoccurasa anotherexampleofthetransformations tial objective intoanumber oflooselyconnectedresearch hasmorphed questionsandthematic than five years andnumerous into thefieldlater, incursions this(over-) ini- confidentlyasserted andrelations. ofneighborly structures totheforging contributed factors which religious More that—given thiscity’s diversity—it uniquereligious was theidealsetting tostudytheways in Delineating thescopeofmy plannedresearch inthelargerproject application, Iemphasized mutual perception andeveryday interactionsofresidents inselectedMumbai neighborhoods. identities, geographies, and histories.” multiplicity andrelationality;“sites ofdistributed embeddingseveral ofpracticesandtrajectories settingsinMumbai,various theprojecttoongoingbroader contributes discussions ofcitiesas focus onthedynamicsofcompositespaces, constellationsandinteractionsin onsocio-religious cable way of dealing with the city’s and increasing diversity. continuous transformation With its ticular, zooming in on selected, much more spaces seemed a practi- limited socio-geographic dynamicsofmajorSouth to thesocio-religious Asian citiesingeneral, andofMumbaiinpar- orgroups asclear-cutentities.religions And, given thedifficulties ofacomprehensive approach focusing on places and movements, aiming to avoid homogenization of different an unnecessary groups or communities.clearly delineated religious Instead, they applied a spatial perspective, extentalsoinnovative,and toacertain inthat they didnotinvestigate characteristic specific, Contextual cosmopolitanisms religious inMumbai so expansive anddiverse thatthey are “by nature impossible tofullyunderstand.” plexed—are through striving questionsandlabor”“ethnographic tomake somesenseofplaces world inresidentsalike. andvisitors includesresearchers who—equallyper- The lattercategory inducedby citiesfrom ofthe aboutthefeelingsofbafflementanddisorientation thatpart write EthnographyIn aspecialissueofthejournal onSouth Asian cities, Ajay GandhiandLotteHoek porary aspects of religion inMumbai. aspectsofreligion porary sciences, andSouth Asian studies), Ihave beeninvolved inaresearch contem- project exploring with colleaguesfrom disciplines(thestudyofreligions, various anthropology, sociology, political and mostculturallydiverse cities, (until1995: Bombay). For thepastfive years, together premise appliesalsotomostofuswhoengageinstudyingonetheworld’sdescribed largest In my own subproject Iinitiallyproposed toinquire intotherole inthe ofreligion ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACHES 3 2 The subprojects inthisendeavor shared animportant, Introduction István Keul 3 35 1 This aptly This Ethnographic approachesEthnographic Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 spectacularly growing to566,000in1849and816,0001862. continued torise, from 113,000in1780to162,000 in 1826and236,0001836, andthen to increased influx ofpopulation. work and further opportunities The number of inhabitants inland Indiaandthearea around theIndianOceanandPersian Gulf, decisively contributing commerce inthearea intensifiedanddeveloped intonetworks thatextendedtokingdomsin in 1661thecity’s populationrose to60,000already by 1675. custom into the area, along with Jews, more Zoroastrians, and Jains. From an estimated 10,000 Hindu andMuslimcommunities distinguishedby origin, geographical language, andreligious affiliation.or religious This was pointofalongdevelopment thestarting thatbrought many nities totheislandsandpromising themequalitybefore thelaw regardless ofethno-linguistic decisively shapedtheearlydevelopment ofthecitybycommu- attractingtradingandartisan the EastIndiaCompany. Gerald Aungier, theGovernor ofBombay from 1669until 1677, ofBraganza,Catharina receiving theislands asdowry andleasingthemseven years laterto tion toRomanCatholicism. thePortuguese Infanta In1661CharlesIIofEnglandmarried civil authorities, Jesuits and Franciscans built churches and converted of the popula- parts Portuguese families. Inthesecondhalfofsixteenth century, ofthe andwiththesupport (merchant communities), aswell asKonkani Muslims(Naitias), Parsi Zoroastrians, andafew nities), (toddytappers), KunbisBhandaris (agriculturists), Prabhus(accountants)andBanias commumentions among the - inhabitants of the area the Hindu Kolis (fishing and farming herbalist Garcia daOrta, whofrom 1555onwards lived forsometimeononeofthe islands, aftertheyers tookcontrol (today’s ofBasseinfort Vasai). The Sephardi Jewish physician and later, Bahadur Shah, of , the Muslim ruler ceded the islands to the European invad- natural harbors (inPortuguese:natural harbors bombaí When in 1509 the Portuguese raided villages on the grove-covered first deep islets that formed complexity fromonwards. thesixteenthcentury (andinevitably withavery incomplete)introduction brief I begin toMumbai’s socio-religious tothediversificationthe circumstances inthefieldthatcontributed oftheproject’s objectives, direct consequenceoffieldwork dynamics. Before elaborating onthestagesofmy research and they encountered fisherfolk, andcoconut farmers, andsmalltraders. rice Bombay isimpressive, ethnic, regional, religious, andoccupationaldiversity inthesecondhalfofnineteenth-century fromthousands ofmigrants theDeccan, , andtheUnitedProvinces. of The spectrum grew rapidly, cotton-spinningmillin1854thecottonindustry ment ofthefirst attracting addition to the various groupsalreadyaddition tothe various mentioned, Mumbaiisalsohome toalargenumber ing classnorthesocialgroups inbetween have beenmonolingualormonoreligious. Today, in Importantly, asseenearlier, ofsocialclass, interms neither thefinancialelitesnorwork- Hindi- andUrdu-speaking farmers, aswell asSindhis, Nepalis, andPathans from theNorth. into itsethno-linguisticandcultural fabric: Tamils, , Konkanis, Malayalis from theSouth; had been born inBombay.had beenborn ofthetwentiethmillion inhabitantsaround theturn century, onlylittlemore thanaquarter tailors, andbarbers. mill workers, domesticservants, artisans, cultivators, suchasgrocers, andsmalltraders peddlers, mercantile groupsfrom Gujarat; Marathi-, Gujarati-, Hindi-, andUrdu-speaking laborersand tration, military, andeducationprofessions; Parsi, Hindu, Jain, andMuslim(BohraKhoja) Over thenextdecades, continued tofuelthe city’s immigration growth. Ofthealmostone From “ From 7 includingasmalllayer and other Europeans intheadminis- ofBritish 8 People inthecityandblended from ofIndiaarrived every corner ía” ba(h) Bom to Bombay to Mumbai a , “good bay”) andlaterbecameknown asBombay, István Keul 36 5 Over time, relations oftradeand 6 Following theestablish- 4 Twenty-fiveyears Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 an ethnically–culturallycleansedcity. ofBombay’sattempt toerasethememory culturaldiversity, initssubtexttheimageof carrying indigenous designation, therenaming ofBombay intoMumbaiwas perceived by many asan languages, by inadditiontobeingthereplacement ofanameassociatedwithcolonialrule an the timebefore theadvent ofthe Portuguese. Inusealready earlierintheMarathiandGujarati direct reference to the local female deity Mumba, worshiped in the region’s fishing villages since , andBombay was renamed asMumbai. The new officialnamewas meanttobea coalition(together withtheBharatiya oftheruling Sena becamepart Janata Party, BJP)in two ofthecity, monthslaterindifferent parts hadlong-lasting reverberations. In1995theShiv mosquein Babri Ayodhya. These events, bombingsthattookplace serial andtheretaliatory ofthe and anti-MuslimviolenceofDecember1992January 1993afterthedestruction militant attemptatethnicizationandHinduizationplayed amajorrole inthemassive riots to Hindutva, Hindunationalism, aimednotonlyagainstMuslimsbut alsoBuddhistDalits. This the fight against the influence of socialist ideas in the labor unions, and a strong commitment or Malayali street vendors) was paired withintensesocialactivities ontheneighborhoodlevel, (directed lateralsoagainstHindi-speakingcabdrivers,This Maharashtrianism Sikhbusinessmen, working asclerksandinlower and commercial sectors. managementpositionsintheindustrial tunities fortheMarathi-speakingpopulation, of targetingthelargenumbers Tamils whowere ethnicization of the city. monoculturalism, playing asan process amajorrole thathasbeendescribed inahistorical Shiv Sena(“Shivaji’s aggressivelyArmy”) propagated linguistic, atfirst andlateralsoreligious, the seventeenth-century Chhatrapati Shivaji ruler Bhonsle, politicalparty the regional areas remainedrural economicrefugees living inslums. Founded in1966, andnamedafter the difficulteconomicsituationinlate1960s. from Indian Immigrants SouthandNorth city becomingthecapitalofMaharashtra), andtheongoingmassiveto contributed migration ments afterPartition, thereorganization oftheIndianstatesaccording tolanguage(withthe nial period, Hindu–Muslim conflictsandriots, especiallyfrom 1893onwards andthroughout thelatecolo- history. activities, missionary Protests againstChristian Parsi–Muslim conflicts, of aseries center oftheParsi Zoroastrians. of Buddhists.Ambedkarite The Catholicpopulationremains strong, andMumbaiisthemain phy of a Pentecostal university town group in a South German in the early 1990s, Iembarked inurbancontexts.partly) - ethnogra studenttoasociological asagraduate After contributing my own previous explorations too, ethnographic some of which were situated (entirely or fieldwork sites, onspecificreligious movements, groups, orinstitutions. This was thecasewith at thetime. Inthestudy ofreligions, anthropologically often focusintheir mindedscholars that provides urbanlifeinamultilayered, insightsintocontemporary multi-religious society.” neighborhood relations. as The plannedstudywas described “a comparative urbanethnography multi-religious dwelling, ofeveryday cultural forms peace, andtherole in complex of religion related aspects: ofcross-religious communication, patterns of theperception ofopportunities dynamics.” Research ontheseculturallydiverse spaceswas tobeundertaken underseveral ject targetedselectedmulti-religious neighborhoodsas “composite spacesofsocio-religious As statedintheapplicationsubmittedtoResearch CouncilofNorway, my proposed pro- Tensions between communities ethnicorreligious were various notabsentfrom Mumbai’s This kindofapproach phenomenainurbanenvironments toreligious was quitenew tome 9 were amongthemostnotable instances. Complexeconomicandpoliticaldevelop- In the field in the city: stages of research stages of In inthecity: thefield 10 The party’s initial agenda was to secure jobs and economic oppor- Ethnographic approaches 37 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 topics that were later added to the list of themes to beincludedin interviews. And, whenever it touched on all these points,tors and with some of them I talked about other topics as well, perception oftheneighborhood, and theirinteractionswithotherresidents. Notallinterlocu- their biographies, history, family occupations, aspirationsfor themselves andtheirchildren, their (ethnically, linguistically, religiously, socially)diverse neighborhoodsaboutallkindsofthings: I was interested in the contexts inwhichitwould surface. Italked withresidents inculturally ing aboutreligion, hopingthatatsomepointorother thetopicwould comeup, and, ifitdid, site.gious to avoid I tried for as long as possible explicitly cueing my into speak- interlocutors direct questions about religion, except perhaps in caseswhen conversations took placeat a reli- initial stagesofmy exchangeswithresidents inMumbaineighborhoods respective areas, includingmany conversations inmy interlocutors’ homes. tions ofmixed-religious dwelling. All thisledtonumerous interactionswithresidents ofthe (shops, parks, tea-stalls, sites)makingcontactsandaimingformore religious thorough explora- buildings, walked repeatedly through areas ofpotentialinterest, spenttimein selectedplaces Research of the city evolved in different parts gradually: I stayed in rented rooms in residential first, interactions, theninformal observations, conversations, lengths. ofvarious andinterviews (and intense)explorationsoftheseareas followed, methodsofinquiry applyingpedestrian on detailedarea mapsgave ontheground. anindicationforwhere tolookfurther Extensive books were helpful, too: therangeandspatialconstellationsofplacesworship represented of timesbefore andwas aware ofpotentialfieldsites. andguide- andprinted) Maps(virtual Locating mixed-religious areas inMumbaiwas nottoodifficult. Ihadbeeninthecityanumber toidentifyrelevantfirst neighborhoodswhere research was potentiallymeaningfulandpossible. andtrust,port interviews, conductingpreliminary refining research questions, etc.), Ineeded fields and a potential pool of research (establishingwith clearly circumscribed rap- participants contextualization ofthephenomenatobestudied. the project onmulti-religious dwelling inMumbaipaidmuch more attentionto theurban tioned urbancontextsdoesnotalways ofurbanethnography, fitthisdescription from theoutset, deserve specialattention. While thefieldwork Ihadpreviously conductedintheaforemen- city. Ithasbeenstatedinthespecializedliterature potential sitesandconversation partners, below. asdescribed able consequencesespeciallyfortheinitialstagesofresearch, neededtoidentify inwhichIfirst endeavors inurbancontexts, was missinginmy mostrecent work inMumbai, withconsider- focus onrelatively clearlydelineatedobjectives, acommondenominatorinprevious research tions, was based on urban fieldwork partly in , Hamburg, and, once again, Varanasi. This in private homes. Another project, aimedatthe Yogini- transforma cultanditscontemporary sites,mentation ofreligious andnumerous attemplesand withmembers open-endedinterviews included repeated stays in Tokyo andMumbai, events, observation atreligious participant docu- components.sociological An ongoing, study of two new long-term movements religious in Asia cityof pilgrimage Varanasi. The resulting hasdistinctethnographic, monograph historical, and on anextensive, multi-methodic project ontheworship oftheHindudeityHanuman inthe heterogeneity, largesize, highdensity, anonymity, inequality, andinterdependency. interlocutors, nature andspecificconditionssuchas(hyper-) includingitschanging diversity/ work inothersettingsby therecognition ofurbanlifefortheresearchers’ oftheimportance urban situatedness of religious life-worldsurban situatednessofreligious offaith”) (“topographies incitiestherelationship study ofreligions nographic between urbanityandreligion, andthe In the course of the first weeks of thefirst In thecourse of fieldwork changed. mygradually focus ofinquiry Inthe Before starting the Before starting “actual” work, withinprevious Iusedtobegin urbanprojects thepart Another observation concerns theproblematizationAnother observation concerns of therelationship between and religion István Keul 38 11 thaturbanethnography isdistinguishedfrom 13 play role animportant and 15 Ididnotinclude 12 Intheeth- 14 at Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 situated individual epistemologies. relationality, andtheways inwhichthey were embeddedinongoingsituative processes and in otherwords, acloserlookatselectedindividual of variants “Mumbai cosmopolitanism,” their into the self-positioning of individuals in specific mixed-cultural urban settings of Mumbai; or, dynamics andramificationsinlaterstagesofmy research. Oneoftheoutcomeswas aninquiry kindsandintensitylevelsand interactionsofvarious proved fruitful, andgeneratedtheirown addressing cross-cultural communication, theperception ofandreactions toculturaldifference, from ethnic, cultural, andlinguisticgroupsdifferent religious from theirown. These questions culturally different others, andtheextenttowhichthey engagewithneighborhoodresidents more generallyperceive theirculturallydiverse surroundings, attheiropenness inrelation to day multiculturalism. potentialitiesofintercultural perceptionwide-ranging andencounters, andthefieldofevery- areas, incomplexneighborly relations tothemore factors ofreligious andtheimportance perceptiontion shiftedfromandcommunication inculturallymultilayered interreligious urban my work. werespaces) withexplicitconnectionstoreligion very much relevant, but notthemainfocus was intoconversation opportune—made topics. All inall, itcan besaidthatspaces(andmicro- (house shrines, paraphernalia, religious connotations)were—whenever withreligious art this spaces inprivate homesthatwere eitherdedicatedorcouldbesomehow connectedtoreligion tothescene.rushed There were numerous othersuchandsimilarsituations. Issuesrelated tothe of thecarpark, withthebuilding committeesubsequentlydecidingonhaving itremoved, I employeddrivers by theresidents inthebuilding hadsetupanimageofadeityonthewall document thesite. how aconversation described When during somebodyliving inahigh-rise demolished by thecity administration andsoonafterwards re-established, partially Iwent to rolethathadbeenrecently an important inestablishing andmaintaininganeighborhoodshrine me around there, I happily agreed. playedWhen another interlocutor mentioned that his father from of his daily routine,noon at the Irani mosque not far his home as part and offered to show masses. Moreover, forexample, whenaretired schoolteachertoldmethatheprayed every after- temples onleisurely afternoons, orby beingapproached churchgoers afterevening by curious shrines, dargahs, mosques, orchurches. Contactswere alsomadesippingteawithdevotees at in multilayeredtors social spaces. At the same time, this does not mean that I avoided temples, mayat spatialconstellationsinwhichreligion - beoneofmany offac variables intheinterplay in Mumbai, insteadtocover trying awiderrangeofplacesinstreet orneighborhood, looking andreligiosity.religion came upintheflow ofourconversations, anditoftendid, we discussedabouttheinterlocutors’ and religion, withGujarati, Maharashtrian, andSouth Indianresidents, HindusandMuslims, were quicktopointouthow diverse theneighborhood was whenitcame tolanguage, ­ a templecompound. We upaconversation struck aboutthesiteandarea around it, andthey across three middle-aged women onabenchchattinginthespaciouscourtyard ofaschoolnear in December2014. ofthecity, part a neighborhoodinthesouthern While exploring Icame actions withresidents. Inmy case, timeintheearly stagesoffieldwork, ithappened forthefirst research are likely toencountertheterm “cosmopolitanism” (or “cosmopolitan”) intheirinter- At somepointorotheroftheirwork inthecity, thoseengagedinMumbai-related cultural As aconsequenceofthisapproach, thescopeofmy becamebroader. inquiry Myatten- the initial phase of fieldwork during sites wereReligious again not something I prioritized 16 New research questionswere aimedattheways inwhichindividuals Cosmopolitanism inMumbai 17 Ethnographic approaches 39 ethnicity, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 between communities, religious Mumbai’s cosmopolitanismsurvives, both 1993, orthetrainbombingsby Muslimradicalsin2006, tomistrust allofwhichcontributed faiths. geography,” withits “dazzlingly diverse” population, languages, itsmyriad andmany different and Delhi, Mumbai “flaunts itsimageasacosmopolitanmetropolis by transcendingitsregional ness andunlimitedpossibilities.” Unlike othermajor IndiancitiessuchasKolkata, Chennai, thecityhasbeenelicitingforalongtime,and fascination withits “promise ofexcitingnew- In theopeningchapterofhisMumbaiFables, theemotionalresonance Gyan Prakashdescribes intercultural contact.” Enlightenment Europe,” but with “cultural co-existence, thepositive valuation ofmixture and cultivation, universalism, linked in orwiththeidealsofglobalism whichitishistorically called “Mumbai’s self-governing cliché” by Arjun Appadurai, usuallynotassociatedwith “self- ofthecity’sback tothevery beginning history. modern inthecity’s Ingrained culture, itwas withthisdifference.skills fornotonlyacknowledging but alsoengaging attitudewithregardcertain todiversity anddifference, andalsoperhapsofpossessingaset tures, languages, customs, cuisines, religions. Inotherwords, itseemedtobeanexpression ofa by conviviality,characterized open-mindedness, awareness oftheotherresidents’ different cul- clear whatsheimpliedby this, thattheneighborhoodwas namelythefact culturallydiverse, “Yes, we are quitecosmopolitanhere.” ofourconversation Inthecourse became itgradually Christians, Jains, andParsis. At somepoint, oneofthewomen casuallyremarked (inEnglish): through inmuch ofwhatmy pastsandabouttheir saidabouttheir biographical interlocutors other cases, even whennotexpressly uttered, thissameideaof cultural opennesswas showing or whenthey talked abouttheirpersonal, affirmative attitude withrelation tothisdiversity. In diversityin connection with the linguistic and religious of these residents’ social environments, tion “cosmopolitan” cameupquitefrequently, inanadjectival, adverbial, orsubstantival form, years withresidents neighborhoodsacross ofvarious SouthandCentral Mumbai, thedesigna- of Bombay.” from thatitiscosmopolitan,”fact inthecity—anarticle oftheterm occurrence andcites—forafirst ologists. Nareshstatesthat Fernandes Bombay“[a]mong thetruths holdstobe self-evident isthe nary, diagnoses provided inspiteofoftensobering writers, by contemporary historians, or soci- diversity,religious integral, seemstobeanimportant - lastingcomponentofsuchalargerimagi picture. The ideaofMumbaiasthecosmopolitanIndiancity, ofethnicand withalonghistory myths andnarratives from distantornot-so-distantpastsbecomemosaicstonesinthelarger one loves andcares products aboutare toalargepart ofcreative imaginative processes inwhich itself asaprogressive, cosmopolitanmetropolis.” and class[…], enclaves Bombay’s andexclusionthatundermine ofprivilege deep-seatedideaof […]theemergenceofnew islands,is experiencing definedby whoseedgesare religion sharply island city, of the erstwhile After highlighting selected aspects of the history he writes: “Bombay tion, themonoculturaltendencies, thathave andthevegetarianization affectedMumbailately. As outlinedearlier, theroots ofthisMumbaibrandcosmopolitanismare strong, reaching And still, onmany theideapersists levels. Ina number of conversations Ihadover thepast Olympian philosophy oflife. ferent communities, languagesandreligions, even ifthispracticedoesnotascendtoan observe theliving presence ofthecity’s asaplaceofinteractionsbetween history dif- as a powerful and an aspiration. memory On the streets and in everyday life, you can The Times ofIndiafrom 1878, whichdescribes Afghans visiting “the cosmopolitanbazaars 20 Prakash and other authors strongly connected with Mumbai describe how strongly Prakashandotherauthors thecities connectedwithMumbaidescribe 21 Inlaterchapters, reflects Fernandes onthealienation, re-islandization, ghettoiza- 18 Despitetheactivities oftheShiv Sena, theanti-Muslimviolencein 19 István Keul 40 22

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 milieus are more cosmopolitanthanothers.” including all its residents, is cosmopolitan. It is social anthropologist Pnina Werbner states, correctly “it cannotever besaidthatawholecity, with theirown “pragmatics ofliving withdifference” situated intheirown discursive contexts. The following voices ofresidents ofMumbai, each wasencounters thattheseinstancesofcosmopolitanismneededtobeproperly qualifiedand imagination, memory, orutopianaspiration. However, many whatalsobecameclearduring of Mumbai’s opennessonanindividual level ismore thanamere reflex andexpression ofan selected multi-religious areas ofthecityledmetothinkthat, ontheonehand, thisreiteration cosmopolitan theirneighborhoodwas. Similarconversations inlaterstagesofmy fieldwork in difference.religious all differwhenitcomestotheextentwhichthey are aware of or appreciate culturaland city, thesewere ofavernacularcosmopolitanism articulations day-to-day lives. To alesserextentexpressions ofacosmopolitanvisionencompassinganentire The protagonist ofmy vignetteisalifecounselorandastrologer. first tings, serve toillustratemy point. Shani (adeitymythologically connected toHanuman), andthen enthusiasticallyplayed onhis my previous research onHanuman worship—he recited first adevotional textdedicated to those affected. Another relevant momentinourconversation about was when—afterhearing abasic income to ted tohelpingHIVpatientsby projects organizingvarious aimedatsecuring relations. tenantlivingThen hetalked next door, abouthisChristian asocialworker commit- everyday lives were by mutual understanding, characterized andclosebusiness andpersonal there werethat normally noproblems between theneighborhood’s HindusandMuslims, whose acquaintances. Hepointedoutthat the 1993conflictwas inhisopinionfullyorchestrated, and those same events,adjacent Muslim neighborhood during accompanied by one of hisMuslim the1993riots. invivid detailhissafepassagethroughtemples during Healsodescribed the cumstances—for example, whenJewish residents protected oneofthearea’s prominent Hindu co-operation,religious inratherbanal, someofwhichoccurred inmore others exceptionalcir- eachotheronmany differentsupported occasions. Hewent ontorecount episodesofinter- were many different kindsofpeople living together inthisneighborhood, hesaid, andthey all prevalent atmosphere inhisneighborhood. Iasked himtoelaborateonwhathemeant. There residents, whenheusedtheEnglishterm “cosmopolitan” the inaHindisentencetodescribe had hisofficeformore than30 years, anarea withMuslim, Hindu, Jain, Christian, andJewish forwhathehadachievedgrateful forhimselfandhisfamily. tion. Inhisearly60sat the timeofourconversations, he was stillenjoying hiswork andwas offour, hisfamily only able tosupport but alsomanagedtopay forhischildren’s collegeeduca- stagesofhistraining.the various Hequicklybuilt areputation inhisnew career andwas not problems. onthewall certificates ofhissmallofficedocumented Frameddiplomasandcourse seeing anastrologer, andmake anddecidedthentotry aliving by solve helpingothers theirlife that time, atanexistentialcrossroads. Hesoughtandfoundhelp, improvement experienced after extremely unhappy events inhislifeleftmy interlocutor, whowas working asanaccountantat atleastthree times, tograndson from grandfather leaving outtherespective fathers. of A series tion, astrology, forgenerations, family hasbeeninthisMaharashtrian having beenpassedon The women onthebenchallnoddedapprovingly when one ofthempointed outhow We were talkingabouteveryday lifeintheSouth-Mumbaineighborhoodwhere hehad Ethnographic approaches Two casestudies 24 As canbesaidforindividuals, Iwould add, who 41 the city that certain activities,within the city that certain sites and 25 inmulticultural, mixed-religious set- 23 ontheindividual level. As the 26 This latteroccupa- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 cosmopolitanism It was nottheuniversalizing, philosophicalperspective, but alived, sociallysituated, individual it againbecomescleartowhich discussiononcosmopolitanismthisessay aimstocontribute. parentsHindu/Zoroastrian hadnotyet decidedwhether tobaptizehimornot. tradition ingly difficult, andherotherdaughter andson-in-law hadahard timedecidingonwhich religious the problems thatcamewiththisopenness. daughterwas increas - Findingaspouseforherunmarried “cosmopolitan” herself), my interlocutorwent several timesintoapensive moodwhentalkingabout inherandhusband’s pride ing acertain fundamentallycosmopolitanattitude(sheusedtheterm to spendtheirlives toadifferent religion. withsomeonebelonging Inthiscase, too, whileexpress- shared withmethesometimesunexpected andnotalways conflict-free outcomesoftheirdecisions aCatholicandmoving toEurope. marrying daughters which tookplaceinIndiaandabroad, andledtothe unintended consequenceofoneher connected withthelifeofSaiBaba. Shethentoldmeaboutherchildren’s university education, temple inMadurai, RamanaMaharishi’s ashramin Thiruvannamalai, andtoShirdi, theplace sites: toreligious went centerUdvada, onlongertrips totheParsi pilgrimage theMinakshi were nearby. more alsoregular tothe(religiously eclectic)SaiBaba shrine visitors The family allowed toenter), and(withbothparents) HindutemplessuchasMahalakshmi andothers. They Divali. visitedParsi fireThe family temples(without theirmother, whoasanon-Parsi isnot ceremony performed, celebratedtheParsi festivals Navroz andKhordad Sal, but alsotheHindu how they grew upfollowing bothParsitraditions: andHindureligious they hadtheParsi thread our conversation socializationofthechildren, touchedonthereligious andmy hostdescribed seemed toenjoy talkingtomeover acupofteaeven day atwork. afteratiring At somepoint, visits inthecouple’s home. While Ididnothave tomeetthehusband, theopportunity hiswife careers very successfullyandraisedthree children, two atthetimeofmy ofwhomwere married opposed this union, did not object at all. while the fathers their professionalThe couple pursued inlovefallen heruniversity studies. during Interestingly, andasasidenote, initially themothers Mumbai. uncommon incontemporary mixed-religious or interfaith marriages into the picture,mixed-religious marriages or interfaith an “embodied cosmopolitanism” asitattemptstoinclude look atthesecondselectedcasecomplicatesthingsalittleinsofar brief characterization. tothispoint(andourastrologer) Iwillreturn inamoment. Before that, a politan claims, aninstabilitythat in most cases played out incomplexways and eludessimple constellationsofintercultural encounters,in certain andthepotentialinstabilityofcosmo- reason formy inclusionofboththesecasesin this essay: namelythemomentsofuncertainty linguistic groups. Gradually, Ibecameaware ofanotherpointworth pursuing, thisbeingalsothe extent oftheirengagementwithpeoplewhobelongedtootherethnic, cultural, religious, or ferent surroundings, theiropennessinrelation different toreligiously/culturally others, andthe nowwith interlocutors regularly includedquestionsregarding theirperception ofculturallydif- directions of my had already considerably inquiry broadened but were still evolving. Interactions band ShantiPeople. to thesimiandeity, by agroupIlateridentifiedastheUkrainianelectronic performed music mobile phonearatherunusual-sounding YouTube videoofthemostpopularprayer dedicated examples of “actually existingcosmopolitanism,” Reflecting onthisconversation onother similaroccasions), (andonlifesituationsdescribed theyears offieldworkDuring inMumbai, couplesthat largenumber ofinterfaith Imetafairly manwithwhomshehad aParsiIn the1980sayoung Zoroastrian Hinduwoman married My conversations with the astrologer took place atalaterstageofmy research, whenthe their sonshouldfollow: three monthsoldatthetimeofourconversation, theCatholic- 28 that became the focus of my attention during fieldwork thatbecamethefocusofmy inMumbai, attentionduring with István Keul 42 29 additionallymarked by theemicuseof 27 not Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 he agreed withmostoftheparty’she agreed program. Sena’s record inthepastdecades, hesaid did notcondonetheviolencecommitted, but that he was would hopingthattheparty stay in power foralongtime. LookingbackattheShiv was andavery goodthingthatthecityadministrationwas by important run theShiv Sena, and that, while thelocalpoliticalrepresentative from Party was theCongress doingagoodjob, it presentation oftheMaratharuler, Chhatrapati Shivaji, textbooks. inhistory Helaterremarked subjectin schools,Marathi acompulsory andalsotheproposal toincludeamore comprehensive both ineducationandpublic life. the move Hegreeted by theMaharashtra government tomake language inschools, emphasizingthe needtoincrease therole language, oftheregional Marathi, ment. At thesametime, ofthe ever-growing hewas highlycritical oftheEnglish importance togettingagoodemploy contributed - Englishmostcertainly interlocutor saidthatlearning education. One of them went to a school where the language of teaching was English, and my faiths,tan stancewithregard todiffering toresidents belonging we spoke abouthischildren’s phere inhisneighborhood, andanecdoteshiscosmopoli- andafterheillustratedwithstories thingsingeneral. material cultural educationandaproper work ethic. They alsohadaratherstrong fixationonmoney and many studentswithalow-caste background hadcharacterflaws, shesaid, inadditiontolacking them forconsultations, makingitalmostimpossible toestablish apatientbaseandsoon. But as lawyers, they didnothave clients; andinmedicalprofessions, patientswere hesitanttovisit finding ajob, andwhen they foundemployment, they encountered considerable difficulties: her workplace. Low-caste and Dalit students, if they finished their studies at all, had a hard time a lower castewas out as well, ruled herstudiesandat during basedonprevious experiences inquestionishalfHindu.down thatthegirl someonefrom thephonewhenhehears Marrying was choice.Parsi girl notthefirst Shewent onsaying that, similarly, aParsi immediatelyputs Hindus, whileMuslimswere nooptionatall. However, forHindus—she said—aParsi orhalf- ing forahusbandherdaughter, theonlyrealistic targetgroupswere liberalParsis orliberal statements showing communal andcaste-related bias. Myhostpointedoutthat, whenlook- ence andcross-cultural discomfort. as well, several longconversations withmy hostrevealed bothopennesstoward culturaldiffer- andNityananda,Maharshi Sarasvati, andhere, too, theubiquitous Buddha. However, inthiscase included Zarathustra, theHindudeitiesGanapatiandHanuman, SaiBaba, pictures ofRamana couple’s was apartment lessartistic, but ittooreflected thefamily’s cosmopolitanism. religious It laborator andsuccessor, “brought backfrom Auroville”). intheParsi-Hindu The houseshrine two orthree smallerGaneshastatues, oftheMother(Aurobindo’s andaframedphotograph col- representation onstainedglass(“boughtin colors inwarm Venice”), alargehandcraftedcross, (“because everybody isfinewithhim, right?” remarked themistress ofthehouse), aHoly-Spirit bookstand,placed onanartful intheimmediatevicinityofamodern, minimalistBuddhaimage complexhadonanantiquedresser intheliving roomrise Sri Aurobindo’s epicpoem “Savitri” continuum.aesthetic-religious For example, inaSouth-Mumbaihigh- oneoftheapartments in living rooms. Insomecases, theseinstancesofqualifiedcosmopolitanismswere ofan part cosmopolitanism intheartwork displayed onthewalls orinthecombinationoffurniture well-to-do residents South-Mumbaineighborhoods, in various often paired with an aesthetic ficult toperceive cosmopolitanisminthekitchensandmusic rooms inklingsofaconsumerist of of cross-cultural eclecticism. forms and tasted various with appearances, Starting it was not dif - by interlocutors.term Spendingtimeinthehomesofmany conversation partners, Iheard, saw, After having talked withtheastrologer aboutthegenerallyconflict-free andopenatmos- relationships was marital followed intothecomplexitiesofinterreligious Her excursus by Ethnographic approaches 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 and along,”“light-touch rubbing and embracingtheother’s culture, tocosmopolitanisms(contextualandotherwise), tolerance differentengagement with theculturally and religiously other. in From sharing wholeheartedly multicultural urbanenvironments elicitsmany ofindividual narratives degrees aboutthevarious andnegativemoments ofuncertainty generalization. The studyoflived culturaldifference in fore totake intoconsiderationthatopennessandshareddonotalways understanding exclude the pluralhere) andtheirrelationship identitiesandaffiliations, withreligious we needthere- unstable. Inourexplorationofthepossibilitycosmopolitanisms(andIamdeliberatelyusing stancesthatareposite personal relational andprocessual, and andcanthusappearfragmentary low-casteand of what she felt was students’ characterizing work ethic were expressions of com- politics inMumbai, andmy economy otherinterlocutor’s ofanexclusivist marriage description of thosewhoare culturallydifferent. Boththeastrologer’s ofmonocultural clearendorsement make ofappreciation statementsthatseemtorelativizepartners orcontradictearlieraffirmations value, extentatface individual cosmopolitanclaimstoacertain even whenourconversation tives on cosmopolitanism, has increased considerably over therecent decades. - perspec Attempts tosystematizethevarious social andpoliticaltheory, aswell asinarangeofacademicdisciplines(including anthropology), with residents ofSouth-Mumbaineighborhoodsover thepastfew years. prejudice, andotherstances in-between andbeyond: much ofthiswas palpable whenspeaking of ongoingsituative processes. approach tocosmopolitanism This critical view individuals’ self-positioninginmixed-cultural settingsincreasingly asrelational andaspart The studyofmulticulturalism andcosmopolitanismindifferentto contextshasledscholars “adjectival cosmopolitanisms” some ofthesestancesaseclecticorcontextualcosmopolitanismscomplementsalready existing ascompositeandfragmented,ence thatcanbedescribed relational andprocessual. Designating hoods alsorevealed attitudeswithregard tocultural(ethno-linguistic, religious, social)differ- Mumbai neighborhoods. Many otherinteractionswithresidents ofselectedMumbaineighbor- by drawing ontheemicuse oftheterms “cosmopolitan/cosmopolitanism” inmulticultural presented nuance here tothediscussionoflived, addafurther sociallysituatedcosmopolitanism ing existingapproaches androom foralternative pathsofenquiry. The two casestudiesbriefly individual cosmopolitan claims and uncertainties oranxietiesinrelationindividual toculturalotherness. cosmopolitanclaims and uncertainties ing situative by processes relationality characterized andeclecticismallows both ustointegrate and cross-cultural may discomfort seeminconsistentatfirst, approaching ofongo- them as parts tionings inmixed-cultural urbansettings. ofcultural openness While simultaneous articulations 4 3 2 1 The body of literature on cosmopolitanism is rich andcomplex.The bodyofliterature oncosmopolitanismisrich The concept’s visibilityin Delhi: Aleph,2013). Delhi: India, HarperCollins 2010)andNaresh Fernandes, City Adrift: BiographyA Short ofBombay (New overview, ofMumbaiandthefollowingFor ahistory brief seeGyan Prakash, MumbaiFables (New Washington Press, 2015), p. 160. Srinivas,Smriti APlaceforUtopia: UrbanDesignsfrom South Asia (SeattleandLondon: University of generously fundedby theResearch CouncilofNorway over offouryears (2014–2018). aperiod was initiatedby MichaelStausberg(University ofBergen), andincludedeightsubprojects, andwas The project “Dwelling andCrossing: SpacesinMumbai”The Socio-CulturalDynamicsofReligious Asian City,” Ethnography 13/1(2012): pp. 3–4. Ajay Gandhi and Lotte Hoek, “Introduction to Crowds and conviviality: of the South ethnographies 32 while numerous and useful, still leave open possibilities forrefin- 33 andwillprove useful fortheanalysisofindividuals’ self-posi- 31 Concluding remarks toreserved skepticism and andcross-religious discomfort István Keul Notes 44 30 allows ustotake Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 8

9 7 6 5

Fernandes, Fernandes, Prakash, Prakash, Arjun Appadurai, “Cosmopolitanism from Below,” TheJohannesburg Salon: Volume Four(2011):and Discontents(New p. 34. York andOxford: Berghahn, 2015). See NinaGlickSchillerand Andrew Irving, eds, Perspectives, WhoseCosmopolitanism?Critical Relationalities 2009). Amanda Wise and Selvaraj Velayutham, eds, Everyday Multiculturalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, Dimensions ofGlobalization(MinneapolisandLondon: University of MinnesotaPress, 1996), pp. 178–99. For adiscussionof “neighborhood” and “locality,” see Arjun Appadurai, atLarge: Modernity Cultural Srinivas, (Leiden andBoston: Brill, 2013). Irene Becci, Burchardt, Marian andJos é Casanova, eds, Topographies ofFaith: ReligioninUrbanSpaces into PostsecularUrbanism, eds, Helmuth Berkingetal. (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018), p. 7). Steets, “Filling the Void? PluralismandtheCity,” —Religious inReligiousPluralism andtheCity: Inquiries here 8); “a spaceforthedensificationofheterogeneous” (Helmuth Berking, Jochen Schwenk, andSilke individuals” (Louis Wirth, “Urbanism asa Way ofLife,” ofSociology 44/1(1938): Journal American pp.poses a city may be defined as a relatively 1–24, large, dense, settlement of socially heterogeneous and permanent Two examplesfordefinitionsofthecity thatincludesomeoftheseconditions: pur- “[F]or sociological York: Routledge, 2015), p. 1. See, forexample, Rivke Jaffe and Anouk Koning,Urban Anthropology (AbingdonandNew Introducing Mumbai,” Public Culture12/3(2000): pp. 627–51, here 630. See, forexample, Arjun Appadurai, “Spectral HousingandUrbanCleansing: NotesonMillennial Political Weekly 45/47(2010): pp. 63–72. Meena Menon, “Chronicle ofCommunal RiotsinBombay Presidency (1893–1945),” Economic& Govind Narayan in1863aboutthemany communities inthecity: writes Fernandes, 45. , p. CityAdrift they includedParsis, Konkani Muslims, Gujaratis, GoanCatholicsandBaghdadiJews.” In: Naresh Bombay (Delhi: Three Essays Collective, 2006). “Bombay’s were opium traders a cosmopolitan group: undertakings.of bankingandindustrial See Amar Farooqui, OpiumCity: The MakingofEarly Victorian growth. Also, considerable thebasisforanumber capitalgeneratedthrough theopiumtradeformed the Civilfor cottonduring American War were tothecity’s some ofthedecisive contributing factors Steam navigation, tradewithChina, establishment ofarailway thegradual network, andthedemand p. 31. Sharada Dwiwedi andRahulMehrotra, Bombay, theCities Within (Bombay: EminenceDesigns, 1995), the English, Portuguese, French, Greek, Dutch, Turkish, German, andChinese. Armenian castes identifiedby theeighteendifferent head-dresses. And thencomethehattedraces, including Parsi, Mussalman, Moghul, Yahudi, Israeli, Bohra, , Memon, There isnoendtodifferences withinthesecastes. andvariations Arab, Moving ontotheothercastes— Kandhari; theseare the Koli, Dhobi, Kamathi, Telangi, Kannadi, Kongadi, Ghadshi, Purbhaiya, Bangali,Shetye, Punjabi, Lavane, etcetera. Kumbhar, Lingayat, Gawli, Ghati, Mang, ,Kayastha Chambhar, Prabhu, Prabhu, Hajam, Dhuru Prabhu, Ugra Shimpi,Teli, Khatri, Kantari, Jhare, Mali, Paanchkalashe, mately 25to30castesofBrahminscanbeencountered inthiscity), Kasar, Sutar, Jingar, Lohar, are over ahundred castes—Marwadi, , Bhatia, Vani, Joshi, Brahmin(once again, approxiare usage,- current northenumber ofcasteswhichreside there. […] Among theHindusthere head-dresses.” However thenumber inMumbaioneisunable oflanguageswhich tofathom A localproverb talksaboutalandwith “fifty-six languagesandeighteencastswithdifferent made upofdifferent linguisticgroups. figures onreligion, however, concealthecity’s diversity, true communities forreligious were percent, followed by smallerpercentages ofChristians, Zoroastrians, Jains andJews. The gross were dominant, constituting 65percent ofthepopulationin1901, andMuslims made up20 andlinguisticdiversityReligious markedpopulation. thisteemingimmigrant The Hindus Mumbai Fables 10. , p. Mumbai Fables , p. 348. A PlaceforUtopia, pp. 29–30, pp. 160–1. (Govind Narayan’s Mumbai: An UrbanBiography from 1863. Trans. Murali Ranganathan , p. 88. , p. City Adrift 56. , p. City Adrift Ethnographic approaches 45 (Delhi: Anthem PressIndia, 2012), pp. 51–52) (Gyan Prakash, MumbaiFables, p.43  ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 Arjun, Appadurai. Arjun, Appadurai. “Cosmopolitanism from Below.” TheJohannesburg Salon:Volume Four(2011): pp. 32–43. Dwiwedi, SharadaandRahulMehrotra. CitiesWithin(Bombay: Bombay: EminenceDesigns, The 1995). Delanty, Gerard, ed., RoutledgeHandbookofCosmopolitanism(Abingdon: Studies Routledge, 2012). Delanty, Gerard. “The Cosmopolitan Imagination: CosmopolitanismandSocial Critical Theory.” British David, Harvey. “What Do We DowithCosmopolitanism?” InWhoseCosmopolitanism ?, editedby Nina Caraus, Tamara andElenaParis, eds, Re-GroundingCosmopolitanism: Towards aPost-Foundational Bhabha, Homi. “Unsatisfied Noteson Vernacular Cosmopolitanism.” InText, andNarration editedby Peter Berking, Helmuth, Jochen Schwenk, andSilke Steets, eds, ReligiousPluralism andtheCity: into Inquiries Becci, Irene, Burchardt, Marian andJos é Casanova, eds,Topographies ofFaith: ReligioninUrbanSpaces(Leiden Arjun, Appadurai. “Spectral HousingandUrbanCleansing; NotesonMillennialMumbai.” Public Culture 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 33 32 31

Journal ofSociology 57,Journal No. 1(2006): pp. 25–47. Glick Schillerand Andrew (New Irving York andOxford: Berghahn, 2015), pp. 49–56. Cosmopolitanism (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017). C. Pfeifferand LauraGarcía Moreno (Columbia, SC: CamdenHouse, 1996), pp. 191–207. Postsecular Urbanism(London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018). and Boston: Brill, 2013). 12, No. 3(2000): pp. 627–51. University ofMinnesotaPress, 1996). Irving, pp. 1–22. Irving, “What’s ina Word? What’s inaQuestion?,” inWhoseCosmopolitanism?, eds,in GlickSchillerand For thefollowing, see Amanda Wise andSelvaraj Velayutham, “Multiculturalism andEveryday Life,”1–19. Nation, eds, RobbinsandPhengCheah(Minneapolis: Bruce University ofMinnesotaPress, 1998), pp. Robbins,Bruce “Actually ExistingCosmopolitanism,” inCosmopolitics: Thinking andFeelingBeyond the of theiranthology: WhoseCosmopolitanism? The overarching question becoming then indeed the one asked by in the title Glick Schiller and Irving Romantic Review17/3(2006): pp. 289–300, here 292. Ann K. Mellor, Romantic “Embodied CosmopolitanismandtheBritish Woman Writer,” European altered characteristics. someoftheirsocio-demographic In order to protect the identities of both my whose cases are interlocutors included in this essay, I Multiculturalism, eds, A. Wise andS. Velayutham, pp.Greg Noble, 46–64, here 46. “Everyday CosmopolitanismandtheLabourofIntercultural Community,” inEveryday Cities ofStrangers,” Identities: GlobalStudiesinCultureandPower22(2015): pp. 569–87, here 571. Pnina Werbner, “The DialecticsofUrbanCosmopolitanism: Between Tolerance andIntolerancein 207. ,Narration eds, Peter C. PfeifferandLauraGarcía Moreno (Columbia: CamdenHouse, 1996), pp. 191– See, forexample, HomiBhabha, “Unsatisfied Noteson Vernacular Cosmopolitanism,” inText and Schiller andIrving, pp. 49–56, here 50. David Harvey, “What Do We Do with Cosmopolitanism?,” in Kim, Caraus/Paris, GlickSchiller/Irving, andothers. See the volumes (listed in the bibliography) edited by Vertovec/Cohen, Werbner, Delanty,Wise and Rovisco/ Velayutham, “Multiculturalism,” p. 2. of CosmopolitanismStudies, ed., G. Delanty(Abingdon: Routledge, 2012), pp. 38–46. Sociology 57/1(2006): pp. 25–47, and Cosmopolitanism,”“The IdeaofCritical inRoutledgeHandbook “The CosmopolitanImagination: Cosmopolitanism and Social Critical Theory,” of Journal TheBritish cosmopolitanism,On critical see alsotwo of Gerard Delanty’s to the topic: many contributions Everyday Multiculturalism, eds, Wise and Velayutham, pp. 1–17, andNinaGlickSchiller Andrew any cosmopolitanclaim. situated, aspirational, self-problematizing and aware of the incomplete and contested nature of ofastancetowardmopolitanism andanaffirmation humanopennessthatisprocessual, socially The term cosmopolitanism”“critical […]signalsarejection ofuniversalizing narratives ofcos- Modernity atLarge:Modernity Cultural DimensionsofGlobalization(MinneapolisandLondon: Bibliography István Keul 46 Glick Schiller andIrving, Schiller (Glick “Introduction,” p. 5) Whose Cosmopolitanism?, eds, Glick Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 09:25 27 Sep 2021; For: 9780429351181, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429351181-4 Mellor, Ann K. Romantic “Embodied Cosmopolitanism and the British Woman Writer.” Jaffe, Rivke and Anouk Koning, eds,Urban Anthropology (Abingdon: Introducing Routledge, 2015). Govind Narayan’s Mumbai: An UrbanBiography from1863. Trans. MuraliRanganathan(Delhi: Anthem Press Glick Schiller, Ninaand Andrew Irving, eds, Perspectives, WhoseCosmopolitanism?Critical Relationalitiesand Gandhi, Ajay andLotteHoek. “Introduction toCrowds andConviviality: oftheSouth Ethnographies Fernandes, Naresh. City Adrift: BiographyA Short ofBombay (New Delhi: Aleph, 2013). Farooqui, Amar. Wise, Amanda andSelvaraj Velayutham, eds, Everyday Multiculturalism (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, Werbner, Pnina. “The Dialectics of Urban Cosmopolitanism: Between Tolerance and Intolerance in Cities Vertovec, Steven andRobinCohen. ConceivingCosmopolitanism: Theory, ContextandPractice (Oxford: Srinivas, Smriti. APlaceforUtopia: UrbanDesignsfromSouth Asia (SeattleandLondon: University of Rovisco, andSebastianKim, Maria eds, Cosmopolitanism, ReligionandthePublic Sphere(LondonandNew Robbins, Bruce. “Actually ExistingCosmopolitanism.” InCosmopolitics: Thinking and FeelingBeyond the Prakash, Gyan. MumbaiFables (New Delhi: India, HarperCollins 2010). Noble, Greg. “Everyday CosmopolitanismandtheLabourofIntercultural Community.” InEveryday Menon, Meena. “Chronicle ofCommunal RiotsinBombay Presidency (1893–1945).” Economic&Political India, 2012). Discontents (New York andOxford: Berghahn, 2015). Asian City.” Ethnography 13, No. 1(2012): pp. 3–11. 2009). of Strangers.” Identities–GlobalStudiesinCultureandPower22(2015): pp. 569–87. Oxford University Press, 2002). Washington Press, 2015). York: Routledge, 2014). pp. 1–19. Nation, editedbyRobbinsandPheng Cheah (Minneapolis: Bruce University ofMinnesotaPress, 1998), 2009), pp. 46–64. Multiculturalism, editedby Amanda Wise and Selvaraj Velayutham (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan Weekly 45, No. 47(2010): pp. 63–72. Review 17, No. 3(2006): pp. 289–300. Opium City: The MakingofEarly BombayVictorian (Delhi: Three Essays Collective, 2006). Ethnographic approaches 47 European Romantic