CICE Policy Brief
Forewords Kazuo Kuroda, Waseda University, Japan
1. Reconsidering the meaning of inclusive education Yukari Ishida, JICA Hokkaido, Japan 1
2. An exploration of education experiences and identity construction of blind students in the United Kingdom Yukari Ishida, JICA Hokkaido, Japan 11
3. Vernacular Inclusive Education: ‘Reasonable Accommodation’ in Viet Nam Kengo, Shirogane, Biwako Gakuin University, Japan 21
4. Inclusive education in Singapore: From the perspectives of efficiency versus equity Yuko Nonoyama-Tarumi, Musashi University, Japan 35
5. Resource room inclusive education in India at a crossroads: A case study of Chennai, South India Tatsuya Kusakabe, Hiroshima University, Japan, Robinson Tamburaj Madras Christian College, India 47
6. Inclusive education in Bhutan Riho Sakurai, Hiroshima University, Japan 53
7. Inclusive Education in Sri Lanka: Factors contributing to good practices Hiroko Furuta, Kumamoto University, Japan K. A. C. Alwis, Open University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka 63
8. Education for children with disabilities in Maldives: Special needs education and inclusive education Minoru Morishita, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Jun Kawaguchi, University of Tsukuba, Japan 73
9. Inclusive Education in Bangladesh: Current Status, Scope and Implications for Learning Improvement Asim Das, Institute of Education and Research, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh Tatsuya Kusakabe, Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education, Hiroshima University, Japan 81
10. The impact of inclusive education in Asia and Africa: Focusing on the right to education for children with disabilities in Cambodia Makiko Hayashi, University of the Sacred Heart, Japan 89 CICE Policy Brief
Foreword
This issue of the publication series of the Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education, Hiroshima University (CICE policy brief) is a collection of policy briefs that have been produced by the research project conducted with the support of the “ODA Grants for UNESCO Activities” which was initiated by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). Our project was initiated in 2012 collaborating with UNESCO Asia Pacific Regional Bureau of Education (UNESCO Bangkok) and a network of Asian researchers on inclusive education was formulated to conduct this research project. The network was consisted of young scholars and fellows who were researching inclusive education in Japan and other Asia Pacific countries. The first period of the research project was led by Waseda University, and then CICE, Hiroshima University took over the initiative for the second period. The members continued the research works throughout the two periods. Thanks to the hard works and collaboration of participating members, the project was successfully completed with the fruits of many research papers to present possible solutions for various issues and areas concerning inclusive education. Equally importantly, the project left another valuable and useful public bedrock, which was an international and inter-university researcher-to-researcher network across Japan and Asia Pacific countries in the field of education. Their strong commitments of participating universities and researchers have led the network for continuation and further strengthening of this collaborative relationship. Each member of the project selected one or more study theme(s) in the field of inclusive education, and they are listed in table of contents. To ensure the variety of the studies, each member developed its own conceptual framework for each research theme and conducted the actual research. In order to maintain a certain level of quality, we organized three international meetings and symposiums where members gave comments and feedbacks to each other. These meetings and symposiums also provided useful and fruitful opportunities for exchangeable learning among the members. We certainly hope that these researches will have some impacts on inclusive education policies and practices in Asia Pacific. Finally, let me take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation not only to the authors of this publication but also UNESCO Bangkok staffs involved in the research projects for their great contributions. I do hope this research endeavor will further develop.
Kazuo Kuroda Professor, Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies, Waseda University CICE Policy Brief
1. Reconsidering the meaning of inclusive education
Yukari Ishida, JICA Hokkaido, Japan
Introduction backgrounds. In the early industrialization Inclusive education is today understood as era in the United States (in the early to mid- ‘educating all children equally without any 1800s), large numbers of unskilled workers discrimination’. However, while inclusive migrated from rural to urban areas and from education, in the sense of welcoming European countries. The number of migrants children of all abilities into mainstream in major cities increased significantly in the schools, is believed to be the best way of late 1800s, and immigrants filled the urban promoting social participation of ghettos (Danforth, Taff and Ferguson, 2006). disadvantaged people and of achieving As a result, the ghettos were overcrowded Education for All, there is a counterargument and typically lacked adequate running water that education in special schools is in fact and sanitation systems, electrical power, better in helping children with special garbage collection and health care. Crime educational needs. According to the latter was high and people were plagued by view, special schools assist children with disease. Immigrants and low-paid workers special needs to gain higher self-esteem. were discriminated against and were This paper will begin by examining the excluded from other sectors of American educational situation in the United Kingdom society. Many immigrant children did not (UK) and the background for inclusive understand English so teachers had education. Next, the shifts in the meaning of difficulties teaching them (Danforth, Taff and inclusive education will be examined and five Ferguson, 2006). definitions will be introduced. Following this When the Universal Declaration of Human review of the history of inclusive education Rights was adopted in 1948, governments and its original meaning, the effects, began to consider the rights of people who methods and indicators will be discussed. had hitherto faced discrimination. Later, following the adoption of the United Nations Convention Against Discrimination in Education in 1964, governments placed Social inclusion greater emphasis on preventing and First of all, let us examine the origins of the eliminating discrimination in education, and term ‘social inclusion’, which has similar promoting equal educational opportunity. connotations to ‘inclusive education’. It is This was further strengthened with the often presumed that there is a consensus as establishment of the International Covenant to what is being referred to when the term on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in ‘inclusive education’ is used, and people 1966. tend to discuss the topic as one, singular Subsequently, in the 1980s, governments concept. Yet, the concept of ‘inclusive in Europe and the United States paid greater education’ is multiple and ambiguous; there attention to providing support for people are almost as many definitions of inclusive who had been excluded from society, education as there are researchers (Shimizu, including racial and religious minorities. At 2007, Warnock, 2005). this time, discrimination against Although ‘inclusive education’ is disadvantaged peoples came to be called sometimes seen as a way to achieve ‘social ‘social exclusion’. Accordingly, the phrase, inclusion’, the terms have different
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‘social inclusion’ came to be seen as a way of However, the government of the United countering social exclusion. Thus, when the Kingdom wanted to integrate most children phrase first started being used, the main into mainstream schools and decrease the subject of social inclusion was immigrants. number of special schools (Warnock, 2005). While the main subject of social inclusion Some members of the committee likewise was immigrants, the main subject of special believed that the ideal of inclusion would not needs education, integration and ‘inclusive be achieved unless all children were education’ was children with disabilities. integrated into mainstream schools and all special schools closed. They believed that if proper educational support were provided to the children with special needs in Warnock's view of special mainstream schools, they would not need educational needs special schools. For the government, In 1974, the Committee of Inquiry into the sending children with severe disabilities to Education of Handicapped Children and special schools was the last resort (Warnock, Young People was established in the UK, 2005). based on the 1972 education law, which In the 1978 Warnock Report, the sought to give all children the right to committee proposed a ‘statement system’, education. One of the tasks of the committee which provided support for children with was ‘to articulate a concept of education that special educational needs based on the could make sense in the context of any child, contents of a ‘statement’, issued by the anywhere on the continuum of ability or child’s local government. Such ‘statements’ disability’ (Warnock, 2005, p.18). Accordingly, were expected to help children with special the committee set three common educational needs to receive proper support educational goals: independence, in mainstream schools and help them to enjoyment and understanding for all attend special schools if those were better children. The president of the committee, for them. Warnock and the committee Mary Warnock, expressed the committee’s thought the system would protect all view as follows: ‘[t]he path towards these children in school whatever their abilities goals was smooth and easy for some, but were. However, when the committee beset with all kinds of obstacles for the suggested the ‘statement system’, they children who were our concern (Warnock, neglected to define details such as to whom 2005, p.18). and for what the statements would be issued. According to Warnock, the ‘special They did not define what was meant by educational needs’ approach sought to ‘special needs’ or what kind of provisions provide proper education with proper could be given for each need. As a result, support that met each child's needs, in order integrating children with special needs into to achieve common educational goals. mainstream schools on the basis of a Under this approach, children could choose ‘statement’ involved much confusion. For the best place to take proper education for instance, two children with the same themselves, and by doing so, achieve the disability could be provided with different three educational goals. Thus, neither she support or possibly none at all. Moreover, nor the committee as a whole promoted many children with special educational integrating all children into mainstream needs were not able to receive a ‘statement’ schools but, rather, simply regarded children because the committee had not provided as people who should participate in any concrete standards or definitions education so as to expand their abilities.
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regarding who had the right to receive such activity, disabled children often experience ‘statements’ from local governments. low fitness levels and cardio-respiratory Whether or not such children could get endurance, and interpersonal isolation. A ‘statements’ depended on the budget of similar report, published in the United States each local government. This vague system in 1983, argued that visually-impaired girls led to conflicts between local governments who had attended mainstream schools and parents with disabled children. In her tended to lack confidence (Kent, 1983). This 2005 paper, Warnock expressed feeling study by Kent found that female adolescent responsible for the lack of concrete concepts students with visual impairment had in the ‘statement system’, and requested that difficulty in establishing positive identities the government improve the system. due to teasing by other female students. Consequently, visually-impaired women tended to have a negative image of makeup, and did not voluntarily use makeup after From integration to inclusion graduation because of the negative memory In the early 1990s, it became apparent that of using makeup to prevent teasing (Kent, many children with special needs were being 1983). With regard to life-skills training, only excluded, in effect, within mainstream three tenths of the visually-impaired children schools as they were not keeping up with the at mainstream schools had received training coursework. Without sufficient knowledge in going out by themselves using a white about disabilities, many teachers had no idea cane (Cole-Hamilton, 2000). or direction regarding how to solve the The term ‘inclusion’ came to replace the problems that students with disabilities term ‘integration’, which been deemed a faced (Florian, 2008). In addition, due to their failure as it was viewed as a policy of lack of training in special needs education ‘dumping’. In the new and improved ideal of methods, teachers often restricted education based on ‘inclusion’, children with integration. For example, some teachers special needs were not only to be physically allocated seats at the back of classroom for integrated into mainstream schools but also disabled students so that they would not provided with proper support to study. disturb other students, thus labelling the However, as Warnock points out in her paper disabled students as failures (Stoughton, of 2005, because the concepts of ‘inclusion’ 2005; Lewis-Robertson, 2005; Brantlinger, and ‘inclusive education’ were unclear, 2005). children with special needs were still A report by the Royal National Institution emotionally excluded in mainstream schools of the Blind (RNIB) found that around a third even after the 1990s. of the visually-impaired children at At the time, all children in the United mainstream schools had experienced being Kingdom followed the same national bullied because of their disability (Cole- curriculum and their educational Hamilton, 2000). Similarly studies by Taub achievements were assessed based on a and Greer (2000) and Maher (2013) indicated common test, in accordance with the that children with physical disabilities education law of 1988. According to frequently experience exclusion and Warnock, this old-fashioned evaluation isolation from their classmates in system forced children to compete against mainstream schools, making these children each other on the basis of academic results, more likely to lack confidence and social and schools were ranked based on students’ skills. These reports also revealed that due to test scores. The concept of ‘inclusion’, which physical and social barriers to physical
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respects each child's ability, was not hindering them in fitting into social life. The compatible with an assessment system or irony of the NCLB is that although disabled indicators of educational achievement that children are physically included in schools evaluated all children's abilities through a and are guaranteed access to equal, quality common examination (Warnock, 2005). education, they find themselves excluded This contradiction between goal of emotionally and socially. inclusive education and education indicators Teachers who have disabled students in was also apparent in the United States. This their class are faced with particular was exemplified by the No Child Left Behind difficulties. When a school cannot raise the Act (NCLB), introduced in 2001 and achievement levels of students with established in 2002. The law sought to disabilities, the teachers are also labelled as guarantee equal opportunity in terms of failures (Harvey-Koelpin, 2005). The access to education, so as to enhance all government and media require teachers put children's abilities. Based on this law, all in more effort without consideration of the children are equally required to obtain high efforts they already make and their difficult quality education, and they are expected to situations. Many teachers have more than reach a minimum proficiency in the ten years' teaching experience and work challenging state academic achievement longer hours than average, but are criticized standards and assessments. Proponents of as failures. In such circumstances it is difficult the bill claimed that ‘requiring all students to for teachers to maintain their motivation to achieve mastery of state-mandated teach disabled students. proficiencies by the 2013-2014 school year will result in better quality education for students with disabilities’ (Harvey-Koelpin, ‘Inclusive’ in international 2005, p.119). Although a guarantee of equal conventions and goals opportunity for all students to receive a high In 1989, the United Nations established quality education is appealing, it has not the Convention on the Rights of the Child, always been achieved. ‘Students with which sets out the rights of children, disabilities’ include those with learning including the right of all children to disabilities and mental impairments, and education. The following year, the World many such students face great difficulty in Declaration on Education for All keeping up with regular classes and demonstrated the will of countries to achieving the required test scores. overcome inequality in education. Emphasis The supporters of the NCLB have was placed not only on access to basic demanded that ‘school districts must exert education, but also on the quality of more effort to raise the achievement levels education and actual learning outcomes. The of students with disabilities’ (Harvey-Koelpin, associated ‘Framework for Action to Meet 2005, p.120), but this places great pressure Basic Learning Needs’ put forward a six- on teachers and on disabled students. point framework of goals to provide all Educational achievement is only judged by children with access to education. These test scores and if disabled students cannot goals drew attention to the importance of achieve the required test scores, they are improving educational systems for labelled as failures. Needless to say, labelling marginalized children, including those with students as failures affects them greatly, disabilities. This led to the Salamanca depriving them of their confidence and Statement and Framework for Action, which was adopted at the 1994 World Congress on
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Special Needs Education. The statement Nations has thus used the ambiguous yet emphasized the importance of fundamental seemingly positive connotation of the term policy shifts towards promoting inclusive ‘inclusive’ to describe various initiatives, as education and ensuring that schools serve the term conveys the sense that the initiative all children, particularly those with special is comprehensive and flexible enough to fit educational needs (UNESCO and MoES all countries, cultures and situations. Spain, 1994). This expectation for inclusive While the use of ‘inclusive’ in international education was expressed in Embracing initiatives and statements has led to each Diversity, a UNESCO toolkit for teachers, as country trying to introduce inclusive policies, follows: such as inclusive education, these policies An inclusive, learning-friendly have been based on each country’s environment (ILFE) welcomes, particular understanding of the term nurtures, and educates all children ‘inclusive’. The policies and the resulting regardless of their gender, physical, initiatives, therefore differ from country to intellectual, social, emotional, country. For example, in Botswana ‘inclusive linguistic, or other characteristics. education’ has been defined as education in They may be disabled or gifted which ‘[c]hildren with disabilities, who are children, street or working children, integrated in regular schools, would need children of remote or nomadic additional provision and support in order to peoples, children from linguistic, benefit socially, psychologically and ethnic or cultural minorities, educationally from any existing education children affected by HIV/AIDS, or system’ (Charema, 2008, p. 89). In this case, children from other disadvantaged inclusive education is premised on or marginalized areas or groups. integrating all children into regular (UNESCO, 2004, p.6) classrooms. On the other hand, a rehabilitation law for people with disabilities However, the meaning of an ‘inclusive, in the Philippines that seeks to be ‘inclusive’ learning-friendly environment’ was left states that ‘the Department of Education, unclear. Accordingly, understanding of Culture and Sports shall establish, special ‘inclusive learning-friendly environment’ education classes in public schools in cities, depends on each person’s perspective. or municipalities’ (Government of the The term ‘inclusive’ has been used in Philippines, 1993, Section 14). In this case, international statements since the 1990s, not children with special needs should learn in only in education but also in other fields special classroom for some classes, although such as economics and human rights. For they should also be enrolled in mainstream instance, in 2015 UN Women established the schools. Both cases are promoting ‘inclusive ‘inclusive electoral process’, a guide for education’ but the results are remarkably electoral management bodies on promoting different. Thus, each country, government, gender equality and women's participation, and researcher has understood or defined and UNDP is promoting the ‘growing ‘inclusive education’ in their own way, inclusive markets’ initiative, which ‘seeks to because the concept of ‘inclusive education’ understand, enable and inspire the is unclear. development of more inclusive business models around the globe that will help to create new opportunities and better lives for Definitions of ‘inclusive education’ many of the world's poor’ (2007). The United A review of the literature found that
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definitions of ‘inclusive education’ can be environment as regular students, but also divided into five main categories: respects their differing educational needs • Integration and uniqueness. Peters (2004, p. 5) Some researchers, such as Campbell and expresses this approach as follows: Gilmore (2003) and Florian (2008), use The fundamental principle of the ‘inclusion’ to mean the same thing as inclusive school is that all children ‘integration’. For example, Florian describes should learn together, wherever inclusive education as being ‘based on the possible, regardless of any principle that local schools should provide difficulties or differences they may for all children, regardless of any perceived have. Inclusive schools must difference, disability or other social, recognize and respond to the emotional, cultural or linguistic difference’ diverse needs of their students, (2008, p. 202). Under this view, the emphasis accommodating both different is placed on integrating all children into the styles and rates of learning and same schools, but meeting each child's ensuring quality education to all needs is ignored. The basic argument here is through appropriate curricula, that separating children with special organizational arrangements, educational needs from the mainstream is teaching strategies, resource use discriminatory, and that such children should and partnerships with their be regarded as equal community members communities. and therefore learn in the same schools. • Participation Thus, the focus is on every child’s right to According to this view, ‘inclusive learn in mainstream schools, but this education’ is a system that seeks to achieve approach fails to address their right that social inclusion, in which all community their individuality be respected, their right to members have responsibility for taking care expand their abilities and their right to of the children in their communities. For establish higher esteem as a minority. instance, Ferguson (2008) argues that not Accordingly, this type of definition can be only teachers but also parents, seen to be synonymous with ‘integration’ administrators, politicians and all other and should not be regarded as ‘inclusive community members should participate in education’. inclusive education as supporters or even as • Extra support learners. She believes that new school Other researchers, such as Charema (2007), systems, teachers and teaching methods are Lindsay (2003), Peters (2004), Slee and Allan needed to improve current inclusive (2001) and Zollers, Ramanatha and Yu (1999), education because more and more students believe that while all students should be with special needs are entering mainstream integrated into mainstream schools, schools. She argues that the key challenge students with special needs should be facing inclusive education in the twenty-first provided proper support in inclusive century is developing community-based classrooms. This view can be considered to education so as to expand the abilities of be the original meaning of ‘inclusive students with special needs in mainstream education’ that was introduced in the United schools. However, although she proposes a Kingdom as means of improving on new concept of inclusive education, she ‘integration’. This type of definition not only assumes the existing assessment system, respects the right of children with special based on test scores, will remain in place to educational needs to learn in the same assess student's abilities and achievements.
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• Special schools disadvantages of ‘inclusive education’ This approach places the focus on meeting requires each country to first define which the needs of all children. Warnock (2005), for ‘education system’ and what ‘mainstream’ is example, argues that having special schools being talked about and who is to be included. is part of inclusive education. She criticizes the situation in the UK in which children with special needs are emotionally excluded in Changes in the meaning of mainstream schools and she believes that ‘it is their right to learn than we must defend, inclusive education not their right to learn in the same The understanding of the meaning of environment as everyone else’ (Warnock, inclusive education has changed over time 2005, p. 39). even in the United Kingdom and the United • A process of education States, where the concept originated. For Under this approach, inclusive education is example, some now argue that ‘inclusive not a goal but a process of school education education’ should refer to flexibility in that seeks to expand each student's ability. curricula, learning materials and teaching This approach, like the previous one, also methods, so as to meet the needs of each sees special schools as part of inclusive child, in response to the criticism that some education. For example, the National children have difficulty in meeting the Association of Head Teachers defines requirements of the national curriculum, inclusive education as follows: regardless of the support they receive Inclusion is a process that (Simizu, 2007). Some researchers also argue maximizes the entitlement of all that the possibility of attending special pupils to a broad, relevant and schools if children have difficulty learning in stimulating curriculum, which is mainstream schools is also a form of delivered in the environment that ‘inclusive education’ (Shimizu, 2007; will have the greatest impact on Warnock, 2005). their learning. All schools, whether In 2001, the Government of the United special or mainstream, should Kingdom distributed an official document reflect a culture in which the titled, Index for Inclusion, which laid out the institution adapts to meet the needs goals of an inclusive school. The indicators of its pupils and is provided with the listed in the document for achieving an resources to enable this to happen. ‘inclusive’ school included: ‘establishing an (2003, p. 1) inclusive community’, ‘everyone can be comfortable in school’, ‘teachers and While all five approaches describe students respect each other’, ‘partnerships ‘inclusive education’, they differ significantly. with parents and welfare specialists’, Furthermore, while some researchers ‘inclusive values’ and ‘decreasing all kind of imagine ‘inclusion’ as referring to including discrimination’. While these indicators of students with physical disabilities, others see inclusive education are valid in terms of the the concept as relating to students with all government’s goals, they are far from the kind of special needs, and yet others expand original meaning of ‘inclusive education’: the concept to encompass the inclusion of integrating all children into mainstream gender and ethnic minorities. Given these schools with support. differences in understandings of ‘inclusive Some researchers, including Erevelles and education’, assessing the advantages and Kanga (2013), believe that the expansion of the concept of ‘inclusive education’ to
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incorporate other groups of children is support’ and ‘inclusion’ were not clearly necessary, as children from ethnic, religious defined, ‘inclusive education’ has been and gender minorities face similar issues in understood in multiple ways, even in the terms of access to education as children with United Kingdom, the very country in which disabilities, and hence, inclusive education the concept originated. with flexibility is a way of covering all Furthermore, with the use of the term children’s needs. Others argue that the ‘inclusive education’ in international meaning of ‘inclusive education’ in the conventions and statements, the concept of United Kingdom should remain flexible so ‘inclusive education’ has come to have that children with severe disabilities can go various, complex meanings. As ‘inclusive to special schools rather than mainstream education’ is an international goal, many schools (Shimizu, 2007, Warnock 2005). initiatives in the field of education go On the other hand, other researchers, such beyond the original meaning of ‘inclusive as Kalyanpur (2014), have criticized this education’ such that the term now describes flexible definition, arguing that it creates education that covers the needs of children ambiguity in that it can be used in a negative of minority religions, ethnicities and genders. way to promote insincere ambitions of Thus, the meaning of the concept has governments or dominant groups. changed and there are various different Kalyanpur points out that with an definitions of ‘inclusive education’ in ambiguous definition, the government can circulation, many of which are far from the proceed with any sort of education policy in original meaning. Five categories of the name of ‘inclusive education’ without definitions of ‘inclusive education’ can be being criticized. She also argues that identified and there is no consensus as to ‘developing’ countries are forced to accept a what the term means. Westernised education system in which While there are advantages and ‘inclusive education’ is regarded as a flexible disadvantages in using the term ‘inclusive education system that fits all countries' education’ in multiple ways, the lack of situations. That is, by putting forth the agreement on the meaning of the term, and achievement of inclusive education as an the lack of acknowledgement of such international goal, Western countries are in disparity in definitions, means that every effect promoting their own education goals researcher, government and educator in ‘developing’ countries, even if those goals imagines a different education system when may not be suitable for those countries' they talk about ‘inclusive education’, even situations. Thus, when ‘inclusive education’ is though it is an international educational goal vaguely defined, there is a danger that it may that many countries are aiming to achieve. It not be used to meet each student's needs is indeed strange that most countries trying but instead to achieve political ends to achieve inclusive education do not seem (Kalyanpur, 2014; Peters, 2004). to notice that there is no clear consensus regarding goals or indicators with regard to ‘inclusive education’. Furthermore, the lack Summary and conclusions of agreement on the meaning of ‘inclusive The original meaning of inclusive education’ has the danger that the term will education was ‘integrating all children into be misused to achieve political ends, mainstream schools with proper support for because the ambiguity allows whatever children with special needs’. However, since ambitions governments may have to be the concept of ‘special needs’, ‘proper legitimized as being ‘inclusive education’.
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It is recommended that for future research, Department of Interior and Local the different education systems that are Government. 1992. Republic act No. described using the all-too-handy term 7277: Magna Carta of Disabled Persons. ‘inclusive education’ be discussed separately, Manila, National Council on Disability so as to avoid confusion. It is necessary to Affairs. categorize each education system and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Ferguson, D. L. 2008. International trends in each category, based on the viewpoints of inclusive education: The continuing both governments and minority groups. challenge to teach each one and everyone. European Journal of Special Needs Education, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 109-20. References Brantlinger, E. A. 2005. Conclusion: Whose Florian, L. 2008. Special or inclusive labels? Whose norms? Whose needs? education: Future trends. British Whose benefits? E. A. Brantlinger (ed.), Journal of Special Education, Vol. 35, No. Who benefits from special education: 4, pp. 202-08. Remediating (fixing) other people's Harvey-Koelpin, S. 2005. The impact of children, Studies in Curriculum Theory reform on students with disabilities. E. Series (gen. ed. W. F. Pinar). London, A. Brantlinger (ed.), Who benefits from Routledge, pp. 233-47. special education: Remediating (fixing) Campbell, J. and Gilmore L. 2003. Changing other people's children, Studies in student teachers' attitudes towards Curriculum Theory Series (gen. ed. W. F. disability and inclusion. Journal of Pinar). London, Routledge, pp. 119-43. Intellectual and Developmental Kalyanpur, M. 2014. Distortions and Disability, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 369-79. dichotomies in inclusive education for Charema, J. 2007. From special schools to children with disabilities in Cambodia inclusive education: The way forward in the context of globalisation and for developing countries south of the international development. Sahara. Journal of the International International Journal of Disability, Association of Special Education, Vol. 8, Development and Education, Vol. 61, No. 1, pp. 88-97. No. 1, pp. 80-94. Kent, D. 1983. Finding a way through the Cole-Hamilton, I. and Vale, D. 2000. Shaping rough years: How blind girls survive the future: The experiences of blind and adolescence. Journal of Visual partially sighted children and young Impairment and Blindness, Vol. 77, No. people in the UK (Summary report). 6, pp. 247-50. London, Royal National Institute for Lewis-Robertson, G. 2005. No place like the Blind. home. E. A. Brantlinger (ed.), Who Danforth, S., Taff, S. and Ferguson, P. M. 2005. benefits from special education: Place, profession, and program in the Remediating (fixing) other people's history of special education curriculum. children, Studies in Curriculum Theory E. A. Brantlinger (ed.), Who Benefits Series (gen. ed. W. F. Pinar). London, from special education: Remediating Routledge, pp. 165-96. (fixing) other people's children, Studies Lindsay, G. 2003. Inclusive education: A in Curriculum Theory Series (gen. ed. W. critical perspective. British Journal of F. Pinar). London, Routledge, pp. 1-23. Special Education, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 3-
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12. 24, No. 4, pp. 395-414. Maher, A. 2013. Statements of special United Nations Development Programme educational needs and mainstream (UNDP). 2007. UNDP Private Sector secondary physical education in north- Strategy: Promoting Inclusive Market west England. British Journal of Special Development. New York, United Education, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 130-36. Nations Development Programme. National Association of Head Teachers. 2003. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Special schools. A policy paper from the Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and National Association of Head Teachers. Ministry of Education and Science http://www.naht.org.uk (Accessed (MoES) Spain. 1994. The Salamanca 2003). statement and framework for action on Peters, S. J. 2004. Inclusive education: special needs education. World Achieving education for all by including Conference on Special Needs those with disabilities and special Education: Access and Quality, education needs. Washington, DC, Salamanca, Spain, 7-10 June. World Bank. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Shimizu S. 2007. Inclusive kyouiku no shisou Cultural Organization (UNESCO). 2004. to sono kadai (Tokushuu: Inclusive Embracing diversity: Toolkit for creating kyouiku to kyoudou no genri [Ideology inclusive, learning-friendly and agendas of inclusive education environments. Bangkok, United (Featuring inclusive education and the Nations Educational Scientific and principle of collaboration)]. Japanese Cultural Organization. Journal for the Problems of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality Handicapped, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 82-90. and the Empowerment of Women (UN (In Japanese.) Women). 2015. Inclusive electoral Slee, R. and Allan, J. 2001. Excluding the processes: A guide for electoral included: A reconsideration of inclusive management bodies on promoting education. International Studies in gender equality and women’s Sociology of Education, Vol. 11, No. 2, participation. New York, UN Women pp. 173-92. and UNDP. Stoughton, E. 2005. Marcus and Harriet: Warnock, M. 2005. Special educational Living on the edge in school and needs: A new look. Philosophy of society. E. A. Brantlinger (ed.), Who Education Society of Great Britain, Vol. benefits from special education: 11, No. 88, pp. 21-75. Remediating (fixing) other people's Zollers, N. J., Ramanathan, A. K. and Yu, M. children, Studies in Curriculum Theory 1999. The relationship between school Series (gen. ed. W. F. Pinar). London, culture and inclusion: How an inclusive Routledge, pp. 145-63. culture supports inclusive education. Taub, D. E. and Greer, K. R. 2000. Activity as a International Journal of Qualitative normalization experience for school- Studies in Education, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. age children with physical disabilities. 157-74. Implications for legitimation of social identity and enhancement of social ties. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, Vol.
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2. An exploration of education experiences and identity construction of blind students in the United Kingdom
Yukari Ishida, JICA Hokkaido, Japan
communication skills, identity formation as Introduction person with disabilities and the next stages Social inclusion is a key international goal, of education, employment and future social and inclusive education, which involves participation is vital for understanding the including all children in the same classes, content and impact of special needs tends to be regarded as the best way to education. achieve this goal. However, some argue that The study described here examined the special schools education is better at experiences of three blind students and assisting disabled students to establish a analyses them from an insider’s viewpoint. It positive identity. This study, comparing hopes to inspire further research into disabled student graduates from education for disabled students that mainstream schools with those from special facilitates their social participation. schools, found that in terms on their experiences and identity as disabled people, Method an education system that enables disabled This study focused on the experiences of students to participate in society with blind students and was analysed from the confidence is more beneficial. perspective of the visually impaired, since the researcher is also completely blind. Background The researcher conducted semi-structured The United Kingdom (UK) was the first interviews with three blind UK university country to implement ‘inclusive education’: graduates (Respondents A, B and C) who integrating children with special needs into had lost their vision before the age of 5. The the mainstream education system. After responses were analysed by comparing advocating for inclusive education for 30 each case based on five codes: learning years, British expert Warnock switched sides Braille; life-skills training; class participation; on the argument in 2005 and drew attention friendships; and confidence in social to the importance of special schools. participation. The researcher used the Defining inclusive education as ‘meeting capability approach and social identity each student's needs’, she argued that theory as the framework of analysis. special needs schooling also belongs in the The findings of the study are limited in that sphere of inclusive education, and is better the study only examined three cases, and for some disabled students. Accordingly, did not cover partial visual impairment, there is a choice between attending multiple disabilities, vision loss after mainstream or special schools today. matriculation, and students participating in Most papers on special needs education both mainstream schooling and special address topics such as teacher training, high schools. Furthermore, the sampling of school education and social impact. These university graduates may show only the are valuable, but a comprehensive experiences of privileged students. Some perspective that includes students’ bias on part of the researcher/author must experiences at school, life-skills training, be acknowledged, particularly regarding experiences that were similar to or different
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from the researcher’s. Despite such blind schools existed at the time. She was limitations, however, the author believes unable to read printed letters, but did not that a focus on disabled people's voices is use Braille, citing the following reasons: useful and an analysis from an viewpoint of a blind person is valuable in exploring the I was a very competent touch typist relationships between school experiences, and this was definitely my preferred identity construction and confidence in method. Secondly, I was never a social participation. child who wanted to be associated with something that made me different - and Braille definitely Research findings made me different! By the time I got 1. Learning Braille to university there were computer- Respondent A went to a school for the based solutions, and Braille no blind during primary and secondary longer seemed like a necessary education, and learned Braille from six years thing to learn. old. Braille class consisted of six or seven blind students surrounding a table Being illiterate in primary school, she had equipped with synchronised braille key pads, reading material read aloud to her and Perkins Braillers talking calculators and an notes taken by her support worker, but later abacus that students learned to use. Since used her laptop to take notes. Examination all of the teachers were able to read Braille, questions were read aloud and her answers not only were reading material and exams were written down by her support worker. provided in Braille, but homework and This method did not pose a problem for her, answer sheets were also submitted in Braille. even for complicated math equations. She is Respondent B chose mainstream school, satisfied with her academic assessment because of his blind mother’s lonely being fair, since it was the only method childhood at a school for the blind, where known to her. she lived away from her family. Respondent B started learning Braille from the age of 4, 2. Life-skills training during free periods between classes. In When asked why he attended a school primary school, he took notes in Braille, then for the blind, Respondent A replied, ‘I think used a laptop in secondary school, and it was social workers and teachers [who] resumed Braille at university. His primary suggested a school for the blind as being school had three Braille teachers and the best education and means of learning another blind student. He sat twice as long life skills’. His parents sought advice after A during examinations, which meant up to six lost his vision. The school for the blind was hours. Reading material was transcribed far from their house so he moved into a into Braille, and the few materials that were dormitory at the blind school from the age not transcribed were read aloud by support of 7. He described how he learned practical workers, while assignments were skills as follows: transcribed back into printed letters. For these reasons, both Respondent A and We had what you call life-skills Respondent B feel their education lessons. So I learned how to, like, achievements were assessed fairly. wash clothes, clean our rooms, make Respondent C went to a mainstream beds. We also cooked together […] school. She did not know schools for the once a week or once a couple of
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weeks. So we knew how to pour It was mainly because I was never water into cups, how to use a shown (information about life-skills hotplate, how to dish up the meal. training), but at that age, I also did not ask to be shown, because I did As part of the curriculum, he started not want to be different. cooking classes at the age of 7: She tried to fit herself into the It was, like, sandwich making, like, we mainstream, but she faced difficulties at had to toast bread, had to cut the university. She lived with her family as a bread, had to cut cheese, had to cut child and had help from a support worker, vegetables ... had to cut our fingers so when she completed school and moved as well. (Interview notes, 25 May into a university dormitory she was not able 2015) to cook or to go out to eat by herself. She reconsidered life skills as she realized such Cane training was provided from Grade 1 skills were essential in giving her of primary school, while ironing came later. independence. Consequently, she slowly He considers that life skills and mobility acquired life and mobility skills through skills were the most important things he training, and was able to reach a level of learned, and they have helped him to independence at which she can go out by continue his higher studies and work, and herself half the time. therefore to participate in society. Respondent B initially dropped cane 3. Class participation training although it was provided in school, Being at a school for the blind, saying, ‘I can do what everybody else can’. Respondent A naturally participated in all Not wanting to be different from sighted classes. His school followed a similar students, he chose to walk with his friends curriculum to mainstream schools, including or with support workers. Life skills, such as an extensive physical education course. In pouring hot water into a cup and bed art class, students used clay and paint, and making, were taught in secondary school learned design. His school life also included during free periods, at the request of his extracurricular activities, such as Christmas parents. Although they wished for him to be parties, camping, picnics, musical independent, he lived with his family, which instruments and visits to museums. His meant he had few opportunities to practice school regarded practical experiences to be such skills. Lacking mobility skills, he was valuable because being blind made learning rejected from his university of first choice at through observation impossible. The safe the last minute, despite having been environment of the special school allowed accepted earlier. From the following year, his them to run around and even ride bicycles partner took him to university, although the during break time. university was near their house. He is The other two respondents attended accompanied by his partner whenever he mainstream schools, so faced difficulties in goes outside. some classes. For example, Respondent B Respondent C also did not take cane could not participate in laboratory work, training until attending university. In fact, although he understood the content, and he she did not take any life-skills training until took a separate physical education class then. The reasons she gave were as follows: (with other disabled students). He thought some activities were inaccessible and he
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thought he had no choice. Respondent C Respondent A faced difficulty socializing found physical education the most difficult after graduating from the school for the class, as she was simply given a ball to play blind. Furthermore, preparing for lectures with (by herself). She also did not sufficiently and obtaining reading material meant he participate in art, laboratory work or home had no time for other activities. He spent economics, and most school facilities, break time in his room, and like Respondent including classrooms, were inaccessible for B, valued quality over quantity of friendship. her, increasing her dependency on support When asked about help from his friends, he workers. said 'I might ask friends to guide me through the corridor to go to football 4. Friendship together'. He saw mutual and natural Respondent B admits to having difficulty friendship instead of being the sole socializing in school, often feeling isolated recipient of help. He believed he during breaks, so he did homework during contributed by working together with breaks. Making a large number of friends friends and hearing friends out. was difficult, and he came to cherish the Respondent C felt that at primary and quality of the friendships with the few secondary school she sometimes had friends he had. However, he was often left opportunities to talk to friends during observing his peers play, though he breaks, but she mentioned 'friends' only participated in few games, like jenga. once during the interview. When pushed about her social life at university, she I was quite happy to be there but answered that her part-time job and it wasn't always a comfortable preparing for lectures kept her busy. When experience. […] So I wouldn't say I asked if she needed help from sighted was bullied but I suffered terribly. friends, she answered ‘not really’, though she reluctantly added that being This issue continued to plague him, even accompanied when shopping was helpful. in university, where he found polite and Regarding leisure activities, Respondent A helpful peers but not mutual friendship. listed walking, visiting galleries and While most students socialized in nightclubs, museums with tangible works, church, visits he mostly stayed home with his partner. He to friends' houses, blind football, cricket and mentioned not needing sighted friends' horse riding with friends, as well as cooking help, however everything was provided by and reading when at home. Respondent B support workers. When asked how he spends time with his partner or with family contributes to sighted friends, he paused at his house, listening to music or the radio, significantly, and after some thought, although he sometimes visits the cinema, answered that he could type for them. The town or his family, accompanied by his delay in his response suggests that he had partner. Being a fan of football, he once tried not considered the idea before. Having to join a blind team, but gave up since the been brought up in mainstream schooling, field was an hour and a half away from his he might not recognize the constant help he house. Respondent C goes to the theatre for receives, because it has been normal for him. comedy performances, has practiced Aikido All three respondents, regardless of their for two years and generally spends her free differing backgrounds, faced difficulty time outside, and mentioned few socializing at university, and did not spend relationships with friends. much free time with friends. 5. Confidence in social participation
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Respondent B reported high confidence his active life and work experience. While in social participation in terms of being confident in his abilities to contribute to integrated into the mainstream and society and be independent, he knowing how the 'real world' is, a phrase he acknowledged that this confidence is not emphasized many times during the necessarily shared by his sighted peers, and interview. He argued that graduates of he believed getting employment would be schools for the blind must be frightened of difficult even after finishing his doctoral confronting the real world, having been in a course. For him, life skills for being fully-protected bubble, and he felt that they independent and specific skills are would not be familiar with socializing or necessary in order for blind people to get a using visually-oriented language, unlike him job. who was brought up with sighted people. Respondent C, who had the longest He said, 'I am very comfortable in society working experience of the three, had a part- and I am very confident. With my experience time job at university and had since had two from a young age, I know the right way to jobs (access development executive and do things’, and he gave his marriage to a project coordinator), obtained through sighted partner as an example. Interestingly, ordinary procedures. As she noted, when talking about social participation, he always compared himself to graduates of It is definitely more difficult to get a schools for the blind. Yet he acknowledged job if you have a disability, as there is an inequality due to limited opportunity and such a negative stigma. I got my jobs choice of jobs for the blind, and was the only through having a good degree, respondent who had never been hired. experience and a lot of networking.
I think I sent more than 92 While achieving high social participation, applications, but my argument is I she reported that she was not confident, am limited in terms of a choice of due to emotional barriers, with some working place, because most regarding her as different from them. She working places are inaccessible. But I remarked that ‘to be honest’, she would was quite sure I could convince probably face many challenges in her efforts [them] I could do the job. But after I to participate in society. sent applications, I never received even a single offer of an interview. Discussion 5.1 School experience At the time of the interview, Respondent The findings of the interviews show that B was working from home with an unstable each respondent had completely different income, hoping to be employed someday. school experiences, despite all being blind. He had been a volunteer at the blind- Respondent A chose a school for the friendly Royal National Institution of the blind, feeling it would be the most suitable, Blind, which he found comfortable, but soon and felt that the most important things he left saying he could not spoil himself like learned at school were life skills and graduates of blind school, in a fully mobility skills. He is proud of having such protected environment away from the real abilities, which have helped him progress world. through the next stages of his life. He has Respondent A remarked that had many positive experiences, such as participation in society is difficult, despite participating in all class activities, playing
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with friends, engaging in practical protected environment and do not learn experiences such as contact with art work about the real world. The negative aspect of and living with flatmates. Being a blind attending a mainstream school was being person was natural for him and his needs isolated in class. were properly addressed because the teachers at his school were specialists. On 5.2 Life-skills training for capability the other hand, this suggests he was not The capability approach focuses on what aware of the challenges of the 'real world', each individual is capable of doing and such as facing isolation, prior to leaving being in terms of making ‘meaningful school. choices from a range of options; hence, Respondent B chose a mainstream school, having the freedom to choose a life they feeling that learning with non-disabled have reason to value’ (Walker, 2005, p.103). children would help him in social It examines whether people have equal, or participation in the future. He feels that he at least sufficient, choices and opportunities was able to integrate into mainstream to achieve their goals in daily life. society and become familiar with the ‘real Seen from this perspective, the interview world’. He prides himself on his findings indicate that the respondents' communication skills and is very confident capabilities were not guaranteed at some in social participation. At the same time, he stages of their lives. For example, has experienced feelings of isolation, and mainstream school was the only option for there were many school activities that he Respondent C because she did not know was not able to participate in. He feels about schools for the blind at the time. however, that this prepared him for survival Respondents A and B, who chose their in mainstream society. school by themselves, were satisfied with For Respondent C, mainstream school their choices and assessment systems, but was the only option available. She feels that Respondent C regretted not being provided communication skills were the most a choice and missing out on skills training. important thing that she learned at school. Regarding opportunities for enhancing She regrets missing opportunities at an learning skills, Respondents B and C, who earlier age to learn acquire skills for the went to mainstream schools, were excluded blind such as Braille, use of the cane and from some classes and activities, especially life-skills training. She was not given Respondent C, who could not enhance her enough information about how to become physical abilities, as she was left to play independent and she distanced herself from alone with a ball. Respondent C also missed her blindness for fear of appearing different. the opportunity to acquire Braille skills, As a result of her lack of skills for the blind, despite it being provided, because she did she faced many difficulties at university. not want to appear to be different. This Overall, the benefits of schools for the made her illiterate during primary school. blind were the opportunity to participate in As for life-skills training, Respondent A all school activities and to acquire useful life had sufficient opportunities to enhance his skills. The benefits of mainstream schooling abilities for independence, through daily included being integrated into mainstream class activities and by living in a dormitory. society and acquiring communication skills. He naturally acquired mobility skills through On the other hand, the negative aspect of cane training, allowing him to visit various attending a school for the blind was that places in his free time, as well as get a job. students in such schools are in a fully- On the other hand, Respondent C did not
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receive life-skills training until she was 18, in class activities, misunderstood by and Respondent B acquired almost no life teachers and isolated from friends. By skills, even though some training was comparing themselves to others, such provided. Lack of life skills kept Respondent students begin to focus on what they B from going to his first choice of university, cannot do, rather than what they can, and from being employed and from going out can begin to lose their self-confidence by himself, although he seems satisfied with (Cole-Hamilton, 2000). his situation, in which he depends on his According to social identity theory, partner. However, it can be said that he has people establish their identity in relation to missed opportunities to gain independence similar or different groups. It is among and participate more in social life. people with similar characteristics that they Respondent C acquired sufficient skills at are able to have confidence as someone university, but admits that having training belonging to a group (Stets and Burke, from an earlier age would have been better. 2000). For students with special needs in Her school environment had not taught the mainstream schools, their identities are importance of acquiring life skills as a blind formed solely on the basis of observed person because she had been the only one differences between themselves and non- taking such training. disabled students, and they are often unable Overall, life-skills training, especially for to find a relatable group. In trying to mobility skills, seems to be necessary for establish a positive identity as someone in social participation and acceptance. By the mainstream, both Respondent B and acquiring such skills, blind people can Respondent C tried to fit in, tried not be enhance their independence and participate different and refrained from learning special more fully in society, such as by being skills and using special equipment. employed, accepted into university and Studies have shown disabled students in spending free time in public. Their special schools are more apt to establish a capabilities are guaranteed when they have positive identity because they can be the sufficient abilities and opportunities to take dominant group within the special part in society. Therefore, acquiring proper education school (Conley et al., 2007). The life skills is the key to social participation case of Respondent A supports this and ensuring people value their lives. argument. Respondent A was never a minority at his school, and he was able to 5.3 Identity construction based on social access all school facilities accessible and identity theory class content. Meeting other blind students Kent (1983), Cole-Hamilton (2000) and made him confident as a blind person. As C Warnock (2005) have discussed the explains, establishing a positive blind difficulty special needs students face in identity is necessary for social participation, gaining high self-esteem and confidence helping one to find ways to contribute to when they are included in classes with non- other in society; an attitude that creates disabled students. Indeed, the experiences equal friendship, as in A's case. Respondent of Respondents B and C showed they faced B's case verifies the difficulty of maintain a difficulty in socializing in mainstream friendship when the help is one-sided. From classes, although they were physically these reasons, establishing positive identity included. As Concley, Ohlen and Foulkes as blind persons, and identifying strengths, (2007) argue, it is difficult to accept one's weaknesses and ways to contribute are vital disability positively when one is left behind for social participation. Accordingly, blind
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schools may be better than mainstream person. Respondent C had the longest and schools in enabling blind students to most experience in mainstream society of construct positive identities. the three, and she mentioned that positive recognition of her disability and networking 5.4 Self-confidence and confidence in were reasons she gained employment. social participation However, although she seems to be Given that this study only examined three participating in society, she lacks confidence cases, it is not possible to make any in social participation. confident assertions about how a blind Contrary to popular belief, being person’s projected confidence will affect integrated into the mainstream at an early their performance in society, or whether age may not necessarily guarantee smooth higher participation in society translates social participation in the future, as was into higher confidence in social seen in the case of Respondent B. Therefore, participation, or if lack of practical a special school background may not lead experience translates into low confidence in to exclusion in later years. Respondents A social participation. and C, who were employed and spent their Respondent A reported feeling free time in public, emphasized high challenged in many ways, saying, 'it is very, mobility skills and positive identity as blind very difficult to participate in society’ as a persons as being vital for social blind person, in spite of having a positive participation. Their experiences indicate identity as a blind person, fruitful working that regardless of the kind of schooling or experience, spending leisure time outside the educational situation blind people go and working on a doctoral degree. He through, a positive sense of identity and emphasised that the acquisition of the high self-esteem as a blind person are the ability to participate in society does not factors that are most useful in enabling necessarily mean that others will them take part in society without difficulty. acknowledge those abilities. Thus, perhaps the place of learning is Respondents B and C tried to fit into secondary to the content learned, when mainstream schools and tried to act in the social participation is considered. same ways as sighted people. For Respondent B, being one of the mainstream members of society was more preferable to Conclusion being a blind person, and he therefore While inclusion is a major theme in refused to acquire the skills that would make education policy, little attention is given to him independent as a blind person, which, disabled students' experiences. In an effort arguably, disabled him. In spite of this, to address this, the study examined the Respondent B saw himself as being very experiences of three blind people and confident in social participation as a result analysed them from an insider’s viewpoint. of his experience of integration, even Analysis of the findings led to three though he had not established a positive conclusions. First, integration into the identity as a blind person and had little mainstream at an early age does not always practical experience in social participation. help blind student socialize and participate Respondent C was particularly determined in society smoothly in later years, and, on not to be different, as she did not want to the contrary, can reduce confidence and be a minority, but was therefore unable to limit a child’s ability to establish a positive establish a positive identity as a blind identity, due to feelings of isolation or an
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inferiority complex. Second, high self- Institute for the Blind. esteem and positive identity as blind Conley, T. D., Ghavami, N., Von Ohlen, J. and persons and life skills for independence Foulkes, P. 2007. General and contribute to employment, regardless of the domain-specific self-esteem among kind of schooling. Third, there may be no regular education and special link between projected confidence and education students. Journal of actual performance in terms of social Applied Social Psychology, Vol. 37, participation. No. 4, pp. 775-89. The researcher/author suggests that Stets, J. E. and Burke, P. J. 2000. Identity positive identity construction as a blind theory and social identity theory. person and life skills are the factors that are Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 63, essential for confident social participation, No. 3, pp. 224-37. and these must be fostered in education for Walker, M. 2005. Amartya Sen's capability the blind. Constructing a positive identity as approach and education. a blind person involves identifying one’s Educational Action Research. Vol. 13, strengths and weaknesses, and finding ways No. 1, pp. 103-10. to contribute to others. These processes can Warnock, M. 2005. Special educational contribute to blind children engaging in needs: A new look. Philosophy of mutual friendships and later finding Education Society of Great Britain, employment. At the same time, acquiring Vol. 11, No. 88, pp. 21-75. useful life skills such as mobility skills and housework skills enable blind people to become independent. The author proposes further studies based on semi-structured interviews covering a greater number of cases of varying backgrounds. This would result in a reliable database that would, in turn, allow for better decision-making as regards the education methods to be considered, so that those with visual impairments can participate in society with confidence on equal grounds. For this, the author emphasizes the need to re-examine the relationships between school experience, identity construction and social participation.
References Cole-Hamilton, I. and Vale, D. 2000. Shaping the future: The experiences of blind and partially sighted children and young people in the UK (Summary report). London, Royal National
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3. Vernacular Inclusive Education: ‘Reasonable Accommodation’ in Viet Nam
Kengo, Shirogane1 Biwako Gakuin University, Japan
to describe projects or initiatives which are 1. Introduction fundamentally concerned with ensuring that In 2006, the United Nations adopted the disabled children are attending school’ Convention on the Rights of Persons with (Grimes, 2012, p. 120). Disabilities (CRPD), which required State It is nonetheless fair to say that the parties ‘to ensure an inclusive education definition of inclusive education as an system at all levels and lifelong learning’ ‘ongoing process’ is equivocal in terms of its (article 24). As of 2017, the number of implementation in a specific educational signatories has reached 160, with each State institution. It was reasonable to define the party agreeing to the establishment of an process as a tentative one at its inception in ‘inclusive education system’. the 1990s (Sebba and Sachdeve, 1997)2, but International conventions of this kind many decades have since passed and the regard inclusive education as ‘an ongoing definition has been laid on the table for process aimed at offering quality education global debate. The concept has been for all while respecting diversity and the criticized for its lack of clarity as it is different needs and abilities, characteristics compounded with the term ‘special and learning expectations of the students and educational needs’ (SEN). Warnock (2010, p. communities, eliminating all forms of 32), the original proponent of SEN, argues discrimination’ (UNESCO, 2009, p. 18). As such, that ‘(t)he concept of inclusion springs from inclusive education focuses on reforming the hearts in the right place. Its meaning, however, education system, recognizing that schools is far from clear, and in practice it often means need accommodate diverse student needs that children are physically included but and abilities (UNICEF, 2003). emotionally excluded’. Her argument sparked This was regarded as ‘new integration debate, with one researcher retorting, after argument’, in that it arose from special considering her suggestion of possible education in order to renovate general options, that her argument does not address education (Shimizu, 2007, p. 3). Today the aim ‘how the ordinary schools system can be of inclusive education is to accommodate all reformed’ (Norwich, 2010, pp. 61-62). This children in the general education system in raises the question of how we can accordance with the principle of ‘enrolling all accommodate all children, regardless of SEN, children in regular schools, unless there are in the general education system. compelling reasons otherwise’ (italics by Now that it is accepted worldwide that author), as stated in the Salamanca Statement ‘(t)here are no universally agreed definitions (UNESCO and MoES Spain, 1994). In reality, for such concepts as special needs education however, particularly in developing countries, and inclusive education’ (WHO and World the term ‘inclusive education’ is ‘usually used Bank, 2011, p. 209), it is critical to discuss how
1 Email: [email protected] 2 Sebba and Sachdeve (1997) regarded inclusive education as a ‘working process’ and thus paid careful attention that certain groups of children should not be omitted due its over simplification.
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inclusive education can be implemented manner’, saying ‘(t)he orthodox view concretely within a domestic education policy contrasts the establishment of a system of arena so that the constitution, specific laws “inclusive” regular schools, supporting a wide and national education plans, which should range of SEN, with the “restrictive”, and be tailored to meet SEN, along with praxis in supposedly outmoded, provision of special terms of local realities, are taken into schools for “traditional” categories of consideration. disability’. They noted that the ‘problems are Thus far, some critics of the lack of local the supposed economic advantages of context in the implementation of inclusive inclusive schooling and the heavy reliance education have argued that inclusive placed on local communities and NGOs to education rarely presents a specific locality in support the education of disabled students’ tandem with its achievements (Kalyanpur, (p. 139). Therefore, it is fair to say that the 2014; Le Fanu, 2013; Grimes, Sayarath and limitations of inclusive education derive from Outhaithany, 2011). As the CRPD is an ‘the concept of normality’ (Terzi, 2004, p. 155), international convention, State parties are i.e. the ideal that all pursue. required to establish domestic legal From this point of view, this study frameworks, which are supposed to follow the focuses on reasonable accommodation, conditions of the convention by monitoring which, as defined in the CRPD means the process. However, how can states with ‘necessary and appropriate modification and developing conditions overcome such adjustments not imposing a disproportionate obstacles as lack of materials, information, or undue burden, where needed in a and specific skills to implement inclusive particular case, to ensure to persons with education? From this point of view, we have disabilities the enjoyment or exercise on an to admit that inclusive education has its own equal basis with others of all human rights limitations as long as it is based on a social and fundamental freedoms’ (article 2). model, which is ‘found in the idea of inclusive However, this study interprets ‘reasonable education’ (Baglieri and Shapiro, 2012, p. 28). accommodation’ within the country-specific Baglieri and Shapiro (2012, p. 29) note context of Viet Nam, a Socialist state that has that ‘Social models of disability assert that shifted towards a market economy with the disability is made meaningful in social policy of industrialization and modernization. interaction’. If so, it is inevitable for each state Viet Nam initiated the implementation to form its own ‘inclusive education’ model of ‘inclusive education’ in the 1990s, in spite because obstacles are specific to each of scarce administrative resources, and country or region and states must tackle the ratified the CRPD in 2015. Given the concept implementation of inclusive education based of reasonable accommodation, it can be on a social model, through ‘social interaction’. assumed that due to need, Viet Nam has Terzi (2004) asserts that even if a social model modified inclusive education in accordance derives from the materialist perspective, i.e. with its capacity and context but there is little what one cannot work at or study depends on research on how State parties implement where one lives, which also entails capitalism, inclusive education within their own there are two main criticisms: the materialist interpretation of ‘reasonable accommodation’. perspective relegates cultural aspects to the This study aims to portray the endemic margins and entails consideration of implementation of inclusive education by distributive justice. Urwick and Elliot (2010, p. means of the symbols of local language that 138) criticized the international orthodox view have their own meanings and definitions. on ‘inclusive schooling’ as ‘the doctrinaire Because the vernacular discourse in Viet
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Nam has its own methods (although its hoà nh p education inception was initiated by international The origins of education for children agencies), this paper begins with a with disabilities in Viet Nam can be traced to description of the process of forming hòa the late nineteenth century (1866) when the nh p education. The following section Thuận An Centre for the Deaf, the first focuses on initiatives in particular schools in institute for special education, was Hanoi, the capital of Viet Nam, where a established. This was followed by the unique approach to hòa nh p education can establishment of Nguy n ình Chiếu School be found. This is followed by a discussion of for the Blind in 1926 (Morisawa and Fujimoto, ‘reasonable accommodation’ in Viet Nam, 1999). Both schools were run by a Catholic considering the national strategy known as charity under the colonial regime, and there the Socialization of Education. were fewer than ten institutes at the time (Morisawa and Fujimoto, 1999). One year after independence, in 1945, the government issued a decree (s c lệnh) to address special 2. Hòa nhập education education for children with cognitive In the vernacular language of Viet Nam, disabilities (Decree 147, article 5), but the inclusive education is expressed as hòa nh p situation did not change much (Nanbu and education. In the Law on Persons with Shirogane, 2013). As of 1950, a mere 44 Disabilities, this is defined as a mode ‘to special schools had been established, educate children with disabilities together providing for fewer than 3,000 children with with those without disabilities in educational disabilities in 14 municipalities and provinces institutes’ (article 2), and is regarded as a (Hoàng c, 1994). primary means of educating children with Following north-south unification, the disabilities (article 28-2) while providing Politburo of the Vietnamese Communist Party alternatives: bán hòa nh p education and (VCP) issued Decision No. 14 (in 1979) to unify chuyên bi t education. The former is ‘semi- the education systems of the north and south, hòa nh p’ education, meaning that, in general, and to establish a system of nine years of children with disabilities are included in compulsory, free education. This noble ideal regular schools but are grouped in a special was unattainable, however, due to a lack of class, while the latter means special education. finances. However, the government promoted According to the MoET, in the the installation of a ‘Soviet-style education 2012/13 academic year there were system’, especially in the south, and at that approximately 1.2 million children with point ‘enrolment grew by some 260,000 disabilities nationwide; 52,711 were enrolled pupils per year’ (London, 2011, pp. 15-16). in primary-level hòa nh p education while Csapo (1983) reports that Viet Nam received 16,000 were enrolled in special education assistance for special education from the (MoET, 2015, p. 23). Because the net Soviet Union and was engaged in mutual enrolment ratio in that academic year was cooperation with other Socialist nations, and over 98 per cent, it is evident that a limited thus special education may have been a number of children with disabilities accessed means by which to draw on the assistance of primary education. other Socialist states, despite the period of diplomatic isolation and financial crisis (Shirogane, 2016). Against this backdrop, in 1987 UNESCO introduced to Viet Nam a mode of education 2-1. Discourse in vernacularism for
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wherein children with disabilities studied implemented by VNIES and international alongside children without disabilities (Lê Văn agencies such as Rädda Barnen (Save the T c, 2014) 3 ; this was called h i nh p Children Sweden) and Catholic Relief Services. education, as distinct from hòa nh p These international non-governmental education. According to T c, h i nh p organizations (INGOs) and multilateral education was regarded as ‘integrated agencies, such as UNICEF, were also involved education’, which meant ‘bringing children, in the implementation of hòa nh p education who are disabled but with development levels (Hoàng c, 1994). According to Villa et al. close to that of normal children, to study with (2003) Viet Nam established 36 special them (normal children) but doing nothing schools throughout the country during the about school education’. While this was pilot project. While the number of institutes is almost identical to bán hòa nh p education, disputed, the pilot project together with other as defined in the Law of Persons with projects gave an increased number of Disabilities, h i nh p education is no longer in children with disabilities access to school effect. education (Ryan, Thuy and Weills, 2002). Following the initiation of h i nh p Through these projects, ‘hòa nh p education’ education, a small, two-year, experimental became the accepted term 5 and Trần Văn project was piloted in 1989, and in 1991 the Bích (1994), who wrote about the pilot project government expanded the pilot project to at at the time, described it using the term hòa least seven provinces and municipalities, nh p education. including Ti n Giang, TP. H Chí Minh, TP. Hà Soon after the Convention on the Rights N i and Huế.4 The pilot project lasted for five of the Child was adopted at the General years, during which time hòa nh p education Assembly of the United Nations in December came into being. 1989, the Vietnamese government took The Vietnamese National Institute of prompt action to ratify the convention, and Educational Sciences (VNIES), to which the became, in February 1990, the second Center of Education for Children with country in the world to do so. The year 1991 Disabilities (the current Special Education was a pivotal one for education in Viet Nam Research Center) belongs, promoted hòa due to significant developments in local nh p education and provided 7,422 children legislation. The government passed two laws with disabilities (of whom 2,090 had cognitive in 1991: The Law on Universalization of disabilities) with the opportunity to study with Primary Education and the Law on Child children without disabilities (Trần Văn 1994, p. Protection, Care, and Education. The former 42). law regulates the responsibility of the While the pilot project was being government to provide education to children implemented, the government also with special difficulties (khó kh n c bi t) as encouraged community-based rehabilitation well as those with disabilities (article 11). (CBR) to mobilize local people and material to Furthermore, Decree (ngh nh) No. 338, provide rehabilitation for people with which forms part of the Law on disabilities in communities. This was Universalization of Primary Education, states
3 Lê Văn T c, the director of the Special seven provinces and municipalities, but he Education Research Center, Interviewed at only confirms four of them. the Vietnamese National Institute of 5 Interviewed at the Vietnamese National Educational Sciences on 7th November, Institute of Educational Sciences on 7th 2014. November, 2014 4 Lê Văn T c explained there should be
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that the Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Education, stating that the government would Affairs (MoLISA) should collaborate with the also ‘establish organizations to implement Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) to programmes and schemes for socialization in institutionalize compulsory education (article order to support people with disabilities’ 14-2). Because MoLISA was in charge of the (article 27-3). Thus, hòa nh p education came affairs of children with disabilities at that time, to develop its own characteristics, in tandem it took primary responsibility, but this with the policy of the Socialization of authority was transferred to MoET soon Education. afterwards.6 The government was promoting various activities with limited financial means, so the 2-2. Dissemination of hòa nh p mobilization of community resources became education a critical strategy to support the projects. In Through the legislation developed in 1996, the VCP adopted the policy of ‘the the 1990s, the government institutionalized Socialization of Education’ (giáo dục xã h i education, including education for children hóa) at the 8th National Congress. The report with disabilities. In 2001, the constitution was of the VCP Central Committee stated that the amended and article 36, which aims to government would promote investment for universalize primary education and eradicate development while encouraging illiteracy, was revised to also cover the contributions and donations from inside and universalization of secondary education. At outside the country ( ảng C ng Sản Việt that time, the gross enrolment ratio had risen Nam, 1996). Since then, legal documents in by over 103 per cent, and the net enrolment education have reflected this policy. ratio was approximately 96 per cent (MoET, The term hòa nh p education began to 2015, pp. 21-22). Meanwhile, the government appear in legal documents in the late 1990s. had established, under MoET, a steering In 1998, when the first comprehensive committee for the education for children with education law was passed in congress, the disabilities (Lê, 2009). Hence, the government Ordinance on Persons with Disabilities, which monitored educational activities for children was also the first legislation on disability, was with disabilities for the entire country. established. The ordinance states that the In 2006, MoET issued Decision No. 23, government ensures conditions to enable which aimed ‘to support children with individuals and organizations to open special disabilities to access equal rights of learning’, schools and special classes for children with and regulated the implementation of hòa disabilities (article 17-2). Furthermore, in nh p education in the general education article 16 the ordinance states that the system, the structure of which was a three- ‘learning of children with disabilities is layer hierarchy: MoET at the central level, the organized by means of a mode of studying in Department of Education and Training (DoET) hòa nh p at each regular school and special at the provincial level and the Board of school for people with disabilities, and Education (BoET) at the commune level. The nursery institutes to care for people with orders and directions of MoET are delivered disabilities and their family’. Accordingly, hòa to the DoET and BoET, and to the steering nh p education was to be implemented in committees under MoET and DoET. Decision both regular schools and in other education No. 23 lists the steering committees as a type settings and welfare institutes. The ordinance of organization with responsibility to consult also contains an article on the Socialization of with MoET and issue documents regarding
6 This occurred in 1995 by Government Decree No.26.
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hòa nh p education (article 23-2), and allows in 2008 and organized symposiums and the educational institutes that are under the small-scale round tables to obtain opinions authority of BoET for early childhood from experts and intelligentsia. According to education, primary education, and lower Lê Tiến Thành, MoET was actively committed secondary education to autonomously to the process of actualizing the first legal mobilize resources outside the country. Thus, principles of education for children with the implementation of hòa nh p education is disabilities and MoET attempted to lead the based on a hierarchical structure, and each initiatives of legal procedure in the education educational institute at the bottom of the arena, although a later joint-circular indicates structure can manage its implementation by that the boundary between MoET and means of the resources they mobilize. MoLISA was obscure. Moreover, it determines that schools, families, The Law on Persons with Disabilities and society as a whole should take made a difference to educational institutions responsibility for the education of children as it provided a legal definition of hòa nh p with disabilities for the sake of creating a education, stating the primary educational context in which high quality hòa nh p means as being educating children with education is delivered with efficacy. For these disabilities together with those without reasons, while hòa nh p education is based disabilities. The Law on Education, which was on a top-down system, there is to some amended in 2009, included special education extent leeway to manage its implementation. schools, primary schools and lower and Lê Tiến Thành, the former director of the higher secondary schools as ‘educational office for primary education at MoET, institutes’. Because of these legal provisions, observed that Decision No. 23 was well- hòa nh p education can be conducted in any prepared and gave MoET responsibility for educational institute as long as children with institutionalizing the system of education for disabilities study together with those without. children with disabilities under the rule of law According to Lê Tiến Thành, ‘general in the education arena.7 According to Lê Tiến education’ includes education for children Thành, Decision No.23 was the first with disabilities, and there is therefore no nationwide legal document for children with specific allocation for hòa nh p education or disabilities; prior to that there had not been for special education. Therefore, there is no demand in local regions to issue such a institutional boundary between hòa nh p document. education and other ‘modes’ of education, In 2006 the government also proposed that is, between bán hòa nh p education and a five-year national programme (2006-2010) chuyên bi t education. to support people with disabilities, in which In its Education Development Strategic MoLISA would be in charge of primary Plan (2011-2020), the government set a target activities. The following year, in 2007, the of ensuring 70 per cent of children with government signed the CRPD and promoted disabilities enter schools by 2020 (item 4-2b), the establishment of a comprehensive law on and aims to pursue the institutional people with disabilities. Taking this development of special education institutes opportunity, the government deliberated on (item 5-6c). Furthermore, according to Bùi a legislative action for the Law on Persons Việt Hùng, an officer in the Department of with Disabilities. According to Report No. 168 Primary Education in MoET, the ministry’s regarding a draft of the Law on Persons with education strategy now places a greater Disabilities, MoLISA established a committee emphasis on education for children with
7Interviewed on 17th November, 2014.
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disabilities, especially hòa nh p education in is concerned about this issue, and in the new line with the Law on Persons with Disabilities national programme for 2011-2020 and other pertinent laws.8 mentioned ASD for the first time in relation to In 2013, MoET, in partnership with the type of expertise teachers should enhance. MoLISA and the Ministry of Finance, issued However, ‘hòa nh p education for children Joint-circular No. 42, which confirms that with ASD currently has limitations, one of ‘people with disabilities study under the which is a problem of special education mode of hòa nh p education with the regular teachers’ (Education and Era, 2013). curriculum’ and notes that ‘when people with Furthermore, schools sometimes place disabilities do not have the capacity to meet restrictions on accepting children with the requirements of the regular curriculum, disabilities since the schools and teachers the head of the educational institute cannot deal with them. determines the arrangement, exemption, One example is the case of a boy with reduction or modification of the contents of ASD who was attending TQ primary school in the subject, or subjects, and educational Hanoi. Because of her son’s disability, the activities in order to accord with and actualize boy’s mother made sure to maintain a close an Individual Education Plan’ (article 3-1). relationship with the teacher in charge of her Likewise, the same provision is made for son’s class. However, when the boy advanced special education institutes, giving authority to Grade 4, he had a new teacher, who limited for the arrangement of the regular curriculum the boy’s class attendance to three times per to the head of special education institutes week. Moreover, the teacher assigned the boy (article 3-2). In short, education for children a seat at the back of the classroom. The boy’s with disabilities is regarded as a part of mother discussed the situation with the general education and numerical targets have principal, who took a one-off action that did been set in the national education strategy, not make any difference. The mother did not while authority for the implementation of hòa want to repeat her complaint because she nh p education has been given to the heads wanted to avoid conflict.10 of educational institutes, such as principals. According to Ph m Minh Mục, the vice Furthermore, hòa nh p education should be director of the Special Education Center, implemented regardless of the type of VNIES, many parents want their children to educational institute because it is a ‘mode’ of attend special schools instead of regular education. schools because of the better curricula at In recent years, t k (Autism Spectrum special schools and more opportunities to Disorder [ASD]) has become a social issue in exchange with other parents.11 Viet Nam. Education and Era, a Vietnamese In 2013, Hanoi People’s Committee newspaper, reported in 2013 that ‘the issued Plan No.161 (2013-2020) to support number of families that have children with people with disabilities, based on the national ASD increases daily, and it is in each big city’ programme, but this does not deal with the in Viet Nam, and more than 1,000 children new type of disability: ASD. Accordingly, with ASD study at the primary level in Hanoi school principals, such as the principal of Xã (Education and Era, 2013).9 The government àn School, accept children regardless of
8Interviewed on 22nd November, 2014. u.html (accessed 2016/03/06) Answers were retrieved via email after the 10 Semi-structured interview was interview. conducted on 24th March 2014. 9http://giaoducthoidai.vn/giao-duc/tre-tu- 11Interviewed at VNIES on 5th September ky-gap-ghenh-duong-toi-hoa-nhap-6416- 2013.
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their type of disability.
play the same role: Xã àn School for the Deaf 3. Hòa nhập education in Hanoi and Nguy n ình Chiếu (NDC) School for the Although Joint-circular No. 58, Blind. While regular schools and special issued by MoET and MoLISA, seeks to schools at primary level are under the establish a hòa nh p education development authority of the BoET, both of the special centre in each region, there is no such centre schools are under the DoET (see Figure 1). in Hanoi. Instead, special education centres
Figure 1. Xã Đàn School and NDC School in the education system
This section introduces some of the unique approaches of hòa nh p education that are found in these special schools.
the children would not be subject to prejudice 3-1. Xã Đàn School there. He feels, however, that if parents Xã àn School is located in ng a selected a regular school with only a few District and provides education from early children with disabilities, their children would childhood to lower secondary level, mainly for be alienated. At Xã àn School, by contrast, children with hearing impairments. Class sizes they would be united without any issues vary from 5 to 25 children. According to the because many children with disabilities attend principal, most of the students are hearing the school. The principal claims that the impaired or blind, and the school has accepted teachers have expertise in special education children with ASD. Tests to move to the higher and are equipped to deal with disabilities. A grades are administered to children with ASD teacher with nine years’ experience, who and to those with hearing impairments. teaches 23 children at Grade 2 level, concurred, According to the school principal, if saying that children can study regardless of parents select Xã àn School for their children,
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their disability.12 impairments, was taught by a teacher with 22 In terms of the Socialization of Education years’ experience.16 In the observed class, the policy, the principal reported that the school teacher taught writing using the blackboard, functions very well because parents are ready while children with visual impairment studied to support the school; some have offered by means of Braille boards. During the class, financial contributions to build a school yard, the teacher circulated among the students’ and wealthy parents have donated computers. desks to check their spelling and Braille letters. A Dutch children’s fund provided information When interviewed, the teacher admitted that and materials regarding teacher training for teaching writing to the students was ‘a the school. Given that there are many poor laborious task’. She noted that ‘in hòa nh p districts near the school, the principal felt that education, teachers are required not only to Xã àn School needs to present its keep attending to those with visual effectiveness for children in poverty. Overall, impairment but to also consider the contents Xã àn School not only accepts children with for them in order that they do not disturb the various types of disability, but also class and do not distract the non-disabled redistributes resources deriving from various children’. organizations and individuals to children of all Regarding training, the teacher kinds. explained that when she came to NDC School, she was unable to participate in study sessions 3-2. NDC School with other teachers, so she studied by herself NDC School, located in Hai Bà Trưng when provided with a Braille board. She also District, provides primary and secondary joined a summer intensive course provided by education to children with visual impairments. VNIES, and said it was better to learn in this It particularly caters for children from remote environment than autonomously. She noted areas, so has a dormitory. According to the that NDC School takes pre-service students vice principal,13 the school curriculum is based from normal universities, and makes efforts in on one provided by MoET, but the school also teacher training. With regard to the provides extra classes that enable children to Socialization of Education policy, she noted learn skills for daily life and how to move to that in addition to support from INGOs, the another class. Until around 2003, several school used to receive help from local people INGOs visited NDC School and a teacher at the who volunteered to support the school life of school noted that NDC School began to children with disabilities. accept children without disabilities and adopt According to the teacher, ‘children hòa nh p education because a visiting INGO without visual impairment are familiar with recommended an educational model where those with visual impairment, but when they children with disabilities study together with are asked to play together, especially when those without.14 non-disabled children play, those with visual Observation of a class at NDC School impairments tend to be left out’. The school revealed how the hòa nh p education system organizes extra-curricular activities, such as a operates there.15 The Grade 3 class, with 57 tug of war on 26 March, and at that time children, including three children with visual ‘children with visual impairments can play
12Interviewed on 11th September 2013. Foundation in 2012. 13 Interviewed on 12th September 2013. 16The observation was conducted with 14 Interviewed on 12th September 2013. videotape recording, with permission from 15 Note: The school visits and observation the teacher in charge, on 12th September were supported by the Kyoto University 2013.
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together with non-disabled children, but on further justification for reducing public sector other occasions, play between them is limited’. intervention and social protection measures’. Thus, it appears that although disabled and Urwick and Elliott (2010, p. 139) likewise argue non-disabled children study together, such that the ‘problems are the supposed economic connection does not occur in all aspects of advantages of inclusive schooling and the school life. heavy reliance placed on local communities These cases indicate that school and NGOs to support the education of principals and teachers have much leeway in disabled students’. This is the case in Viet Nam, managing hòa nh p education. This view is especially since the launch of the policy of the backed up by, Lê Tiến Thành, the former Socialization of Education. As London (2007, p. director of MoET, who explained that MoET 425) noted, ‘Socialization (xã h i hóa) is an does not apply a uniform educational strategy oddity, lying somewhere between an to all children with disabilities, ‘although we institutionalized rhetorical refrain and official distinguish the degree of disability’. Hence, doctrine … [I]n the “post-subsidy period” (hàu while the government has a concrete thòi [sic] k bao c p), the state cannot provide definition of hòa nh p education and monitors for all needs and therefore the state must educational activities via a hierarchical encourage and create conditions for “all structure, it ensures leeway for its segments of society” to contribute to the implementation in order to enable schools to provision of education’. Thus, the mobilization arrange their own accommodations for of resources in the community enables the children with disabilities, considering on-site government to justify insufficient allocation of conditions. Likewise, VCP promotes the financial resources to education for disabled Socialization of Education to mobilize students. resources inside and outside the country, and While hòa nh p education is based on a in fact the schools gain materials and human hierarchical structure, in which MoET delivers assistance as well as information and skills its orders and directions through DoET and even if they remain under the authority of VCP BoET, and primary schools and special schools due to the Socialist policy. that follow hòa nh p education are supposedly under the authority of BoET, the reality is that schools such as Xã àn School 4. Discussion and NDC School are actually under the In this section, we discuss the distinct authority of DoET, which controls BoET, and value of hòa nh p education in relation to the both schools play the role of hòa nh p assumption of Viet Nam’s own ‘reasonable education centres and conduct inverse hòa accommodation’. nh p education by accepting both children In the inclusive education discourse, with disabilities and without disabilities. ‘community’ has been highly valued. The CRPD Accordingly, these special schools are under a emphasises ‘full inclusion’ with ‘community higher authority, but are allowed to implement support services’ (article19b), as do a more flexible mode of hòa nh p education international agencies. However, as observed while also mobilizing resources from both by Grech (2011, p. 93) the use of “community” inside and outside the country. However, they as a strategy in development’ in the discourse at least implement hòa nh p education for the of people with disabilities increases, and ‘the people concerned, that is, the children with endorsement of a community that has only disabilities and the government. beneficial qualities (especially cost- As noted earlier, ‘reasonable effectiveness and independence) provides accommodation’ seeks ‘appropriate
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modification and adjustment, not imposing a 5. Conclusion: Implementation of disproportionate or undue burden’ so that a vernacularism ‘disproportionate’ burden is not placed on This study examined hòa nh p education those that implement inclusive education. In by investigating its specific discourse to form this vein, hòa nh p education is regarded as its own figure and unique approach in special ‘adapted’ to the conditions of education in schools. As likened to Ngo et al. (2006), the Viet Nam (Shirogane, 2015, p. 411), annexed analysis based on vernacularism for inclusive with influences from international agencies. It education, that is hòa nh p education in Viet can also be a ‘reasonable’ approach for the Nam, uses the symbol of a local context. To Vietnamese government to mobilize criticize the global trend or international extraneous and autonomous resources for the agencies may be easy, but few scrutinize and implementation of education strategies, pay close attention to their own locality and because the entire national policy has shifted how it functions. This paper therefore towards industrialization and modernization examined the local situation Viet Nam by and the government lacked resources at the means of vernacularism for inclusive outset. Although there are criticisms of the education to differentiate its nature from the ‘cost-effectiveness’ and ‘heavy reliance’ on this international ideal. kind of attitude, that is the Socialization of It was found that hòa nh p education Education, it can meet the terms of functions on the basis of a hierarchal structure ‘reasonable accommodation’ for the and is combined with the Socialization of government to implement hòa nh p Education policy. It is fundamental that the education in Viet Nam, and this leads to its government implement the educational unique approach to accommodating children strategy in a ‘reasonable’ way, but still allow in educational institutes regardless of their educational institutes to ‘accommodate’ disabilities. As Urwick and Elliott noted children with disabilities. Although this can be ‘“(p)rogress” is thought to require change in a similar line to ‘cost-effective’ or ‘heavy towards the new paradigm of inclusive reliance’, it remains a feasible way for the schooling and the term “special education” government to implement such education and itself is called into question as being too has led to a unique approach. suggestive of the vilified medical model’ It can be concluded that it is time to (Urwick and Elliott, 2010, p. 138). consider diversity in inclusive education, and This can be rebutted in the global not cling to the original definition, because discourse induced by international agencies, that can only be discussed in a vacuum. but not in the country-specific context of Viet Moreover, Grech (2011) and other scholars Nam. The Vietnamese educational structure is have proposed that there should be based on a top-down system and lacks alternative arenas in which to interpret resources, but still has leeway for inclusive education, 17 which can enable the modifications at the lowest level. Therefore, in debate to supersede dichotomies, i.e. between the Vietnamese context, ‘reasonable a medical model/social model, global/local, accommodation’ fundamentally allows the and so on. government to give scope to children with However, this study has its own disabilities, but only as an ideal. limitations since it only examined the subject from the perspective of a policy-maker, and looked only at the situation in specific special
17Connor et al. (2008) also proposed alongside inclusive education studies. possible approaches in disability studies
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schools in Hanoi. Nevertheless, it explored Hoàng c, N.. 1994. Giáo Dục Trẻ Khuyết Tật inclusive education diversity and variety of Việt Nam: Mục Tiêu và Giải Pháp. forms. T p chí Thông tín Khoa học Giáo dục, Vol. 42, pp. 5-9. Kalyanpur, M. 2014. Distortions and dichotomies in inclusive education for References children with disabilities in Cambodia Baglieri, S. and Shapiro, A. 2012. Disability in the context of globalisation and studies and the inclusive classroom: international development. Critical practices for creating least International Journal of Disability, restrictive attitudes. New York, Development and Education, Vol. 61, Routledge. No. 1, pp. 80-94. Connor, D. J., Gabel, S. L., Gallagher, D. J. and Le Fanu, G. 2013. The inclusion of inclusive Morton, M. 2008. Disability studies education in international and inclusive education: Implications development: Lessons from Papua for theory, research, and practice. New Guinea. International Journal of International Journal of Inclusive Educational Development Vol. 33, No. Education, Vol. 12, No. 5-6, pp. 44157. 2, pp. 139-48. Csapo, M. 1983. Education and special London, J. D. 2011. Contemporary Vietnam’s education in Vietnam. British education system: Historical roots, Columbia Journal of Special Education, current trends. J. D. London (ed.), Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 27989. Education in Vietnam. Singapore, ảng C ng Sản Việt Nam. 1996. Báo cáo c a Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Ban Ch p hành Trung ng ng pp. 1-56. khóa VII t i i h i i bi u toàn qu c Morisawa, M. and Bunro, F. 1999. Vietnam. T. l n th VIII c a ng. Mogi and S. Shimizu (eds.), Grech, S. 2011. Recolonising Debates or Tenkankino Shogaiji Kyoiku 6: Sekaino Perpetuated Coloniality? Decentring Shogaiji Kyoiku/Tokubetuna Niizu the Spaces of Disability, Development Kyoiku. Tokyo, Atene Shobo, pp. 267- and Community in the Global South. 88. International Journal of Inclusive Nanbu, H. and Kengo, S. 2013. Development Education, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 87-100. of policies to support education for all Grimes, P., Sayarath, K. and Outhaithany, S. in Vietnam and China: Focusing on 2011. The Lao PDR inclusive education children with special needs. Kyoto project 1993-2009: Reflections on the University Research Studies in impact of a national project aiming to Education, Vol. 59, pp. 12549. support the inclusion of disabled Ngo, T. M., Lingard, B., and Mitchell, J. 2006. students. International Journal of The Policy Cycle and Vernacular Inclusive Education Vol. 15, No 10, pp. Globalization: A Case Study of the 1135-52. Creation of Vietnam National Grimes, P. 2012. Developing inclusive schools: University-Hochiminh City. An international case study. J. Comparative Education. Vol. 42, No. 2, Cornwall and L. Graham-Matheson pp. 225-42. (eds.), Leading on Inclusion: Dilemmas, Norwich, B. 2010. A response to ‘Special Debates and New Perspectives. New Educational Needs: A New Look’. M. York, Routledge, pp. 120-31. Warnock and B. Norwich (eds.),
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Special Educational Needs: A New Look pp. 13750. Key Debates in Educational Policy Villa, R. A., Le, V. T., Pham, M. M., Ryan, S., Series (gen. ed. L. Terzi). London, Nguyen, T. M. T., Weill, C. and Continuum International Publishing Thousand, J. 2003. Inclusion in Viet Group, pp. 47-113. Nam: More than a decade of Ryan, S., Thuy, Bs. and Weills, C. 2002. Inclusion implementation. Research and of children with disabilities in Viet Practice for Persons with Severe Nam. The Journal of International Disabilities Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 23-32. Special Needs Education, Vol. 5, pp. Warnock, M. 2010. Special educational needs: 41-50. A new look. M. Warnock and B. Sebba, J. and Sachdeve, D. 1997. What works Norwich (eds.), Special Educational in inclusive education? Basildon, Essex, Needs: A New Look. ,Key Debates in Barnardo’s Publications. Educational Policy Series (gen. ed. L. Shimizu, S. 2007. Concept of inclusive Terzi). London, Continuum schooling and associated difficulties. International Publishing Group, pp. Japanese Journal on the Issues of 11-46. Persons with Disabilities, Vol. 35, No. 2, World Health Organization (WHO) and World pp. 82-90. Bank. 2011. World Report on Disability. Shirogane, K. 2016. Political intention in Geneva, World Health Organization Vietnam behind the educational policy for children with disabilities: Focusing on the rights through legal documents. Kyoto University Research Studies in Education, Vol. 62, pp. 411- 23. Terzi, L. 2004. The social model of disability: A philosophical critique. Journal of Applied Philosophy, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 141-57. Trần Văn, B. 1994. Kết quả bước đầu công tác giáo dục trẻ chậm phát triển trí tuệ theo hướng hòa nhập. Thông tin Khoa học giáo dục, Vol. 42, pp. 42-44. UNICEF. 2003. Inclusive education initiatives for children with disabilities. Bangkok: UNICEF. UNESCO. 2009. Inclusive education: The way of the future: International Conference on Education, Forty-eighth session, 25-28 November 2008. Geneva, UNESCO. Urwick, J. and Elliott, J. 2010. International orthodoxy versus national realities: Inclusive schooling and the education of children with disabilities in Lesotho. Comparative Education, Vol. 46, No. 2,
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4. Inclusive education in Singapore: From the perspectives of efficiency versus equity
Yuko Nonoyama-Tarumi, Musashi University, Japan
1. Introduction 2. Policy for students with special Inclusive education, a concept to needs embrace diversity and to grant individuals In 2004, Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong with disabilities equal opportunities to be articulated, in his inauguration speech, his educated in mainstream schools, is an vision of an ‘inclusive society’. This was a key increasingly popular concept worldwide. turning point for education for students Investigating how this concept of inclusive with disabilities in Singapore, as it was education is practiced and perceived in immediately followed by his call for the Singapore leads to questioning educational integration of students with disabilities into efficiency versus equity. Singapore is known mainstream schools, and the commitment for its highly competitive education system, of 200 million Singapore dollars (SGD) per in which children are sorted into different year for special needs training for both tracks early on, based on their performance mainstream and special school teachers in high-stakes national examinations. (Lim et al., 2014). This change was followed Turner’s ‘sponsored mobility’ can be applied by Singapore’s signing of the United to explain the key role the school plays in Nations Convention on the Rights of efficiently sorting students into niches and Persons with Disabilities in 2008 and identifying and selecting a group of elite ratification in 2014. students (Ye and Nylander, 2015). Although efforts have been made since How does inclusive education, which 2004 to improve the provision of support emphasizes equity, unfold in an efficiency- for students with disabilities, Singapore still driven (Ng, 2008) elitist (Lim et al., 2014) lacks special education legislation (Wong education system? This study will examine and Wong, 2015). Indeed, the concept of this question through: (1) briefly reviewing inclusion is still evolving in Singapore, and the macro-level policy on education for scholars have pointed out that the term children with disability in Singapore, (2) ‘inclusion’ is rarely used in the education describing the meso-level mechanisms in discourse within policies, curricula and teacher place to implement inclusive education, and education (Lim et al., 2014). This reluctance to (3) analyzing micro-level teachers’ using the term ‘inclusive’ education was perceptions of inclusive education. This evident in interviews with Ministry of study is based on the author’s visit to Education (MOE) officers, who emphasized Singapore in February 2014, during which that the Singapore model is based more on the author interviewed education policy- ‘integration’, and that a pragmatic approach is makers, experts in inclusive education, taken by trying to find the best placement for principals and teachers, and conducted a each student and providing differentiated small survey in four selected schools. The support. In the Singaporean context, the term survey sought to extract teachers’ views on ‘inclusion’ comes with a heavy responsibility, the rationale for, and the effects of, inclusive raising the questions of ‘inclusion of whom’ education and special schools. and ‘to what extent’. Researchers and MOE officers emphasized that Singapore, as a late-
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comer, needs to construct its own version of remedial support for academic subjects, and culturally appropriate ‘inclusive’ education. case management (Lim et al., 2014). AEDs are responsible for providing systematic structure and approaches to support students with 3.Systems to implement inclusive disabilities so that those students are able to education manage the academic, social, physical and emotional demands of school life. The support 3-1. Allied educators in mainstream is provided in three ways: in-class support, schools withdrawal and pull-out support, and skills Singapore has a dual system, in which training. In-class support includes children with severe disabilities are served in differentiated worksheets, instructions, charts separate special schools and children with and schedules to help students understand mild and moderate disabilities attend general basic instructions of learning. Withdrawal education schools. According to the ‘Enabling support, usually implemented during non- Masterplan 2012’, an estimated 2.5 per cent of core classes, and pull-out support, children (about 13,000) aged between 7 and implemented before and after school, includes 18 years have disabilities, and of these about individual and small group support to boost 7,600 are in mainstream schools and 5,400 in basic literacy skills, social skills and study habit special schools (Wong et al., 2015). The skills. Skills training includes organizing social government fully funds and operates more skills camps and days in which students learn than 300 mainstream primary and secondary and practice basic life skills, such as table schools, while the 20 special schools are co- etiquette, hygiene, sandwich making, etc. funded by the government and social The other initiative launched by the organizations, leading to differing levels of government was to train a group of teachers quality in the special schools (Lim et al., 2014). in each school to become Teachers of Students Following Prime Minister Lee’s pledge, the with Special Needs (TSNs) and to act as Ministry of Education led two initiatives to resource persons in their schools. As of 2014, better support students with special needs in all mainstream schools had at least one AED, mainstream schools. One, initiated in 2005, and 10 per cent of the mainstream primary was the creation of a new kind of education school teachers and 20 per cent of the para-professional in mainstream schools secondary school teachers had been trained called Allied Educators for Learning and as TSNs (Lim et al., 2014). Behaviour Support (AEDs). AEDs were created to support mainstream teachers working with 3-2. Partnerships between special children with mild and moderate disabilities. schools and mainstream schools Providing every mainstream school with Another new form of inclusive education in additional human resources (AEDs) was a Singapore, referred to as the ‘satellite inclusion concrete expression of the government’s model’, is a partnership between mainstream commitment to include more children with schools and special schools. In this model, SEN special educational needs (SEN) in mainstream students attend classes in the partnership schools. AEDs are not ‘special education mainstream school with the support of special teachers’, although they take part in a one- education teachers for part of the day, and year full-time special education diploma attend classes in a special school for the rest programme. Their role is to complement the of the day. The ministry describes this form of work of classroom teachers, through small support as unique, as it is designed for group specialist remedial lessons, small group students with high severity of disability but skills training, individual or small group
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who also have high cognitive ability. This recognized as a structured and pragmatic reflects Singapore’s pragmatic approach and approach to create inclusive learning emphasis on meritocracy, as finding the best environments through building disability placement of students depends not only on awareness of peers. the severity of their disabilities but also on the In School A, the AEDs clearly played a key students’ cognitive abilities. role in providing systematic support through in-class assistance and withdrawal sessions. In the after-school pull-out programme that the 4.School visits researcher observed, for example, an AED provided a well-organized 30-minute remedial 4-1. Mainstream school with Allied lesson to three students with dyslexia. Educators While the AED programme is effective, it should be noted that AEDs cannot achieve the The researcher visited two schools. The first desired results without support from other one, School A, a primary school (Grade 1 to school staff. As of 2017, one or two AEDs are Grade 6), had 1,400 students enrolled, of responsible for an unpredictable number of which 55 were children with special students with various kinds of disabilities as educational needs, and had two AEDs and well as for changing the mindset of students seven TSNs. without disabilities. For Singapore’s schools to In School A, the AEDs not only performed become more inclusive and more encouraging the usual tasks but were also in charge of of the physical presence of SEN students and creating an inclusive learning environment also their participation and achievement, the and raising disability awareness among all key may be to what extent the schools value school actors. For example, they enhance the AEDs as learning partners, and to what extent disability awareness of school staffs through the educators and para-educators share their newsletters and arranging meetings with TSNs, vision of ‘inclusivity’ and collaborate towards and they raise the awareness of students the common goal (Lim et al., 2014). without special needs through assembly and classroom talks. The school has several programmes that 4-2. Satellite model school – special aim, specifically, to create caring and school in partnership with compassionate peers: (1) The ‘Pastoral Care mainstream schools Leaders’ programme, in which a few students The second school visited by the researcher, without disabilities are selected to be School B, implements the satellite inclusion responsible for creating positive social, model. The school, for students from Grade 1 emotional and behavioural awareness and to Grade 6, is a special school for the deaf, with practices among all pupils; (2) the ‘Classroom 89 students enrolled at the time of the visit, Buddy’ programme, in which students are and has established partnerships with two selected as buddies of students with special mainstream primary schools. The school’s needs and receive special training on disability philosophy emphasizes that students need to awareness; and the (3) ‘Circle of Friends’ be emerged in a language-rich environment, programme, a facilitated and monitored as reflected in the principal’s statement that platform through which students with special ‘language is caught, not taught’. needs and students without special needs can The basic model is for SEN students to learn work together through games during recess. alongside mainstream classmates, with Although these initiatives are still new and support. Students are banded based on their effects have not been measured, they are ability to manage mainstream curricula and on
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their linguistic (receptive and expressive The two systems in Singapore have very language) abilities. Students at high different approaches to inclusive education. performing levels go under full inclusion from The former is geared towards mild and the beginning. Students at middle performing moderate SEN students, who have high levels have a mix of full and partial inclusion. functional abilities and can therefore cope Students at low performing levels go under with the rigour of the national curriculum, and partial inclusion. However, as students this system is implemented nationwide. The progress, their abilities change and they are latter is geared towards severe SEN students re-assessed accordingly. and is at a pilot stage, and is considered a The school believes that the assessment of satellite. These approaches to integrating abilities enables the necessary remedial students into mainstream schools with measures to be provided to weaker students. different levels of support may be seen as During the visit to School B, the researcher reflecting Singapore’s ‘pragmatic’ approach to observed a group of hearing impaired inclusive education. students studying in mainstream classrooms in the morning, with the presence of special school teacher, who provided additional 5.Teacher’s perceptions on inclusive support and instruction whenever necessary. education: Quantitative findings The special school teacher also provided This section highlights some of the findings informal support to students without of the teacher survey implemented in four disabilities when necessary, creating an schools in Singapore: two mainstream schools environment similar to team-teaching. In the and two special schools. Three schools were afternoon, the hearing impaired students went primary schools and one was a junior back to the special school and received secondary school. A total of 70 teachers remedial lessons in classes that had as few as responded to the survey, of which 45 were five and a maximum of 15 students. mainstream school teachers and 25 were School B also provides SEN students with special school teachers. The four selected support lessons to enable them to work on schools are not, by any means, representative their oral development capabilities, and onsite of schools in Singapore. The quantitative data audio and technical support. The school should therefore be interpreted as summary of principal has a strong leadership style, with four cases studies, rather than an indication of experience as a vice principal in a reputable the wider situation in Singapore. Hence, no mainstream school prior to her current statistical analysis is conducted. position. Furthermore, she possesses a clear The first survey question was ‘Where and vision, expressed as follows: ‘inclusion cannot how should we educate children with be some kind of [special] event but rather, a disabilities in your country?’ The respondents way of life’; and ‘educators need to be clear on were given five responses to choose from (see “why inclusion” [is important], and not be too Table 1). The first two responses can be obsessed with “how to include”’. She claims, interpreted as preferring mainstream with passion, that the teachers at her special placement, whereas the next two responses school are ‘school ambassadors’ who, in the can be interpreted as preferring special school end, will transform the thinking of teachers in placement. The final response does not mainstream schools so they believe it is good indicate a preference for mainstream or to have students with special needs and that special schools. The responses indicate that a ‘it is good to teach students with and without slightly larger percentage of teachers believe disabilities’. that students with disabilities should be
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educated in mainstream schools (50 per cent) mainstream school teachers believed it is rather than in special education schools (41 better to educate SEN children in special per cent). When examining the responses by schools rather than in mainstream schools, school types, mainstream school teachers only 33 per cent of special school teachers felt tended to have a less favourable view of this way. Table 1 summarizes the responses. inclusive education. While, 45 per cent of
Table 1 Teachers’ views of mainstream and special school placements
Mainstream school Special school All teachers teachers teachers
All children with disabilities should be educated in norm a l cla sse s with 2% 0% 4% their peers without disabilities
In principal, children with disabilities should be educated in normal cla sse s, but children with severe disabilities should be educated in special 48% 48% 50% schools
In principal, children with disabilities should be educated in spe cia l cla sse s, but children who are capable and/or wish to join the normal class 39% 43% 33% should be educated with their peers without disabilities in normal classes
All children with disabilities should be educated in spe cia l cla sse s with 2% 2% 0% their peers with disabilities
Children with disabilities have the right to choose their education, whether 9% 7% 13% it be normal class or special class
To identify the teachers’ rationales for in terms of human rights and political promoting mainstream placement or special perspectives, teachers generally believed that school placement, teachers were asked to rate educating SEN children in mainstream schools several statements from 1 (strongly disagree) guaranteed the rights of children with SEN and to 5 (strongly agree). As shown in Figure 1, in contributed to the foundation of society general, teachers gave stronger rationale for without discrimination. mainstream placement. Especially when asked
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Figure 1. Teachers’ rationale for mainstream and special school placement (all teachers)
When examined by school type, the results contributes to the quality of education for indicate that mainstream school teachers gave children with SEN’ is the same as ‘special approximately same levels of justification for school placement’. However, special school both mainstream placement and special teachers rated lower levels of justification for school placement. For example, the rating of special school placement (Figure 2 and Figure ‘to what extent mainstream placement 3).
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Figure 2. Teachers’ justifications of mainstream and special school placement (mainstream school teachers)
Figure 3. Teachers’ justifications of mainstream and special school placement (special school teachers)
One needs to be careful in interpreting this schools. Nevertheless, the fact that teachers difference because one of the two special who have more experience with SEN students schools surveyed (School B) was a school that and more training in special education rated was implementing inclusive education as a mainstream placement more positively may pilot model under the strong leadership of a have an important implications in principal and this may have created a more implementing inclusive education in positive attitude among these teachers Singapore. towards educating SEN children in mainstream
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6. Teacher’s perceptions of having children with disabilities in mainstream inclusive education: Qualitative school affect children with disability in their findings cognitive as well as non-cognitive skills?’ Many teachers wrote extensively, filling up the half- At the end of the questionnaire, mainstream page box for each question, suggesting that school teachers were asked to write freely in teachers grappled with inclusive education as response to two questions: ‘In your view, how their own issues. Table 2 summarizes the key does having children with disabilities in ideas extracted from the responses and the mainstream school affect children without frequency with which they appeared across disability in their cognitive as well as non- the 45 respondents. The concepts are grouped cognitive skills?’ and ‘In your view, how does into cognitive and non-cognitive effects and ranked by their frequencies.
Table 2. Effects of inclusive education on students with and without disabilities
Effects on Children without Disability Effects on Children with Disability Cognitive Effects Non-Cognitive Effects Cognitive Effects Non-Cognitive Effects Slow down the progress of Develop compassion and Struggle to keep with the Develop social interaction learning 9 empathy 15 pace; need special support 7 skills 8 Develop awareness of Feel accepted in the class No or little impact 4 disability 11 Better learning opportunities 5 and society 7 Learn to help others and to Strengthen understanding 4 reach out 11 Higher motivation to learn 2 Develop life skills 6
Disruption to class 3 Inspired by resilience 6 Feel academic pressure 2 Better self-esteem 5 Develop social skills to build Learn to work harder 2 freindship with different people 6 No or little impact 1 Feel excluded 5 Develop tolerance and patience 5 Feel inferior 1
Develop respect 3
Overall, more extensive comments were comments, although not a majority, such as, provided in response to the question when children with disability learn with regarding the effects on students without children without disability they ‘show better disabilities, especially in the area of non- cognitive results because in order to cater to cognitive effects. Teachers wrote extensively in the needs of all students, more differentiated terms of how having students with disabilities curricula and evaluation systems are used. This in mainstream schools positively influences benefits all the students since the whole the characters of students without disabilities, school model is changed from being a through developing competencies such as product-oriented to process-oriented way of compassion, understanding and respect. teaching’. The responses to the questions indicated Some salient comments in terms of the that teachers had negative views in terms of cognitive effects on students with disabilities the cognitive effects for students with SEN and included the following: ‘they struggle to keep those without SEN. For example, one up with the fast pace’, and as a result are ‘often comment about the cognitive effects on left behind’. One teacher commented, ‘In my children without SEN was: ‘teachers need to view, children with disability need more slow down the pace of teaching’ and, as a support within the school environment to do result, ‘delay the learning pace of the class’. better, otherwise they are at risk of dropping However, there were some contradicting out’. Another teacher wrote that, ‘As it is,
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children without disabilities are pressured in that society reflects what is taught and school due to exams and an increase in experienced inside the classroom, they tended content knowledge for every subject. As such, to emphasize the positive non-cognitive why do we need to get children with effects. Such teachers believed that a feeling disabilities to also become more pressured, by of acceptance or receiving equal treatment getting them to go through the same within the classroom created a more fair and curriculum?’ However, there were also some inclusive society. alternative views. For example, students with The numerous negative comments disabilities ‘obtain extra help through regarding cognitive effects on both students specialized resource persons who have the with and without disabilities reveal the skills and knowledge to teach children with pressure that teachers in Singapore face to disabilities and meet their academic needs’ help their students excel academically. The and ‘inclusive education is better for them; for results of national examinations are the most instance, students with hearing impairments visible measure of achievement for teachers are exposed to the better language skills of the and parents and, as a result, greater emphasis children with normal hearing’. These views is often put on examinable subjects, regardless reveal that the academic rigour and of the educational discourse. As Wong et al. competition embedded in the Singapore (2015) found, through interviews with parents, education system leads to heated debate in the over-emphasis on academic achievement terms of the cognitive effects of inclusive forced parents of children with disabilities to education on both children with and without invest in private tuition. Accordingly, Wong et disabilities. al. called for Singapore to develop a broader Many teachers noted that when they mix definition of ‘merit’, that is, recognizing forms with non-SEN students, students with SEN of achievement other than academic. The develop social skills, such as ‘learning how to numerous positive comments regarding non- interact with students without SEN’, and life cognitive effects, especially for students skills, such as ‘learning how to behave without disabilities, indicate the desire of appropriately in social contexts and to teachers to provide holistic education in an function in a bigger community when they already competitive system. Teachers’ grow older’. Many teachers also felt that comments on the impact of integrating inclusive education develops a feeling of students into mainstream schools clearly acceptance. For example, one teacher wrote indicates that teachers face conflicting that, ‘Children with disabilities will know that demands as they strive to help students they can stand tall and assimilate with the acquire new knowledge and skills in the masses. They are no “different” to a certain necessary timeframe, along with the character extent’, while another wrote that ‘For them to and values necessary to live as a global citizen integrate into society, the earlier the children in a changing world. with disabilities are provided with equal opportunities, the better they are able to find their footing in education and society’. 7. Conclusions There were also negative comments with Through reviewing the policy and regard to the non-cognitive effects on children mechanisms of education for students with with SEN, with some teachers commenting disabilities in Singapore, this study identified that SEN students received negative treatment features of Singapore’s unique and ‘pragmatic’ from classmates, resulting in a feeling of approach to inclusive education. The ‘dual exclusion. However, when teachers believed system’ has inherited Singapore’s tradition of
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tracking and sorting students by ability, and versus resource classes (Elbaum, 2002), and the emphasis on ‘finding the best placement with different models of support (Allodi, 2000), for the student’. This approach presents an such as in-class support versus resource room interesting case in studying how inclusive support (Wiener and Tardif, 2004). While these education unfolds in different social contexts. studies are beneficial in explaining how to Three conclusions can be drawn from the provide better support for students with study. First, the new initiatives, AEDs and disabilities, they do not necessarily answer the partnerships between mainstream and special question of ‘why’ we should have inclusive schools, although very different in their education. Studies that investigate the effects approaches, are important steps towards of integrating students in mainstream schools inclusivity in education. In both cases, the key on children without disabilities, may better may be to what extent the AEDs and special answer that question. This is important, as school teachers are able to change the principals and teachers need to have a clear mindsets of other teachers. In other words, to sense of purpose for implementing inclusive what extent are mainstream teachers able to education. learn from teachers who have more The third conclusion drawn from the study knowledge in special education and is that it is necessary to reconsider the issue of experience with students with disability? Yeo educational efficiency vs equity. The responses et al. (2014) suggested that mainstream to the open-ended questions revealed that teachers be provided with opportunities to co- teachers in Singapore face high demands and teach with colleagues trained in special that there is a tension between academic education so as to observe effective support achievement and holistic education in the in action. Another means of raising awareness twenty-first century. It is necessary to among mainstream teachers would be to reconsider the weight attached to developing deploy AEDs as consulting teachers so that academic excellence and perhaps give greater their knowledge filters down to a larger emphasis to diversity and equity. The number of teachers. In addition, teachers need importance attached by principals, teachers to overcome the dichotomy between and parents to the development of values such mainstream and special schools, and also need as respect, compassion and caring for people to end the dichotomy between teachers and who are ‘different’ may determine the path of para-professionals, and perceive the latter as inclusivity. To put it another way, having a clear learning partners. purpose of inclusive education may change The second conclusion drawn from the our mindset regarding how we think about the study is that it is necessary to examine how goal of education. inclusive education affects students without disabilities. The responses to the open-ended questions revealed that teachers perceived many changes in children without disabilities as a result of their interactions with SEN students, but there is little empirical data to support these views. Most empirical studies of the effects of inclusive education focus on the effects of inclusive education on children with disabilities, by comparing SEN children in mainstream schools and special schools (Baker et al., 1995; Farrell, 2010), in regular classes
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References Ye, R. and Nylander, E. 2015. The transnational Allodi, M. W. 2000. Self-concept in children track: State sponsorship and Singapore’s receiving special support at school. Oxbridge elite. British Journal of European Journal of Special Needs Sociology of Education, Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. Education, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 69-78. 11-33. Baker, E. T., Wang, M. C. and Walberg, H. J. 1995. Yeo, L. S., Chong, W. H., Neihart, M. F. and Huan, The effects of inclusion on learning. V. S. 2014. Teachers’ experience with Educational Leadership, Vol. 52, No. 4, pp. inclusive education in Singapore. Asia 33-35. Pacific Journal of Education,Vol. 36, No. Elbaum, B. 2002. The self-concept of students Sup. 1, pp. 69-83. with learning disabilities: A meta- analysis of comparisons across different placements. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. Acknowledgement 216-26. I would like to thank Adrian Yap for data Farrell, P. 2010. The impact of research on management and his comments on the draft developments in inclusive education. manuscript. I am also grateful to Singapore International Journal of Inclusive MOE officers, experts in inclusive education Education, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 153-62. and the principals and teachers of the four Lim, S. M-Y., Wong, M. E. and Tan, D. 2014. surveyed schools, who shared their experience Allied educators (learning and and thoughts in the interviews and responses behavioural support) in Singapore’s to the questionnaires. mainstream schools: First steps towards inclusivity? International Journal of Inclusive Education, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 123-39. Ng, P. T. 2008. Educational reform in Singapore: From quantity to quality. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 5-15. Wiener, J. and Tardif, C. Y. 2004. Social and emotional functioning of children with learning disabilities: Does special education placement make a difference? Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 20-32. Wong, M. E., Poon, K. K., Kaur, S. and Ng, Z. J. 2015. Parental perspectives and challenges in inclusive education in Singapore. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Vol. 35, No. 1, pp. 85-97. Wong, R. and Wong, M. E. 2015. Social impact of policies for the disabled in Singapore. D. Chan (ed.), 50 years of social issues in Singapore. Singapore, World Scientific, pp. 147-66.
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5. Resource room inclusive education in India at a crossroads: A case study of Chennai, South India
Tatsuya Kusakabe, Hiroshima University, Japan Robinson Tamburaj, Madras Christian College, India
Introduction groups and by those who were not satisfied In view of the World Declaration on with the deteriorating public education system. Education for All (EFA) in 1990, India launched The government recognized such institutions Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), as India’s because it could not cover the entire nation’s Education for All movement. This has been a education needs given the limited public government programme since 2000/01. budget. The SSA reduced the gap in access to While some groups succeeded in education, enabling students who had been establishing their own education systems, discriminated against in the past to enter the many others remained largely excluded from school education system. Thus, the SSA education, particularly disabled people. This is movement enabled many children, including an especially difficult group to reach because those from scheduled castes and other castes, of obstructive factors such as concealment by ethnic minorities, language minorities and parents of disabled children. other groups to access school education. The government has sought to extend The SSA was followed by the Right of the education to disabled people since the 1960s, Children to Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, with the philosophy expressed in a report by which was enacted on 4 August 2009. The RTE the Education Commission 1964-1966 (known became a landmark as the first and only law as the Kotali Commission), as follows:. on school education that applied all over India (Juneja, 2012) and contributed to improving The primary task of education for a the gross enrolment rate. handicapped child is to prepare him for While SSA and RTE Act were effective, adjustment to a socio-cultural environment some scholars have pointed out a mismatch designed to meet the needs of the normal. between rhetoric and reality. Juneja (2012), for It is essential, therefore, that the education example, suggests that the act did not spell of handicapped children should be an out how things are to be done, with no inseparable part of the general educational concrete methods regarding how to teach system. … The differences lie in the methods students from various groups. Another issue, employed to teach the child and the means as noted by Ohara (2013), was that the the child uses to acquire information. These increase in the quantity of students led to a differences in methodology do not severe deterioration of the quality of influence the content or the goals of education, particularly in government schools. education. This form of education is, With increased diversity within the therefore, conveniently referred to as education system, with multiple ethnicities, ‘special education’ (NCERT, 1966, pp. 204-5). languages, castes and abilities, alternative forms of education became more widespread. At the time of the Kotali Commission, For example, the madrasa education system enrolment rates were quite low. For example for Muslims grew. New education institutions the primary school enrolment rate in 1965/66 were established by peripheral religious was 76.7 per cent (male 96.3 per cent, female
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56.5 per cent), and the rate at the lower Figure 1. Chennai city in Tamil Nadu state secondary level was 30.9 per cent (Planning Commission, 1976). It was therefore important that enrolment rates be increased. The sentiments expressed in the Kotali Commission report were not translated into effective action, however, and the gap between rhetoric and reality has not changed significantly in the ensuing years. Disabled children were to be positioned as a disadvantaged group in the RTE Act, but were ‘inadvertently’ left out. After the RTE amendment bill was passed, a Rajya Sabha (Second chamber) positioned disabled Source: http://www.cantour.co.jp/images children as a disadvantaged group. However, the reality for disabled children in terms of The researchers interviewed head access to education has not changed teachers and teachers in six education accordingly. institutions that were either inclusive or special A schooling system in which all children needs education institutes, as follows: were included regardless of whether or not • Panchayat Union Middle School they are disabled needs specific teacher Government aided: Inclusive education training and a huge amount of time and effort, • Social Service Centre Willy’s Integrated as well as significant financial resources. Such High School (Established in 1964) resources have not been available, however. NGO: Inclusive education Under the SSA, theoretically, a teacher in • Paradise Home Rehabilitation Centre for regular class must teach all children, including the Mentally Challenged disabled children, ethnic minorities, language NGO: Special needs education for adults minorities and lower castes. Given the lack of • Vidya Sagar (Established in 1985) financial resources, however, public full- NGO: Resource centre and school inclusion schools have not eventuated.. programme • Asha Johnnie Samuel Memorial Centre for Research framework and methods the Handicapped (Established in 1985) This study focused on how schools and Church: Special needs education NGOs are bridging the gap between rhetoric • Ambumalar Special School for the and reality, using resource rooms or centres. It Mentally Retarded & Residential Care unit was conducted in Chennai, Tamil Nadu State, (Established in 1975) in the month of August each year in 2012, NGO: Boarding special needs education 2013 and 2014. Background information about the selected institutions Panchayat Union Middle School is a public school that caters for children from the local area who have visual impairments. The school has insufficient furniture, so lacks desks, chairs and so on, To enrol students, teachers usually visit homes in the catchment area to
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convince parents of visually impaired children of disabled children in classrooms nationwide, who were reluctant to send their children to however the reality is that almost all schools school to do so. In theory, the school is have been unable to implement full inclusion engaged in inclusive education. The and have instead responded by setting up government aim is that teachers in regular special needs schools or classrooms. In some schools teach both non-disabled and disabled cases, however, disabled children are refused children in the same classrooms. entry. The study found, during visits over the period 2012 to 2014, that the resource room/centre approach was a key method for teaching disabled students in Tamil Nadu. A resource room or centre is a mix between a regular class/school and a special needs class/school that seeks to facilitate education for disabled students. At resource centres, disabled students visit according to a daily or weekly schedule and receive supplementary education appropriate to their handicap. The resource centres have teachers who are licensed in special needs education and who Photo1: A braille sheet in Chennai teach using various kinds of equipment, conduct supplemental coaching, and also Ambumalar Special School, the Social Service monitor the learning results of their students Centre and the Paradise Home Rehabilitation and consult with other disabled students. Centre are NGO-run centres. Because rural Resource teachers engage in various activities, people in India tend to conceal the existence including translating Braille or explaining of disabled children, due to strong beliefs in using sign language, providing mental karma (the belief that behaviour in a previous support for disabled children, assessing life influences one’s current life), these students and communicating with head education centres engage in advocacy with teachers or regular teachers. Equipment the parents of disabled children to convince include Braille boards, audio systems, abacus, them that the disabilities are not a result of etc. The teachers at NGO schools and church karma. NGO staff also try to explain the resource centres also promote a more necessity of education and how it opens up accurate public understanding of disabilities the possibility of working in society. All of the and seek to convince guardians and selected education institutions, except the community members, often by home visits. public school, have adopted the resource The researchers interviewed the person in room/centre approach. charge of inclusive education at the National Institute of Empowerment of Persons with The resource room approach Multiple Disabilities (NIEPMD) and discussed If the rhetoric about inclusive education the effectiveness of the resource room/centre had been translated into action across the approach with him. country, we would today observe full inclusion
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According to the interviewee, ‘the only one. Regular teachers must respond to resource room/ centre approach is one diverse classrooms’. approach to inclusive education but not the
Photo2: Gymnastic equipment in a resource Photo3: Digital equipment in resource room centre
Figure 2: A learning flow through resource Figure 3: Main functions of resource room/centre centres and rooms and the concept
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The study found that full inclusive education century’ (Liasidou, 2012. p. 18). could not ensure high quality education, • Inclusion as a special education except in a few model cases. Therefore, subsystem resource centres or resource rooms are This position supports a dual track system in needed as an intermediate measure in- which both regular classes and a resource between special needs classrooms and normal room or centre are under the same roof. The classes in inclusive education and special position is based on the idea that it is needs schools/classrooms. impossible for a regular class to meet all the differing needs of all the students. According The future of the resource room to Liasidou (2012, p. 26), such ‘models of approach “inclusion” are merely concerned with the The concept of ‘inclusion’ in India refers placement of disabled students in unchanged to the inclusion of various groups, including and monolithic mainstream settings disabled students, castes such as Dalit, child disregarding, however, the fact that these labourers, street children and recipients of Low students are also entitled to receive quality Fee Private Schooling (Verma, 2007). Each education and become active and valuable group had been subject to discrimination in members of mainstream learning the past, so each group needs to defend their communities’. right to social inclusion. Grass-roots activists • Inclusion as education for all and educationists developed the resource This position views inclusive education room/centre approach as a way to ensure as a means of responding to the needs of a better education for disabled children and diversity of learners. From this perspective, other marginalized groups. disabled learners are considered as one of a There are various notions of what number of marginalized groups. Other such constitutes inclusive education. Liasidou (2012, groups include gender, ethnic, religious and pp. 13-26) describes four perspectives of language minorities and gifted learners. inclusive education: Accordingly, disabled children are not the only • Inclusion as a human rights issue focus and the approach seeks to avoid The position sees inclusion as a human right. stigmatizing disabled children. As Liasidou As Liasidou notes, ‘Segregating practices are (2012, p. 32) expresses it, according to this nothing but a violation of human rights since view, ‘Disability should be neither tackled as a disabled children are treated differently from distinct issue nor subsumed and diluted within their peers and are refused access to the wider remit of EFA initiatives’. mainstream education’ (Liasidou, 2012, p. 13). Thus, this position opposes segregated In India, the approach that is being taken schooling, such as special needs schools and seems to be ‘Inclusion as a special education schools for handicapped children. subsystem’. However, the government is trying • Inclusion as a means of social cohesion to shift to an ‘Inclusion as a human rights issue’ and economic advancement approach. This process has led to protests by The position support special needs classes and resource teachers who have not received seeks both equity and better learning payment or sufficient resources for their outcomes, despite the budget limitations. This students. In August 2012, resource teachers view aims ‘to render hitherto unproductive published an appeal in a report of a higher groups of individuals more productive, so as secondary school. The following is the full text. to contribute to the highly demanding and competitive workforce of the twenty first
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AN EARNEST APPEAL FROM RESOURCE group and must consider their needs so as to TEACHERS improve those environments. Research is We have been working as resource needed to untangle the complexity of the teachers for the past 17 years. We teach relationships between the marginalized the differently-abled children, including groups and to determine how to ensure visually challenged, hearing challenged, inclusiveness in India. physically challenged and cerebral palsy children, using technology and media. References We have been able to improve the Juneja, N. 2012. India’s historic “Right to Free educational standards, with remarkable and Compulsory Education for achievements. There are far better than Children Act 2009”: The articulation regular students in terms of performance. of a new vision. K. Minamide and F. One of our students K.P distinguished Oshikawa (eds), Right to education in himself in the Ⅶ Public Exam last year, South Asia: Its implementation and with a score of 1020 out of 1200. We new approaches, CIAS Discussion wholeheartedly dedicate ourselves for paper No. 24. Kyoto, The Center for the betterment of these children, but we Integrated Area Studies, Kyoto are grieved to bring you to your attention University, pp.5-15. that we have not received our salary for Liasidou, A. 2012. Inclusive education, politics 29 months (since April 2010). We humbly and policymaking. Contemporary request that you help us, through your issues in education studies series. good office, to receive the long pending London and New York, Continuum salary. Furthermore, the differently-abled International Publishing Group. children only receive stationary, uniforms National Council of Educational Research and and scholarships at the end of every year. Training (NCERT) 1966 Report of the We request that these children receive Education Commission, 1964-66. them at the beginning of each academic New Delhi, Ministry of Education. year. Your benevolent support and help Planning Commission Government of India. will definitely enable us to improve our 1976. Fifth five year plan. New Delhi, service. Government of India. Signatures of the resource teachers http://planningcommission.nic.in/pl S.M ans/planrel/fiveyr/welcome.html D.E (Accessed 21 January 2014). Verma, G. K., Bagley, C. R. and Jha, M. M. (eds). This appeal from resource teachers tells us 2007. International perspectives on that the resource room system is experiencing educational diversity and inclusion: severe distress under the SSA in India. The Studies from America, Europe and appeal symbolizes the gap between rhetoric India. London, Routledge. and reality in education and the lack of a Ohara, Y. 2013. The regulation of low-fee budget dedicated to supporting the resource unrecognised private schools in Delhi room approach. and the Right to Education Act. P. Clearly, if India wishes to achieve the SSA Srivastava (ed.), Low-fee private goals, it is necessary to consider the education schools: Aggravating equity or environment of each marginalized group, mitigating disadvantage? Oxford, including disabled children. We must examine Symposium Books, pp.153-7 the education environments of each deprived
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6. Inclusive education in Bhutan
Riho Sakurai, Hiroshima University, Japan
Universal primary education for all has monarchy until 2008 when the Fourth King of been achieved in many countries, but in some Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, introduced countries, one in six children has not a reform that changed the governing system completed primary school (UNESCO, 2015). from absolute monarchism to constitutional These excluded children include refugees, monarchism. He then abdicated the throne in language-minority children, children suffering favour of his son, the Fifth King of Bhutan, from HIV and AIDS, and children with Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. disabilities, with the latter making up the Compulsory education does not exist in highest percentage. Providing quality Bhutan, yet the government offers free basic education for all children regardless of gender, education. The government has made ethnicity, or challenge (including disability) is education from pre-primary (PP) level to the undoubtedly important in every country, and tenth grade free, and the Ministry of Bhutan is not an exception. Education has emphasized the importance of Bhutan’s first national survey to capture increasing access to high quality basic the nature and prevalence of disabilities education. While education is not compulsory, (September, 2012) found that as many as 30 the estimated net enrolment rate for the percent of children aged 2 to 9 years old face primary-level secondary (PP-VI) in 2013 was specific challenges (National Statistics Bureau 96 percent and that of lower and middle et al., 2012). Following the previous study, this secondary level (classes VII-X) was 86 percent. paper examines the realities and challenges of This high enrolment rate has contributed to a inclusive education in Bhutan. high youth (15-24 years old) literacy rate of 86 percent, which is higher than the adult literacy Background rate of 55 percent (Ministry of Education, Bhutan is a landlocked country 2013). However, the number of age- surrounded by the Himalayas, with China to appropriate students in a particular grade was the north and India to the south. The World only 26 percent (Ministry of Education, 2012a). Bank ranks Bhutan as a lower-middle-income All classes from PP through to higher country. It has a population of about 807,610 education are conducted in English, except for and a gross national income (GNI) per capita Dzongkha, the national language history class. (2017) of 3,130 USD. The national religion is Further, all aspects of life in Bhutan are Tibetan Buddhism. In 2005, the country bilingual, with, for instance, television became well known for the fact that 97 broadcasts in both English and Dzongkha. percent of the population responded to a Therefore, Bhutanese school children are well census question saying that they are happy. versed in English as well as their national The origins of the country trace back to language Dzongkha.1 Table 1 summarizes the seventeenth century when Ngawang Bhutan’s education system. Namgyal, a Tibetan Buddhist lama, unified a number of fiefs and consolidated the basic nation state of Bhutan. In 1907, Ugyen 1 Bhutan has more than 1000 languages, but the Wangchuck became the first Druk Gyalpo, national language is Dzongkha. King of Bhutan. The country was an absolute
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Table 1. Bhutanese school system Age 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 1 1 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 2 2 2 0 1 2 9 0 1 2 School Pre-school Basic Education Higher Tertiary Level Seconda Education ry Educatio n Early Primary Education Secondary Education Higher Undergraduate Childhood Primary School Lower Middle Seconda Courses Care and Seconda Seconda ry School Developm ry School ry School ent Centres
(Source: Annual Education Statistics 2012: 24th Edition, p.15, Ministry of Education, Bhutan, Edited by the author) under each of these nine domains of life’ A cultural highlight of Bhutanese (Ministry of Education, 2011, p.2). Some philosophy that has also affected the critics have argued, however, that ‘enforcing country’s approach to education is the Gross GNH values in education is foreign and is not National Happiness concept, launched by the Bhutanese original culture’ (Tshering, 2010, Fourth King of Bhutan, Jigme Singye quoted in Sakurai, 2011). Wangchuck in 1971. The concept was based on Tibetan Buddhism. In 2002, the Development of Inclusive government of Bhutan described the four Education in Bhutan pillars of GNH as follows: (1) sustainable and As with many other countries, Bhutan equitable socio-economic development, (2) follows the concept of the Salamanca environmental preservation, (3) promotion Statement (1994), which has the goal of and preservation of culture, and (4) good “mainstreaming children with disabilities in governance. These four pillars are the basis of to the regular programmes.” After reviewing Bhutan’s national policy. From 1999 to 2010, development of inclusive education policy, students from PP to Grade 12 studied a this paper examines gaps between local subject called ‘values education’ centred on school needs and the national policy on the four pillars of GNH. In 2010, values inclusive education. While UNESCO uses the education was expanded to include the 72 terms ‘inclusive education’ and ‘special variables that fall under the nine domains of needs education’ to refer to education that GNH. These nine domains are: ecology, is inclusive of all groups, including refugee (psychological) well-being, community vitality, children, HIV and AIDS-affected children, health, education, cultural diversity, standard children with disabilities, etc., the term of living, good governance and time use. ‘inclusive education’ within this paper refers Schools were strongly encouraged to teach to ‘education for children with disabilities’ as GNH values and initiated GNH-infused this is how the term is understood in official education, in accordance with the view that documents published in Bhutan (c.f. Annual ‘the chances of happiness will be much higher Education Statistics 2013). Other terms used if a person pursues various elements in published documents are listed in Table 2.
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Since Bhutan is still in the process of ‘inclusion.’ The term ‘gifted’ is also used for integrating disabled students into the some children with special education needs mainstream, Bhutanese published (SEN). documents often interchangeably use terms such as ‘special education,’ ‘integration,’ and
Table 2. Terminology Terms Definitions Special education Education programmes designed for students with special education needs that require additional support services in the form of trained teachers, teaching approaches, equipment and care within or outside a regular classroom. Integration A child’s attendance at an integrated school and the process of transferring a student to a less-segregated setting. Inclusive education Inclusion in education of every child regardless of her/his disability, colour, creed, culture, religion, language and regional or ethnic background. Child with • Has significant difficulty in performing any activity compared with special education the majority of children of the same age. needs • Has a barrier that prevents or hinders her/him from making use of educational facilities of a kind generally provided for children of the same age in school. • Is gifted.
(Source: Ministry of Education, 2012b, pp. 19-20) not for another 30 years (until 2001) that the When enrolment rates are compared, government initiated special education while the net enrolment rates for secondary programmes and began to build schools and school (Grades 7 to 10) reached 86 percent in institutions for children with disabilities. This 2013 (Ministry of Education, 2013, p.5), took place under an ‘integration’ policy: a education for children with disabilities2 still process of transferring students to less faces many challenges, including policy segregated settings, i.e. regular schools with formulation, improving school infrastructure additional facilities and infrastructure and providing appropriate teacher training (Ministry of Education, 2012b, p. 20). programmes. The first specialized institution During the 2000s, the number of for visually impaired persons was built in schools and institutes for children with Khaling, Trashigang, by His Royal Highness disabilities increased, and as of 2013 there Prince Namgyel Wangchuck in 1973.It was were eight special education institutions in which 249 boys and 149 girls were enrolled
2 (see Table 3). In terms of constitutional Bhutan utilizes the term “disability” in the same way as in WHO’s The International Classification of agreement, on 21 September 2010, Bhutan Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps (1980). signed the United Nations Convention on the According to this definition, disability is an ‘umbrella 3 term for impairments, activity limitations and Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), participation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals who have a health condition (e.g. 3The United Nations General Assembly adopted it on cerebral palsy, Down syndrome or depression) and 31 December 2006. As of 2017, more than 160 personal and environmental factors (e.g. negative countries and territories had signed and ratified it. Japan, attitudes, inaccessible transportation, or limited social for instance, signed it on 28 September 2007 and support)’. http://www.who.int/classifications/icf/en/ ratified it on 20 January 2014.
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Table 3. Enrolment in special education institute/schools, 2013 Prefecture Name of the Unit within the institute Enrolment (Male, institute Female) Mongar Mongar LSS Mongar LSS 43(25,18) Paro Drugyel LSS Deaf Education Unit 78(48,30) Drugyel LSS Main Stream 94(44,50) Samtse Tenduk HSS 83(53,30) Thimphu Changangkha MSS 48(30,18) Khaling LSS 14(9,5) Jigmesherubling HSS Jigmesherubling HSS 16(12,4) Trashigang Muenselling Institute Institute serving the blind 32(16,16) and low vision of Bhutan Zhemgang Zhemgang LSS Zhemgang LSS 16(12,4) Total 424(M=249; F=149) (Source: Special Education Unit, 2013, p. 17) which seeks to promote, defend and reinforce Education Policy, implying that the the human rights of all persons with government had thus integrated special disabilities. This signing on 21 September education policy into the larger national 2010 was around the same time as the first education framework. In 2015, the Gross part of a nationwide survey titled the ‘Two- National Happiness Committee and all the Stage Child Disability Study 2010-2011’, the other disability stakeholders drafted the first survey in Bhutan on children with ‘National Policy for Persons with Disabilities.’ disabilities, which sought to capture the These and other ‘stepping nature and prevalence of disabilities in the stones’ for consolidating a platform of country. As of March 2019, Bhutan had not yet quality education regardless of disabilities ratified the CRPD and, hence, disabled are listed in Table 4. persons organizations (DPOs) in Bhutan and In the late 2000s, the Royal other stakeholders are pushing for Government of Bhutan tried to meet the 4 ratification. needs of all children, regardless of disabilities, In 2012, the Ministry of Education and to guarantee access and encourage completed the draft National Policy on empowerment; thus, they implemented a Special Education Needs. This policy seeks to national survey on disability to prepare the ensure that every child with special education legal framework. The results of this national needs has equal access to quality education survey, the ‘Two-Stage Child Disability Study that is appropriate, enabling and responsive, 2010-2011,’ shocked the nation, as the results and to empower children with special of the first questionnaire, in which ten education needs to become independent, questions were administered to mothers or responsible and productive citizens (Ministry primary caretakers of children aged 2-9, of Education, 2012b, p. 7). This policy was indicated that about 20 percent of children subsequently incorporated into the aged 2-9 had at least one disability. However, National in this survey ‘a disability’ included the need to wear glasses, which is likely to have inflated the percentage. 4 Interview with the ECCD SE section, MoE 2 May 2016.
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Table 4: History of policies and programmes for children with special education needs in Bhutan Year Events 1973 An institution for the visually impaired was built in Khaling, Trashigang. 2001 A Special Needs Education Programme was initiated in Changangkha MSS. 2005 The results of the National Census indicated that 3.4 percent of Bhutanese people had some disability, among whom about 12 percent were aged 5-17. 2010 Bhutan signed the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Children with Disabilities on 21September (as of March 2019 Bhutan had not yet ratified it). 2010-2011 The National Statistics Bureau, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Health and UNICEF jointly conducted the ‘Two-Stage Child Disability Study.’ It revealed that 21 percent of children aged 2-9 had one or more disabilities. 2012 The Ministry of Education drafted the ‘National Policy on Special Education Needs.’ 2015 The Gross National Happiness Committee, in coordination with all other disability stakeholders, drafted the ‘National Policy for Persons with Disabilities’ (November). Source: Compiled from Ministry of Education, 2012b.
The second stage of the survey children, maternal education level, and assessed eight domains of disability: vision, poverty, indicating that some disabilities can hearing, cognition, fine motor, gross motor, disappear as a child grows or their speech, behaviour and seizures, and found circumstances change. The survey had that 21.3 percent of children aged 2 to 9 had limitations, however, particularly in terms of at least one disability. Most (18.6 percent) of the definition of ‘disabled.’ Including those the children had a ‘mild disability,’ while 2.8 who wear glasses as ‘visually disabled’ clearly percent had a ‘moderate’ or ‘severe’ distorted the results, and indicates a need to disability; therefore, the results were not as improve survey methods in future research shocking as they first appeared. The factors studies. that affected the incidence of disabilities included the following: the age of the
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Gap between policy and the least, how has the “Salamanca” spirit of 1994 situation in local schools been explicated to the local context? To answer these questions, the While government policies and researchers conducted a survey in Thimphu programmes had been put in place to ensure and Paro in September 2012. The survey access to education for children with team received support from the Special disabilities and to empower those children, it Education Section, ECCD and SEN Division, was not clear whether anything had changed DSE, of the Ministry of Education of Bhutan. at the school level. This raised the following Thanks to strong support from the local questions: How do local teachers conceive of ministry, the observations, questionnaires education for children with disabilities? Do and interviews were conducted as planned. any obstacles exist that hinder learning in The survey team visited several schools and school for children with disabilities? Do the training centres, along with the Ministry of perceptions of teachers differ by school type, Education, as listed in Table 5, and interviewed i.e., do teachers working at regular schools or 20 school teachers, including head teachers or teachers working at special institutions or principals, at three institutions with special schools with special units for children with units for children with disabilities and NGO special needs have different opinions centres, as well as 31 teachers at three regular regarding obstacles for quality education for schools. children with special needs? And last but not
Table 5. Institutions/schools visited Possession of a special Prefecture Name of institution or school Number of education needs unit faculty (number of faculty interviewed) Yes Paro Drugyel Lower Secondary 43(11) School, LSS (pp to 8th grade) Thimphu Changangkha Middle Secondary 50(5) School, MSS (PP to 10th grade) Thimphu Draktsho, Vocational Training 11 (4) Centre (NGO)(13 to 50) No Paro Gaupel LSS (as of 2012) 41(9) Thimphu Changzontok LSS 54(12) Thimphu Jigme Losel Primary School (pp 30(10) to 5th grade)
According to the interviewees, the key factors’ such as ‘poor economic family status’ obstacles included: ‘insufficiency of teacher and ‘lack of parental understanding.’ The high training courses’, ‘lack of school equipment’ frequency of school-related factors is and ‘over-capacity of teachers’ (see Table 6). perhaps because Bhutan has only recently While the most-commonly listed obstacles to begun to put effort into inclusive education, quality education for children with disabilities beginning only around 2010, and much were school-related factors, the interviewees remains to be done in terms of raising also listed some social factors, such as awareness, providing teacher training ‘immaturity of the labour market’ and ‘lack of courses and building facilities so that children community understanding,’ and some ‘family with disabilities can be integrated into
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mainstream education.
Table 6. Obstacles that hinder learning in school for children with disabilities Order Item Average Factor type 1 Insufficiency of teacher training course 4.44 School Factor 2 Insufficiency of appropriate facilities and equipment 4.27 School Factor 3 Over-capacity of teachers 4.13 School Factor 4 Immaturity of appropriate curriculum, teaching 3.87 School Factor materials and textbooks 5 Immaturity of the labour market 3.87 Social Factor 6 Lack of special education classes or formal classes for 3.67 School Factor children with disabilities 7 Poor economic status of home 3.56 Family Factor 8 Lack of community understanding 3.20 Social Factor 9 Lack of parental understanding 3.15 Family Factor 10 Difficulty of going to school on road 3.11 School Factor Note: The questionnaire was 5-Likert, with 5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree, and 3 = fair.
The survey also found that when tests (for children with disabilities)’ (3.21 vs. 4.08; were performed with regard to institutional n=30; 25; p<0.01), with teachers working with category or school type (regular school vs. children with disabilities giving higher scores school with special unit, special school or than those working at regular schools. This NGO), gender, age and position (head could imply that those regularly working with teacher/director vs. regular teacher), the children with disabilities understand their obstacles that were reported changed abilities more fully and feel stress resulting significantly. The most striking difference was from the reality in which children with found for school type. For instance, for regular disabilities are not valued or judged fairly in schools, ‘immaturity of the labour market’ was families, schools, or society. 3.43 in 5-likert scale but was 4.4 for schools Significant differences were also with special classes and special schools (n=30; observed when the results were examined by 25; p<0.01). Similarly, while regular school the position of the teachers (whether they teachers considered ‘lack of community were head teachers or directors vs. regular understanding’ as an obstacle with a score of teachers). Head teachers or directors 2.87, teachers working at special schools and considered ‘lack of community understanding’ special units gave a score of 3.60 (n=30: 25; and ‘lack of parental understanding’ as more p<0.05). Accordingly, it was apparent that serious problems than did regular teachers those who work with children with disabilities (4.17 vs. 3.06; n=6.48; p<0.05; and 4.33 considered social factors as more serious vs. 3.00; n=6.48; p<0.05). These differences problems than did those working at regular are perhaps because head teachers are more schools. aware of the job market and thus understand In a similar vein, the teachers differed in the realities more clearly than regular teachers. their scores for ‘lack of parental On the other hand, head teachers and understanding’ (2.8 vs. 3.56; n=30; 25, p<0.05) directors have less direct involvement with and ‘insufficiency of appropriate systems to parents. It should be noted that these analyze results of student learning perspectives could affect
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the job hunting success of children receiving are only permitted to attend one workshop special education. per year, which they perceive as insufficient. Another significant difference was Finally, when asked ‘where and how should found when comparing the responses of we educate children with disabilities,’ as Table teachers (including head teachers and regular 7 indicates, 32 percent of interviewees teachers) and ministry officers. While ministry answered that, except those with are severely officers considered ‘immaturity of legal disabled, children with disabilities should be aspects’ as the most serious problem, educated in regular classes, while another two teachers considered ‘insufficiency of teacher percent answered that children with training courses and experiences with disabilities should have the right to choose children with disabilities’ as the most serious between regular or special classes. This problem. These differences may perhaps implies that at least the promotion of reflect the experiences of the respondents. inclusive education, or mainstreaming Although the Bhutanese MoE has been children with disabilities as stated in the providing workshops on SEN for teachers, Salamanca statement, seems to be NGOs, ECCD facilitators and others teachers disseminating.
Table 7. Answers to the question: ‘Where and how should we educate children with disabilities?’
Item Percent All CDWs should be educated in regular classes with their peers without disabilities 5% In principle, CDWs should be educated in regular classes, but children with severe 32% disabilities should be educated in special schools. All CDWs should be educated in special classes with their peers with disabilities 7% In principle, children with disabilities should be educated in special classes, but 27% children who are capable and/or wish to join the regular classes should be educated with their peers without disabilities in regular classes. Children with disabilities have the right to choose their education, whether it be 29% regular or special classes.
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In Bhutan, the process of transferring a be implemented in Bhutan. student to a less-segregated setting, such as from a special school to a special class in a Way forward regular school is referred to as ‘integration,’ The GNH education policy lists the while ‘inclusion’ refers to ‘including all ‘quality of education’ as one of the most children in education regardless of disability, important aspects of policy. From the colour, creed, culture, religion, language, perspective of the schools that implement region and ethnic background’ (Ministry of special education, it is apparent that special Education, 2012b, p. 19-20). The interview education units have much better classroom responses indicated that while many quality; for instance, special classes have interviewees considered the promotion of wooden walls and floors and bright lights, inclusive education as a ‘(very) good whereas regular classes often have concrete initiative’, still some felt differently. For walls and floors and broken light bulbs. instance, one teacher working in a special Special units have multiple teachers education unit stated that while inclusive (including assistants) for a smaller number of education is good, the teacher was ‘not sure students, while regular classrooms have only whether full inclusion, where all children one teacher. Special units also use sign with/without disabilities learn in the same language and other teaching methods classroom is good or not.’ Such views shall be where necessary (see picture 1). In addition, conveyed to officials, as these dissenting individual education programmes have been views indicate a gap with regard to the ideal implemented in which students learn image of ‘inclusive education.’ While the reading, writing, mathematics and long-term objective of the special education behaviour as agreed upon by parents, programme is ‘to provide access to general classroom teachers, subject teachers, special education in regular schools for all children education coordinators and principals, so with disabilities and special needs, including that quality of education can be assured. those with physical, mental and other types Quality in special units is also ensured of impairment’ (Ministry of Education, 2013, through establishing minimum standards. p. 17), this goal may not be realistic as of That is, just as with students in regular today. classes in Bhutan, if students in a special Bhutan is just beginning to push for unit fail an exam, they also repeat the same inclusive education and is working to grade. However, while students in special improve education for children with units have good quality education, it is not disabilities, but the country still has far to go. clear how non-cognitive skills have been The different voices and perspectives, taught in special classes or how appraising the problem from their particular discriminatory attitudes among all students points of view, have meaning and should would have been raised or diminished if influence future actions towards improving educated together in the regular classes. education for children with disabilities. Like other developing countries, Furthermore, the differing views indicate that Bhutan has been trying to encourage the those at the policy level may not have the concept of inclusive education matching same outlook as those at the school level, Salamanca’s goal of ‘mainstreaming children which indicates that aspects of implementing with disabilities.’ Accordingly, for example, inclusive education may be challenging and the Annual Education Statistics of 2013 that there is no consensus on what form of shifted from using the term ‘special ‘inclusive education’ should education’ to using ‘inclusive education.’
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Thimphu, Royal Government However, the ideal vision of inclusiveness is of Bhutan. yet to be defined for the purposes of policy and administration. In 2013, for the first Ministry of Education. 2013. Annual Education time, B.Ed students who had received Statistics 2013. Thimphu, Royal special education became graduates of the Government of Bhutan . Paro College of Education. No special National Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Education, education major had previously existed at Ministry of Health and UNICEF. 2012. the tertiary level. While there is still far to go, Two-Stage child disability study among and monitoring is needed, such as following children 2-9 years—Bhutan 2010- up on these graduates from Paro College of 2011.Royal Government of Bhutan. Education, it is apparent that government Sakurai, R. 2011. Preserving national identity and officials, local teachers and NGOs are fostering happiness in an era of sincerely trying to consider what is best for globalization: A comparative exploration all students, including students with special of values and moral education in Bhutan needs. With the endeavours of teachers and and Japan. Journal of International government officials, inclusive education Cooperation in Education, Vol. 14. No. 2. should take root in Bhutan, and the future of pp. 169-88. education of students with special needs Sakurai, R. 2014. Chapter 21 School in the shall be brighter. happiness country—Bhutan. New edition School in the World: From the education system to daily school lives. Tokyo, Gakuji Picture 1. Sign language in Dzongkha Shuppan, p.214-23. Tshering, K. 2010. Awaken Good Old Values First. Bhutan Observer, 23April 2010. World Bank. Countries and economies. http://data.worldbank.org/country?displa y= graph. (Accessed 20 April 2016.)
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge the invaluable assistance, in conducting the study and in the preparation of the report, of Karma Norbu and Kinley Gyeltshen from the Special References Education Section, ECCD and SEN Division, Disabled Persons’ Association of Bhutan. DSE, Ministry of Education, Bhutan. The author http://dpab.org.bt/about-us/. also thanks Dr. Ohara and Ms. Naraki, with (Accessed 1 May 2016). whom the author conducted this research in Ministry of Education. 2011. Educating for Bhutan. GNH Refining Our School Education Practices. Paro, Royal Government of Note: This manuscript was originally prepared Bhutan. in 2015 and was accepted in August 2016; thus, Ministry of Education. 2012a. Annual the situation described in this paper might not Education Statistics 2012.Thimphu, reflect the current situation in Bhutan. Royal Government of Bhutan. Ministry of Education. 2012b. National Policy on Special Education Needs.
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7. Inclusive Education in Sri Lanka: Factors contributing to good practices
Hiroko Furuta, Kumamoto University, Japan K. A. C. Alwis, Open University of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka
Introduction education up to Grade 11, Type 3 schools which As argued by Dyson (2004), instead of thinking offer education up to Grade 8. about inclusion as a single reality, we should think in The quality of education differs depending on terms of varieties of inclusion. Similarly, as noted by the areas: urban/rural, and conflict-affected, and Lin and Thaver (2014), the challenges associated depending on the sector, e.g. tea plantation. Thus, with promoting and implementing inclusion across there are regional differences as well as language different countries around the world are context- differences. Sinhala and Tamil are spoken in dependent, which warrant local considerations and government schools, while private and international solutions that are particular and indigenous to each schools also use English as a medium for teaching. country. Accordingly, this paper examines the current state of inclusive education in Sri Lanka, with History of special education and consideration of the differences in the meaning and inclusive education in Sri Lanka modes of practices of ‘inclusive education’ in the Sri Sri Lanka has a more than hundred years of Lankan context, and discusses the factors that recorded history of special education. Initially, contribute to good practices in inclusive education. beginning in 1912, special education was provided in segregated, residential institutions for deaf and Background blind children. Later, special education was Sri Lanka is an island nation located in South expanded to cater for other categories of children Asia, with a population of 20 million people. with disabilities. Most students identified as having Schooling is compulsory from the age of 5 to the special needs have intellectual disabilities, hearing age of 14. Between 1983 and 2009, Sri Lanka and visual impairments, and/or physical disabilities. experienced armed conflict, which had a negative In accordance with the universal agreement on impact on education. inclusive education, Sri Lanka took steps to adopt The government school network is vast. Sri the concept of inclusive education and prepared Lanka has over 10,100 government schools, with related national education policies. One outcome of about 4 million students enrolled and has 78 private this process was The Compulsory Education Act, schools, with approximately 125, 000 students passed in 1997. enrolled (Ministry of Education, 2013). Sri Lanka has In 2003, the government adopted the 92 education zones across its eight provinces and ‘National Policy on Disability’ (Ministry of Social these zones serve as the administrative and support Welfare, 2003), which promoted inclusive education. centers for government schools. Each education zone is divided into 298 education divisions. Current status of inclusive education National schools are managed by the central In Sri Lanka’s complex education system, many Ministry of Education and provincial schools variables affect provisions of education for students managed by provincial education departments. with special needs. According to a report by UNICEF Sri Lanka has 4 types of schools: 1AB schools (2003) on inclusive education in Sri Lanka, despite which offer science, arts and commerce subjects for the country’s long history of special education, less General Certificate Examination/Advanced Level than half of all school-aged children with disabilities (A/L), 1C schools which offer arts and commerce were benefitting from education services. subjects for A/L, Type 2 schools which offer As of 2014, the number of children with
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disabilities was higher in government schools than in national schools (Table 1). in special schools. Furthermore, more students with disabilities were enrolled in provincial schools than
Table 1. Special units, special schools and students with special needs, by province (2014) Province Number of Special Units / Schools Number of Students with Special Needs Special Units in Schools Government students Number of with Special Needs in Schools Government National Provincial National Provincial Subtotal:Special Units in Government Schools Assisted Special Schools Number of with Special NeedsSubtotal: Students Schools in Government Specialwith Students Numberof Schools Special Needs Assisted in Western 19 111 130 10 179 958 1137 1098 Central 16 61 77 02 298 411 709 148 Southern 17 88 105 04 237 1316 1553 478 North Western 14 73 87 02 127 764 891 200 North Central 03 50 53 01 58 470 528 77 Northern 04 112 116 01 19 940 959 180 Eastern 05 32 37 01 57 448 505 50 Uva 14 17 31 02 144 186 330 220 Sabaragamuwa 12 56 68 02 101 730 831 162 Total 104 600 704 25 1220 6223 7443 2613 Source: Ministry of Education, 2014
According to King (2005), the incidence of suburban Colombo, also catering to students with students with special needs learning in inclusive special needs in diverse ways. Thus, various classes fluctuated from year to year. In the absence modalities of inclusive practices have emerged in Sri of widely-available documented data, it is difficult to Lanka. identify the number of children with special needs in inclusive classes, such as children with learning Study of good practices of inclusive difficulties or autism. Still, many children with special education in Sri Lanka needs under the age of compulsory education lack Method access to education. To identify good practices in inclusive To solve this problem, some forms of non- education, the researchers examined schools in formal education exist. For example, Furuta (2009) three education zones: P, Q and R. The ‘P’ education reported a case of a provincial social service zone represents areas of Sinhalese rural department providing special preschools for both communities, the ‘Q’ education zone represents school-age and preschool children with disabilities. suburban coastal communities, and the ‘R’ zone Private and international schools, mostly located in represents Tamil tea plantation communities.
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In each education zone, the researchers 2013. At each school, the researchers collected basic visited three schools; one of each type, i.e. one 1AB, information on the school, such as the numbers of one 1C and one Type 3. The three schools were teachers and students, and conducted interviews selected by the assistant directors of education in with the principals, four regular classroom teachers special education (ADESE) in the P, Q and R zonal and the teachers of the special units, if the schools education offices. had them. The researchers employed interpreters All of the schools were mixed schools, except during the interviews (translating from one (school Q-1), which was a girl’s school. Of the Sinhalese/Tamil to English) and transcripts of the nine schools visited, five had special units (three had interviews were prepared. Table 2 provides units for all types of disabilities and two had units information about the schools the researchers for students with intellectual disabilities). visited. The school visits were conducted in 2012 and
Table 2. Overview of selected schools Zone District / Province Schools Controlling Type of Number of Number of Special Government Schools Teachers Students Units P Kurunegala/ P-1 Central 1AB 80 1250 ID North Western P-2 Province 1C 39 663 ID P-3 Province primary 5 38 none Q Kalutara/ Q-1 Central 1AB (girl’s) 143 3800 ID Western Q-2 Province 1C 40 800 none Q-3 Province primary 5 115 none R Nuwala Eliya/ R-1 Province 1AB 46 1089 all Central R-2 Province 1C 47 1091 all R-3 Province primary 9 174 none *ID refers to students with intellectual disabilities
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Findings both upper and lower economic classes. Situation in each education zone Many people in this area commute to central and inclusive education strategies Colombo for work or study, by bus or train, which takes an hour or more. P Zone The responses to the interviews at the P zone is one of six education zones in schools indicated a low quality of education Kurunegala District. According to the local overall. School with the highest education ADESE, P zone is an agricultural zone and is quality and facilities, Q-1 (a national school), relatively poor compared to other zones in appeared to be a negative setting for the same district. The language used in all students with disabilities. Although the three selected schools in this zone is school was equipped with the ‘best’ facilities Sinhalese. in the island, the special unit generally The interviews during the school visits in lagged behind those of other schools and P zone, revealed that while teachers in was separated from the school system. The school P-1 (a national school) felt that schools with a lower quality of education students with disabilities were excluded, the found to be positive settings for students interviewed teachers in the other two with disabilities. In schools Q-2 and Q-3 schools, P-2 and P-3 (provincial schools) did (provincial schools), the students with not feel this way. The regional culture of disabilities were observed learning in regular Sinhalese Buddhism was observed in schools classrooms, with special assistance. P-2 and P-3 among the teachers because of The interview with the ADESE revealed Buddhist moral education, such as the “Maw that he had implemented inclusive Sevana.” education policies in accordance with the The interviews with the ADESE of P zone provincial department of education but had revealed that he had set up a system to not planned or conducted additional promote inclusive education a few years projects. prior to our visit. The process had two phases: Phase 1, involved monitoring of R Zone students with disabilities who had just been R zone is one of five education zones in enrolled and assessing their progress, and Nuwara Eliya District, which is located in the Phase 2, involved training preschool mountainous area of central Sri Lanka. R teachers and related teacher. In the schools zone falls within the tea estate sector. Most with special units P-1 and P-2, the special residents in this region are Tamils. They are unit teachers were also called the “resource mostly engaged in the tea plantation teachers.” industry and their socio-economic status is extremely low. The tea estate sector has been Q zone historically disadvantaged educationally and Q zone is one of three education zones remains disadvantaged with regards to in Kalutara District. The area under Q zone is infrastructure at the secondary education part of the outer suburb of Colombo and level (UNICEF, 2013). There is no national occupies the seashore area of central school in this zone. The medium of language Kalutara District. It is known as a place with in all of the three selected schools in this many Catholic residents. Though the zone is Tamil. majority of residents speaks Sinhalese, the This education zone faces significant area is diverse in terms of cultural difficulties, including teacher shortages. In all backgrounds. The residents emcompass the schools, many students have parents
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who work away from home in both domestic Therefore, the principal was of the view that settings and foreign settings, and/or students with disabilities should not be students who live in extreme poverty. excluded from mainstream school education. The ADESE of the R zone promotes He remarked that he never had refused inclusive education through ‘coordinator’ admission to any student with disabilities. He system. Under this system, a ‘coordinator’ is noted that because of his strong connection appointed by the principal and this with the local community and the students’ ‘coordinator’ takes the role of the manager parents, he was able to do what he thought of special needs education in the school and was best, such as accepting students with ensures that students with special needs special needs. attend certain events that are held for these According to the teachers, there was at students, such as sports events, in the district. least one student with special needs in every If there is a special unit in the school, the class in the school. The principal accepted special unit teacher usually takes the role of each teacher’s discretion in managing the the ‘coordinator.’ If there is no special unit in students with special needs. Teachers the school, a class teacher is appointed and reported implementing certain strategies to gets training on special needs education adapt classes to the requirements of (provided by the zone’s education office). students with special needs, such as simplifying the tasks, giving more attention Good practices in inclusive to students with special needs and education in Sri Lanka conducting after school supplementary lessons for those students. (1) School P-2 (1C school with a In this school, because of the presence special unit) of a school monk, teachers had an School P-2 is located in the centre of a alternative means of managing issues in their rural town, on the main road. All of the staff, classrooms, including problems with except the principal, were female. students with disabilities. One teacher In school P-2, the principal’s strong remarked that she sought suggestions from leadership and awareness of the importance the school monk, the vice principal of the of inclusive education had led to a situation school, on how to deal with students with in which, no child was rejected. A special unit special needs. had been set up, with a teacher and The response to the interviews with the classroom, but, no students had been principal and teachers revealed that the registered in the special unit. Instead, the principal had encouraged teachers to adopt students with disabilities, were registered in the role of a ‘mother’ as well as a teacher. the regular classrooms and spent almost all There was a school climate to actively help class hours with the special unit teacher. students from poor family or with special Thus, the school had an approach that was needs and teachers said they often collected very different from the traditional system in donations for these underprivileged which students with disabilities are taught in students. Furthermore, the responses to the a special unit and have a very limited chance interviews with the teachers indicated that of being moved to regular classrooms. the school had positive atmosphere in which The principal came to know of the teachers helped each other whenever they concept of inclusive education through the were in need. ADESE of the zone and through the principal awareness programme in the province.
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(2) School Q-2 (1C school without road in a suburban area. With the national a special unit) decline in the number of children in Sri Lanka School Q-2 is located in a residential and as a result of greater parental interest area a few kilometres from the coast. At the and enthusiasm regarding education in time of the school visit, the school had seven recent years, the number of students in students with physical disabilities. ‘unpopular’ schools have declined. Since The researchers observed close school Q-3 is an ‘unpopular’ school in collaboration between the school personnel suburban area, the number of students in and the people in the local community. The each classroom is small. When the present principal of school Q-2, a Catholic, had been principal took on the role, she made major assigned to the school around 10 years prior. reforms in school management, and the Shortly after his assignment, he had begun school’s popularity increased. accepting students with physical disabilities, However, in terms of students with in accordance with a suggestion from a special needs, the study findings indicated Catholic Father in the community. These that the small class sizes were beneficial for children had been in a home for children them. One of the interviewed teachers with physical disabilities nearby that was run reported that she was able to manage the by a Catholic charity organization. They had student with special needs in her classroom not been accepted by any of the because the class size was very small, with neighbourhood schools and, prior to only 11 students. Another teacher said that attending school Q-2, had been forced to she conducted early morning attend a private school outside the area. supplementary lessons for students with All four of the teachers, who were special needs. Three out of four teachers interviewed had a student with physical interviewed felt that it was better for disabilities in their classrooms. The teachers students with disabilities to learn in regular all reported that non-disabled students in classrooms. the classrooms were willing to support the The school conducted assessments of students with disabilities e.g. by helping the Grade 1 students annually and identified students to move to the library, feeding students with special needs. At the time of them at recess and calling the home for the the researchers’ visit, the school had two children with physical disabilities for them. students with hearing and speech disorders Three out of the four teachers and seven slow learners. interviewed felt that it was better for The present principal is a teacher with students with physical disabilities to learn in 20 years of experience as a special education regular classrooms with their non-disabled teacher. Accordingly, teachers at the school peers. One teacher remarked that they had a are able to get guidance from the principal class once per week for students who were regarding the requirements of children with slow in reading and writing and reported special needs. that the school collected donations from the community to cover school trips and (4) School R-1 (1AB school with a exhibition for students from poor families special unit) and for students with physical disabilities. School R-1 is located in a major town in the tea plantation area. Though this is a 1AB (3) school Q-3 (primary school school that is supposed to offer science without a special unit) subjects, the school lacked teachers so had School Q-3 is located far from the main stopped science in the year the researchers
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visited. Furthermore, the school has fewer not have a library or a computer room at the resources and facilities than typical 1AB time of the visit. The classrooms were provincial schools. separated by thin panels, so it is very easy for According to the principal, almost all teachers to hear what is happening in the students were from families in which the next classroom. caregivers worked on tea estates. At least 10 According to the principal, almost all per cent of students had parents who students at the school are from families that worked away from home (not in the local work in the tea estates. In around 60 per cent area). of the families, the parents were not living The principal had attended a one-day with their children because they work in workshop on special/inclusive education for other areas. Around 30 per cent of students school administrators held in the zone, so as live with their grandparents. aware of the needs of students who had The principal was aware of the needs of difficulties in reading and writing. For those students with special needs. The principal students, the school was conducted evening and one of the teachers of school R-3 had classes. The school also had a special unit been ‘coordinators’ in other schools. The which catered to the needs of 14 students. principal of school R-3 was therefore familiar At the time of the school visit, three with students with special needs and he students had been moved from the special suspected that around the half the students unit to regular classrooms. The special unit of the school had special needs. teacher provides suggestions regarding how The interviewed teachers felt that it was to manage students with special need. better for students with special needs to According to the special unit teacher, the learn together in smaller classes. On the principal was concerned about the progress advice of the principal, the teachers gave of students in the special unit and he sought particular support to students in grades 4 support from the local NGOs at times. and 5 in order to help them to be well Teachers in the school tend to be from prepared for the national Grade 5 exam. The the local community, and responses to the teachers noted, however, that they faced interviews indicated that teachers in the difficulties in cooperating with caregivers. school are familiar with the deprived conditions of the students. All four of the Factors contributing to good interviewed teachers felt that it was better practices in inclusive education in for students with special needs to learn in Sri Lanka the regular classrooms rather than in a Analysis of the findings of the study separate setting. indicate that there are seven factors that contribute to good practices in inclusive (5) School R-3 (Primary school education in Sri Lanka. These are: the local without a special unit) culture or community type, the type of School R-3 is located deep inside the schools, the class size, the role of the hills of the tea estates. Access to the school teachers, the role of the special unit, the is via a lane designed for use by pedestrians leadership style of the principal and the only. The school building was built with the approach taken by the ADESE. aid from the Swedish Government. The school consists of several small buildings: a Local culture or community type row of classrooms, a principal’s office and a The researchers found that local cultural building with one classroom. The school did values that emphasized accepting students
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with special needs tended to lead to schools was so small, it was easier for the school to begin more inclusive. In school Q-2, for cope with students with special needs. Thus, examples, the tight Catholic community it is suggested that small class sizes provide played a significant role in enabling the better school climates for the inclusion of school to accept students with special needs. students with special needs. Similarly, the regional culture of education of school 1C meant that the idea of students Role of teachers with special needs learning together with The study findings indicated that other students in regular classrooms was schools in which teachers serve as caregivers easily accepted. and ‘mothers’ to students tend to be more inclusive than other schools. For example, Type of schools (national vs provincial) schools P-2 and P-3 and three schools in the The national schools tend to lag behind R education zone in the tea plantation area, provincial schools in terms of inclusive it is common to deal with students who face education because the national schools the long time absence of caregivers as well focus on high academic achievement of as extremely poor family background. selected, high performing students, and these schools therefore only tend to accept Role of the special unit students with special needs in a separate When schools had separate special units, setting: the special unit. This was observed in there is often little exchange between the schools visited for the study. Three 1AB regular classroom teachers and special unit schools were examined in this study, and one teachers. This was observed in schools P-1 of them, school R-1 (provincial school), had and R-1, for example. Furthermore, when fewer resources than the others schools P-1 special unit teachers remain in their units, and Q-1 (national schools), and therefore separated from others, this limits the faced issues such as a lack of teachers and inclusiveness of the school. The schools that inadequate facilities but, nevertheless, it were more inclusive were those in which outperformed the other two national special units are not separated from the schools with regard to implementation of mainstream and those in which special inclusive education. The special units in needs teachers did not simply teach school P-1 and school Q-1 were relatively students in the special units, but rather, segregated and the special unit teachers’ facilitated learning of students with special range of work was limited to that unit. needs in regular classrooms, in close Therefore, linkage with regular classroom cooperation with other teachers. teachers was not observed. In the case of school R-1, however, no such difference was Leadership style of the principal observed in the way of accepting students The leadership style of the principal also with disabilities, especially with regard to the contributed to the extent to which each positioning of the special unit. Furthermore, school was inclusive. In school P-2, for in schools R-1 and R-2, the special unit example, the principal gave the teachers teachers appeared to be collaborate more discretion to the students with disabilities in with regular classroom teachers. ways they found suitable, and thus teachers could explore different methods. The Class size principal of school P-2 also set a school Several teachers noted that because of policy of automatically including students the number of students in their classroom with special needs in regular classes. The
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leadership style of the principal was supported through strong cooperation with the local ADESE. In the case of school Q-3, the principal had experience in special education and was therefore able to advise teachers on how to assist students with special needs, leading to better inclusion of such students. Similarly, in school R-3, the principal had experienced the ‘coordinator’ and the school conducted ‘every day inclusive education’ because he felt that half of the students in the school had special needs. This suggested that in ‘extremely difficult’ schools, the right style of leadership by the principal will enable the principals and teachers to work together cooperatively to tackle the difficulties.
Approach taken by the ADESE When the ADESE assigns teachers the responsibility of managing students with disabilities, the schools in which those teachers work tend to be more inclusive. For example, in zones P and R, the ADESEs created a new division of duties for managing students with disabilities. The teachers who are assigned these duties are called ‘resource teachers’ in P zone and ‘coordinators’ in R zone. In contrast, in Q education zone, the ADESE did not assign teachers particular duties related to promoting inclusive education.
Summary The study observed good practices in inclusive education in three education zones: a rural Sinhalese village area, suburban coastal area, and Tamil tea plantation area. Analysis of the study findings revealed seven factors that contribute to inclusive education in Sri Lankan context: the local culture or community type, the type of schools, the class size, the role of the teachers, the role of the special unit, the leadership style of the principal and the approach taken by the ADESE.
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References Dyson, A. 2004. Inclusive education: a global agenda? The Japanese Journal of Special Education, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 613-25. Furuta, H. 2006. Responding to educational needs of children with disabilities: Care and education in special pre-schools in the North Western Province of Sri Lanka. The Japanese Journal of Special Education Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 457-471 King, B.S. 2005. Strengthening Special Education by Creating Inclusive Schools. Battaramulla. Ministry of Education of Sri Lanka. Lin, L. and Thaver, T. 2014. Inclusive education in the Asia-Pacific region. International Journal of Inclusive Education, Vol. 18, No. 10, pp. 975-978. Ministry of Education. 2013. Sri Lanka education information 2013. Battaramulla. Data Management of Branch. Ministry of Education. http://www.moe.gov.lk/english/image s/Statistics/sri_lanka_education_inform ation_2013.pdf (Accessed 20 January 2015) Ministry of Education. 2014. Special units and assisted special schools. Battaramulla. Ministry Education, Sri Lanka. Ministry of Social Welfare. 2003. National Policy on Disability for Sri Lanka. Battaramulla. Government of Sri Lanka. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). 2003. Examples of Inclusive Education: Sri Lanka. Kathumandu, UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia.
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8. Education for children with disabilities in Maldives: special needs education and inclusive education
Minoru Morishita, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Japan Jun Kawaguchi, University of Tsukuba, Japan
Introduction From 1978 onwards, the Maldives were ruled This chapter reveals the findings of a by a single political party. However, after the study of the current state of education for Indian ocean earthquake and tsunami children with disabilities in the Republic of disaster in 2004, the constitution was Maldives. The researchers conducted a amended, and a multi-party system was survey (using a questionnaire) in the capital legislated, along with fundamental human – Male and on Fuvahmulah Atoll in 2012 and rights in 2008. interviewed teachers on Baa Atoll and Addu According to the constitution, the Atoll in 2013 and 2014 respectively. The field national religion is Islam, and non-Muslims survey was conducted with the cooperation cannot become citizens of the Maldives of the Ministry of Education of Maldives and (Azza et al, 2008). Therefore, all citizens in the the UNESCO’s Regional Bureau for Education Maldives are Muslims. in Asia and the Pacific. This chapter begins with an overview of society and education in Maldives. Then it The status of disabled people goes on to present the results of the field In the Maldives, the general view is that survey and the provisional conclusions of the people with disabilities are the responsibility study regarding the challenges facing of their guardians and the community. This inclusive education in the Maldives. contrasts strongly with the view in nearby countries, such as Nepal and India, where belief in karma is prevalent. According to this Country Background belief, being born with disability is a result of Maldives is an island nation consisting actions by the child in a past life, a very of 1,192 coral islands that are clustered into different view from that in the Maldives. 26 atolls and are spread across 823 The Government of the Maldives kilometres from north to south, and 130 provides a monthly stipend of about 2,000 kilometres from west to east. In 2014, the Rufiyaa to every household housing nation, located in the Indian Ocean, had a someone with a disability. This stipend and population of around 400,000. the fact that guardians of children with The major industries are fisheries and disabilities are encouraged to access tourism, and in 2015, GDP per capita was healthcare services have contributed to 7,635 United States dollars (USD) (World widespread diagnosis of disabilities and the Bank, 2015). provision of appropriate care and support The nation has a diverse array of for them. ethnicities and cultures because of its colonial history and migration. The Maldives Education in the Maldives gained independence from Britain in 1965 Education in the Maldives traditionally and became a member of united nation. took the form of maktab (general schools)
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and madrasa (religious schools). The origins Education, 2011). Expansion of educational of modern education can be traced back to opportunities was made possible with the establishment of a secondary school support from taxation income received called ‘Majeediyya School’ in the capital, through the tourism sector. Despite the Male, in 1927 and ‘Aminiyya School’ (girls’ increase of access to education in rural areas, school) which was established in 1944. These disparities remained between Male Island two schools laid the foundation for the and other islands. development of secondary education in the Male is the most populous island in the Maldives. country with a population of approximately After the Maldives became a republic in 100,000. With 50,000 people per square the 1970s, schools became more common in kilometre, it has the highest population the capital and started opening in the rural density in the world. As of 2013, the island areas also. While, until schools could be had 25 schools and most schools offered opened in rural areas, children who wanted multiple levels of education. The schools to pursue their education usually went to provided education for around 25,000 Male or to other South Asian countries such children and employed 1,457 teachers. as Pakistan, India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), etc. About 10,000 of the students were from (Ministry of External Affairs, 1949, pp. 41-58). other atolls and lived with extended family Those seeking higher education tended to members in Male (Ministry of Education go to England, the Middle East, India, etc. For 2011, p. 56). instance, many of the senior education No matter what size, secondary schools administrators have studied overseas. are required to have a separate teacher for In 1978, under the policy of Universal each subject which makes it difficult to staff Primary Education for All, the government secondary schools. As a result, in the more supported the spread of education to atolls remote islands, 32 per cent of the teachers outside Male. In addition to unifying the are foreigners (Ministry of Education, 2011, national curriculum for the first seven years p. 39). Field observations indicate that most of primary education, the government of the foreign teachers are from India, established an ‘atoll education centre’ and Bangladesh and Nepal including a lot of an ‘atoll school’ on each atoll. With support non-Muslims. from the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The other inhabitant islands of the the government then established schools on Maldives have an average population of every atoll (Japan International Cooperation approximately 1,000. On these islands, Agency – JICA, 1980). This was the first schools tend to be small. About 70 per cent instance in which Japan funded the of the country's schools have an enrolment foundation of schools through international of less than 300 (Ministry of Education, 2011, aid. Following the establishment of schools p. 28). on each atoll, the number of students For primary education, the curriculum is increased from around 15,000 in 1978 to set by the state, and except for ‘Maldivian’ around 100,000 in 2005 (Morishita, 2012). and ‘Islamic’ classes, all classes are taught in As of 2011, primary education was English. Since 2002, the curriculum of the seven years; lower secondary education was lower secondary education has been derived three years; and upper secondary education from the Cambridge International Exam two years. The same year, almost all children (level O). The exam from London University were enrolled in primary education and the (Edexcel International Test) was used from literacy rate was 98.8 per cent (Ministry of 1967 to 2001 (Bray and Adam, 2001). Higher
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secondary education follows level A of the from schools to the communities are short, Edexcel test, which was introduced in 1982. and problems such as bullying are identified The Educational Development Center (EDC) immediately by the guardians and the independently produces textbooks (EDC, community. Therefore, it could be said that 2012). the Maldives has a favourable environment In July 2012, a national curriculum was for children with disabilities. On the other proposed that would combine primary and side for adults with disabilities the situation secondary education. In 2013, a policy was is not so positive. Opportunities for the developed for all schools in the country to employment of adults with disabilities are offer grades 1 through 10, thus combining limited. A related issue is that because of primary education and lower secondary intermarriage between people on these education. The oldest school in Male already small islands, there is a high rate of disability offered both primary and secondary in the population compared to other education, and schools on islands with a countries (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, population of about 500 people have 2017). traditionally offered all of the first ten grades. In the Maldives, a policy to establish In accordance with the 2013 policy, classes that target children with disabilities every island offers 10 grades with a level O (special needs education classes) led to the test. the first five are called ‘primary school’ provision of special needs education. and the remaining grades are known as However, before this policy was launched, ‘middle school’. At the end of Grade 10, the government had initiated an ‘inclusive students must take the Cambridge education policy. Thus, the country has both International test level O; thus, there are policies at the same time. According to the many international teachers for this grade. policy of the Ministry of Education, in the With the new system, schools will have a 5- future every school should provide inclusive 5-2 system. As of 2017, the government was education, but as a practical ‘Plan B’, in the process of forming syllabi for every considering each school's financial situation, subject. there should be at least one SEN class on every atoll. In addition, as much as possible, Findings of the study severely disabled children from nearby areas should be taught in a SEN class. In fact, the 3.1. The reality for children with Maldives seems to favour integrated disabilities in the Maldives education, with a focus on special education. One peculiarity of the situation in the As a result, SEN classes are conducted on Maldives is that there are very few factors islands where SEN classes are possible, and inhibiting inclusive education. Because the if that is not possible the choice is inclusive Maldives consists of small islands and education. Considering the geography of communities are intrinsically small. So, each Maldives, this seems a very pragmatic island inevitably forms an inclusive society. In decision. some other countries, there are issues of When comparing special education marginalization of children with disabilities. needs (SEN) classes with inclusive education, While in the case of Maldives, luckily, this is a large percentage of the study respondents not true; yet, the geographical nature of expressed strong opinions that the rights of atolls has created few physical obstacles disabled children are better protected if preventing children with disabilities from those children attend separate SEN classes. accessing school. Furthermore, the distances For example, 41 per cent of the respondents
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agreed with the statement: ‘In principle, limitations and problems before one can call children with disabilities should be taught in a society ‘inclusive’, but many atolls in the SEN classes, but if they are capable of Maldives already have quite inclusive participating in normal education, they societies. The researchers examined how should do so’. On the other hand, some inclusive education holds up in such context. respondents had positive attitudes towards The researchers visited four schools on four inclusive education since it can contribute to islands (Baa Atoll and Addu Atoll) and those create the society without discrimination and schools had a classroom teacher system. improve education for both children with Those schools also had action plans on and without disabilities. Within this study, 26 inclusive education and the schools were per cent of the respondents agreed with the aware of the needs of children with statement: ‘In principle, they should disabilities. participate in normal education, but in cases On islands with small populations, the in which they are incapable, they should be inclusive nature of society contributes to taught in SEN classes. making schools more inclusive. However, this However, among teaching staff the is only the case until near the end of primary predominant view was that when SEN education. After the fifth grade the schools children reached a level in SEN class at which have more international teachers and classes they could move to normal education, they are in English, as students are preparing for should do so. This depends, of course, on the Cambridge International Exam. what the child’s disability is and how easily Accordingly, at this stage the schools are the child can adapt to regular classes, and very different from the rest of the island, with whether there are enough teaching staff. A a multicultural, multilingual, multi-ethnic commonly held opinion among respondents context, which is the most difficult was that if the child is ready to attend normal environment for disabled children to classes, the decision regarding whether they function in. Thus, at this stage schools that should attend normal classes or not should have the option of sending disabled children be left to the child. to SEN classes do so. The study findings indicate that there is On Baa Atoll, the researchers observed difference in understanding of the concept that both the disabled children and the of inclusive education among the teachers were from the same island and lived respondents. Many understand the inclusive in the same inclusive society. Class sizes were delivery model as simply an alternative to small, with a mere 20 students per class, SEN classes if SEN classes cannot be making personal and attentive care and provided, claiming that inclusive education support possible. However, one student with can sometimes be insufficient. Although the heavy autism was not able to continue his concept sounds promising, it is important to education beyond the fifth grade as he could look carefully its accomplishments. not keep up with students in higher grades. This student was, therefore, forced to stay in 3.2 Education for children with the highest grade of primary level, where disabilities in an inclusive society daily care by the classroom teacher was The researchers addressed the question possible. of whether inclusive education is a means to Addu Atoll has an unusual situation, realize an inclusive society, or an inclusive even by Maldives' standards. This atoll is the society is a means to realize inclusive southernmost of all the atolls in the Maldives education. Usually, there are some and housed a British base during the
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protectorate era. It features many bridges 3.3 Prospects and challenges between the islands, making travel easy. The The researchers’ observations of classes population of the atoll is 20,000, making it following an ‘inclusive’ model of delivery the second-largest concentration of indicated that ‘inclusive education’ is population in the Maldives. Each of the conducted in a way particular to the islands making up Addu Atoll has one school, Maldives. Although it is described as and there is a SEN class on the most ‘inclusive’ it is not fully inclusive, as disabled populated island, Hithadhoo. At the time of children do not participate in all classes with the researchers’ visit, both local teachers and non-disabled children. Furthermore, in some Indian teachers specialized in special needs cases children with special needs have education were employed there. Because the classes in the same place as other children islands are connected, and transportation is but get different forms of education. For easy, disabled children on Addu Atoll, unlike instance, the researchers have observed a children on other atolls, can choose between girl with a hearing impairment who SEN classes and inclusive education. The sometimes learned the same things in a class researchers sought to identify which option with the other children, and sometimes the disabled children and guardians chose. learned different things on her own, The researchers have met several depending on the class. The researchers children on Addu Atoll. One child, a male never saw her join groups with other children (Child A) began his education at a school when they were doing group work. with no SEN class in 2012. He was The researchers found that special subsequently diagnosed with ADHD. The education is in a transition period in the child was also violent towards fellow Maldives, and one could characterize the students and was difficult to manage. The situation as ‘the introduction of inclusive researchers felt that the abuse of illegal education’. Many forms of education have a drugs by the child’s mother and his parents’ hint of inclusive education, and these are subsequent divorce must have played a large conducted simultaneously. Furthermore, part in the child’s behaviour. The child was there are differing views on what constitutes not permitted to continue his education at ‘inclusive education’. For example, while the school and the school's headmaster some respondents described individual convinced Child A's father to send him to the education programmes (IEPs) as a future Sharafdin school's SEN class, since that form of inclusive education, others felt that school accepts children with disabilities it was merely personal guidance and (usually minor visual and learning decreased a child's sense of competition and disabilities). Child A consequently enrolled in their motivation to learn. A special school in Sharafdin school and travelled to school Male, was introducing IEPs, specialized every day by motorcycle. The researchers learning programmes developed for each observed that Child A participated in the child each semester with the input of the third-year students' physical education class guardians and teachers, but it was noted that (soccer) and created artworks in art class, IEPs are only possible in special schools that just like the other students. Thus, while SEN have sufficient number of teachers and classes are often viewed as inhibiting facilities as IEPs require a lot of work, inclusive education, the example of Child A resources and time. Indeed, the main indicates that SEN classes can also function inhibiting factors to inclusive education are a as a foothold for children to move into lack of funds, a lack of facilities, lack of inclusive education. trained teachers and a lack of experience.
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4. Conclusion References While the researchers were unable to find an answer to the question of whether 国際協力事業団 1980『モルディブ共和国学 society would become more inclusive if 校建設計画基本設計調査報告書』。 inclusive education produces good results, 森下稔 2012「モルディブの教育」日本比較 they observed that the Maldives already has 教育学会編『比較教育学事典』東信堂、 an inclusive society, and that in the very 377-378 ページ。 intimate society of Maldives, inclusive 森下稔 2013「民主主義の定着過程における education tends to be implemented at the 市民性教育の課題－モルディブの児童 primary level. At the secondary level, 生徒の現状から－」『九州教育学会研究 however, even though society supports 紀要』第 40 巻、105-112 ページ。 inclusion, delivering services through Athif, A. 2012. Inclusive Education: Republic inclusive models is much more difficult due of Maldives, A paper for the meeting to inhibiting factors such as a lack of trained titled ‘Educational Policy Research on teachers. Equity and Inclusion in Asia’, 27 The researchers also found that there September 2012, Bangkok, UNESCO. are concrete efforts underway in the Athif, A. 2013. Impact of the Inclusive Maldives, both in terms of policy and Education policy, A paper for the practice, to support children with special meeting titled ‘Educational Policy needs to gain access to education. Currently, Research on Equity and Inclusion in such support takes the form of SEN classes Asia-Pacific - Focusing on Children with but there are moves towards delivering Disabilities’, 20 September 2013, services through an inclusive model. There is, Bangkok, UNESCO. however, some debate regarding which Azza, F., Kaameshwary, J. and Khaleel, M.. model, special needs education or inclusive 2008. Education for All: Mid-decade education, better meets the local needs. The Assessment – National Report. Male, predominant view at the time of the study Ministry of Education, Government of was that SEN classes are better, while the Republic of Maldives. inclusive education is seen as a ‘Plan B’. Bray, M. and Adam, K. 2001. The dialectic of Despite practical limitations, such as the international and the national: limited resources, the researchers found that Secondary school examinations in education for disabled children is a priority Maldives, International Journal of in the Maldives. Unlike some other Educational Development, Vol.21, No. 3, developing countries, where inclusive pp. 231-244. education exists in name only and where Department of Information and education is often merely designed to cram Broadcasting. 1985. Maldives: A as much knowledge as possible into each historical overview. Male, Government student, the Maldives is attempting to of the Republic of Maldives. implement a locally-appropriate form of Educational Development Centre（EDC）. inclusive education that suits the context, 2012. The National Curriculum and it could therefore serve as a model for Framework (Draft). Male, Ministry of other countries. Education, Government of the Republic of Maldives. Hussain, D. 2008. Functional translation of the constitution of the Republic of Maldives. Male, Ministry of Legal
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Reform, Information and Arts, Government of the Republic of Maldives. Ministry of Education. 2001. EFA Plan of Action Maldives 2001: Follow-up to Dakar Framework for Action. Male, Government of the Republic of Maldives. Ministry of Education. 2011. School Statistics 2011. Male, Government of the Republic of Maldives. Ministry of External Affairs (Maldives). 1949. Ladies and Gentlemen: The Maldive Islands! Colombo, M. D. Gunasena and Co. Ltd. UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 2017. Education and Disability. Fact Sheet No. 40. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/002 4/002475/247516e.pdf (Accessed 15 December 2017.) Electronic versions of local newspapers were accessed: http://www.miadhu.com/. http://sun.mv/english/. http://www.haveeru.com.mv/.
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9. Inclusive Education in Bangladesh: Current Status, Scope and Implications for Learning Improvement
Asim Das, Institute of Education and Research University of Dhaka, Bangladesh Tatsuya Kusakabe, Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education Hiroshima University, Japan
Introduction disabilities are prerequisites for the realization of the Education for All goals. In this context, Education is a basic human right that should ‘inclusive education’ evolved as a movement be extended to all children, youth and adults that challenged exclusionary policies and regardless of their abilities and disabilities. practices. It can be regarded as part of the This right is enshrined in the Universal wider struggle to uphold human rights and Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the end discrimination. In particular, it seeks to Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) ensure that social justice in education prevails and the Convention on the Rights of Persons (UNESCO, 2005). It is widely believed that with Disabilities (2006). It is also addressed in inclusive education for all will pave the way to the World Declaration for Education for All peace and prosperity for society at large, and (1990), the UNESCO Salamanca Statement and contribute to sustainable development. Framework for Action (1994) and the Dakar Framework for Action (2000). Context
Upholding the right to education is at the very The prevalence of disability is high in heart of UNESCO’s mission, which is also Bangladesh, for reasons relating to extreme affirmed and recognized by its Member States. poverty, illiteracy, lack of awareness and, Such education must also be of high quality. above all, lack of medical care and services. Thus, UNESCO emphasizes not merely the Although disability is a major social and right to education, but also the right to quality economic phenomenon in Bangladesh, there education. is very little reliable data on this issue given the absence of a comprehensive national survey One of the greatest challenges facing on persons with disabilities. marginalized individuals in societies throughout the world is exclusion from At independence, Bangladesh committed to participation in economic, social, political and the right of basic education for all children. cultural life (UNESCO, 2005). To ensure that no Accordingly, the constitution affirms the children are marginalized, education policies following: ‘The state shall adopt effective and practices must be inclusive of all learners, measures for the purpose of establishing a encourage the full participation of all and uniform, mass oriented and universal system promote diversity as a resource rather than as of education and extending free and an obstacle. compulsory education to all children to such stage as may be determined by law’. This The majority of children with disabilities in acknowledgement that primary education is a developing countries are out of school, and responsibility of the state and recognition of many of those enrolled are not learning. the fundamental rights of the people to Removing the barriers to accessing education education ushered in a new era and since then and the barriers to learning for people with
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Bangladesh has undertaken many initiatives disabilities; providing special schooling and towards upholding the right to education and logistical support; teaching children ‘alongside ensuring that the education system in line with general students’; setting up programmes for the nation’s development objectives. the inclusion in education of students with severe handicapped and for those with The constitution states that ‘no citizen shall, on multiple handicaps; and improving grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of communication and mobility for disabled birth, be subject to any liability, restriction or people. A major constraint to implementation condition with regard to access to any place of of the Action Plan, however, was funding. public entertainment, resort or admission to Therefore, as of 2017, the action plan had not any educational institution’. Accordingly, in been implemented. 1995 the government approved a national policy for the disabled that ‘mainstreamed Two governmental organizations work to disability into the country’s development promote better dialogue between the agenda’ and in 1996 the government created government and the non-governmental an action plan to implement this policy. organizations (NGOs) that support the rights of people with disabilities (PWDs): the The parliament adopted its first National Foundation for the Development of comprehensive disability legislation, the the Disabled (NFDD) and the National Bangladesh Persons with Disability Welfare Coordination Committee on Disability (NCC). Act in April of 2001. If a person is incapacitated The NFDD provides guidance and support to and unable to lead a normal life, either government agencies and NGOs regarding partially or fully, as a result of a disability or disability issues. The NCC, which was launched impairment, whether the cause of the in 1993 under the chairpersonship of the disability were congenital or a result of Minister of Social Welfare, has 52 members, accident or disease, maltreatment or other including PWDs, government agencies, NGOs reasons, the act identifies that person as and self-help organizations. The NCC provides having a disability. The legislation defines a forum for open dialogue between the persons with disabilities as those with physical, stakeholders to promote mutual visual, hearing or speech impairments, mental understanding and cooperation and to disabilities (cognitive disability or mental identify and discuss issues that impede retardation) or mental illnesses, characterized cooperation, and works in close cooperation as ‘loss or damage, partially or wholly, of with the National Forum of Organizations mental balance’. Persons with multiple Working with the Disabled (NFOWD), which is disabilities (more than one type of the umbrella organization of such NGOs in impairment) are also covered under the act. Bangladesh.
On 7 May 2002, the office of the prime Education for students with minister promulgated the National Action Plan disabilities in Bangladesh for People with Disabilities. The action plan stipulated what needed to be done to realize Bangladesh has one of the largest primary the goals of the Disability Welfare Act. It had education systems in the world, with 16.4 five sections: education, health, employment, million primary school age children (6 to 10 accessibility and transportation. The plan years) enrolled in 2012 and365,925 primary included various recommendations, including school teachers in 82,218 schools. raising awareness about disability; conducting surveys and registration at birth to identify One of the challenges in Bangladesh is how to
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ensure education is provided, as a right, to can freely interact with one another, has marginalized learners that have not been able become the preferred approach worldwide. to access mainstream learning institutions However, this concept of merging of special because of disabilities. In some cases, access is education and mainstream education into a not possible because students with special unified system has divided many educators. needs require modifications within the While the seed of inclusive education had education system in order to enable them to been sown and seen fruit in many countries, it fully participate and benefit from education. has yet to fully sprout in Bangladesh.
Quality has been a particular issue in primary The Child Education and Literacy Survey (CELS) education in Bangladesh. While the gross of 2012 found that of the children aged enrolment ratio in primary education reached between 3 and 14 who were enrolled in 97 per cent in 2002 and the net enrolment rate schools, 118,575 had disabilities. It was (NER) was estimated at 86 per cent, estimated that 59.4 per cent of children with improvements are needed with regard to disabilities were enrolled. As of 2014, 82,708 aspects such as retention, completion and students with disabilities were enrolled in plurality of learning. This is particularly mainstream primary schools (Directorate of relevant for students with special needs. While Primary Education, 2014). many students with special needs are now able to access education, they cannot always Enrolment status for inclusion in fully participate in learning activities. pre-primary
The country has two types of education for In 2013, pre-primary classes had been students with disabilities: introduced in 81,798 schools, and 29,62,038 - Special and integrated education learners were enrolled, including 12,57,872 in (special schools, segregated system). GPS, 5,70,078 in RNGPS and 53,618 in NNPS. Integrated education is only provided to A total of 5,398 girls and 6,749 boys with students with visual impairments. disabilities were enrolled in pre-primary in - Inclusive education (mainstream schools, 2013. all the time in ordinary classes)
Figure 1. Types of education for students with disabilities
‘Inclusive education’, in which students with special needs are given equal opportunity to learn with their peers in mainstream classrooms and an environment where they
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Table 1. Types of disability of pre-primary children, by sex Type of disability Boys Girls Eyesight impairment 2472 1915 Hearing impairment 617 577 Intellectual/mental impairment 392 303 Speech impairment 1604 1244 Physical impairment 1223 993 Autistic 196 163 Others 245 203 Total 6749 5398 Source: Directorate of Primary Education, 2014
Enrolment status for inclusion in primary schools In GPS and NNPS, the number of students with different disabilities has increased as part of inclusive education initiatives.
Table 2. Number of enrolled children with disabilities in GPS and NNPS, 2013
Type of GPS NNPS GPS & NNPS disabilit Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total y Physical 11,806 8,864 20,670 4,421 3,359 7,780 16,227 12,223 28,450 Visual 4,782 3,961 8,743 1,481 1,230 2,711 6,263 5,191 11,454 Hearing 1,368 1,295 2,663 643 598 1,241 2,011 1,893 3,904 Speaking 7,532 5,909 13,441 3,092 2,443 5,535 10,624 8,352 18,976 Mental 7,544 6,399 13,943 1,778 1,594 3,372 9,322 7,993 17,315 Other 608 513 1,121 209 174 383 817 687 1,504 Autistics 424 374 798 170 137 307 594 511 1,105 34,06 27,31 61,37 11,79 9,53 21,32 45,85 36,85 82,70 Total 4 5 9 4 5 9 8 0 8 Source : Directorate of Primary Education, 2014
Figure 2. Number of enrolled children with disabilities in GPS & NNPS, 2005, 2010-2013
35000 30000 2005 25000 2010 20000 2011 15000 2012 10000 2013 5000 0 Physical Visual Hearing Speaking Mental Autistics Other Source: Directorate of Primary Education, 2014
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Support for inclusive education into the primary teacher training programme. Innovations in teacher education for The government launched the Teaching inclusive education Quality Improvement (TQI-II) project and Some initiatives that have been taken to the Secondary Education Sector promote inclusive teacher education include: Investment Programme (SESIP), which The DPEd programme, which includes focus on inclusive education for learning teaching-learning strategies for inclusive improvement. education, hasreplaced the C-in-Ed, which did not have any content on inclusive Budget allocation for projects that education. support inclusive education The UNESCO Promoting Inclusive Teacher Table 3 lists some of the programmes, projects Education programme was adapted to the and activities that were given budgetary support Bangladesh context and its three advocacy by the Government of Bangladesh between 2011 guides (policy, curriculum and teaching- and 2014. learning methods) are being incorporated
Table 3. Projects/programmes supporting inclusive education Budget (100,000 taka)
Sl. Programme/project 2011- 2012- 2013- 2012 2013 2014 1 Primary education stipend program 90,000 94,900 85,250 2 School feeding programme (GoB/WFP) 23,950 43,000 46,300 3 Inclusive Education Activities -- 10,1 25,2 4 EC supported school feeding programme 6,750 2,650 5,250 5 ROSC project 6,916 9,401 14,800 6 Establishment of new primary school in school less areas 7,955 19,000 20,000 7 Primary education development project IDB - 1,280 8,600 8 Basic Education for hard to reach urban working children 3,000 2,200 2,545 Source: Directorate of Primary Education, 2015a
Scope for improvement There is an absence of reliable and Despite many achievements with regard to inclusive consistent data on the number and education in Bangladesh, further efforts are needed education status of students with in order for all children to receive the benefits of disabilities. This makes it difficult for quality education. Key issues include the following: educators and policy-makers to Disabled students are seen as welfare- understand the true nature of the problem recipients rather than as children who have and identify solutions. The lack of a proper a right to education. While education for screening and identification system to non-disabled students is controlled by the assess disabilities sometimes leads to Ministry of Education, education for misconceptions. students with disabilities is directed by One of the major challenges is how to Ministry of Social Welfare. provide education for students with diverse
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needs in mainstream schools. The services as a right, rather than being curriculum lacks the required flexibility to objects of charity or welfare. cater to the needs of students with Carry out a comprehensive survey to disabilities, and the teaching-learning identify the scale and nature of the process does not address the individual disabilities and to identify the needs of learning needs of students. Furthermore, students with disabilities. there are limited developmentally- Develop mechanisms for early appropriate teaching-learning materials for identification and assessment of students students with and without disabilities. with disabilities. Many education staff, including those in Raise awareness, systematically at all levels, teacher training institutions and schools, of the issues faced by students with lack awareness of the benefits of inclusive disabilities with regard to access to education, which is an obstacle to the education and learning needs. Ensure all effective implementation of inclusion staff in the education system learn about programmes. the positive aspects of inclusion. Teachers lack training and experience in Ensure all teachers, educators and teaching and managing students with personnel at all levels of education sector disabilities. receive adequate training in terms of Efforts regarding inclusive education have conceptual knowledge of special generally focused on schools in urban educational needs and inclusive education areas, but a large number of schools are as they are the primary movers for changes located in rural and remote areas. within the schools. This type of short Thousands of students remain out of training programme could be conducted school. Most are from ethnic minority by universities. Research, collaboration with groups and/or extremely poor families, universities and engagement with experts and/or live in remote areas (haor, char and on this aspect of education is important. coastal). Moreover, there are high dropout Provide training on inclusive education in rates among these groups, despite the both pre- and in-service training for government succeeding in reducing the teachers and head teachers. dropout rate (BRAC, 2014). Train classroom teachers in the use of the The quality of school building is another curriculum with regard to meeting the barrier for inclusion of students with learning needs of students with disabilities. disabilities. Schools are not always easy to Furthermore, introduce a child-friendly and enter and use for students with physical flexible system. disabilities. Ensure in-service teachers receive training on inclusion that is oriented to classroom Recommendations practice and learn appropriate teaching To improve inclusive education in Bangladesh, it is methods. Provide relevant materials and necessary to: incorporate these into the training manuals. Move education provisions for students Expand training so that all teachers, not with disabilities from the Ministry of Social only head teachers in primary schools, are Welfare to the Ministry of Primary and given the opportunity to be trained as Mass Education. This would not only inclusive education experts. streamline the provision of education, but Ensure that professionals in inclusive would emphasize that students with education provide support for the revision disabilities are entitled to education of curricula and textbooks at both primary
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and secondary levels. Give the NCTB, as an (PEDP-3) – Revised. Dhaka, Ministry of apex agency, the lead responsibility to Primary and Mass Education. ensure that all material is aligned with Directorate of Primary Education. 2015b. Annual inclusive teaching-learning approaches. primary school census. Dhaka, Ministry of Provide resources related to disabilities and Primary and Mass Education. inclusion to teaching staff and introduce Disability Rights Watch Group. 2009. State of the supplementary reading materials reflecting rights of persons with disabilities in disability issues for the students in Bangladesh. Dhaka, Disability Rights Watch mainstream schools. Group. Establish evaluation and feedback Hussain, A. 2008. Report on women with disabilities in processes for assessing the performance of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Social Assistance and all learners, including students with Rehabilitation for the Physically Vulnerable. disabilities. The evaluation needs to go Planning and Evaluation Department. 2002. Country beyond examining academic profile on disability: People’s Republic of achievements, especially for students with Bangladesh. Dhaka, Japan International disabilities. Improved approaches and Cooperation Agency. practices of examination and evaluation Ministry of Law Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. should be introduced. 2013. The rights and protection of persons Develop an inter-agency coordination with disabilities act in Bangladesh. Dhaka, structure to ensure coordination Government of the People’s Republic of between the ministries, departments, Bangladesh. NGOs and others that respond to the Nasreen, M. and Tate, S. Social inclusion: Gender and special needs of the disabled. equity in education swaps in South Asia: Improve accessibility for disabled students Bangladesh Case Study. Kathmandu, to schools by making necessary UNICEF. modifications to the physical structure of Titumir, R. A. M. and Hossain, J. 2005. Disability in schools. Bangladesh: Prevalence, knowledge, attitudes and practices. Dhaka, Unnayan References Onneshan. Ackerman, P., Thormann, M. S. and Huq, S. 2005. United Nations. 2006. Convention on the rights of Assessment of educational needs of persons with disabilities. New York, United disabled children in Bangladesh. Dhaka, Nations. USAID. UNESCO. 2005. Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring Ahuja, A. and Ibrahim, M. 2006. An assessment of access to education for all. Paris, UNESCO. inclusive education in Bangladesh. Dhaka, UNICEF., National Academy for Primary Education UNESCO. (NAPE) and Directorate of Primary Centre for Services and Information on Disability. Education. 2012. Framework for diploma 2002. Employment situation of people with in primary education. Dhaka, Government disabilities in Bangladesh. Dhaka, Centre of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. for Services and Information on Disability. UNICEF. 2014. Situation analysis on children with Directorate of Primary Education. 2014. Bangladesh disabilities in Bangladesh, Dhaka, UNICEF. Primary Education Annual Sector World Health Organization and World Bank. 2011. Performance Report. Dhaka, Ministry of World report on disability. Geneva, World Primary and Mass Education. Health Organization. Directorate of Primary Education. 2015a. Third Primary Education Development Program
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10. The impact of inclusive education in Asia and Africa: Focusing on the right to education for children with disabilities in Cambodia
Makiko Hayashi, University of the Sacred Heart, Japan
Introduction Background
This paper examines the notion of inclusion Until the 1960s, children with special needs based on diversity, and whether all groups with were excluded from the Cambodian educational special education needs are identified as specified in system (Balescut and Eklindh, 2006). Initial efforts in the Salamanca Statement of 1994. It also examines the 1960s and 1970s, including programmes, new the feasibility of implementing inclusive education institutions and specialist educators, functioned settings in Cambodia. The study involved conducting outside of the mainstream education system a comparative policy review of 77 Education for All (Ainscow, 2007). In the late 1960s and 1970s, Assessment Reports and National Plans of Action dissatisfaction with special education led to a new from 60 countries in Africa and the Asia-Pacific region, approach, namely ‘integrated education’, a system of as well as qualitative field research in Cambodia, education for children with disabilities that was comprising semi-structured interviews with actors physically located within mainstream schools, but in involved in the supply and demand sides of special specialized classrooms or in shared classrooms just needs education. This study has resulted in new for a few hours. insights into the challenges regarding upholding the Improved understanding of persons with right to education for children with special education disabilities led to demand for fundamental changes needs. The study found that at both the international to education settings for the disabled (Ahuja, policy and national local levels, identification of Ainscow and Jangira, 1995 and Booth, 2005). The special education needs is strictly limited. Moreover, Salamanca Statement gave impetus to the notion of the relevance of implementing inclusive educational inclusion, suggesting radical changes to the form of settings for all groups with special education needs integration and accepting a diverse range of special faces numerous constraints, requiring new needs not only limited to disabilities (Figure 1). observations and judgments both at the academic Furthermore, it explored innovative ways of and practical levels. reforming the school environment to accommodate the needs of all children and youth (UNESCO, 1994).
Figure 1: Historical development stages toward inclusive schools
Exclusion Special Integrated Inclusive Schools Schools Schools
BEFORE SALAMANCA AFTER SALAMANCA
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Issues relating to inclusive education Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Many feel that the ultimate goal of inclusive Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritius, education is to improve and enrich the quality of Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Sao Tome and education in classrooms for all children, both those Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, Tanzania with and without special needs, and to enable them (Mainland and Zanzibar), Togo, Uganda, Zambia and to learn from one another and eliminate Zimbabwe. discriminatory attitudes (UNESCO, 1994). However, The countries selected from the Asia-Pacific the notion of inclusive education is understood region were as follows: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, differently by the various academic researchers and Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Democratic People's international organizations (Ainscow, 1997, 2000, Republic of Korea, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, the 2004 and 2007; Booth, 2005; Lynch, 1994; McClain- Republic of Korea, Lao PDR, Maldives, Mongolia, Nhlapo, 2007; Peters, 2003; UNESCO, 2003, 2005; Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Wormnaes, 2004). Uzbekistan, Viet Nam and the Pacific Islands (Cook The feasibility of meeting all the special Islands, Federated States of Micronesia Fiji, Kiribati, education needs of all children and youth remains a Marshall Islands, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New question of concern among the various stakeholders. Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga In particular, given that developing countries already Tuvalu and Vanuatu). face constraints in providing compulsory education for those without special needs, many governments do not see inclusion of those with special needs as a Comparison of policy and practice primary concern. Thus, inclusive education is a The second part of the study examined sensitive issue in many developing countries where inclusive practices in Cambodia. In particular, the key efforts are led by donor agencies who seek to study sought to reveal whether what was stated at uphold the right to education for children with the international policy level is reflected in ongoing special needs, but where governments hold very activities related to inclusive education in Cambodia little accountability. and sought to identify gaps and the obstacles that Study objectives prevent the implementation of inclusive policies and strategies. This part of the study relied on the This study had two parts: (i) comparison responses to questionnaires of two groups of actors: of the policies of 60 countries and (ii) examination of those on the supply side of inclusive education (ie. the practices in one country, Cambodia, and whether school representatives, teachers, etc) and those on those practices reflected the country’s policies. the demand side of inclusive education (ie. parents and students). Method Comparison of policies The first part examined policies relating The study examined 77 reports and plans, to inclusion in 60 developing countries in two specifically Education for All (EFA) reports, particularly regions: Africa and the Asia-Pacific. National Plans of Action and 2000 Assessment Of the 60 countries, 38 were from Africa Reports, which had been written based on specific and 22 were from the Asia-Pacific region. The standards as set forth in guidelines (UNESCO, 1998b, countries selected from Africa were as follows: Benin, 2000b, 2001; Chang, 2003). The reports and plans Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape were sourced from the UNESCO Education Plans Verde, Chad, Comoros, Republic of Congo, Congo, and Policies website. While the reports were similar
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in terms of structure, they varied in the kinds of were the Education Sector Development details included, probably due to the different Programme from Ethiopia; the Annual Education authors involved in preparing the reports. Sector Operational Plan from Ghana and the Education Sector Support Programme from Kenya. As shown in Table 1, of the 77 reports and The report from the Asia-Pacific region that was plans studied, 48 were from Africa and 29 were from labelled as ‘Other’, was the Mid-Term Action Plan for the Asia-Pacific region. Of the reports and plans from Improving Education for All from Mongolia. Africa, 16 were EFA National Plans of Action (NPAs). The three reports from Africa labelled as ‘Other’,
Table 1: Number of reports and plans, by language Number of Number of Number of Number of ‘Other’ Number of Number of countries reports and EFA national types of reports/plans in reports/plans plans plans of action reports/plans English in French
38 in Africa 48 16 3 21 27
22 in the 29 10 1 29 Asia-Pacific Source: Based on data from EFA NPAs and 2000 Assessment Reports
The study identified 16 categories of special education needs, as listed in Table 2.
Table 2: Categories of Special Education Needs (SEN) 1. Disabled persons 9. Child soldiers 2. Gifted children 10. Poverty-stricken children 3. Street and working children 11. children and orphans affected by HIV and AIDS 4. Remote and nomadic populations 12. Orphans an d separated children 5. Linguistic, ethnic, cultural and religious minorities 13. Jailed children 6. Abused children 14. Illiterate youth 7. Refugees and Internally-displaced persons 15. Out-of-school children 8. Migrants 16. Other Sources: UNESCO, 1996, 1998a., 1999a., 1999b., 2000a., 2003, 2004 and Bernard, 2000
Interviews district and commune) and the local level including The researcher conducted interviews in schools. The interviewees on the ‘demand side’ were Phnom Penh, Cambodia, over a period of two weeks. with those who are involved in receiving education, The interviews were semi-structured, with qualitative, including parents of children with/without disabilities, open-ended questions. Table 3 lists the types of students with disabilities and students without interview participants and the number of each. The disabilities. The researcher met with students with interviewees on the ‘supply side’ were those involved sight, hearing and intellectual disabilities, but in providing education to students with special conducted direct interviews only with students with needs, including stakeholders at the international sight-related disabilities. level, national government level (central, provincial,
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Table 3: Interview participants SUPPLY SIDE DEMAND SIDE International organizations: 1 Parents (w/o disabilities) with disabled children: 7 Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of Parents (w/o disabilities) without disabled children: Cambodia (MoEYS): 2 7 Schools: 6 Students with disabilities: 7 School headmasters: 7 Students without disabilities: 7 School teachers: 7 Total: 23 informants Total: 28 informants
Key findings categorized as ‘disadvantaged groups’, which As shown in Table 4, of the 77 reports and included ‘vulnerable groups’, ‘excluded groups’ and plans reviewed, 65 had reference to people ‘marginalized groups’.
Table 4: Number of reports and plans referring to ‘disadvantaged groups’ ✓ ✗ Total # of reports/plans referring to disadvantaged groups 65 12 77 Sources: NPAs and 2000 Assessment Reports
Thus, ‘disabled persons’ were mentioned in more reports/plans than any other disadvantaged group. As shown in Table 5, very few reports and plans mentioned abused children or migrants, with only two or three reports mentioning these disadvantaged groups. Each of the 16 SEN groups was mentioned in at least two reports/ plans, however, indicating that the understanding of ‘inclusive education’ has expanded beyond ensuring access to education to persons with disabilities and that there is now recognition of the differing learning needs of various groups. This is in line with the Salamanca Statement, which sought to ensure each nation to ‘recognize[s] and respond[s] to the diverse needs of their students, accommodating both different styles and rates of learning and ensuring quality education to all’ (UNESCO, 1994, p. 12)
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Table 5: Number of reports and plans mentioning specific groups with special education needs
Disabl Gifted Street/ Remote/ Minorit Abus Refug Migran Child Poverty Childre Orphan Jailed Illitera Out- Oth ed childr workin nomadic y ed ee/ ts soldi - n s/ childr te of- er person en g populati groups: childr IDPs ers stricke affecte separat en youth schoo s childre ons linguist en n d by ed l # of # of n ic/ childre HIV Childre childr repor countr ethnic/ n and n en ts ies cultural AIDS / religiou s # ✓: 3 of ✓: 60 ✓: 5 ✓: 20 ✓: 37 ✓: 28 ✓: 2 ✓: 7 ✓: 3 ✓: 2 ✓: 22 ✓: 7 ✓: 13 ✓: 5 ✓: 26 ✓: 20 77 60 ✗: repor ✗: 17 ✗: 72 ✗: 57 ✗: 40 ✗: 49 ✗: 75 ✗: 70 ✗: 74 ✗: 75 ✗: 55 ✗: 70 ✗: 64 ✗: 72 ✗: 51 ✗: 57 74 ts 2000 Assessment: French: 25 ✓: Reports/Plans identifying this group as ‘Disadvantaged Groups’ 41 English: 52 ✗: Reports/Plans not identifying this group as ‘Disadvantaged Groups’ NPA: 32 Others: 4
B: Education policies recognize only Source: EFA NPAs and 2000 Assessment special education Report The policies of some countries do not mention integrated education or inclusive Progress on inclusive educational strategies education. For example, the national policy of Comoros recognizes the importance of The study found that countries can be special education but does not discuss either divided into five categories in terms of their integrated or inclusive schooling. Likewise, progress in creating an inclusive the policy of the Democratic Republic of environment for children with disabilities. Congo recognizes the importance of developing special education schools and A: No education provision for people with programmes but does not refer to disabilities integrated or inclusive schools. Similarly, the Nine countries identified ‘disabled Congo has strategies to promote the people’ as one of their ‘disadvantaged development of special education, including, groups’ but had no educational ‘construction and rehabilitation of new opportunities for such persons or clear classrooms … special schools… construction strategies to provide access to education for of special centers for the mentally this group.18 handicapped and implementation of these centers in every region where there are special schools established’ (Congo Republic
18 Those countries were Djibouti, Liberia, (Zanzibar), the Pacific Islands, Tanzania and Madagascar, Mali, Seychelles, Tanzania Pakistan.
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-Plan national d’action de EPT), but does not a positive approach to education for certain mention strategies for integrated or inclusive categories of disabled students (deaf, blind education. and deaf/blind students). Similarly, in Bhutan, as the EFA 2000 Assessment notes, C: Education provision is in the form of ‘educational programs and facilities [should special education and policies are be] developed to integrate, wherever negative regarding inclusive education possible, disabled children into the regular In ten countries, inclusive education is schools’ (EFA 2000 Assessment Bhutan, p. not fully embraced. For example, in 3.9). The words, ‘wherever possible’ suggest, Bangladesh: however, that there are limitations on what the government can do, and that there are The NPA recognized the certain conditions to be fulfilled for inclusive need (for inclusive education to be feasible in Bhutan. education) but felt that “normal primary schools” E: Education provision is in the form of could not provide both special education and there are inclusive “education and expensive policies, but no implementation arrangements required for strategies treatment of the disability” Countries in this category have policies and proposed that Ministry regarding integrated or inclusive education, of Social Welfare should but no clear vision or realistic strategies for provide this service through implementation. For example, Cameroon’s the specialized institutions policy acknowledges the benefits of inclusive under normal Allocation of education, yet its strategy is ambiguous and Business. (EFA NPA II lacking in detail. As the NPA notes, what is Bangladesh 2003-2015 required is the ‘creation and construction of 7.13) necessary equipment in schools to adapt to the difficult situations of children’ (EFA NPA From the above statement, it can be Cameroon p.11). inferred that in Bangladesh inclusive education is perceived as being difficult to Comparative analysis of gaps between policy implement and costly, and cannot deliver and practice quality education for disabled students. The researcher examined whether the Therefore, the government provides various actors are in favour of adopting education services for the disabled through inclusive strategies or whether they see specialized social welfare institutions. difficulties with inclusive education. The ‘supply side’ actors were divided D: Education provision is in the form of into two categories: Group A, consisting of special education but policies are positive international organizations and local regarding inclusive education governmental agencies, and Group B, In contrast to category C, the national consisting of headmasters and teachers. The government policies of the ten countries in interview responses indicate that actors in category D express relatively positive Group A tend to be more in favour of attitudes about integration and inclusion, inclusive education than actors in Group B, and plans for such settings. In Cote d’Ivoire, with school headmasters and school for example, inclusive schools are considered teachers less in favour than government
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ministry staff. Furthermore, while the actors Summary and conclusions in Group A see a need to develop and The study found that the 60 countries promote inclusive education in a positive all have awareness of the notion of inclusion way, interviews with the school headmasters based on diversity. At the same time, indicate that they feel that inclusive however, the majority of the 60 countries education is not suitable in certain cases and identified fewer than three categories of SEN it was not in their intention to develop and (disadvantaged groups) and most prioritized plan for such education settings. As for the the disabled. Thus, it appears that the teachers, many of them had special countries examined in the study do not fully professional training in how to teach recognize the definition of ‘inclusive disabled children, but nevertheless education’ as meeting the needs of all experienced difficulties and constraints from students with special education needs. In time to time. most countries the targeted ‘disadvantaged The ‘demand side’ actors were also groups’ are selected based on their regional, divided into two categories: Group A, geographical, social and cultural contexts, consisting of parents with disabled children such that they prioritize access to education and parents with non-disabled children, and for certain groups with specific special Group B, consisting of students with education needs. This is likely to be because disabilities and students without disabilities. these countries do not have the resources to The responses to the interviews indicate that meet the education needs of all children with the parents of children with disabilities are special education needs. very positive about all means of providing Analysis of the five types of strategies educational opportunities for their children, relating to the provision of education for regardless of whether it is in the form of those with disabilities that were identified by special schools, integrated schools or the study indicates that most of the inclusive schools. This finding was supported countries examined in the study are by the responses to the interview of school implementing special needs education and staff. For example, Mr. H from School C (RS) few have begun to implement integrated or observed that when advocacy activities are inclusive education. Thus, although many conducted to raise public awareness among governments have expressed support for the parents and the community about the rights sentiments expressed in the Salamanca of all children including children who are Statement, which promotes the adoption of disabled, parents express that they are more inclusive policies, few countries are acting than willing to send their children to accordingly. In fact, some countries seem to integrated and inclusive schools. be going in the opposite direction, and have In contrast, the responses to the expressed that it may not be realistic or interviews with the parents with non- relevant for them to implement inclusive disabled children indicate that the parents education given the resource constraints are cautious about mixing disabled and non- their countries face. disabled children together, and they tend Interview responses by the supply and not to want the two groups of children to demand side actors indicate that some follow the same curriculum in schools. This actors, particularly those at the ‘grassroots’ may be a result of local cultural and religious level, do not strongly support the notion of beliefs. ‘inclusion based on diversity’ and do not always feel that inclusive education settings for children with disabilities are relevant to
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their contexts. Actors with first hand disabilities: Why and how? Background experience in working with disabled children paper prepared for the EFA Global often feel that inclusive education settings Monitoring Report 2006 Literacy for Life. are not the most suitable and appropriate Paris, UNESCO. way to meet the educational needs of all Bernard, A. K. 2000. Education for All and children with disabilities. children who are excluded. Education Furthermore, the study found that the for All 2000 Assessment. Thematic implementation of inclusive education Studies. Paris, UNESCO. (targeting children with disabilities) in Booth, T. 2005. Keeping the future alive: Cambodia would require significant reforms Putting inclusive values into action. and modifications in the system of education, FORUM, Vol. 47 No. 2 and 3, pp. and for a developing country that is still 150-58. recovering from a period of social turmoil Chang, G. C. 2003. Developing a plan of this would require tremendous time and action for education: Methodological effort. To take the initiative and search for brief. Paris, UNESCO. the most appropriate ways of implementing Kugelmass, J. and Ainscow, M. 2004. ‘inclusive education’ in Cambodia so as to Leadership for inclusion: A comparison uphold the right to education of children of international practices. Journal of with disabilities, would require greater Research in Special Educational Needs, government commitment and strong Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 133-41. leadership. At the same time, the supporting Lynch, J. 1994. Provision for children with international donor agencies and non- special educational needs in the Asia governmental organizations must reach region. World Bank Technical Paper, consensus on the definition of ‘inclusion’ to Number 261, Asia Technical Series. bridge the gap between policy intention and Washington, D.C, World Bank. practice. McClain-Nhlapo, C. 2007. Why inclusive education? Workshop material. Phnom References Penh, World Bank. Ainscow, M., Jangira, N. K. and Ahuja, A. 1995. Peters, S. J. 2003. Inclusive education: Education: Responding to special Achieving education for all by including needs through teacher development. P. those with disabilities and special needs. Zinkin and H. McConachie (eds), Washington D.C, World Bank. Disabled children and developing UNESCO. 1994. The Salamanca Statement countries. London, MacKeith Press, pp. and Framework for Action on Special 131-46. Needs Education. Adopted by the Ainscow, M. 1997. Towards inclusive World Conference on Special Needs schooling. British Journal of Special Education: Access and Quality Education, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 3-6. (Salamanca, Spain, 7-10 June 1994). Ainscow, M. 2000. The next step for special Ministry of Education, Spain and education. British Journal of Special UNESCO. Paris, UNESCO. Education, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 76-80. UNESCO. 1996. Learning: The treasure within: Ainscow, M. 2007. Taking an inclusive turn. Report to UNESCO of the International Journal of Research in Special Commission on Education for the Educational Needs, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. Twenty-first Century. Paris, UNESCO. 3-7. UNESCO. 1998a. Wasted opportunities: When Balescut, J. and Eklindh, K. 2006. Literacy and schools fail. Paris, UNESCO. persons with developmental
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UNESCO. 1998b. Education for All: The year 2000 assessment technical guidelines. International Consultative Forum on Education for All. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 1999a. From special needs education to Education for All. A discussion document. Tenth Steering Committee Meeting 30 September - 1 October 1998. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 1999b. Welcoming schools: Students with disabilities in regular schools. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2000a. Education for all and children who are excluded. Thematic Studies. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2000b. Education for All: Preparation of national plans of action - Country guidelines. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2001. EFA planning guide: Southeast and East Asia. Follow-up to the World Education Forum. Bangkok, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2003. Overcoming exclusion through inclusive approaches in education, a challenge: A vision conceptual paper. Paris, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2004. Final report of regional workshop. Regional workshop on inclusive education: Getting all children into school and helping them learn. Bangkok, UNESCO. UNESCO. 2005. Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring access to education for all. Paris, UNESCO. Wormnaes, S. 2004. Quality of education for persons with disabilities. Background paper prepared for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005: The Quality Imperative. Paris, UNESCO.
Cited Reports and Plans EFA NPA II - Bangladesh 2003-2015 EFA NPA Cameroon EFA 2000 Assessment Bhutan Plan national d’action de l’education pour tous (PNA/EPT) Congo Republic
97 Editor
Tatsuya KUSAKABE, Ph.D Hiroshima University
Associate Professor Tatsuya Kusakabe (Ph.D) is deputy director of Center for the Study of International Cooperation in Education, also teaches at Graduate School for International Development and Cooperation, Hiroshima University, Japan. His expertise in comparative education in developing countries, particularly South Aisa such as Bangladesh and India. He plays the role of the evaluator of UNESCO Bangkok Happy Schools Project Since 2018. And he volunteered as editor in chief of the journal of Japan Comparative Education Society from 2018 to 2019. Currently, he researches education policy-practice relationship in developing countries.
Co-Editor
Jun KAWAGUCHI, Ph.D University of Tsukuba
Dr. Jun Kawaguchi graduated from the Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies (GSAPS) at Waseda University in Japan. He is currently working as an Assistant Professor at University of Tsukuba and a JICA expert in Sri Lanka. His major field of study is educational development, comparative and international education and teacher education policy. His research interest for doctoral dissertation lies in primary teacher education policy and its relevance in Malawi. His professional experiences have begun since he was a high school teacher in Japan. After that he participated in Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers at a Teacher Training college in Malawi. He has published over 30 academic papers for journal and book chapters so far. And his teaching performance had the highest evaluation from students in 2018. Based on these activities, he was chosen as a one of the best young faculty members at the University of Tsukuba.