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Download File Creating an Orderly Society: The Regulation of Marriage and Sex in the Dutch Atlantic World, 1621-1674 Deborah Hamer Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Deborah Hamer All rights reserved ABSTRACT Creating an Orderly Society: The Regulation of Marriage and Sex in the Dutch Atlantic World, 1621-1674 Deborah Hamer Historians have long connected the emergence of the early modern state with increased efforts to discipline populations. Allying with religious authorities to monitor private lives, states sought to limit sexual activity to marriage and to support patriarchal authority in order to create orderly societies and obedient subjects. Governments legitimated their increased intrusions into people’s lives by arguing that it was their responsibility to bring about moral reformation in their subjects, but their new interest was also rooted in achieving more direct control over individuals for the purposes of preventing crime and disorder, rationalizing tax collection, eliminating legal pluralities, and inculcating military discipline. This dissertation argues that the same motives that informed the policies of emerging states in this period lay at the heart of the Dutch West India Company’s marriage regulation during its brief existence from 1621 to 1674. Company representatives sought to institute and enforce strict marriage discipline upon their colonists, soldiers, sailors, conquered subjects, and indigenous allies in order to transform them into proper subjects and to extend Company governance over vast, new territories. Like the centralizing states of the early modern period that justified their increased power by arguing that they were reforming their subjects, the West India Company responded to potential critics of their state-like power and their sovereign authority with the same rationale. Company efforts to regulate marriage and sex were, however, challenged by the existence of overlapping jurisdictions emerging both from the Dutch Republic’s own tradition of legal plurality and from the existing institutions of conquered European populations and indigenous allies. Whereas emerging absolutist states were able to either gain the cooperation of or eliminate institutions with competing claims to authority, examining the conflicts over marriage regulation in the Dutch colonies shows that the West India Company failed in its efforts to tame competing institutions and bring them under its authority. Looking at the Company’s governance through the lens of its marriage and sex regulation, therefore, upends traditional understandings of the Company as a trading enterprise and suggests that its directors were engaged in the process of state formation. It also suggests a novel way to understand the Company’s repeated setbacks and ultimate failure in 1674. Despite its claims to absolute authority and its efforts to negotiate and secure this authority, competing institutions never acquiesced to Company jurisdiction. Contents Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………...ii Dedication……………………………………………………………………………...…iv Introduction………………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter One: ‘more & more they marry together’: Confessionally Mixed Marriages in the Dutch Atlantic World……………………………………………………………………43 Chapter Two: ‘as if Brazil is to be the sewer to which the fatherland expels its garbage’: Marriage Regulation and the West India Company’s European Subjects………………80 Chapter Three: ‘Finding ourselves to be damaged in the utmost in the matter of religion to yield to the Catholics’: The Institutional Struggle for Control of Marriage…............140 Chapter Four: ‘our Dutchmen run after them very much’: The Dutch Encounter with Native Americans………………………………………………………………………177 Chapter Five: ‘every slave shall have his own wife’: The Abandonment of the Slave Community……………………………………………………………………………..217 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...243 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………251 i Acknowledgments Many people and institutions provided me with a great deal of support without which I would have been unable to complete this dissertation. As an undergraduate, Govind Sreenivasan introduced me to early modern Europe, and, under the watchful eyes of David Hackett Fischer, I first explored colonial America. I am grateful to them for introducing me to the craft of history. At Columbia, I benefited immensely from the Dutch instruction of Wijnie de Groot, whose enthusiasm for Dutch language and culture is infectious. I was able to further develop my paleography skills with the enthusiastic assistance of Charly Gehring and Janny Venema at the New Netherland Institute in Albany. Charly, Janny, and Dennis Maika have created a community of New Netherland scholars, and I thank them for welcoming me into their company. This dissertation took shape under the direction of Martha Howell and Evan Haefeli, and I find it impossible to fully recount here the tremendous amount of assistance and encouragement that they have given me. Neither Martha Howell nor Evan Haefeli balked when I proposed to learn Dutch during my third year at Columbia for which I cannot thank them enough. I cannot imagine a better guide to early modern archives than Martha nor a more thorough reader of drafts, and to say that I am grateful for her help is an understatement. Evan suggested that I study the Dutch and continually pushed me to expand my geographical focus. His advice on all things Dutch was invaluable. I would also like to thank Christopher Ebert, who opened my eyes to the Portuguese experience in Dutch Brazil, Caterina Pizzigoni, who suggested that I investigate the indigenous population more closely, and Elizabeth Blackmar, who helped ii me refine my arguments. At Columbia, I also learned a great deal from Pamela Smith, Deborah Valenze, Lisa Tiersten, and Euan Cameron. I am thankful for the financial support of a number of institutions without which this work could not have been completed. A summer fellowship supported by Howard and Natalie Shawn’s generosity to the history department allowed me to make an initial trip to the Netherlands to survey records in Amsterdam and The Hague. Support from the American Association of Netherlandic Studies, the New Netherland Research Center, and the American Jewish Historical Society allowed me to complete research in Albany and in the Netherlands. I would also like to thank the archivists and librarians at Butler library, the Nationaal Archief in The Hague, the Stadsarchief Amsterdam, and the Albany public library who were exceedingly generous with their time. I would like to thank my colleagues from Columbia: Jeun Joh, Michael Heil, Ariel Rubin, Nathan Perl-Rosenthal, Sarah Raskin, and Carolyn Arena, who immeasurably enriched my time in New York. As I concluded this dissertation in Miami, the community at the University of Miami welcomed me with open arms. I would in particular like to thank Mary Lindemann, Richard Godbeer, Hugh Thomas, Ashli White, and Nikki Hemmer. I never would have made it to this point without the support of my parents, David and Michelle Hamer, and my sisters, Paige and Yael, who always believed in me. Finally, this dissertation is dedicated to my husband, Bezalel Stern, who unhesitatingly joined me in this adventure and without whom this journey would have been impossible. iii For Bezalel iv Introduction In 1637, Jacob Cats, the famous Dutch moralist, published his Proefsteen van de Trou-ringh [Touchstone of the Wedding Ring], and it, together with his other works on marriage and morals, became among the most popular in the 17th century Dutch Republic.1 In Trou-ringh, Cats gathered accounts of marriages from the Bible, antiquity, and more recent history and then provided commentary on them in the hope of teaching his readers – particularly the women – how to behave before and within marriage. Cats composed his works using simple language and often relied on pictures in order to capture the largest number of readers. As several historians have noted, Cats aspired to nothing less than a transformation of Dutch society by giving it a proper foundation in sexually disciplined individuals and orderly families.2 In the same year that Trou-ringh appeared, Johan Maurits, the celebrated governor of Dutch Brazil, arrived to take up his position in that colony.3 In a bid to make Brazil profitable, the West India Company (WIC) hired Maurits, the count of the German principality of Nassau-Siegen, to continue its military offensives against the Spanish and 1 According to Cats’ publisher, 300,000 copies of his works had been published by 1655, and his books were almost as popular as the Statenbijbel (1637), the Dutch language Bible, Benjamin B. Roberts and Leendert F. Groenendijk, “‘Wearing out a pair of fool’s shoes’: Sexual Advice for Youth in Holland’s Golden Age,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 13, no. 2 (Apr., 2004): 139- 156, 141. 2 Roberts and Groenendijk, “‘Wearing out a pair of fool’s shoes,’” 150-1; Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (New York: Knopf, 1987), 398-401; Agnes Sneller, “Reading Jacob Cats,” in Women of the Golden Age: An International Debate on Women in Seventeenth Century Holland, England and Italy, eds. Els Kloek, Nicole Teeuwen, Marijke Huisman (Hilversum: Verloren, 1994), 21-34, 3 For more information on the career of Johan Maurits, see the articles in E. van den Boogaart,, Hendrik Richard Hoetink,
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