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›Im Anfang War Das Fort‹ Europäische Fortifizierungspolitik in Guinea Und Westindien 1415 – 1815 Expansion – Fortifikation – Kolonisation

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›Im Anfang War Das Fort‹ Europäische Fortifizierungspolitik in Guinea Und Westindien 1415 – 1815 Expansion – Fortifikation – Kolonisation D I S S E R T A T I O N Titel der Dissertation ›Im Anfang war das Fort‹ Europäische Fortifizierungspolitik in Guinea und Westindien 1415 – 1815 Expansion – Fortifikation – Kolonisation Verfasser Mag. Christoph Rella angestrebter akademischer Grad Doktor der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) Wien, im März 2008 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt: A092/312 Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt: Geschichte Betreuer: Univ.-Prof. Dr. Alfred Kohler 2 Für Katrin 3 Inhalt Vorwort ……………………………………………………………………………………………........ 6 I. Einleitung …………………………………………………………………………………………........ 9 II. Der Atlantik und die vorkolumbianische Epoche …………………………………….…..…… 22 1. ›Im Westen ist alles ergiebiger‹: Antike Vorläufer maritimer Stützpunktpolitik …………………………………………………………… 22 2. Anmerkungen zur atlantisch-europäischen Rezeptionsgeschichte: Die maritime Westexpansion bis 1291 …………………………………………………………………... 36 3. Die europäische Atlantikexpansion bis 1415: Erste fortifizierte Stützpunkte und die ›indische Perspektive‹ …………………………………………… 52 III. ›Usque ad indios‹ – Bis nach Indien! …………………………………………………..………… 71 1. ›El Mina del Ouro‹ und Portugiesisch-Guinea ……………………………………………………...… 71 1.1 Der Seeweg nach Indien: Die Suche beginnt in Afrika ……………………………………………… 71 1.2 Von Ceuta nach Elmina: Die Guineaküste wird portugiesisch ……………………………………… 81 1.3 ›Flag follows Fort follows Trade‹: Portugiesische Afrikapolitik revisited ………………………..… 94 1.4 ›Auf der Suche nach Christen und Spezereien‹: Die Portugiesen in Asien ………………...……….. 101 2. ›La Navidad‹ und die Spanische Karibik ……………………………………………………….……... 107 2.1 ›L’idée est dans l’air‹: Columbus und der Seeweg nach Westen ………………………………….… 107 2.2 La Villa de la Navidad: Weihnachten 1492 im Fort ………………………………………….........… 112 2.3 ›Fort follows not flag but gold‹: Die Spanier auf Hispaniola ………………………………………... 120 2.4 Sprungbrett nach Amerika: Die Karibik wird spanisch ……………………………………………... 128 IV. Im Anfang war das Fort – die Eroberung des Atlantiks! ……………………………..……… 137 1. Der Atlantik im ›langen‹ 16. Jahrhundert …………………………………………………………….. 137 1.1 Ungebetene Gäste: Das Fort als Brückenkopf für Korsaren und Siedler ……………………………. 137 1.2 Fortifizierung als Strategie: Die iberischen Mächte setzen sich zur Wehr ………………………….. 144 2. Expansion durch Fortifikation: Erste Lücken im Festungskordon ………………………………... 152 2.1 Hollandia ante Portas! – Pioniere aktiver Brückenkopfpolitik ………………………………………. 152 2.2 ›Scramble for Antilia‹: Expansion – Fortifikation – Kolonisation ………………………………...… 163 2.2.1 Brasilien, Guinea und Westindien: Holland ›räumt auf‹ …………………………..…….. 163 2.2.2 England und die ›Caribee Islands‹ …………………………………………………..…… 169 2.2.3 ›Un fort fut élevé‹: Der Griff Frankreichs nach den Zuckerinseln …………………….… 178 2.2.4 Das Imperium schlägt zurück: Spanien und Portugal in der Defensive …..…………..…. 187 2.3 Die Balten kommen! – Ambitionen skandinavischer und deutscher Fürsten ……………………..… 201 2.3.1 Dannebrog und Schwedenkreuz auf atlantischen Forts ………...………………………… 201 2.3.2 Kurland: Ein baltisches Herzogtum macht von sich reden ………………………...…….. 208 2.3.3 ›Rote Adler‹ am Atlantik: Ein kurfürstliches Kolonialabenteuer ………………………… 215 3. Kollaboration und Widerstand ……………………………………………………………..………..… 226 3.1 Kollaboration, Sklavenhandel und das atlantische System ………………………..……………….... 226 3.2 Widerstand und Genozid im ›Pfeilgiftgürtel‹ ……………………………………………..…………. 235 4 V. Das Fort im Fokus der Weltpolitik …..…...…………………………………………………….… 247 1. Der Spanische Garten und der ›holländische Sack‹ ………………………………………………….. 247 1.1 ›Batavia delenda est‹: Der Niedergang der Westindischen Kompanie …………………………….... 247 1.2 Fortifizierung: Instrument zur Hegemonisierung des Atlantiks …………………..………….……… 259 2. Forts: Angelpunkte der Weltkonfliktpolitik …………..…………….………………………………… 272 2.1 ›Si vis pacem para bellum‹: Der Weg in den Weltkrieg …..……………………………………...…. 272 2.2 Anno Domini 1776: ›The Rebellion of our Deluded Colonies‹ ……………………………….…….. 281 2.3 Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité! – Das Fort im Zeitalter der Revolution ……………………........……… 294 VI. Schlussbemerkungen …………………………………………..…………………………………….. 310 VII. Anhang …………………………………………………………………………………………….…… 319 1. Das atlantische Fort: Eine Bestandsaufnahme …………………………………………...…………… 319 1.1 Das Fort als historisches Monument: Kulturobjekt oder Mahnmal? ……………….……………….. 319 1.2 Interviewprotokolle: Ghana 2004 (G) / Karibik 2006 (K) ……………………………………..……. 331 1.3 Die europäischen Küstenfortifikationen in Guinea und Westindien: Die bedeutendsten Neugündungen seit 1445 im Überblick …………...….…………………….…… 344 2. Quellen- und Literaturverzeichnis ……………………………………….……………………………. 350 3. Register ………………………………………………………………………………….………………. 365 5 Dank Joanna A., David Abakan, Felix A. Achag, Victor Acheampong, Charles Adde, Charles Adu-Arhin, Derick Adu-Gyamfi, Peter Agbeblewu, Clementia Alexander, Samuel Alloty (<2006), Anthony Anselm, Larry Armony, Zenia Arthur, Richard C. Aryee, Peter Asare, Ato Ashun, Ragnar Asklund, Augustine Awotwe, Janet Ayi, Martin Ayi, Kwesi Barnes, Lord Barnes, Maria Luise Barnes-Rella, John Baynes, Cherry Ann Boatswain, Jennifer Boswell, Bridget Brereton, Sandra Browne, Tony Bonsu, Thomas Cavalon, Junior Celestin, Charlene Charles, Steven Denkweh, Caesar De Villa, Clement Dobo, Kartin Dorn, Gerhard Drekonja, Eugene Durand, Björn Eldvall, Theresa Emanuelle, Desrie Emanuelle, Austen Fadlean, Joseph Falta, Lis Fedlas, Victor Fleming, John Francis, Leroy Gibson, Ramona Gibson, Janet Hagbloom, Martha Hale, Bastian Hillary, Chris Holden, Lennox Honychurch, Humphry Hwkkasu, Ira Isaacs, Steven Iwl, Jolene Jacobs, Nadine James, Maurice Johnson, Judy Jones, Godson Julien, Shabba Marvin Julien, Ina Larsson, Joan Lowry, Frederik Kennedy, Alfred Kohler, Martha Krah, Mary Kumi, Jonathan Kwaky, Christian Mährdel, Hyacinte Mapp, Honu-S. McCarthy, Mikel M. Mends, Anita MacShame-Cottey, Joe Mensah, John Mensah, Sarah Mensah, Henrike Meyer, Marcia Mitschell, Cecil Mohabir, M. Richard Moore, Davis Nelson, Okky Offerhaus, Jennifer Otoo, Murielle Parotte, Cecilia Persson, Joseph Raphael, Luise Rauchenberger, Roland Rauchenberger (<2007), Antonio Rella, Edith Rella, Martin Rella, Maria Rella, Stephan Rella, Walter Rella, John Rgeis, Martina Schiller, Kyron Seaforth, Angela Skeete, Misha Spanner, Evarsley Stanley, Elisabeth Thomas, Bruce Tilden, Hedwig Van Asten, Ian Paul J. Van der Horde, Lala Victor, Patrick W. Ruby, Wade-Bramble, Karl Watson, Charles Williams, Gregor Williams, Nathalie Williams, David Yawmensah, Michael Zach. 6 Vorwort Gegenwärtig zählen sie zu den bekanntesten und beliebtesten Feriendestinationen der Europäer im Atlantik: Die Kanarischen Inseln, der Madeira-Archipel sowie die karibischen Inseln – einst Einfallstore Portugals und Spaniens zur Welteroberung, heute Postkartenmotiv und Ferienwunderland. Am Festland sieht die Lage freilich anders aus. So will in den spanischen Exklaven Ceuta und Melilla an der marokkanischen Mittelmeerküste beispielsweise keine rechte Urlaubsstimmung aufkommen; vielmehr wähnt sich der Besucher in einer ›Festung‹, einem Brückenkopf an der Peripherie der Europäischen Union, der seit 1986 mit Beobachtungstürmen, Bunkern und Stacheldrahtzäunen hermetisch abgeriegelt ist. Man mag sich fragen: Was hat Spanien im anbrechenden dritten Jahrtausend noch in Afrika zu suchen? In das gleiche Horn stößt auch der marokkanische König, der seit Jahrzehnten von Madrid die Rückgabe der beiden Brückenköpfe einfordert. Für die Spanier hingegen hat die ›Festung Ceuta‹, die 1580 Portugal abgeworben worden war, nationalen Prestigecharakter: Hatte nicht die europäische Akquisitions- und Eroberungspolitik der Neuzeit anno 1415 eben dort begonnen, wo heute meterhohe Zäune und patrouillierende Polizeiboote dominieren? Beobachter mögen gar den Schluss eines historischen Kreises erkennen, wenn Demographen, Medien und Politiker händeringend auf den bevorstehenden Sturm der Festung Europa hinweisen – durch die illegale Migration zahlloser Afrikaner in eine vermeintlich bessere Welt. Zweifellos hatten die Entdeckungsfahrten der Europäer den Beginn einer Neuen Zeit markiert. Im Unterschied zu anderen Seefahrernationen war die europäische Expansion von strukturellen Investitionen begleitet, deren politische, ökonomische und kulturelle Spuren bis heute evident sind. Die Mehrzahl dieser Spuren ist heute in Form gewaltiger Festungen und alter Stadtkerne manifestiert, wie ich während zahlreicher Reisen feststellen durfte. Viele haben ihr koloniales Gepräge erhalten und gelten daher als historische Manifestationen der europäischen Welteroberung. Ich halte es daher für ausgesprochen lohnend und lehrreich, den kolonialen Bauten der Großmächte von Amerika über Afrika bis nach Asien nachzuspüren: So ist die bekannte Großstadt San Francisco im US-amerikanischen Kalifornien beispielsweise ebenso eine spanische Gründung wie Manila auf den tausende Kilometer entfernten 7 Philippinen; hinzu kommt Lima in Peru, La Habana auf Kuba oder auch Buenos Aires in Argentinien. Eindeutig ist auch der portugiesische Charakter der Hafenstädte Goa in Indien, Melaka in Malaysia, Macao in China oder auch Cidade Velha auf Santiago (Kapverden) erhalten geblieben. Zahlreiche moderne Großstädte sind zudem auf den Grundmauern französischer (Quebec in Kanada, Port-au-Prince in Haiti oder: Saint-Louis in Senegal), englischer (Boston in den USA, Bathurst in Gambia oder: Madras in Indien) und niederländischer (New York in den USA, Jakarta in Indonesien oder: Kapstadt in Südafrika) Siedlungen und Forts errichtet worden. Weiters fiel mir auf: Das Profil der europäischen
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