American Indians in Texas: Conflict and Survival Phan American Indians in Texas Conflict and Survival

Home , Caddo, Cynthia Ann Parker, Mexican Kickapoo, Robert Neighbors, Ysleta del Sur Pueblo

s a ns a i ex Survival Sandy Phan nd T Conflict and Conflict I n

i n a c i mer

Sandy Phan Consultant Devia Cearlock K–12 Social Studies Specialist Amarillo Independent School District Table of Contents Publishing Credits Dona Herweck Rice, Editor-in-Chief Lee Aucoin, Creative Director American Indians in Texas...... 4–5 Marcus McArthur, Ph.D., Associate Education Editor Neri Garcia, Senior Designer Stephanie Reid, Photo Editor The First People in Texas...... 6–11 Rachelle Cracchiolo, M.S.Ed., Publisher

Contact with Europeans...... 12–15

Image Credits Westward Expansion...... 16–19 Cover LOC[LC–USZ62–98166] & The Granger Collection; p.1 Library of Congress; pp.2–3, 4, 5 Northwind Picture Archives; p.6 Getty Images; p.7 (top) Thinkstock; p.7 (bottom) Alamy; p.8 Photo Removal and Resistance...... 20–23 Researchers Inc.; p.9 (top) National Geographic Stock; p.9 (bottom) The Granger Collection; p.11 (top left) Bob Daemmrich/PhotoEdit Inc.; p.11 (top right) Calhoun County Museum; pp.12–13 The Granger Breaking Up Tribal Land...... 24–25 Collection; p.13 (sidebar) Library of Congress; p.14 akg-images/Newscom; p.15 Getty Images; p.16 Bridgeman Art Library; p.17 Library of Congress, (sidebar) Associated Press; p.18 Bridgeman Art Library; American Indians in Texas Today...... 26–29 p.19 The Granger Collection; p.19 (sidebar) Bridgeman Art Library; p.20 Library of Congress; p.21 Getty Images; p.22 Northwind Picture Archives; p.23 LOC [LC‑USZ62–98166]; p.23 (sidebar) Nativestock Pictures; Glossary...... 30 p.23 LOC[LC–USZ62–97948]; p.24 Getty Images; p.25 National Archives; p.26 Nativestock Pictures; p.27 (top) LOC [LC–DIG–ppmsca–05081]; p.27 (bottom) Alamy; p.28 Nativestock Pictures; p.29 LOC Index...... 31 [LC‑USZ62‑95480]; All other images Shutterstock.

Your Turn!...... 32

3 American Indians meet American Indians in Texas with European settlers. They wore animal skins. They chased giant animals off cliffs and killed them with spears. These early American Indians were probably Mistaken Identity the first people to live in North America more than 11,000 years ago. Christopher Columbus Over time, these ancient people created different American Indian was the first person to tribes with their own cultures. Some tribes lived in the area now known call the indigenous as Texas. Around AD 1500, Europeans came to Texas, too. Europeans (in‑DIJ‑uh-nuhs) people in the Americas “Indians.” He brought weapons and new diseases that killed many American Indians. thought he had sailed to The Europeans also took over the land and started wars. India. Today, we still call the descendants of these people “American Indians.”

This Land Is Our Land American Indians believed In the 1800s, many Americans and everyone had a right to new American Indian groups came west use the land, plants, and to Texas and pushed Texas Indians off animals in nature. At first, the land. American Indian tribes in they thought Europeans Texas also fought with Mexicans. When only wanted to use the land. They were happy to Texas became a state in 1845, the United share nature’s gifts. But States took control of the American American Indians quickly Indians living in Texas and made laws to learned that Europeans move them to special areas of land called had very different ideas reservations (rez-er‑VEY‑shuhnz). about land. Europeans believed a person could By 1875, all of the original American own land. Indian tribes in Texas had been killed or forced out of the state. Today, only three American Indian tribes remain in Texas.

Columbus lands in the New World.

4 5 Ice Age Animals Giant mammals lived The First People in Texas during the Ice Age. Early American Indians Mammals are warm-blooded animals American Indians first came to North America 13,000 to 40,000 with hair. They feed years ago during the Ice Age. Glaciers, or thick layers of ice, covered their babies milk. Ice the northern parts of Asia and North America. The oceans were Age mammals in Texas included mammoths lower because most of Earth’s water was frozen. People from Asia (MAM-uhths), or large, crossed a land bridge to Alaska called the Bering (BAIR-ing) Strait. hairy elephants. There The early American Indians followed giant animals south to Texas were also long-horned and other parts of North America. They hunted with a special stick, bison, or American buffalo. called an atlatl (AHT-laht-l). It helped them throw spears faster and Bison are large animals with shaggy brown hair farther. Hunters placed points made out of stone at the tips of their and long tails. Only spears. They also made tools out of wood, bones, and antlers. Ice Age long-horned bison, bison with short horns or American buffalo exist today.

Indigenous hunters About 8,000 years ago, the giant Ice Cave Paintings attack a mammoth. Age animals died out. American Indians Some early American began to hunt smaller animals, like deer Indians in the Lower Pecos (PEY-kohs) area of and rabbits, and ate wild plants. The Southwest Texas lived in women used plant fibers to make baskets, caves. They drew colorful sandals, and sleeping mats. Around pictures of animals and ad 500, American Indians began making people on the cave walls. bows and arrows. They also made pottery Many people believe the cave art was part of to cook and store their food. Some their religion. people lived in villages and grew plants to eat. These early American Indians turned into the tribes that lived in Texas when the Europeans arrived. American Indians attached arrowheads to the end of spears to hunt.

6 7 Village Life Caddo grass houses The American Indian tribes living in Texas in 1500 fell into two groups. One group was nomadic, moving often to hunt and gather food. The other group lived in villages and farmed. The Jumano (hoo-MAH-noh) and Caddo (KAHD-doh) were farming tribes. Jumano Tools The Jumano lived in Southwest Texas in pueblos, or adobe houses The Jumano used farming that were half underground and half aboveground. In the winter, tools made out of sticks they farmed land in the Rio Grande River Valley and planted beans, and animal bones. The men hunted with squash, corn, and tobacco. In the summer, they hunted bison on the bows and arrows. The plains. The Jumano wore coral and turquoise (TUR-koiz) jewelry in bowstrings were made their ears and noses and painted striped tattoos on their faces and The Caddo lived in the pine forests from animal sinew (SIN‑yoo), or tendons. bodies. The women farmed, cooked, and took care of the children. of East Texas and built tall, cone-shaped The Jumano men worked in the fields, hunted, and fought enemies grass houses. Like the Jumano, the Caddo Caddo Clothing with wooden clubs. farmed and hunted food. Caddo women made The women gathered wild clothing for their families. plants, like acorns, berries, They tanned deer and bison and roots. They also made elk hides. Then, they beautiful pottery with colored the hides with engraved designs. mineral and plant dyes. Finally, they sewed the Caddo men hunted hides together with bone and fished. Some needles and sinew thread men wore their to make breechcloths, hair in a long strip shirts, leggings, dresses, down the center and robes. of their heads, called a mohawk.

Caddo engraved pottery

8 9 Hunting and Gathering Tribes The nomadic American Indians in Texas included the Lipan Karankawa fishhook Six Seasons Apache (li-PAHN uh-PAH-chee), Karankawa (kuh-RANG- The Apache had six kuh-wah), Tonkawa (TONG-kuh-wah), and Coahuiltecans seasons: Little Eagles (KWA-heel‑tek-kans). (early spring); Many Leaves (late spring and The Lipan Apache called themselves the “people of the forest.” early summer); Large They hunted bison on the plains of Northwest Texas. They lived in Leaves (midsummer); camps with family groups and built tepees (TEE-peez). Tepees were Thick with Fruit (late movable homes made of wooden poles and animal hides. Lipan boys summer and early fall); learned how to hunt and become warriors. Girls learned how to Earth Reddish Brown (late fall); and Ghost Face cook, gather food, weave baskets, and guard the camp. (winter). Each season The Karankawa lived in Southeast Texas along the Gulf Coast. was good for gathering They used canoes, shot alligators with bows and arrows, and caught different plants. fish and oysters in the bay. In the summer, when the fish moved back Karankawa family into deep water, the Karankawa hunted animals on land and looked and a canoe Cannibals for plants. Some people believed the Karankawa were map of American Indian tribes cannibals. Cannibals in Texas around AD 1500 are people who eat the Central Texas was home to the meat of other humans. Tonkawa, who got along well with most The Karankawa and of the tribes around them. The Tonkawa other Indian warriors camped with the Karankawa, hunted sometimes ate their enemies. They did this to bison, and traded with the Caddo, take what they thought prickly pear Jumano, and Coahuiltecans. The Spanish cactus was the magic power of used the word Coahuiltecans for hundreds the dead warrior. They of small American Indian tribes in did not eat humans South Texas. The Coahuiltecans hunted, for food. gathered plants, and harvested prickly pear, which is a kind of cactus fruit.

10 11 Contact with Europeans Many American Indian tribes in Texas traded with the French and Spanish. They Missions and Trade exchanged animal skins for clothing and A Spanish explorer named Alonso Álvarez de Pineda claimed blankets. They also started using metal Hernando de Soto Texas for Spain in 1519. But the Spanish mostly ignored Texas for tools, weapons, and pots. Some French more than 160 years. In 1685, a Frenchman named René-Robert de traders married and lived with the Caddo. Naming Texas La Salle (ruh-NEY roh-BEAR dyoo luh sahl) started a colony off the Europeans brought new diseases to In 1539, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto landed coast of East Texas. The Spanish controlled New Mexico, Mexico, North America. Shamans, or American in Florida. De Soto died, and parts of Florida near Texas. They did not want France to take Indian healers, could not cure these but his crew traveled over their territory. illnesses with their magic and medicine. through Texas looking for In the 1700s, Spain sent leaders to rule over Texas and keep the Thousands of American Indians in Texas treasure. His men met the French away. Both the Spanish and French built missions in the area died from smallpox, cholera (KOL-er-uh), Caddo, who said they were taysha, or “friends.” The and wanted the American Indians to convert, or change their religion, and measles. Spanish thought it was the to Christianity. Some groups, like the Jumano and Coahuiltecans, Caddos’s name and stayed near the missions. They hoped Europeans would keep them spelled the word as Tejas safe from enemy tribes. (TEY-has). Over time, Tejas became Texas. La Salle enters a Caddo village. Tigua The Tigua (TEE-wuh) are a group of Pueblo Indians who came to Texas in the 1680s. The Spanish forced them to leave New Mexico so they would not join the Pueblo Indian revolt. The Tigua were farmers who settled along the Rio Grande River. They called themselves the Ysleta del Sur (yuh-SLEH-tuh del soor), or the “Ysleta of the South.”

12 13 Horses and Guns The Spanish brought horses with them to Texas. American Indian tribes traded for horses and stole them from the Spanish and other Comanche Horses tribes. These animals changed how American Indians found food and The Comanche were experts fought. The Lipan Apache became skilled horse riders and warriors. on horseback. Both boys They went on raids, attacking other tribes and Spanish towns for food and girls learned how and supplies. The Lipan ruled the plains of Texas in the 1600s. to ride. Warriors could In the early 1700s, a new group of American Indians came down shoot arrows with perfect from the northwest. The Comanche (kuh-MAN-chee) were part aim while hanging onto a horse’s side. of the Shoshone (shoh-SHOH-nee), or Snake, tribe in the Rocky Mountains. The Comanche, who owned more horses than any other Cultural American Indian tribe, used horses for hunting bison, warfare, and Lipan warrior Extinction raiding. They pushed the Lipan south and fought the Spanish. By Cultural extinction 1750, the Comanche controlled Northwest Texas. (ik-STINGK-shuhn) happens when a group’s culture, or way of life, dies out. The Comanche fighting Jumano and Coahuiltecans on horseback were the first American Indian tribes to disappear The French traded guns with American from Texas. Many died Indian tribes in Texas. The tribes used of European diseases. Some became slaves to guns to fight each other and attack the Spanish or moved European missions and colonies. They to Mexico. By 1800, the were angry that Europeans took over Jumano and Coahuiltecans the land and forced their people to work had died off or merged as slaves. At Fort Saint Louis in Texas, with other American Indian groups. the Karankawa fought the French. The colonists had taken Karankawa canoes and refused to pay for them, so the Karankawa destroyed the colonists’ fort.

14 15 War of 1812 In 1803, France sold the Louisiana The British wanted to Westward Expansion create an American Pushed off Their Land Territory to the United States, but this Indian area free of U. S. area between the Mississippi River and control. Many American In 1783, Americans won their independence from Britain and the Rocky Mountains included Caddo Indians helped the immediately began to move west to take more land. Many eastern land. Americans soon came to settle on British fight against the American Indian tribes who were forced off their land came to Caddo land. In 1830, the United States Americans in the War of 1812. They were hoping Texas. American settlers quickly followed them. passed the Indian Removal Act. This to stop Canada and the The Kickapoo Indians came from the forced nearly all American Indians living United States’ westward Great Lakes area. They spent part of east of the Mississippi River to move west. expansion. There was no the year farming and part of the year So, more American Indian tribes came to clear winner, but American hunting and gathering. The Kickapoo Caddo territory. Indians lost British support after the war. fought with the British against the Americans. In 1819, they ceded Indian Removal Act of 1830 Big Thicket Trails (SEED-id) their land in Illinois to The Alabama and the United States. Then, some of Coushatta lived in the wild them moved to Northeast Texas. Big Thicket area where few The Alabama and Coushatta white settlers traveled. (koo-SHAHT-tuh) tribes lived They made trails through the trees that helped them in French-controlled Alabama. get freshwater and move When the British took over their around. But the Americans land, they headed west. The used the trails to move Spanish and Americans fought onto Alabama-Coushatta over these tribes’ loyalty at land. Settlers pushed the American Indians off the Louisiana‑Texas border. their land. Many Alabama‑Coushatta moved to the Big Thicket area in Southeast Texas.

Kickapoo warrior Big Thicket area in East Texas 16 17 Father of Texas Wars of Independence Americans in Texas were unhappy Stephen F. Austin made a with Mexican rule because they did deal with Mexico to allow not want to give up their American Americans into Texas. In citizenship and convert to Catholicism 1825, he brought over a thousand pioneers to (kuh-THOL‑uh‑siz‑uhm). The Mexican Texas. He was a leader government said they had to pay taxes on of the Texas Revolution American goods and could not own slaves. and became known as the In 1835, Americans revolted. They won the father of Texas. war and started the Republic of Texas in 1836. More American settlers and eastern American Indian tribes flooded into Texas. But they had to compete with new enemies for land. advertisement for free passage to the Republic of Texas

Mexico celebrates its independence from Spain. Texas Rangers In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain. Texas fell under Mexican control, but few Mexicans went to Texas. It was hard Texas Rangers to travel through the hot and rocky land of South Texas, and the The Texas Rangers are a group of lawmen started Comanche attacked people there. Mexico allowed some Americans to by Stephen F. Austin in settle in South Texas, while other Americans came to Texas without 1823. Their job was to approval from Mexican leaders. protect American settlers. American settlers pushed the Karankawa off their land. The They fought American Karankawa fought with the Comanche and Tonkawa before fleeing Indian raiders, Mexican bandits, and criminals. south to Mexico, where they were blamed for raids. Other tribes, The Rangers and the like the Lipan Apache and Tonkawa, became scouts and helped Comanche were fierce Americans and Mexicans fight Comanche raiders. enemies. Today, Texas Rangers are part of the state’s Department of Public Safety.

18 19 Removal and Resistance In 1859, Neighbors moved the Texas Annexation American Indians off the Brazos and Friendly Neighbors Clear Fork reservations. They joined other The United States annexed (AN-ekst) Texas in 1845. More Robert Neighbors believed Americans moved west after Texas became a state, settling in or tribes on Indian Territory in Oklahoma. that American Indians traveling through Texas. Many white Americans fought with the Most of the Caddo and Tonkawa left could be assimilated Comanche and other American Indian groups in Texas. Texas. By the 1880s, all Lipan Apache in (uh‑SIM‑uh‑leyt-id) into white American In 1854, the U.S. government started reservations for the Texas had also moved to reservations in New Mexico and Oklahoma. culture. He wanted to American Indian tribes in Texas. Indian agent Robert Simpson teach American Indian Neighbors set up the Brazos Reservation in Northwest Texas. The families how to live like Caddo, Tonkawa, and other tribes moved there to escape Comanche white Americans. But attacks. Neighbors also started the Comanche Indian, or Clear many white Texans did not like Neighbors Fork, reservation 40 miles (64 km) away, where about 450 Penateka because he gave rights (pen-ah‑TUH‑kuh) Comanche to American Indians and lived. The Alabama and Tonkawa wife tried to protect them. Coushatta settled on a and husband In 1859, an angry Texan reservation in Polk County, killed Neighbors. East Texas. Other tribes and Comanche Reservation Life The American Indians on groups continued to attack the Brazos and Clear Forks white settlements. They killed reservations farmed. They men and took animals, women, tried to live peacefully and children. Americans near American settlers. blamed the reservation tribes But the land could not feed all of the people and wanted the government living there. The U.S. to remove or kill them. government sent few Some Americans attacked supplies. The reservations the reservations. were left unprotected 1876 map of Texas showing Oklahoma marked as from Comanche and “Indian Territory” American raiders.

20 21 Comanche Resistance The Comanche make their The Comanche fought against American settlement longer way to the Great Council on Medicine Lodge. than any other tribe in Texas. In the 1800s, the Comanche raided American settlers and traders. They also battled soldiers, Texas Cynthia Ann Parker Rangers, and bison hunters. Cynthia Ann By 1849, the United States had built forts on the Comanchería Parker (koh-mahn‑che‑REE‑uh), or Comanche territory, to protect white In 1836, a group of settlements on the frontier. Some Comanche bands signed peace Comanche attacked Parker’s treaties with the United Fort. They captured States, but attacks from 11-year-old Cynthia both sides continued. Ann Parker. She later married Comanche warrior The United States Peta Nocona (PEH‑tah refused to build a clear noh‑KOH‑nuh). Their son, boundary between Quanah (KWAH-nuh), the Comanchería and became a chief. In 1860, white settlements. But In 1867, the Comanche and the United Texas Rangers “rescued” States signed the Medicine Lodge Treaty. Cynthia Ann. But she was the Comanche would sad to be far away from her not give up their The Comanche agreed to move to a Comanche family. land. From 1861 to reservation on Indian Territory. But many 1865, many soldiers Comanche stayed in Texas or left the Quanah Parker left Texas to fight in reservations to return to the Comanchería. In 1874, Chief Quanah the Civil War. The The Kwahadi (KWAH‑ha‑duh) Parker led an attack against Comanche led more Comanche refused to leave their land. bison hunters. A shaman named Isa-tai (IH‑shih‑tai) raids on the plains and They fought bison hunters who killed believed the Great drove many settlers out off the Comanche’s main food source. Spirit would protect the of the Comanchería. But in 1875, they surrendered at Fort Comanche warriors. But the Sill, Oklahoma, and joined the other Comanche lost against the Comanche bands on the reservation. hunters’ long-range guns. Over time, the Comanche The Comanche hold a council to discuss stopped fighting, and their white settlers invading their land. way of life ended.

22 23 Breaking Up Tribal Land Curtis Act In the early 1800s, Americans fought with American Indians The Curtis Act of 1898 and took their land. They also moved American Indians onto took away American reservations. But in the late 1800s, U. S. leaders made laws to break Indian tribal courts. It up the reservations. put everyone in Indian In 1887, Congress passed the Dawes General Allotment Act, or Territory under direct control of the U. S. Dawes Act. It split reservation land into allotments, or small parts. government. It also Each American Indian family received an allotment. Supporters allowed people to build of the act hoped that American Indians who farmed their own towns and public schools land would blend into American culture. The surplus, or leftover, Dawes Act of 1887 in Indian Territory. reservation land was given or sold to American settlers. American American Indians lost their tribal government. Indian tribes from Texas and across the country lost most of their Over time, they blended reservation land. They were allotted mostly desert land that was into American-style difficult to farm. They did not have farming tools and needed help towns. from the government. John Collier John Collier stands with John Collier (KAH-lee-uhr) American Indian chiefs in 1934. Congress passed the Indian was a reformer who wrote Reorganization Act in 1934. The law the Indian Reorganization Act. Collier did not think ended land allotment. It returned the American Indians should surplus reservation land to American adopt white American Indian tribes. It allowed tribes to have culture. His act provided self-rule and created tribal trust funds. money for American These funds help tribes start businesses Indian schools that taught tribal ways. Collier also and improve their schools. The act could wanted to preserve not undo many years of conflict. But it American Indian religions was a start in correcting the damage done and art. to the American Indians and their culture.

24 25 American Indians in Texas Today Lincoln Canes Tigua and Kickapoo In the 1620s, Spain gave None of the original American Pueblo Indians land Indian tribes living in Texas grants. It also gave them canes as symbols of tribal when the Spanish arrived remain land control. In 1861, there today. The Coahuiltecan, when Texas seceded Karankawa, and Jumano no longer (si‑SEED‑id) from the exist, and the Caddo, Tonkawa, and United States, President Pueblo chiefs holding Abraham Lincoln gave Comanche now live in Oklahoma. Lincoln canes Pueblo tribes in New Most of the Lipan Apache moved Mexico new canes and to New Mexico. The only tribes left The Kickapoo live on a reservation near renewed their land rights. in Texas are the Tigua—or Ysleta Eagle Pass, South Texas. Texas recognized But the Texas Tigua did del Sur Pueblo—Kickapoo, and them as the Traditional Kickapoo Indians not receive the Lincoln Alabama-Coushatta. of Texas in 1983. The Kickapoo became canes because they were no longer part of the The Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, farmers when they moved to Texas. The United States. They later or Tigua Indian Tribe, live in Texas Kickapoo are very close culturally lost much of their land. El Paso County, West Texas. to the Mexican Kickapoo, who still live in Texas recognized them as a Texas traditional wickiups (WIK-ee‑uhps), or U. S. Citizens Indian tribe in 1967. The United oval grass huts. American Indians were States holds a land trust for the not always considered to be U. S. citizens. Some tribe, which helps pay for tribal wickiups became citizens by government and housing. The marrying white Americans Tigua run a cattle ranch and or through military other businesses. They also share service. But the Indian traditional dances, jewelry, and Citizenship Act of 1924 declared all American food with the public at their Tigua teenager dressed Indians born in the United in traditional clothing cultural center. States to be U. S. citizens.

26 27 Alabama-Coushatta The history of American Indians in Federally Texas includes over 400 years of conflict. Recognized Tribe Europeans, Mexicans, and Americans Tribes The Alabama and Coushatta forever changed the American Indians’ way A federally recognized Indians had friendly relations of life. European diseases wiped out entire tribe is an American Indian or Alaska Native with Texas and U. S. leaders. bands. American Indians also died fighting tribe with its own Because of this relationship, against white men and other tribes in Texas. government. There are Americans did not try Settlers and hunters pushed American Indian 565 federally recognized to kill them or push tribes off their homelands. Missions and tribes. These tribes can them out of Texas. The laws forced European and American customs receive funding and services from the Bureau two tribes merged and on American Indians. Many American of Indian Affairs. The are known today as the Indian tribes gave up their way of life. Over American Indian tribes Alabama‑Coushatta Tribe of time, their rich cultures disappeared. in Texas are federally Texas. Tribe members served Today, less than one percent of Texas’s recognized tribes. in the armed forces during population is American Indian. But the World War II. In 1948, Texas American Indian tribes that remain are Indian Civil Rights Act gave the Alabama‑Coushatta proudly keeping their culture alive. They The Indian Civil Rights voting rights. Their share their culture with other Texans and Act was passed in reservation lies between pass it down to their children. 1968. It is like the Bill Livingston and Woodville and of Rights in the United includes land around Lake States Constitution. It Tombigbee (tom-BIG-bee), protects the basic rights of American Indians. where thousands of visitors The act says that tribal camp each year. laws cannot take away a person’s rights and Alabama-Coushatta freedoms. teenager in traditional clothing

Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Indian Civil Rights Act in 1968.

28 29 Glossary Index allotments—small sections of land indigenous—living in or originally born Alabama-Coushatta, Europeans, 4–5, 7, 12–15, Neighbors, Robert annexed—took over a territory and in a particular region or area 16–17, 26, 28 29 Simpson, 20–21 made it part of a larger territory land trust—an agreement where the Americans, 5, 16–22, French, 12–13, 15–16 Parker, Cynthia Ann, 23 federal government holds ownership assimilated—absorbed into the culture 24–25, 29 guns, 14–15, 23 Parker, Quanah, 23 of a group of land for an American Indian nation Apache seasons, 11 horses, 14–15 Peta Nocona, 23 atlatl—a special stick early American to protect the land Austin, Stephen F., 19 Indians used as a tool to hunt measles—a contagious disease, usually Ice Age, 6–7 Pueblo Indians, 13, 26–27 large animals in children, that causes a fever and red Bering Strait, 6 Indian Citizenship Act, 27 pueblos, 8 dots on the skin breechcloths—cloths worn around bison, 7–8 Indian Civil Rights Act, reservations, 5, 20–21, the hips nomadic—having no fixed home; Brazos Reservation, 20–21 29 23–25, 27–28 bureau—a division of a government moving with the seasons in search Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Removal Act, 17 shamans, 13 department of food 29 ceded—gave up or formally surrendered pioneers—explorers or settlers of a Indian Reorganization Shoshone, 14 to another, usually by treaty new land Caddo, 8–9, 11–13, 17, Act, 25 Spanish, 11–16, 26 20–21, 26 cholera—an infection that causes severe reformer—a person who changes laws to Indian Territory, 21, 23, 25 tepees, 10 correct wrongs and improve society cave art, 7 stomach illnesses and sometimes death Jumano, 8–9, 11–12, 15, Texas annexation, 20–21 Civil War—the war between the North reservations—areas of land set aside Civil War, 22 26 by the federal government for Texas Rangers, 19, 22–23 and South in the United States from Clear Fork Reservation, Karankawa, 10–11, 15, 18, American Indians Tigua, 13, 26–27 1861 to 1865 20–21 26 a country or area under the revolt—rebel or fight against authority Tonkawa, 10–11, 18, colony— Coahuiltecans, 10–12, 15, Kickapoo, 16, 26–27 control of another country; a group of scouts—spies, translators, and guides for 20–21, 26 26 Kwahadi, 23 people living there the military trade, 11–14 seceded—left a country and formed a Collier, John, 24–25 La Salle, René-Robert de, convert—to adopt new religious beliefs War of 1812, 17 coral—pinkish yellow skeleton from a new government Columbus, Christopher, 12 World War II, 28 sea animal, used in jewelry smallpox—a disease caused by a virus; 4–5 Lincoln, Abraham, 27 characterized by a fever and skin rash Ysleta del Sur Pueblo, descendants—people who can trace Comanche, 14–15, 18–23, Lincoln Canes, 27 their ancestors or lineage to a tanned—to have turned animal hide into 26 13, 26 Lipan Apache, 10, 14–15, particular group leather with yellowish or brownish Comanchería, 22–23 18, 21, 26 engraved—carved, cut, or etched plant acid Curtis Act, 25 Louisiana Territory, 17 expansion—the act of spreading out or treaties—legal agreements between Dawes Act, 24–25 growing in size two governments mammoths, 6–7 Ice Age—a period of time when glaciers turquoise—greenish blue semiprecious de Soto, Hernando, 13 Medicine Lodge Treaty, 23 stone used in jewelry covered a large part of the earth’s European diseases, 4, 13, Mexicans, 5, 18–19, 29 surface; the most recent glacial period 15, 29 ended about 10,000 years ago missions, 12, 15, 29

30 31 Your Turn! American Indians were the first people to live in Texas. Some of the Texas tribes were farmers who lived in permanent villages. Others were nomadic hunters. They were skilled at riding horses. All of the tribes in Texas were impacted by the arrival of European settlers. They were forced to change their ways of life. Eventually, most American Indians were forced to leave Texas and settle on reservations in Oklahoma.

A Powerful Speech Think about how the Comanche reacted to European settlement in Texas. What do you think this Comanche leader might have said to his tribe? Imagine you are the leader in this image. Write the speech you would give to your tribe.

32 PRIMARY SOURCE READERS

American Indians in American Texas: Conflict and Survival American Indians in Texas American Indians Conflict and in Texas By the time Europeans arrived in Texas around Survival ad 1500, tribes of American Indians had been living in the region for thousands of years. Each group found different ways to live on the region they inhabited. They developed different cultures and traditions. They traded and fought with each other. And they struggled to survive European colonization and American expansion. Through it all, they worked to preserve their unique way of life. Phan

TCM 16040 ■