Before the Line Volume Iii Caddo Indians: the Final Years

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Before the Line

Volume III

Caddo Indians: The Final Years

Before the Line

Volume III

Caddo Indians: The Final Years

Bound versions of this book have been deposited at the following locations: Louisiana State University, Shreveport (Shreveport, Louisiana) Sam Houston State University (Huntsville, Texas) Stephen F. Austin State University (Nacogdoches, Texas) Texas A&M University (College Station, Texas) Texas General Land Office (Archives and Records) (Austin, Texas) Texas State Library (Austin, Texas) University of North Texas (Denton, Texas) University of Texas at Austin (Austin, Texas)

To view a pdf of selected pages of this and other works by Jim Tiller, see: http://library.shsu.edu > Digital Collection > search for: Jim Tiller

Electronic versions of Vol. I, II and III as well as a limited number of bound sets of the Before the Line series are available from: The Director, Newton Gresham Library, Sam Houston State University, PO Box 2281 (1830 Bobby K. Marks Drive), Huntsville, Texas 77341 Phone: 936-294-1613

Design and production by Nancy T. Tiller The text typefaces are Adobe Caslon Pro and Myriad Pro

ISBN 978-0-9633100-6-4

iv For the People of the Caddo Nation Also by Jim Tiller

Our American Adventure: The History of a Pioneer East Texas Family, 1657-1967(2008) (with Albert Wayne Tiller) Named Best Family History Book by a Non-Professional Genealogist for 2008 by the Texas State Genealogical Society

Before the Line Volume I An Annotated Atlas of International Boundaries and Republic of Texas Administrative Units Along the Sabine River-Caddo Lake Borderland, 1803-1841 (2010)

Before the Line Volume II Letters From the Red River, 1809-1842 (2012)

Jehiel Brooks and the Grappe Reservation: The Archival Record (working manuscript)

vi Contents

Preface ...... ix Acknowledgements ...... xi Part I Early Nineteenth-Century Caddo Settlements in the Sodo Lakes Region ...... 1 List of Illustrations ...... 2 Chapter 1 Caddo Village Sites in the Historical Record ...... 5 Introduction ...... 5 Caddo Village Sites North of the Sodo Lakes Complex ...... 5 Caddo Village Sites South of the Sodo Lakes Complex ...... 6 Probable Caddo Village Sites ...... 9 Possible Caddo Village Sites ...... 9 Summary Comments ...... 10 Chapter 2 Dehahuit’s Village ...... 25 Introduction ...... 25 Joseph Valentin’s 1840 Statement on the Location of the Caddo Villages ...... 25 Jehiel Brooks’ 1840 Comment on the Location of Dehahuit’s Village ...... 26 The 1805 Statement of John Sibley ...... 28 The January 6, 1837 Caddo Memorial ...... 30 Additional Considerations ...... 34 Summary Comments ...... 46 Chapter 3 The Myth of Timber Hill ...... 47 Introduction ...... 47 Was the Jim’s Bayou Site the Home of Dehahuit? ...... 47 Was the Jim’s Bayou Site the Last Caddo Village in the Sodo Lakes Region? ...... 48 Was the Jim’s Bayou Site Timber Hill? ...... 53 Spreading the Timber Hill-Dehahuit Village Myth ...... 54 Summary Comments ...... 55 Part II The Land Cession and its Aftermath ...... 57 List of Illustrations ...... 58 Chapter 4 The Inevitable Land Cession ...... 59 Introduction ...... 59 Contributing Factors ...... 59

vii The Land Cession ...... 68 Summary Comments ...... 69 Chapter 5 The Early Post-Land Cession Years ...... 71 Introduction ...... 71 The Men with Sticks ...... 71 Caddo Depredations in Frontier Texas, 1836-1838 ...... 76 The 1836, 1837 and 1838 (Scott) Caddo Annuities ...... 80 Leaving Eastern Harrison County ...... 83 Summary Comments ...... 84 Chapter 6 The Shreveport Caddo ...... 85 Introduction ...... 85 The 1838 (Sewall)-1839 Caddo Annuities ...... 85 The Search for a Permanent Home ...... 89 Summary Comments ...... 94 Part III End Materials ...... 95 List of Illustrations ...... 96 Appendixes ...... 97 Endnotes ...... 137 Chapter Text ...... 137 Appendixes ...... 165 Maps/Graphics ...... 170 Bibliography ...... 173 Index ...... 181

viii Preface

During the late 1700s, the Kadohadacho (hereafter be discussed at some length in Chapter 2, lay in today’s referred to as the Caddo), a peaceful tribe of agriculturists Harrison County, Texas. Despite evidence of the presence and hunters weakened by near-constant pressure from the of multiple Caddo sites south of the Lakes, twentieth- more war-like Osage and the ravages of various epidemics, century authors have, almost without exception, tended to began migrating from their traditional homeland near ignore or misrepresent evidence of the existence of these the Great Bend of the Red River south into East Texas southern villages, apparently in an effort to make the and adjacent northwestern Louisiana along the undefined case that the primary Caddo village and probable home border between Spain and France. At the time, the area of Dehahuit was the same site noted on William Darby’s was essentially uninhabited due to the isolation created by 1816 map of Louisiana. Spanish (and later Mexican) prohibitions against settling In the early 1990s, an historic-era village site north near the border with France and later the United States, of Caddo Lake on Jim’s Bayou was discovered. In the the Great Raft of the Red River, and the fact the Sabine archeological report prepared by the Texas Historical River was by-in-large un-navigable in its middle and Commission, the historical research was clearly developed upper reaches. to support a north-of-the-Lakes thesis. By entitling the By the time the United States purchased the region from report Finding Sha’chahdínnih (Timber Hill): The Last France in 1803, the Caddo had relocated to a number of Village of the Kadohadacho in the Caddo Homeland, the villages both north and south of modern-day Caddo Lake. Commission assumed the site was the location of Timber Under their caddi or great chief Dehahuit, whose village lay Hill and that it was the last Caddo village in the East near the western end of Cross Lake, the tribe sought to live Texas-northwestern Louisiana region. In fact, neither in peace with Spain and the United States. Although both assumption is correct. As will be developed in Chapter 3, countries attempted to secure the allegiance of the tribe there is no period material that connects the Jim’s Bayou with gifts and trade, the United States, working through settlement, or any other known Caddo Lake village site, its very competent agent John Sibley, was ultimately able to with the name Timber Hill. Nor is there any evidence solidify American influence over Dehahuit and his people. that I am aware of that suggests the Jim’s Bayou village was the last Caddo settlement in the Caddo Lake region. In Part I, I will examine the more prominent early Those wedded to the thesis that the Jim’s Bayou site was nineteenth-century Caddo settlements in the Sodo Timber Hill and the location of the last Caddo settlement Lakes region. We begin in Chapter 1 with a discussion in the area are urged to give consideration to the materials of village sites known to have existed in the years developed within these pages. immediately preceding the July 1835 treaty between the Caddo Nation and the United States. Recent literature In Part II, the final years of the Caddo in their East suggests that Louisiana was the home of the Caddo in Texas-northwest Louisiana homeland will be discussed, the years leading up to the land cession. While the tribe beginning with an examination of conditions that led certainly settled and laid claim to lands west of the Red the tribe to the decision to sell their lands to the United River in the northwestern section of the state, by the time States in the summer of 1835 (Chapter 4). In Chapter of the treaty only one of their major settlements was to 5, I will develop the archival record in an effort to bring be found within the bounds of Louisiana. The balance more fully into focus events that led to the removal of the of their villages, including that of Dehahuit which will tribe from the region in early 1838. Chapter 6 examines

ix the record as it relates to the so-called Shreveport Caddo, the region were in serious need of revision. These included a group of approximately 160 men, women and children the location of tribal villages south of the Lakes (and in (representing some one-third of the Nation) who, upon particular the location of the village of Dehahuit), the returning to Louisiana in the fall of 1838 as the Indian myth of Timber Hill and the post-land cession activities of wars in the Republic of Texas were gathering intensity, the tribe. The reader will observe that a revisionist theme found themselves unable to rejoin their fellow tribesmen runs throughout the pages of this work. in that new nation. Separated and somewhat estranged In the years leading up to the writing of this book, I from their kinsmen, the Shreveport band remained in attended a number of gatherings of archeologists, both the Cross Lake region until their migration to modern- professional and avocational, and, as a geographer, I was day Oklahoma in the spring of 1840. Finally, the reader often struck by the number of times in a single presentation is encouraged to examine the Appendixes included in this such qualifiers as “don’t know for sure,” “maybe,” “perhaps” work which make up some of the most prominent sources or “possibly” were used. During lunch at the 51st Annual for those interested in 1830s-1840s Caddo history. Caddo Conference in Norman, Oklahoma in 2009, I While the primary objective of this work is to inform the brought this subject up with one of the pre-eminent reader about the last years of the Caddo in the Sodo Lakes Caddo scholars in attendance. The gist of his response was region, there is another very basic message to be found something to the effect that, “Yes, I know. It’s to the point within these pages – namely, do not necessarily take on that when I hear someone say ‘probably,’ their presentation face value the research and conclusions of others, especially tends to get my undivided attention.” when your own research takes you in a different direction. I trust my colleagues in archeology will forgive me if This book, Volume III of theBefore the Line series, as well as I take a few of the same liberties in this work. Like my Volume II (Letters from the Red River, 1809-1842), were colleagues, I must at times engage in educated, but still not works initially contemplated. As a result of previous rank, speculation based on the incomplete record at research on an East Texas family history project, my hand. It is my hope that Caddo scholars will give some original intention was to develop area boundary issues and consideration to the materials developed within the pages the migration history of early Anglo pioneers in eastern of this book. Many of the sources presented here, along Harrison County, Texas. While I early on had concerns with others yet to be developed, are waiting to be given regarding the depiction of the Caddo in the secondary their proper place in the history of the Caddo Nation. literature, it was not until the research was nearing completion on Volume I that it became clear that certain Jim Tiller aspects of the history of the final years of the Caddo in Huntsville, Texas

x Acknowledgments

I would like to offer my thanks to the many individuals Librarians and Staff, Newton Gresham Library, Sam and organizations that provided assistance in helping to Houston State University. Huntsville, Texas bring this work to a successful completion. In particular I Tim Perttula, Archeological & Environmental wish to thank the following Consultants of Austin, Texas for encouraging me George Avery of Stephen F. Austin State University, to further explore the world of the Caddo people Nacogdoches, Texas and editor of the Caddo Staff of the Clerk of Courts Office, Caddo Parish, Archeology Journal for his encouragement to publish Louisiana. Shreveport, Louisiana the results of my ongoing research Staff of the County Clerk’s Office, Harrison County, Bobby Freyou, Section Manager, Office of State Texas. Marshall, Texas Lands, State of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, Louisiana Staff of the District Clerk’s Office, Harrison County, Librarians and Staff, Archives and Information Texas. Marshall, Texas Services Division, Texas State Library. Austin, Texas Last but not least, I extend my deepest appreciation to my wife Nancy for the long hours she spent drafting the maps Librarians and Staff, Archives and Records Division, found in this volume and for the final production of the Texas General Land Office. Austin, Texas work before you. Librarians and Staff, Archives and Special Jim Tiller Collections, Noel Library, Louisiana State Huntsville, Texas University, Shreveport. Shreveport, Louisiana

Part I

Early Nineteenth-Century Caddo Settlements in the Sodo Lakes Region List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1. Late 1700s-Early 1800s Caddo Village Sites in the Sodo Lakes Region ...... 11 1.2. Caddo-Coushatta Village ...... 12 1.3. Sewell’s Floodplain Village ...... 13 1.4. Jim’s Bayou Village ...... 14 1.5. Dehahuit’s Caddo Village ...... 15 1.6. North Caddo Village ...... 16 1.7. Middle Caddo Village ...... 17 1.8. Big Spring Caddo Village ...... 18 1.9. Charles Sewall’s Caddo Village ...... 19 1.10. Col. Many’s Caddo Village ...... 20 1.11. Border Village ...... 21 1.12. Louisiana Village ...... 22 1.13. Small Village ...... 23 1.14. Mooringsport Prairie “Village” ...... 24

Figure 2.1. Northwest Louisiana Survey Dates ...... 27 2.2. The Jim’s Bayou Site and Environs, 1838 ...... 28 2.3. Dehahuit’s Caddo Village Site and Environs, 1838 ...... 29 2.4. Terán’s Line, 1835 ...... 32 2.5. A Comparison of Distances Between Selected Locations ...... 36 2.6. The Sodo Lakes Region as Depicted on William Darby’s Map of Louisiana (1816) ...... 37 2.7. June 24-July 1, 1806 ...... 39 2.8. The Route of Spanish Troops from Nacogdoches to Spanish Bluff, Summer 1806 ...... 43 2.9. An Overlay of the Nadaco/Mt. Enterprise-Dehahuit Village Sites on a Modern Map of the Region South of Caddo Lake ...... 44

2 Figure 3.1. The Jim’s Bayou Site, 1838 ...... 50 3.2. Caddo Village Sites as Depicted on Early Survey Plat Maps ...... 51 3.3. Mile Mounds 59 and 60 ...... 52 3.4. General Location of the Last Caddo Village ...... 53

Chapter 1

Caddo Village Sites in the Historical Record

Introduction Doubtless the Caddo occupied a great number of small, temporary encampments, and possibly even some additional Much of the literature of the last 25 years has suggested yet-to-be-located permanent settlements in the Sodo Lakes that most, if not all, of the early 1800s Caddo settlements region, however, the sites examined within this chapter in northwestern Louisiana and adjacent Texas were located probably represent the area’s more prominent villages in north of the Sodo Lakes complex. In recent years, some the 1830s (the focus of this work). It should be pointed out have even implied, despite a great deal of evidence to the that both American and Republic of Texas surveyors were contrary, that the tribe occupied but a single village located active across the region during the mid- and late-1830s. just inside Texas on Jim’s Bayou north of Caddo Lake.1.1 The American surveyors carefully catalogued period roads, In fact, by the early 1800s the Caddo may have occupied trails, paths, Indian villages and Anglo improvements (and as many as 30 settlements within the Red River region.1.2 even the path of a tornado) as they made their way, mile Although the location of most of the late 1700s-early by mile, across individual Louisiana townships. Republic 1800s sites have been lost to history, virtually all of those of Texas surveyors who entered eastern Harrison County currently known to have existed in the early to mid-1830s, in early 1838 typically made note of the presence of both including the village of the great caddi Dehahuit, were large and small Indian village sites in the reference section found to the south of the Sodo Lakes complex (Figure 1.1). of their surveys, especially when such settlements were included or lay in close proximity to parcels of land they In this chapter, I provide an interpretation of Caddo were surveying. As a result of these activities, we find settlement in the Sodo Lakes region based on my analysis numerous references in early headright surveys to the of various archival materials. Too often in recent years North Caddo, Middle Caddo and Big Spring Caddo writers have either ignored, or worse dismissed as in error, villages. Because both American and Republic of Texas selected period writings regarding area Caddo villages survey work so closely coincided with the abandonment because they did not fit the then-current version of the tribe’s of Caddo settlements in Harrison County and adjacent settlement history. Certainly writers of 200 years ago were Caddo Parish, it is doubtful that any substantial permanent not infallible, however, my experience with period materials village site escaped their notice. strongly suggests that most early writers, be they traders, Indian agents, settlers or army officers, were very astute in interpreting their physical and cultural surroundings. While Caddo Village Sites North these writers, especially those who relied heavily on others of the Sodo Lakes Complex for their information, may have occasionally been in error as regards distance and direction in a frontier region where the While period literature does suggest the existence of primary traffic artery was a meandering stream, it appears, several Caddo villages north of the Sodo Lakes complex barring evidence to the contrary, that period documents as late as the mid-1820s, most of these references are probably reflect the situation on the ground at the time with too vague in their description to be of any assistance in 1.3 a high degree of accuracy. locating these settlements other than to suggest a presence

5 north of the Lakes.1.4 Regrettably, the general location of River), its general location is depicted on R.E. Jacobs’ 1935 only three north-of-the-Lakes nineteenth-century Caddo map Routes of Steamboats to Surround Rafts in Red River, villages can be determined from the historical record as of from Shreveport North, to Arkansas Line (Figure 1.3, Map this writing, namely the Jim’s Bayou, Sewell’s Floodplain A).1.11 The settlement would have been located in Section and the Caddo-Coushatta site at Cedar Bluff. By the late 20, T22N, R14W, some 4.3 miles north of Gilliam. 1820s, it appears that only the Jim’s Bayou settlement may still have been occupied by elements of the Caddo tribe. It Jim’s Bayou Village1.12 is my view these northern villages probably reached their greatest prominence in terms of size and influence in the Without question, the settlement on Jim’s Bayou is the period prior to the formation of the Sodo Lakes complex site north of the Lakes best represented in the Caddo in 1800 (see Chapters 2 and 3). Of these, only the Cedar literature (Figure 1.4). This location, popularly known Bluff and Jim’s Bayou sites have been definitively located as Sha’chahdínnih or Timber Hill, has been described and examined archeologically. The Sewell’s Floodplain site as the home of Dehahuit and the last Caddo village in has been either silted over or obliterated by the shifting their traditional East Texas and northwest Louisiana channel of the Red River. homeland.1.13 As will be developed more fully in Chapters 2 and 3, this site was not Timber Hill; it was not the home of Dehahuit; nor was it the last Caddo settlement Caddo-Coushatta 1.5 in the region. Village at Cedar Bluff The site is depicted on the 1838 plat map of northwest During the summer of 1806, President Thomas Jefferson Louisiana’s T21N, R17W (see Sections 2 and 11) and sent an expedition up the Red River to explore that portion described in the accompanying field notes as “an Indian of the recently acquired Louisiana Purchase. The expedition 1.14 villidg.” While the site was perhaps occupied as late as principals, Thomas Freeman and Peter Custis, both kept 1830, it clearly had declined in importance by that time journals of their day-to-day activities. After a tortuous trip and was likely little more than an outlier settlement in the around the eastern side of the Great Raft, both men, upon overall Caddo culture of the late 1820s. re-entering the river, recorded a series of events relating to the Caddo. The Coushatta settlement then located 1.6 at Cedar Bluff figured prominently in these writings. Caddo Village Sites South This village was an important landmark on the middle of the Sodo Lakes Complex Red River and is often referenced in documents of the 1.7 early 1800s. According to both Flores and McCrocklin, Sites in the historical record located south of the Lakes the old Caddo-Coushatta Cedar Bluff site (16BO173) is known to have been Caddo include the North Caddo, located on the east side of Red River approximately 20 Middle Caddo, Big Spring Caddo and Dehahuit villages. miles north of Shreveport and about 4.3 miles southeast of In addition, annuity agent Charles Sewall (in the fall of 1.8 the small community of Gilliam (Figure 1.2). 1838) and Col. James Many (in the spring of 1839) each “created” a village for the Shreveport Caddo in an effort to

1.9 afford them protection from White settlers in the region. Sewell’s Floodplain Village Of these south-of-the-Lakes sites, the North Caddo, Upon leaving the Coushatta village in 1808, trader Anthony Middle Caddo and Big Spring Caddo villages are so named Glass travelled some seven miles north-northwest across in period documents. Although not named in the archival the Caddo Prairie at which point he noted the remains record as Caddo, Dehahuit’s village and those established of Caddo huts and the presence of a number of peach by Agent Sewall and Col. Many are demonstrably Caddo. trees, both suggesting a village that had been recently In addition to these villages, both the Border and Louisiana abandoned.1.10 Although the location of this site has not villages were very probably Caddo. been definitively established (it probably was long ago The question is, “Why so many settlements south of the either washed away or silted over by the meandering Red

6 Chapter 2

2.1 Dehahuit’s Village

Introduction them, Sodo;” and (4) an 1837 memorial statement by the Caddo themselves regarding the relocation of some of their By far, the most historically significant Caddo settlement villages as required by Article 2 of the 1835 land cession. in the Sodo Lakes region was the village of Dehahuit. I offer additional archival evidence and alternative This was the site referred to in the journals of the Freeman interpretations of the record to support the circumstantial and Custis expedition, and it was in this settlement that case for the location of Dehahuit’s village on Paw Paw Spanish soldiers cut down an American flag in 1806 Bayou with a discussion of distances and directions from causing a minor diplomatic incident.2.2 It has long been known points to the main or principal Caddo village thought that the village of Dehahuit was situated north (and thus the probable home of the great caddi) found of Caddo Lake. In recent years, opinion concerning its in period records. Also provided is a time and distance location has coalesced around the site south of Jim’s Bayou problem related to Dehahuit’s settlement as suggested in in Marion County (see Chapter 3).2.3 I contend that this the journals of the 1806 Freeman-Custis expedition. I point of view is not supported by the archival record. conclude with a consideration of the Sodo Lakes region Based on a variety of period materials including court Caddo village sites depicted on Father José Puelles’ 1807 filings, reports and letters from Indian agents, Mexican map of Texas and William Darby’s 1816 map of Louisiana. and Republic of Texas surveys and a memorial from the Caddo themselves, it appears that Dehahuit’s village was almost surely located south of Paw Paw Bayou on the old Joseph Valentin’s 1840 Statement Natchitoches-to-Pecan Point Road on the line between on the Location of the Caddo Villages Sections 2 and 3 of northwest Louisiana’s T17N, R17W – a site some 2.5 miles west of the current Texas-Louisiana In 1840, 53 year old Joseph Valentin testified in the 2.5 border. The settlement, situated approximately 1.75 miles Grappe matter that during the course of the many years northwest of Waskom, likely straddled Farm-to-Market he had known the Caddo, he had frequently accompanied Road 134 at the Victoria Wood housing addition.2.4 them during their winter hunts and, that when not hunting, the tribe In support of this argument, the following will be resided for the most part at their villages at the examined: (1) an 1840 statement by Joseph Valentin 2.6 head [emphasis added] of Cos Lake regarding the location of Caddo villages at the head of Cross Lake; (2) an 1840 statement by Jehiel Brooks, long- Valentin’s statement suggests that in his experience, the time Caddo Agent and the individual who negotiated the area near the western end of Cos or modern-day Cross sale of the Caddo lands to the United States, who placed Lake probably contained most of the Caddo villages in the location of Dehahuit’s village approximately 90 miles the Sodo Lakes region, and, by inference, it is very likely from Natchitoches; (3) the well-known 1805 statement of one of these south-of-the-Lakes settlements was the home Red River Agent John Sibley in which he noted that the of Dehahuit. Caddo lived west of the Red River on a bayou “called, by

7 Jehiel Brooks’ 1840 Comment on The distance between Natchitoches and the Louisiana the Location of Dehahuit’s Village village, as depicted on these maps, is approximately 75 miles. Based on proximity to the southern Caddo boundary, On January 30, 1840, Jehiel Brooks answered the memorial it might be tempting to advance the proposition that this of Samuel Norris in the matter of the Grappe land claim. village was the home of Dehahuit. In fact, the best case Within this filing Brooks devoted an entire paragraph suggests Brooks was not referring to the Louisiana site in to defining the location of Dehahuit’s village when he his statement. observed that Dehahuit’s village on Paw Paw Bayou is approximately The Indian south boundary as expressed in the 87 miles from the town of Natchitoches via the old treaty made by your respondent he believes Natchitoches-to-Pecan Point Road. The definition of cannot be questioned with any greater propriety. “within a short distance” can be debated, but the 90-mile The Head Chief of the Caddo nation named distance referred to by Brooks is much more precise and Dehahuit or Dehahut resided at what has always been known by the name of “the Key Village” meaningful. The only question is just how accurate was from the time of the first council ever held by this Brooks’ estimate of the distance? While caution should Government with that functionary in May 1805 certainly be exercised when working with period estimates to the time of his death in March 1833 which of distances, such calculations are often surprisingly village is situated within a short distance of said accurate considering the methods used. Many distances Boundary and about ninety miles from the town described in archival materials are based on estimates of of Natchitoches.2.7 the mileage covered by horse (or an individual walking) within a given time period. During his stint as Caddo This statement, made by an individual who travelled Agent, Brooks doubtless used this method frequently in extensively within the Caddo Nation and who doubtless his travels around the Caddo Nation and to Natchitoches. knew Dehahuit well, is the single most authoritative More importantly, by the time Brooks submitted his answer comment available on the matter of the location of to Norris’ memorial in 1840, the American surveys had Dehahuit’s village. When combined with other more been completed in this section of Louisiana providing yet circumstantial evidence presented in this chapter, Brooks’ another corroboration of distances between known points statement leaves little doubt that this site was located west (Figure 2.1). It is doubtful Brooks was far off in his estimate of Cross Lake on Paw Paw Bayou, as suggested by Valentin. of 90 miles. Brooks indicated Dehahuit’s village was situated near the The statements of Valentin and Brooks are the centerpieces south boundary of the Caddo lands conveyed to the United of the case for Dehahuit’s village being situated on Paw Paw States. We know from the 1835 treaty that the southern Bayou near the western end of Cross Lake. While those boundary of the lands ceded extended from the Red River wedded to idea that the Jim’s Bayou site was Dehahuit’s west to the Mexican line via Pascagoula Bayou, Bayou village may suggest that Brooks was implying a straight-line 2.8 Pierre, Bayou Wallace, Wallace Lake and Cypress Bayou. distance from Natchitoches to the settlement, such a method American surveyors found only one Indian settlement in of calculating distances frequently travelled seems highly the immediate vicinity of the Caddo south boundary – the improbable considering the means of transportation available 2.9 Louisiana village. in Brooks’ time. Who among us, when asked for or stating The question is, “What did Brooks mean when he said the the distance between our hometown and a nearby large city ‘village is situated within a short distance of said Boundary’?” visited on occasion, would answer in straight-line miles? Fortunately, he clarified the statement when he noted the Time possibly, driving mileage probably, but hardly straight- settlement was located “about ninety miles from the town line miles. Pending a formal archeological effort, Brooks’ of Natchitoches.” The primary road running northwest out comments, when combined with the statement of Valentin of Natchitoches into Caddo country, the Natchitoches-to- and material presented in the following paragraphs, offer Pecan Point Road, is clearly delineated on the 1837-1838 the most important pieces of evidence for Dehahuit’s village American survey plat maps of northwestern Louisiana.2.10 having been located northwest of present-day Waskom.

8 Chapter 3

The Myth of Timber Hill

Introduction that suggests Dehahuit ever made his home north of the Lakes after 1805. Much of the literature of the last 25 years has assumed the In Chapter 3, the two remaining questions raised by the Caddo settlements in East Texas and adjacent northwestern Texas Historical Commission’s report will be addressed. Louisiana were located exclusively north of Caddo Lake. We begin by examining whether the Jim’s Bayou site was Although records of the early 1800s indicate a substantial the last Caddo village in the Sodo Lakes region. Contrary Caddo presence south of the Lakes, much of this material to popular belief, it is my view that the period record has either been ignored or misrepresented by those seeking indicates this site was probably abandoned by 1830, some 5 to make the case that the primary village, and probable years before the Caddo sold the Louisiana segment of their home of the historic caddi, Dehahuit, was the same village homeland to the United States, and a full 10 years prior to depicted on William Darby’s 1816 map of Louisiana. their final removal from Louisiana. This chapter concludes A Caddo site north of Caddo Lake on Jim’s Bayou was with a discussion of the origins of the term “Timber Hill.” discovered in the early 1990s. In the Texas Historical While I am not willing to definitively state that there is Commission’s archeological report prepared for the site, not a Timber Hill-Sodo Lakes Caddo village connection, the historical research was clearly developed to support the record as currently known does not contain a shred the north-of-the-Lakes thesis. By entitling the report of period evidence that would validate such a link. More Finding Sha’chahdínnih (Timber Hill): The Last Village of likely, an early Caddo authority was misled, intentionally the Kadohadacho in the Caddo Homeland, the Commission or otherwise, by an informant who suggested Timber Hill gave its stamp of approval to the presumption that the was a Sodo Lakes-area Caddo settlement. In all probability, Jim’s Bayou site was Timber Hill; that it was the home the term Timber Hill as used by the informant was in fact of Dehahuit; and that it was the last Caddo village in a reference to the Boyd’s Hill Caddo ceremonial site in their traditional East Texas-northwestern Louisiana southwestern Arkansas. homeland.3.1

I have long suspected that the secondary literature was Was the Jim’s Bayou Site in error in identifying the site on Jim’s Bayou as the the Home of Dehahuit? primary Caddo cultural center. Save for a letter from Superintendent of Indian Affairs Thomas McKenney to The archival record as presented in Chapter 2 simply Indian Agent George Gray and a couple of letters written does not support the contention that the Jim’s Bayou site by Gray himself in the mid-1820s, it is difficult to make was the home village of Dehahuit. Based on a variety of the argument that any period document could reasonably period materials, it is almost a certainty that Dehahuit’s be construed as referencing a Caddo village north of the village was located south of Paw Paw Bayou on the old Sodo Lakes complex and west of the Red River floodplain, Natchitoches-to-Pecan Point Road northwest of modern- although a number of early records certainly suggest such day Waskom. villages once existed. There is no evidence I am aware of

9 Was the Jim’s Bayou Site the Last Agency south of the Sodo Lakes complex nearer to Fort 3.2 Caddo Village in the Sodo Lakes Region? Jesup. In addition to giving him better access to military assistance, Gray noted such a relocation “would be more 3.7 In 2002, the Texas Historical Commission published convenient to the Indians of this Agency.” At the very Finding Sha’chahdinnih (Timber Hill): The Last Village of the least, this statement suggests a substantial number of Kadohadacho in the Caddo Homeland. Probably more than Agency Indians south of the Lakes complex by 1828. any other single document, this report has given rise to the 3.8 Gray died in November 1828 and was replaced in early proposition that the Jim’s Bayou settlement was the last 1829 by Thomas Griffith, who died shortly after he moved Caddo village in their traditional Sodo Lakes homeland, 3.9 the Agency back to Natchitoches. Jehiel Brooks was and the myth that this location was the site of Timber Hill. 3.10 appointed Caddo Agent in 1830. In August of that year, In the following paragraphs, I will examine the archival he toured the Caddo lands with the purpose of determining record as it relates to the abandonment of the Jim’s Bayou sentiment for moving the Agency from Natchitoches to a settlement. Period documents used will include the letters point south of the Lakes on the Red River. In an October of Caddo Agents George Gray and Jehiel Brooks as well 23, 1830 letter to Washington, Brooks indicated he had as plat maps and related field notes from the 1838-1839 consulted with all the Indians about a removal, United States surveys of Ranges 16 and 17 West. Based on and it being their wish to have the Agency these materials, a geography-based circumstantial case will established, at all events, below Lake Sodo.3.11 be offered suggesting that the Jim’s Bayou site was probably abandoned by the late 1820s, and almost surely by 1830. In his February 28, 1832 letter recounting events leading to his decision to move the Agency, Brooks noted that The Letters of the Caddo Agents the Caddo, Quapaw and Cochatta Indians, to a man 3.12 [were] in favor of a removal below Lake Sodo. The letters of George Gray and Jehiel Brooks confirm that there were at least two Caddo villages within the As a result of this trip and his consultations with the jurisdiction of the Caddo Prairie Agency during the 1820s Indians, Brooks suggested to Washington that the Agency – one very likely located on Jim’s Bayou north of the Sodo be moved to a higher and more healthful location south Lakes complex,3.3 and another unidentified site south of of the Lakes complex. The place he selected for the new the Lakes.3.4 Caddo Agency was Peach Orchard Bluff, just south of modern-day Shreveport.3.13 During the mid-to-late 1820s, Gray provided a government subsidy to operate a ferry across Caddo Lake.3.5 This ferry Since Gray (in 1828) and Brooks (in 1830) both appears to have provided benefits to both Caddo groups by recommended (and the Indians consented to) a relocation giving those members of the tribe living south of the lake south of the Lakes, the Jim’s Bayou site was, in all relatively easy access to the Sulphur Fork Factory and later likelihood, already abandoned by the late 1820s. With the Caddo Prairie Agency. The ferry also gave the Jim’s regard to Gray, and access to the military notwithstanding, Bayou village and Caddo Prairie Agency north of the Sodo had the village been occupied in 1828 and the area north of Lakes complex access to the many tribal villages that we the Lakes still been inhabited by large numbers of Indians now know existed south of the Lakes as well as to Bayou as had been the case when he relocated the Agency to the Pierre which was an important communication and trade Caddo Prairie from Sulphur Fork in early 1825, it seems link with Natchitoches. probable Gray would have simply recommended moving the Agency a mile or so west to higher ground. Throughout much of the mid-to-late 1820s, Agency property was subjected to periodic inundation caused by Brooks’ motives do not appear to have included a military the ever-northward moving Great Raft of the Red River.3.6 component – he seemingly wanted the Agency moved Faced with the likelihood of continued flooding and an to a more convenient (for the Indians) and healthful (for ongoing problem with outsiders intruding upon Indian himself) location. In a January 17, 1831 letter, Brooks lands, Gray, on August 11, 1828, suggested moving the expanded upon his reasons for recommending the Agency

10 Part II

The Land Cession and its Aftermath List of Illustrations

Figure 4.1. Schenick’s (Shenix’s) Ferry, 1842 ...... 64 4.2. American Survey Activity South of the Caddo Nation, Early 1830s ...... 66 4.3. Some Invalid Mexican-Era Surveys in Northwestern Louisiana, Mid-1830s ...... 67 4.4. Some Invalid Mexican-Era Surveys in Eastern Harrison County, 1835 ...... 68 4.5. Lands Ceded by the Caddo Nation to the United States, July 1, 1835 ...... 70

Figure 5.1. Valid Mexican-Era Surveys in Eastern Harrison County, Fall 1835 ...... 74 5.2. Selected Headrights Surveyed by John S. “Rip” Ford in Eastern Harrison County, February-March 1838 ...... 83

Figure 6.1. Generalized Vegetation Map of South Central Indian Territory ...... 93 6.2. Chickasaw District and Environs, Early 1840s ...... 93

12 Chapter 4

The Inevitable Land Cession

Introduction out for the Caddo in East Texas and adjacent northwestern Louisiana. In that year, long-time caddi Dehahuit died; From their first migration into the Sodo Lakes area in the first steamboat made its way up Bayou Pierre to the the late 1700s until their final removal in early 1840, the Agency at Peach Orchard Bluff; and Henry Shreve Caddo experience was, in a general sense, little different cleared the Great Raft from the Red River to Coates Bluff from that of most native American groups whose lands (near modern-day Shreveport). In adjacent Texas, where lay in advance of the relentlessly expanding American virtually all of the tribal villages were located, squatters frontier. The literature suggests the Caddo arrived in the began to settle eastern Harrison County even as Mexican region from their former home higher up on Red River just surveyors staked claims to Caddo lands as far east as the prior to 1800, greatly weakened from disease and war with Red River. The time had finally come to relinquish their their neighbors. Sibley tells us that while they apparently lands in northwest Louisiana. found a degree of peace in their new home, in the first few years their numbers continued to decline as smallpox and measles took large numbers of the already weakened tribe. Contributing Factors Throughout the early decades of the 1800s, a number of factors were at work which would ultimately cause Government Factory System, the Caddo to leave the region. Government sponsored Indian Removal and Caddo factories and Indian agents, as well as the ever-present Contributions to their Own Difficulties whiskey traders, offered a variety of highly desirable and The government factory system put into place soon after otherwise unobtainable goods and services. In order to Louisiana was purchased from France served a number acquire these items, the tribe overhunted and thus depleted of purposes, not the least of which was to partially satisfy the surrounding environment, and, as the years passed, the demand of Indian populations for the goods offered they were forced to move their seasonal hunts farther and in these stores and in return gain for the United States farther from their Sodo Lakes homeland. And even though access to regional resources then in demand. While an their resource base was declining, the Caddo (their chief argument could be made for the purchase of firearms and asking for only for a small annuity from the government) related supplies and some camp equipage, anyone who has willingly, and sometimes even eagerly, permitted other looked down a list of goods available in these governmental tribes forced from their homes east of the Mississippi to factories/agencies is surely struck by the great variety of settle among them. The Caddo came to depend upon the 4.1 cheap textiles, trinkets and ornamental items. How is it work performed by Agency gunsmiths and blacksmiths. possible that for such merchandise the Caddo knowingly By the time these services were withdrawn in the mid- overhunted their lands for furs, peltries and other trade 1830s, the tribe had grown so dependent upon them that goods? Their society had done without such items for they were in danger of being unable to feed themselves. hundreds of years. Certainly no one forced them to By the end of 1833, it was clear that time was running purchase these goods, and surely, with a cultural tradition

13 in tune with the local resource base, they must have known A late 1824 letter from Gray noted the presence of 1323 that the wholesale exploitation of their hunting grounds Indians from 13 tribes within the confines of the Agency. in order to purchase these items would ultimately force Most prominently represented were the Caddo (450 significant changes in their lifestyle. men and women), Coushatta (180) and Choctaw (178). Estimates of the number of Indians within the Red River- An indication of the magnitude of the exploitation of 4.9 4.10 Caddo Agency rose from 1323 in 1824 to 2500 in 1831 area resources may be seen in the following:on March 10, and to 3000 in 1833.4.11 1813, Factor Thomas Linnard sent 245 packs of furs and peltries to New Orleans;4.2 and in November 1815 he sent Gray, writing to the Secretary of War in June 1827, “270 packs shaved deer skins weighing 24,260 pounds” summed up the situation in the region as follows 4.3 to New Orleans. The exploitation of resources around The increase of Indians here from the time I took Natchitoches was so extensive that, in a December 1817 charge of this Agency until the present period is letter, Fowler observed that in a ratio truly alarming when the unprotected Game too is becoming so scarce for 60 or 70 state of this frontier is taken into consideration. It appears to be the whirlpool that is sucking miles about this place [Natchitoches] that they within its bosom the restless and dissatisfied of [the Indians] find it difficult to obtain subsistence 4.4 all nations and languages. Parties of broken up on the way [here to trade]. tribes are continually pouring in, and it is become Taking note of the abundance of game and increasing a receptacle for detached parties from all parts. Delawares, Kickapoos, Shawnees, Choctaws Indian and White populations to the north, Fowler began and others are day after day settling around us. urging the government to move the Factory up Red River A tribe of Spanish Indians, the “Towockanees,” to the mouth of the Sulphur Fork.4.5 The Factory was are daily expected and will settle on the Caddo moved in 1818 and, as predicted by Fowler, the quantity lands or in their immediate vicinity. A few Creeks of furs and peltries (deer, bear, beaver, raccoon) and other are coming to add to our Indian population, and products of the chase shipped (bear oil, beeswax, honey, in a little time the Indians can do as they please, tallow and buffalo tongues) increased dramatically. From and what is worse they will do it. They will be the Sulphur Fork Factory in 1819 alone, Fowler sent beyond my control, unaided and unprotected

[in February] 9509 lbs. deer skins (shaved), 888 as I am. The feelings, habits and interests of so lbs. deer skins (in the hair), 118 lbs. beaver fur, 55 many discordant nationals are so various and otter skins, 210 raccoon skins, 13 cats and foxes, clashing that rapine and bloodshed will be the 136 bear skins, 14 cub skins.4.6 consequence, of this I have little doubt.4.12

73 packs (7148 lbs.) shaved deer skins, 2 [in June] Working first through the government Factory and later packs (205 lbs.) unshaved deer skins, 2 packs (162 with traders sent upriver by Natchitoches merchants, the lbs.) beaver fur, 15 packs (300 skins) bear skins, 1 effect on game resources was dramatic and, as a result, the pack of 40 cub skins, 2 packs (480 raccoon, cat and fox) skins, 1 pack (42 otter, 2 tiger, 1 wolf) various tribes were forced to move their seasonal hunts 4.13 skins.4.7 farther and farther west. Few tribal groups other than the Quapaw4.14 took up Aiding in the depletion of game resources was the decision residence on Caddo lands to the south of Sulphur Fork in by the government to add even more hunters by settling Louisiana during the 1820s, and as late as 1824 it appears various eastern tribes on the old Caddo lands above from Indian agent records that only the Coushatta were Sulphur Fork. The letters of the Natchitoches Factory and located on these Caddo lands in any appreciable numbers.4.15 both the Red River and Caddo Indian agents show that During the 1820s, Caddo concerns centered more on over a 15 year period beginning in 1817, segments of the White encroachment, primarily in the area between Choctaw, Delaware, Shawnee, Cherokee and Kickapoo Natchitoches and the Sodo Lakes complex where most of among others took up residence on lands on and above the their villages were situated. In May 1825, the Caddo chief Sulphur Fork.4.8

14 Chapter 5

The Early Post-Land Cession Years

Introduction The Men with Sticks

As the Caddo returned to their eastern Harrison County Although information is not available regarding Caddo villages in mid-July 1835, they probably felt they had made activities during the fall of 1835, the tribe most likely the better part of the bargain with the United States.5.1 The returned to their villages west of Terán’s Line and began $30,000 in goods they received at the treaty grounds far making preparations for the fall harvest season and the exceeded anything seen in their lifetimes. The land they upcoming winter hunt. Unfortunately, in contrast to years had sold, at least as they understood it, all lay to the east of past, they now had the $30,000 in goods provided at the Terán’s Line which then formed the “boundary” between time of the treaty signing. This would have been a magnet the United States and Mexico. In effect, they sold land for the many unscrupulous whiskey traders who in late they had little use for – land they believed already belonged 1835 were unhindered by the presence of an Indian agent. to the United States. Area game resources had long since That such men moved upon the Caddo within days of the diminished to the point the tribe found it necessary to treaty may be seen in the response of Henry Queen who, make longer and more frequent hunting trips to the game- in answer to a question asked of him by the Committee on rich Cross Timbers and western prairies. Whites had Indian Affairs investigating the Grappe reservation, stated been encroaching upon the region sold from all directions In the latter part of July, 1835, I left the treaty since the Caddo agent had been withdrawn, and, while ground on horseback, for Fort Jesup, and the area may have contained a few small encampments, no lodged the first night at the house of Thomas substantial villages had been lost in the land sale. Wallace, the elder, who resided a few miles out of the Indian limits. I there saw a large quantity Between the summer of 1835 and early 1838, Caddo history of the identical goods I had seen delivered to the in the region was dominated by a collection of interrelated Caddoes at the treaty ground, on the third day of events centered around (1) increasing immigration and the month. I saw blankets, broadcloths, calicoes, land survey activities of the Mexican, Republic of Texas cotton domestics, rifle guns, and other articles, and American governments; (2) Caddo depredations upon not now recollected sufficiently to name, to the the settlers of Texas; and (3) problems associated with the value of more than two thousand dollars, as I receipt of their annual annuities called for in the 1835 land then and still believed.5.2 cession. The tribe could not have imagined as they made their way back to their villages that summer that within Considering that Wallace was only one of many known 5.3 three short years that they would be dispossessed of their whiskey traders in the area, it is likely that a significant villages in eastern Texas and forced to move to the frontier portion of the goods received by the tribe at the time of of that new Republic. the treaty signing in early July was in the hands of traders before the fall corn harvest began. Even as the Caddo were making preparations for their buffalo hunt on the western prairies that fall,5.4 eastern Harrison County, still a part of Mexico, was attracting

15 increasing numbers of Anglo squatters. These individuals, If Volunteers from the United States will join their brethren in this section, they who initially concentrated along the southern end of Caddo will receive liberal bounties of land. We Lake and along Trammel’s Trace just north of the Sabine, have millions of acres of our best lands had no qualms about establishing their cabins within a few unchosen and unappropriated. hundred yards of Caddo villages. Let each man come with a good Articles/notices such as those published in Mississippi’s rifle and one hundred rounds of Woodville Republican are examples of the kind of ammunition — and to come soon. information that began appearing in American newspapers during the fall of 1835 in response to unfolding events in Our Warcry is “Liberty or Death.” Our Texas. Stirring articles such as these (along with offers principles are [not legible] Constitution, of free land) encouraged many (including my great-great and down with the Usurper!!! grandfather, William Tiller) to move to Texas and settle in Your friend, eastern Harrison County. The following, originally printed SAM HOUSTON5.5 in the Red River Herald, appeared in the October 24, 1835 issue of Mississippi’s Woodville Republican This article caused an immediate reaction in Woodville. From the Red River Herald — Extra The following notice appeared in the October 31 issue of the Woodville Republican HIGHLY IMPORTANT NEWS FROM TEXAS Persons friendly to the cause of LIBERTY in War in Texas, Gen. Cos landed near the mouth Texas will meet in the Court House in Woodville of the Brasos with 400 men! Isaac Parker has just on Tuesday next, at 9 o’clock, A.M., to take arrived from Texas bringing the intelligence that into consideration the propriety of forming a Gen. Cos has landed near the mouth of the Brasos Company of Volunteers, to aid their brethren in with 400 men, with the intention of joining the their present glorious struggle for the RIGHTS 400 Federal troops stationed at San Antonio de of MAN.5.6 Bexar, and marching upon the people of Texas. He has issued his proclamation “declaring that On December 1, 1835, a town meeting was held in he will collect the revenue, disarm the citizens, Woodville. The following report of the meeting appeared establish a military government, and confiscate in the December 5 edition of the Woodville Republican the property of the rebellious.” Stephen F. Austin Texas Meeting has written to several citizens of Nacogdoches, that a resort to arms is inevitable. At a meeting held in this town on Tuesday last [December 1], in pursuance of notice previously They have hoisted a Flag with “The Constitution given; Dr. G.C. McWhorter was called to the Chair, of 1821,” inscribed on it, and “Two Hundred Free and Mr. James M. Downs chosen Secretary. After men gather around it determined to stand or fall which, R.W. Webber, Esqr. addressed the meeting with it”. at some length, and then offered the following Preamble and Resolutions, which were adopted: We subjoin the following letter from Gen. Houston to the gentlemen who brought the Whereas the province of Texas presents a field for intelligence: industrious enterprise in agricultural, mechanic, commercial and other laudable and justifiable San Augustine, Texas 6th Oct. 1835 pursuits, it is the intention of several citizens of Dear Sir — At your request I hand Wilkinson County, and probably of citizens of you a memorandum that you may adjacent counties, to emigrate to that province at be informed of our situation. War in no distant day. Those who intend to emigrate to defence of our Rights, our Oaths and said Province will be glad to be associated with as our Constitution is inevitable in Texas! many of their fellow citizens disposed to emigrate

16 Chapter 6

The Shreveport Caddo

Introduction was not payable until September 1 of that year), it is probably safe to assume that Scott, like John G. Green before him, By late spring 1838, the Caddo had abandoned their began advancing the tribe credit. Even though the Caddo traditional eastern Harrison County villages and relocated had left eastern Harrison County by late February-early to the western prairies where they became easy prey for March, it appears Scott had little doubt his power of Mexican agents who sought their aid in creating hostile attorney would secure him the 1838 annuity.6.2 With the conditions on the frontier. While the tribe as a whole never appropriate papers in hand, he arrived in Washington returned to East Texas, approximately 160 men, women on Saturday, August 1, 1838 and immediately applied to and children (roughly one-third of the Nation) came to the C.A. Harris, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for the Shreveport area in the fall of 1838 to collect the annuity funds.6.3 Harris, who reminded him the payment was not for that year. Because of the Indian wars then raging in actually due until September 1, was disturbed by events Texas, the Caddo were prevented from rejoining the larger surrounding previous annuity payments and he seemingly tribe under threat of death. This isolated group, hereafter had some concerns about Scott’s character and the manner referred to as the Shreveport Caddo, remained in the in which his power of attorney was written up.6.4 As a Shreveport area for the next 18 months where they collected result, Harris declined to immediately release the annuity both the 1838 and 1839 annuities to the exclusion of their and told Scott to return on Monday.6.5 fellow tribesmen on the prairies. Reduced to a miserable As Scott would soon discover, he was not the only condition and subject to the ever-encroaching Whites 6.6 applicant for the 1838 annuity who met with Harris that who seemingly exploited them at every opportunity, the August weekend. The previous June, John G. Green had Shreveport Caddo left northwestern Louisiana in the late executed his power of attorney to Shreveport merchant winter-early spring of 1840 for the Choctaw Nation. 6.7 Thomas T. Williamson. On Monday when Scott By 1841, the Shreveport band had settled in Indian Territory returned to Harris’ office, he was told the annuity had been between the Boggy and Blue Rivers. Approximately one- awarded to Williamson. Even though Harris knew charges half of the tribe then remaining in Texas joined them in the had been brought against Green in regard to his handling fall of that year, after having been granted permission to of the 1837 annuity, it is not clear why he refused to release settle within the Chickasaw District west of the Washita. the funds to Scott. Based on an earlier opinion by the Now comprising some two-thirds of the Caddo Nation, Attorney General’s office, Harris was aware the Caddo had these two bands appear to have remained separate and the right to change their agent at any time.6.8 Regardless, apart through much of the ensuing decade. Harris recognized Williamson’s power of attorney and, once Williamson had posted his own security, the 1838 annuity funds were released to him on August 6.6.9 Upon The 1838 (Sewall)-1839 Caddo Annuities their receipt, Williamson immediately wrote his business partner, Shreveport merchant Charles A. Sewall, who Once the tribe under Tarshar gave Tyree G.H. Scott their 6.1 in turn sent word to the Caddo in the Cross Timbers to power of attorney in February 1838 (although the annuity assemble in Shreveport in order to receive payment.6.10

17 The Return to Louisiana escort them to the border and turn them over to those on the Texas side of the line. A number of prominent Not all of the tribe came to Shreveport to collect the Shreveport citizens, aware that these Caddo had been in 1838 annuity. In a December 25, 1838 letter to Secretary the city at the time of the alleged murders and assuming of War Joel Poinsett, Scott protested the release of the the real purpose was to kill the Indians and take their annuity to Williamson and described the return of the goods, convinced the settlers to return to their homes.6.18 Shreveport Caddo segment of the tribe to northwest On the advice of Agent Sewall, the tribe Louisiana as follows: took up their winter quarters on a large island There was at the time a small part of the Caddo in Red River about 12 miles distant from tribe of Indians who had come in at the request this town and far within the acknowledged of Captain Becknel of the Republic of Texas, territory of the United States. This location had which was for the purpose of restoring some been recommended by me as combining the stolen property taken by them, who continued advantages of abundant supply of game and their course until they came on this side of the water and an entire separation from the Whites.6.19 line. There was one [undiland?] chief among them. He purported himself, as I have learned, The Caddo apparently remained on the “island” north of to be authorized to receive and transact all the Shreveport until about November 22 when a Texan force business of the Caddo tribe of Indians which under the command of Gen. Thomas J. Rusk surprised a is much to be doubted. Mr. Sewall has been portion of the tribe within the boundaries of the United conferring with the small number that was States near the head of Cross Lake. Rusk forced them to brought to the borders of the United States under the aforesaid circumstances.6.11 go to Shreveport where on November 29 an agreement was made whereby they agreed to give up the bulk of their According to entries in the account books of Charles A. weapons and remain within the bounds of Louisiana until Sewall & Co., the Caddo arrived in Shreveport near the the Indian wars in Texas had subsided. Texas agreed to end of September (Appendix 11).6.12 On October 11, Chief provide the band with provisions (Appendix 12). Shortly Tsauninot and 11 head men, acting under the authority thereafter, with the citizens of north Louisiana in an uproar of Head Chief Tarshar, revoked the power of attorney to and United States troops on their way from Fort Jesup as 6.20 John Green (and by implication that to Tyree G.H. Scott requested by Charles Sewall, Rusk returned to Texas. as well) and executed a new power of attorney to Charles 6.13 A. Sewall. By the third week of October, with the he nnuity ecords 6.14 T 1838 A R bulk of the annuity goods distributed, small bands of of Charles A. Sewall Caddo began leaving Shreveport “with the intention of making their way into the remote western and northern The struggle over the 1838 Caddo annuity did not die section of the uninhabited frontier of Texas.”6.15 It appears easily. Sewall had prevailed in Washington with the Indian these bands, in passing through East Texas, committed Department by way of Williamson in acquiring the right several depredations and possibly murders.6.16 On October to administer the 1838 annuity; he had secured the power 27, word reached Shreveport that two families had been of attorney from the Caddo in early October once they murdered by Indians in Texas.6.17 had arrived in Shreveport from the western prairies; and he apparently became the first agent to pay the tribe their The bulk of the tribe left on the 29th but a number of annuity in full; however, he was mistaken if he believed the Shreveport citizens, fearing for their safety, went to their contest with Scott was over. On December 12, 1838, an camp located some five miles from town and brought them anonymous letter was sent from Natchitoches to Missouri back to the city. They remained there until November Sen. Thomas H. Benton accusing Sewall of providing the 2 when a group of men composed of Louisianians and Caddo arms and ammunition which they were using to Texans, many having claims against the Caddo, came to murder women and children in Texas.6.21 Shreveport with the intention of taking charge of those members of the tribe remaining in the area in order to On December 25, Scott wrote the Secretary of War,6.22

18 Part III

End Materials List of Illustrations

Figure A15.1. Johnston’s Return Route to Fort Washita, ca. 1845 ...... 134 A15.2. Marcy’s Caddo Village on the Washita River, ca. 1849 ...... 135 A15.3. Michler’s Route West From Fort Washita, ca. 1849 ...... 135 A15.4. Marcy’s Old Caddo Village on Pennington Creek, ca. 1852 ...... 136 E1.1. Trammel’s Trace ...... 141 E2.1. Sodo Creek, ca. 1804 ...... 148 E2.2. The Raguet/Key Map, ca. Early 1830s ...... 150

20 Appendixes

The Appendixes represent some of the more prominent original sources used Lexis-Nexis Congressional where select Congressional materials may in developing this work. These materials are offered to Caddo researchers be accessed online. These texts typically contain errors on the part of in an effort to bring together a number of the more important and less the original typesetters. When obvious errors were found in the original accessible period documents pertaining to the last years of the tribe in their (misspelled words: af/of, annual/annul, for/four, specutors/speculators; Sodo Lakes homeland. missing parentheses; missing numerals in known dates as 104/1804; and duplicate words, as/as) they were corrected with no notation being made. Several of the Appendixes (3, 5, 10, 12-15) have been transcribed from Others, such as Lake Lodo instead of Lake Sodo, are most likely the result original hand-written period materials available online or on microfilm of a misreading of the handwritten text on the part of the typesetter. These from the National Archives or the Texas State Library. In transcribing these documents were scanned using OCR software and edited against the documents, I have attempted to be as true to the original handwritten text original. Errors associated with this scanning are my responsibility. as possible. Any errors are the responsibility of the author. The material in this section is provided solely as a guide for those with research Other Appendixes (1-2, 4, 6-9 and 11) may be found in the U.S. Congressional interests in this area. It is always suggested that the original be consulted. Serial Sets. These documents, while not indexed, are available at most universities on microfiche. Some larger research universities subscribe to

Appendix 1. Memorial of the Caddo Indians to the President Requesting Negotiations for the Sale of Their Lands in Northwestern Louisiana, ca. December 1834-Early January 1835 ...... 99 2. Report of Col. James B. Many on the Condition of the Caddo Indians, January 6, 1835 ...... 101 3. Letter of Instructions for Negotiating a Treaty of Land Cession with the Caddo Indians, March 25, 1835 ...... 103 4. Caddo Treaty and Supplementary Articles, July 1, 1835 ...... 105 5. Invoice of Goods and Property Delivered to the Caddo Indians, July 3-5, 1835 ...... 107 6. Journal of the Proceedings on the Caddo Treaty Ground, May 30-July 10, 1835 ...... 109 7. Lt. Joseph Bonnell’s Report on the Caddo Indians, April 20, 1836 ...... 113 8. Major Bennet Riley’s Report on the Caddo Indians, August 24, 1836 ...... 115 9. Invoice of Goods Delivered to the Caddo Indians, the 1836 Annuity ...... 117 10. Correspondence Related to the Caddo Annuity for 1836 ...... 119 11. Account of the Caddo Indians with Charles A. Sewall & Co., 1838-1839 ...... 121 12. Republic of Texas Support for the Caddo Indians, November 22, 1838-April 12, 1839 ...... 125 13. Account of the Caddo Indians with Charles A. Sewall & Co., 1839-1840 ...... 127 14. The George Washington Caddo Band Arrives in Indian Territory, October 1841 ...... 131 15. The Caddo Nation Begins to Reassemble, 1840-1851 ...... 133

Appendix 1

Memorial of the Caddo Indians to the President Requesting Negotiations for the A1.1 Sale of Their Lands in Northwestern Louisiana, ca. December 1834-Early January 1835

To his Excellency the President of the United States: American interpreter, for a great many years; our brother now is dead, but his sons live. The memorial of the undersigned, chiefs and head men of the Caddo Nation of Indians, We, therefore, the chiefs and head men of the Caddo Nation, pray that the United States will guaranty to the sons now living of our good brother Humbly Represents: deceased, Touline, (otherwise Grappe,) the whole of our original gift – four That they are now the same nation of people they were, and inhabit the same leagues to him and to them. And your memorialists further pray, that your country and villages they did, when first invited to hold council with their excellency will take speedy measures to treat with us for the purchase of the new brothers, the Americans, thirty years (sixty Caddo years) ago; and our residue of our lands, as above described, so that we may obtain some relief traditions inform us that our villages have been established where they now from our pressing necessities; and your memorialists as in duty bound, will stand ever since the first Caddo was created, before the Americans owned ever pray, &c. Louisiana; the French, and afterwards the Spaniards, always treated us as Tarshar, head chief, his X mark Hidebah, his X mark friends and brothers. No White man ever settled on our lands, and we were Cowrunah, chief, his X mark Tavinron, his X mark assured they never should. We were told the same things by the Americans Kiawino, chief, his X mark Kiotun, his X mark in our first council at Natchitoches, and that we could not sell our lands to Oat, his X mark Tiotun, his X mark anybody but our great father the President. Our two last agents, Captain Yalchos, his X mark Tchowinson, his X mark Gray and Colonel Brooks, have driven a great many bad White people off Saburton, his X mark Tchownitow, his X mark from our lands; but now our last-named agent tells us that he is no longer Foweharun, his X mark Teotow, his X mark our agent, and that we no longer have a gunsmith nor blacksmith, and says Chowinneun, his X mark Tewinni, his X mark he does not know what will be done with us or for us. Kodannoh, his X mark Nono, his X mark This heavy news has put us in great trouble; we have held a great council, Kianimit, his X mark Slunkunsee, his X mark and finally come to the sorrowful resolution of offering all our lands to you Abdoshe, his X mark Toowaneosun, his X mark which lie within the boundary of the United States, for sale, at such price Ishmon, his X mark Basheotah, his X mark as we can agree on in council one with the other. These lands are bounded Witnesses present on one side by the Red River, on another side by Bayou Pascagoula, Bayou and Lake Wallace, and the Bayou Cypress; and on the other side by Texas. Larkin Edwards, late Caddo Interpreter John W. Edwards, late Quapaw Interpreter We have never consented to any reservation but one, to be taken out of these J.C. McLeod lands, and that was made a great many years ago. The Caddo Nation then J. Brooks, late Indian Agent gave to their greatest and best friend, called by them Touline, but known to all the White people by the name of François Grappe, and to his three sons Endorsement of the President of the United States then born, one league of land each, which was to be laid off commencing at The President encloses to the Secretary of War the memorial of the Caddo the lowest corner of our lands on the Red River, (as above described,) and chiefs, for his consideration, whether it will not be proper to appoint a running up the river four leagues, and one league from that line back, so as commissioner to obtain a complete cession of their lands to the United to make four leagues of land. We went with our friend and brother Touline States. There will be about half a million of acres, it is supposed. Care must (otherwise Grappe) before the Spanish authority, and saw it put down in be taken in the instructions that no reservations shall be made in the treaty: writing, and gave our consent in writing, and the Spanish authority ratified and, if the request (for one of their friends) in the memorial be adopted our gift in writing. But, before the Americans came, our brother’s house was at all, it must be in a schedule which may be confirmed or rejected by the burned, and the writings we have mentioned were consumed in it. Touline Senate without injury to the treaty. (otherwise Grappe) was a half-blood Caddo; his father was a Frenchman, and had done good things for his son while a boy; but when he grew to be January 28, 1835 a man, he returned among us, and continued near to us till he died. He was P.S. Will it not be well to ask an appropriation to cover this expense? always our greatest counsellor for good. He was our French, Spanish, and A.J.

23 Endnotes

Abbreviations

351. 25th Cong., 2nd sess. House Document 351. LRRed. Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880. Roll 727. Red River Agency. National Archives and Records Administration. 1035. 27th Cong., 2nd sess. House Report 1035. Washington, D.C. AmHistAssoc1907. Annual Report of the American Historical Association for LRWestSuper. Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880. the Year 1907. Vol. II, Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Roll 923. Western Superintendency, 1832-1851. National Archives and Texas. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908. Records Administration. Washington, D.C. ASPIndian. American State Papers. Indian Affairs.Vol. I. LSOIA. Letters Sent by the Office of Indian Affairs. 1824-1881. National BLM. United States. Department of the Interior. Bureau of Land Archives and Records Administration. Washington, D.C. Management. Louisiana, Northwestern District. Springfield, Virginia. RipFord. Ford, John Salmon (Stephen B. Oates, editor). Rip Ford’s Texas. BQCollection. The Brooks-Queen Family Collection. The American Austin, TX: The University of Texas Press, 1963. Catholic History Research Center and University Archives. The TexArchives. Texas State Library and Archives Commission. Archives and Catholic University of America. Washington, D.C. Information Services Division. Austin, Texas. Freeman. Flores, Dan L. (editor). Jefferson & Southwestern Exploration: The TillerVol.2. Tiller, Jim. Before the Line. Vol. II, Letters from the Red River, Freeman & Custis Accounts of the Red River Expedition of 1806. Norman, 1809-1842. Huntsville, TX: The START Group, 2012. OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984. TimberHill. Parsons, Mark L., James E. Bruseth, Jaques Bagur, S. Eileen HarSurveyRecA. Texas. Harrison County. Survey Record A. Goldborer and Claude McCrocklin. Finding Sha’chahdinnih (Timber LASLO. Louisiana. State Land Office, Division of Administration Hill): The Last Village of the Kadohadacho in the Caddo Homeland. (Historical Documents). Archeological Reports Series, No. 3. Austin, TX: Texas Historical Commission, 2002. Letterbook. Letterbook of the Natchitoches-Sulphur Fork Factory, 1809- 1821. Roll T-1029. National Archives and Records Administration. TXGLO. Texas. General Land Office. Archives and Records Division. Washington, D.C. Austin, Texas. LRCaddo. Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1880. Roll 31. Caddo Agency. National Archives and Records Administration. Washington, D.C.

Chapter Text

Chapter 1 1.3. Distance and direction are common examples of error, and others exist. An example is Sibley’s comment regarding the land upon which Caddo Village Sites in the Historical Record the Caddo lived. 1.1. TimberHill. pp. 1-15; Bagur, Jacques. A History of Navigation on The Caddoes raise corn, beans, pumpkins, &c. but the land on which Cypress Bayou and the Lakes. Denton, TX: University of North Texas they now live is prairie, of a white clay soil, very flat, their crops are Press, 2001. pp. 37-44. subject to injury, either by too wet or too dry a season.1.3.1 1.2. Pichardo, Father José Antonio (Charles Wilson Hackett, Individuals depending upon crops for a part of their subsistence, editor). Pichardo’s Treatise on the Limits of Louisiana and Texas: An including those with even the most rudimentary knowledge of Argumentative Historical Treatise with Reference to the Verification of the agriculture as the Caddo possessed, would not have attempted True Limits of the Provinces of Louisiana and Texas: Written by Father farming on clay soils when so many areas in their immediate José Antonio Pichardo, of the Congregation of the Oratory of San Felipe surroundings were better suited to the production of the various crops Neri, to Disprove the Claim of the United States That Texas Was Included favored in their diet. It is more likely Sibley was referencing a Caddo in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Vol. III. Austin, TX: The University village located on or in the vicinity of an area of white clay (and not of Texas Press, 1946. p. 422. The following fromLetterbook , same the fields associated with that settlement). Isolated areas of such soils as TillerVol.2 (see specific Item): Fowler, John. Letter to Thomas L. may be found in a strip extending across northwestern Harrison McKenney, Superintendent of Indian Trade. May 9, 1817. (Item 1.3.2 County generally west of State Highway 43. 167); Fowler, John. Letter to Thomas L. McKenney, Superintendent of Indian Trade. August 10, 1818. (Item 215). The following from 1.3.1. Sibley, John. Letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War. LRRed, same as TillerVol.2 (see specific Item): Gray, George. Letter April 5, 1805. “Historical Sketches of the Several Indian to Thomas L. McKenney, Superintendent of Indian Trade. October Tribes in Louisiana, South of the Arkansas River, and 1, 1824. (Item 301); Gray, George. Letter to Thomas L. McKenney, Between the Mississippi and River Grande.” ASPIndian. Vol. Superintendent of Indian Trade. October 1, 1824. (Item 302). I. p. 721. 24 1.3.2. Humphries, Tommy. Master Potter, Marshall Pottery. the distances by water to various locations above Natchitoches. Marshall, Texas. Personal interview, September 23, 2011. In comparing the mileage charts of Sibley and Custis, while For a discussion and maps depicting the location of the the distance from Natchitoches to the Coushatta village is the strip of cream-colored (“white”) clays that stretch across same (80 miles, probably due to the fact that François Grappe northwestern Harrison County (and into Marion County to likely served as the source of this information for both men), the north), see Fisher, William L. Rock and Mineral Resources the last date of Caddo occupance is not. Sibley (writing in of East Texas. Report of Investigations, No. 54. Austin, TX: 1805) indicates the Caddo left the site in 1800 – Custis Bureau of Economic Geology, The University of Texas at (writing in 1806) places the date of abandonment at 1796. I Austin, 1965. p. 87 and Plate III. am not aware of any period document indicating which man was correct (assuming both are discussing the same village). 1.4. See Endnote 1.2 (Pichardo’s comments regarding Caddo settlements Based on the comments of Glass, Sibley, Freeman, Custis, north of the Sodo Lakes complex). See also Mapa Geographica de Rublo and Wallace, the late 1700s and early 1800s was a time la Provincia Tehas. 1822. Stephen F. Austin. Document di_02881, of Caddo village relocation from the floodplain and eastern Stephen Austin Map Collection. Dolph Briscoe Center for American bluffs of the Red River to the uplands west of the river and History, The University of Texas at Austin. Austin, Texas. to points south of the Sodo Lakes complex. The precise dates 1.5. This site is typically referred to in the literature as the “Coushatta and reasons for these movements are not clear, although village,” however, it is clear the site was occupied by the Caddo prior pressure from the Osage, disease and conditions related to to 1804. In a July 15, 1808 journal entry, trader Anthony Glass, flooding on the Red River in association with the advance writing of the settlement, noted the Coushatta upriver of the Great Raft were all likely a part of the equation. have not long lived here … They are friendly with the Caddoes 1.5.4. Freeman. pp. 149-150. who own the Country & who used to occupy the same spot … the Caddoes left the place on account of having lost many of their 1.5.5. Gray, George. Letter to Samuel S. Hamilton, Office of Indian People by the Small Poxe it being a custom to abandon a Village Affairs. September 30, 1826. LRRed (same as TillerVol.2, where many have died.1.5.1 Item 349). 1.5.6. Records suggest the Coushatta sold their land in Rapides In an April 10, 1805 letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War, John Parish in December 1803. See Rapide Parish, Louisiana Sibley described the Red River and adjacent country and provided an Claim No. 126, Reported March 9, 1813. LRRed (same as account of distances up Red River from Natchitoches. He observed TillerVol.2, Item 419). that 80 miles above Natchitoches by the course of the river was found the “late Caddo villages, where they lived five years ago.”1.5.2 In this 1.5.7. As Gray was writing in 1826, the Red River Agency was same letter, Sibley indicated that from above Bayou Bodcau located on Caddo Prairie some 5.25 miles west-northwest of the old Coushatta village and approximately 2.4 miles to where the Caddoes lately lived [the old Caddo settlement at Cedar southwest of the modern-day community of Gilliam, Bluff], the river banks are high, bottoms wide and rich as any other Louisiana in Section 24, T21N, R15W. part of the river; [and] from thence, it is much the same to the mouth 1.5.3 of the Little river at the left. 1.5.8. Gray, George. Letter to Samuel S. Hamilton, Office of Indian Affairs. September 30, 1826. LRRed (same as TillerVol.2, As to the age of the village (at least as regards the Coushatta), on June Item 349). 26, 1806, Thomas Freeman wrote in his journal 1.6. Freeman. pp. 145-146, 148. This little village [the Coushatta village at Cedar Bluff] has been built within two or three years, and consists of 6 to 8 families of stragglers 1.7. See for instance, Freeman. pp. 92-93, 145-146, 148, 298-299, 328. 1.5.4 from the lower Creek Nation, near the Mobile. The following fromLetterbook , same as TillerVol.2 (see specific Item): Fowler, John. Letter to Thomas L. McKenney, Superintendent of While not identifying the Cedar Bluff site specifically, George Gray, Indian Trade. April 8, 1817. (Item 163); Fowler, John. Letter to writing in 1826, described the migration of the Coushatta tribe to 1.5.5 Thomas L. McKenney, Superintendent of Indian Trade. May 9, Cedar Bluff as follows 1817. (Item 167). The following fromLRRed , same as TillerVol.2 The Coushattas immigrated some 30 years since from Florida and (see specific Item): Gray, George. Letter to Thomas L. McKenney, are a band of the Creek nation of Indians, speak the same language. Superintendent of Indian Trade. October 1, 1824. (Item 302); Gray, On their arrival on the west side of the Mississippi, they settled in George. Letter to John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War. December Opelousas where they remained but a short time, from thence 30, 1824. (Item 306). Also Glass, Anthony (Dan L. Flores, editor). to Bayou Rapide in the Parish of Rapides and there joined a small Journal of an Indian Trader: Anthony Glass and the Texas Trading 1.5.6 band of Choctaws where they remained but a short time. From Frontier, 1790-1810. Texas A&M Southwestern Studies, No. 4. thence they proceeded up Red River somewhere near Natchitoches College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1985. p. 39; A at which place they separated, one-half continued up Red River, Map of the State of Louisiana with Part Of The Mississippi Territory, and the balance crossed the Sabine River where they now live. The from Actual Survey By Wm. Darby. 1816. William Darby (surveyor balance headed by a chief settled a village on Red River above the and compiler). Philadelphia, PA: John Melish. The David Rumsey head of the Raft where they remained for many years until compelled Map Collection; Sibley, John. Letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary to abandon their village owing to high water and now reside within of War. April 5, 1805. “Historical Sketches of the Several Indian 1.5.7 a few miles of this Agency. This statement I got of the Coushatta Tribes in Louisiana, South of the Arkansas River, and Between the 1.5.8 chief a few days since, and I presume it is a correct one. Mississippi and River Grande.” ASPIndian. Vol. I. p. 724; Sibley, John. Letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War. April 10, 1805. 1.5.1. Glass, Anthony (Dan L. Flores, editor). Journal of an Indian “Account of the Red River and Adjacent Country.” ASPIndian. Vol. Trader: Anthony Glass and the Texas Trading Frontier, 1790- I. p. 730. 1810. Texas A&M Southwestern Studies, No. 4. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1985. p. 39. 1.8. Freeman. p. 149; McCrocklin, Claude. “The Red River Coushatta Indian Villages of Northwest Louisiana, 1790-1835.” Louisiana 1.5.2. Sibley, John. Letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War. Archeology. Vol. 12 (1985). pp. 129-178. April 10, 1805. “Account of the Red River and Adjacent Country.” ASPIndian. Vol. I. p. 730. 1.9. The name Sewell’s Floodplain village does not appear in any known historic record. I have assigned this name to the site based on (1) a 1.5.3. Sibley, John. Letter to Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War. notation (“Indian village Sewell 1831”) made by Jacobs on his 1935 April 10, 1805. “Account of the Red River and Adjacent map entitled Routes of Steamboats to Surround Rafts in Red River, from Country.” ASPIndian. Vol. I. p. 728. See Freeman. p. 328 for Shreveport North, to Arkansas Line which indicates the presence of 25 Bibliography

Books and Articles No. 3 (September 1941). p. 225-244. Anderson, H. Allen. “Charles Goodnight.” Ron Tyler, Douglas E. Barnett, Foreman, Grant. The Five Civilized Tribes– Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Roy R. Barkley, Penelope C. Anderson and Mark F. Odintz (editors). Creek, Seminole. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934. The New Handbook of Texas. Vol. 3. Austin, TX: Texas State Historical Gammel, H.P.N. (compiler and editor). The Laws of Texas. Vol. 1. Austin, TX: Association, 1996. The Gammel Book Company, 1898. Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1907. Vol. II, Gammel, H.P.N. (compiler and editor). The Laws of Texas. Vol. 2. Austin, TX: Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Texas. Washington, The Gammel Book Company, 1898. D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908. Garrett, Julia Kathryn. “Dr. John Sibley and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, Armstrong, Mark. Intermediate Report on an Alabama Indian Village Site: A 1803-1814.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Vol. 49, No. 3 (January Search for an 1835 Survey Map Indian Village. Archeological Division, 1946). pp. 399-431. Caddo Lake Historical Research Committee, April 2002. Glass, Anthony (Dan L. Flores, editor). Journal of an Indian Trader: Armstrong, Mark. Revisit to an Alabama Indian Village Site: Trinomial Site Anthony Glass and the Texas Trading Frontier, 1790-1810. Texas A&M 41HS840. Archeological Division, Caddo Lake Historical Research Southwestern Studies, No. 4. College Station, TX: Texas A&M Committee, September 2006. University Press, 1985. Armstrong, Mark. Survey Report on International Paper Survey, Harrison Goins, Charles Robert and Danny Globe. Historical Atlas of Oklahoma. 4th ed. County, Texas. Archeological Division, Caddo Lake Historical Research Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006. Committee, April 2006. Gulick, Jr., Charles Adams (editor). The Papers of Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar. Bagur, Jacques. A History of Navigation on Cypress Bayou and the Lakes. Denton, Vol. II. Austin, TX: Texas State Library, 1922. TX: University of North Texas Press, 2001. Gunn, Jack W. “Mexican Invasions of 1842.” Ron Tyler, Douglas E. Barnett, Carter, Cecile Elkins. Caddo Indians: Where We Come From. Norman, OK: Roy R. Barkley, Penelope C. Anderson and Mark F. Odintz (editors). University of Oklahoma Press, 1995. The New Handbook of Texas. Vol. 4. Austin, TX: Texas State Historical Castañeda, Carlos E. (James P. Gibbons, editor). Our Catholic Heritage in Texas, Association, 1996. 1519-1936. Vol. V, The Mission Era: The End of the Spanish Regime, Hagan, William T. Taking Indian Lands: The Cherokee (Jerome) Commission, 1780-1810. Austin, TX: von-Boeckmann-Jones Company, 1942. 1889-1893. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003. Darby, William. Emigrant’s Guide to the Western and Southwestern States and Hardin, J. Fair. 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A Mexican line (same as Spanish line), 26, 31, calico(es), 71, 110, 121-122, 127-129 65, 110 cambric, 127 agency/factory Mile Mound 59, 52 cap(s), 128-129 agency (house), 64, 69, 105-106, 108-109, Mile Mound 60, 52 131. Endnotes, page 156 chain(s), 128 Terán’s Corner, 31-32, 66 Caddo Agency (same as Caddo Prairie check(s), 128 Agency, Red River Agency), 48, 60, Terán’s Line, 31-32, 66, 70-71, 76 cloak(s), 122, 127-128 65, 69. Endnotes, pages 138, 142-143, Texas-Louisiana border, 25, 28-29, 42, 44- cloth, 107, 110, 117, 127 145, 147, 156, 161 45, 70. Endnotes, pages 144, 156 coat(s), 127-128 Chickasaw Agency, 93, 134. Endnotes, business/commercial establishments coat(s), blanket, 121-123, 128 page 168 [Albrick?] & January, 129 coat(s), over, 127 Choctaw Agency, 93. Endnotes, page 167 Bank at New Orleans, 103 comb(s), 107, 117, 121-122, 128 factory/factories, 48, 55, 59-60 Barr and Davenport, 34-36 Sulphur Fork Factory, 48, 60 domestic(s), 71, 81, 103, 107, 117, 121-123, Cushman & Frost (same as Frost & 127-129 Alamo, 76 Cushman), 123 ear bob(s), 117 alligator(s), 115 Hotchkiss & Hardwick, 127. Endnotes, ear wheel(s), 117 Anglo(s), 5, 31, 33, 51, 72-73, 110 page 163 feather(s), 107, 117 archeology and related license, 55, 61. Endnotes, page 155 flannel, 121-122, 127 16BO173 (LA), 6 merchant(s), 60-61, 80-83, 85. Endnotes, pages 144, 163, 166 gartering, 107 41HS84 (TX). Endnotes, pages 140-141 Rabnton & Sewall, 128. Endnotes, page 163 gingham, 122 41HS905 (TX). Endnotes, page 141 Scott’s store, 81, 83. Endnotes, page 159 gorget(s), 117 archeology, 6-7, 9, 26, 29, 47, 53, 55. Endnotes, pages 140, 168 Sewall & Co., Charles A., 86-89, 121, handkerchief/handkerchives, 107, 122, 127, 129, 133. Endnotes, pages 161, 127-129 Association of American Geologists and 163-164 Naturalists, 134 hat(s), 61, 117, 119, 123, 127-129 trader(s) (same as dealer(s), 5-6, 34, 59-63, hose, 122, 127 65, 69, 71, 76, 82, 113, 116. Endnotes, jean(s), 128 B pages 138, 155 looking glasses, 107, 122 bill(s), 117, 121 Watson & Co., M., 129. Endnotes, page 163 Lowell’s, 122-123, 128 books/newspapers and other publications moon(s), 78, 117 Historical Sketches (same as Sketches), 28-30, C muslin, 122, 127 33-35, 37. Endnotes, page 139 canoe, 40 pants, 128 Journal(s), 6, 25, 34-35, 38-42, 54-55, 103, cartographer, 41-42 109. Endnotes, pages 138, 149, 154 parasol(s), 129 cash, 8, 87, 92, 121-123, 125, 127-129, 133. Northern Standard (newspaper). Endnotes, Endnotes, page 163 plaids, 107 page 168 church(es) and related pocket book, 123 Red River Herald (newspaper), 72 Belview Church, 28 prints, 107, 117, 122, 129 Woodville Republican (newspaper), 72 Old Border Church, 29 ribbon, 122, 128-129 boundaries/borders priest, 42 ring(s), 108 32nd parallel, 11, 27, 32, 35, 42-45, 66 clothing and related products shawl(s), 107, 110, 117, 121, 127-129 boundaries/border(s), 9-11, 25-26, 30-32, sheeting, 107, 117 34-35, 41-43, 45, 50-54, 61-63, 65, bag(s), bead, 127 69-71, 75-79, 86-87, 89, 99, 101, 103, band(s), (arm, hat, head, wrist), 117 shirt(s), 62, 78, 121, 129 105-106, 110. Endnotes, pages 140- bead(s), various, 107, 110, 117 shoe(s), 121-123, 127-129 144, 147, 151, 156, 169 belt(s), 127, 134 shoe(s), slippers, 127 Caddo south boundary (same as Indian sock(s), 123, 127 south boundary), 26, 32, 35, 61, 65, binding, 107, 117 70, 105 blanket(s), 71, 81, 107, 110, 117, 121, 127- sorrel, 128 Joint Boundary Commission (same as 129 strouding, 122, 128 Boundary Commission), 10, 52. bonnet(s), 128 suspender(s), 127-128 Endnotes, page 142 boots, 122, 128 thimble(s), 55, 127-128 broach(es), 117 thread, 107, 117, 122, 127-128 27 ticking, 121-122, 129 sugar, 121-123, 125, 127-129. Endnotes, children of the forest, Endnotes, page 154 veil(s), 129 page 163 Choctaw General Council, 89, 91-92, 94, vermilion, 107, 117 tobacco, 108, 121-123, 128-129 131, 133-134 vest(s), 123, 127-129 French/Frenchman, 34, 40, 65, 99, 101, 110. Choctaw Nation, 85, 89-92, 94, 133. Endnotes, page 161 Endnotes, pages 164, 168, 172 complaint(s), 115, 131, 135. Endnotes, page 162 frontier, 5, 43, 59-60, 63, 71, 76-80, 84-86, 92, depredation(s), 31, 71, 76, 78-80, 86, 89, court case(s) 116, 133. Endnotes, pages 146, 164, 167 115-116, 134. Endnotes, pages 146, court case(s), general, 7, 9, 25-26, 34, 65, 69. 156, 159, 161, 166 Endnotes, pages 145, 159, 166 G furs (same as peltries, skins), 59-62, 115, Prewitt vs. Woods, Endnotes, page 159 121, 123 Gone to Texas (G.T.T.), 73. Endnotes, page 156 United States vs. Brooks, Endnotes, page 156 game, 8, 60, 62, 68, 71, 73, 86, 101, 109-110 H gratuity/gratuities, 61 E hunt(s), 25, 59-60, 71, 76, 79, 83, 113, 115. household and related products express (same as runner(s), messenger(s)), 38-41, Endnotes, pages 139, 146, 155-156 76, 92, 109, 119. Endnotes, page 156 awl(s), 108 old field(s), Endnotes, pages 140-142 bagging, 107 pipe(s), hand, 109-110, 117 F bed cord(s), 121 plunder, 76-78, 101, 113 finetiry, 128 bowl(s), 122 savage(s), Endnotes, page 159 firearms and related products bucket(s), tin, 122 scalp(s), 164 firearms (same as gun(s), rifle(s), rifle gun(s), casting(s), 121, 123, 129 shell(s), 117. Endnotes, pages 149-150 pistol(s)), 62, 71-73, 87, 89, 107-108, clock(s), 128 small pox, 35. Endnotes, page 138 115, 117, 122-123, 125, 127-129. cup(s), 121, 129 trade, 46, 48, 55, 59-63, 73, 82. Endnotes, Endnotes, pages 162, 164 cup(s), tin, 121-122, 127-128 pages 155, 166 flint(s), 107, 110, 117 dish(es), 123, 127-129 warrior(s), 38, 41, 77-79, 83, 88, 90, 105- lead, 81-82, 108, 110, 117, 129. Endnotes, fork(s), 121 106, 113, 131, 134. Endnotes, pages pages 162, 164 156-158 kettle(s), 131 percussion cap(s), 129 Indians, people kettle(s), brass, 108, 121-122, 131 powder flask(s), 122-123 Aach, 105-106, 110 mosquito bar, 129 powder horn(s), 107 Abdoshe, 99 needle(s), 107, 117, 122 powder, 81-82, 108, 110, 117, 129. Basheotah, 99 Endnotes, pages 162, 164 oven(s), 123, 131 Caddo Jake, 53-54. Endnotes, page 152 shot, 123 pan(s), frying, 123 Chonena, 92, 94, 131, 133, 135. Endnotes, fireting, 128 pitcher(s), 128-129 pages 164, 166 food and related products plate(s), soup, 123 Chow-a-nih, Endnotes, page 166 apple(s), 129 pot(s), 122-123, 127-129, 131 Chowabah, 105-106, 110 bacon, 125, 128-129. Endnotes, page 163 pot(s), coffee, 127-129 Chowawanow, 106 bean(s), 121. Endnotes, page 137 razor(s), 128 Chowinneun, 99 beef, 121-122, 125. Endnotes, page 163 saucer(s), 121 Cortes, 113 bread, 128 sieve(s), 121-122 Cowrunah, 99. Endnotes, page 166 cheese, 129 scissor(s), 107 Dehahuit (same as Dehahut, caddi), 7, 26, coffee, 121-122, 125, 127-129. Endnotes, skillet(s), 131 30, 38-41, 46, 59, 64-65, 69 page 163 spoon(s), iron, 122, 128 Douchey, 78 corn, 63, 71, 80, 101, 107, 110, 113, 117, Edge, Julia, Endnotes, page 136 121-123, 125, 127, 129, 131, 134. Folsom, George, 131. Endnotes, pages 164, Endnotes, pages 137, 163, 168 I 169 cracker(s), 122 Indians, general Foweharun, 99 fish, 115 annuity (annuities), 6, 8, 30, 53, 59, 61-63, 71, 75, 79-92, 94, 105, 110, 117, 119, Hiahidock, 106, 110 flour, 81-82, 121-123, 125, 129, 131. 133. Endnotes, pages 144, 146, 158- Hidebah, 99 Endnotes, page 163 164, 166-168 Highahidock, 105 ham(s), 117 arrowhead(s), Endnotes, page 149 Indian, favorite, 38-39 lard, 123 axe(s), stone, Endnotes, page 149 Ishmon, 99 meal, 63, 125, 127-128 Chickasaw District, 85, 92-93, 134. Jones, Cornelius, Endnotes, page 169 mussels, Endnotes, page 149 Endnotes, pages 164, 166, 168 Kardy, 105-106, 110 pork, 121-123, 125, 127-128, 131. Endnotes, Chickasaw General Council, Endnotes, page 163 page 166 Kianhoon, 105-106, 110 potato(es), 123, 125. Endnotes, page 163 chief(s), 9, 26, 30, 38-41, 46, 54, 59-63, 65, Kianimit, 99 pumpkin(s), 121. Endnotes, page 137 69, 77-78, 82-83, 86-88, 90-92, 94, Kiawino, 99. Endnotes, page 166 99, 105-111, 113, 115-116, 119, 123, Kiotun, 99 rice, 69, 129 127, 131, 133-136. Endnotes, pages salt, 122-123, 125, 128. Endnotes, page 163 138-139, 147, 154, 158, 161-162, 164, Kodannoh, 99 spice(s), 123 166, 169 Mattan, 105-106

28 Nono, 99 Caddo Town (Indian Territory), Endnotes, Cherokee, 60, 77, 80, 134 Oat, 99, 105-106, 110 page 164 Chickasaw, 92, 94, 131, 133-135. Endnotes, Ossinse, 105-106, 110 camp(s), Indian (same as encampments), pages 166-169 5, 8, 71, 75, 77-78, 83, 86, 110. Red Bear, 92, 133. Endnotes, pages 164, 168 Choctaw, 60, 89-92, 94, 131, 133-136. Endnotes, page 167 Endnotes, pages 138, 164, 168-169 Saburton, 99 Coushatta village (same as Caddo- Choctaw Nation, 85, 89-92, 94, 133. Sanninow, 106 Coushatta village), 6, 12, 34-35, Endnotes, pages 164, 168 Satiownhown, 105-106 37-43, 45, 51, 55, 61. Endnotes, pages 138-139, 147, 151 Chonena/Washington band (same as Sauninot, 106 Whitebead band), 94, 133, 136. Dehahuit’s Caddo village (same as South Sauninow, 105 Endnotes, pages 166-170 Caddo village, Key village), 5-7, 9-11, Saunivoat, 105 15, 25-36, 39-47, 51-52, 54-55, 66, 70, Comanche (same as Camanches), 77. Endnotes, page 159 Saw-ne-Naut, 116 75-76. Endnotes, pages 139-141, 143- Coushatta (same as Coashutta, Cochatta, Sawbe. Endnotes, page 161 147, 151, 156-157, 159 Coshatta, Quachatta), 35, 38-39, 60, Slunkunsee, 99 East Caddo village (see Big Spring Caddo village) 63. Endnotes, page 138 Soakiantow, 106 Jim’s Bayou village (same as Sha’chahdínnih, Creek, 60 Sohone, 105-106 Sha’chidi’ni. See also Timber Hill), 6, Creek Nation, Endnotes, page 138 Sookiantow, 105 11, 14, 26-30, 32, 35-37, 39, 41, 44-55, Delaware, 60, 77 66, 70, 76. Endnotes, pages 139, 141, Tarshar (same as Ta-Sha, Wolf), 60, 65, 83, Ionies (same as Inies, Haynis), 77, 133-134. 145, 147, 149-152 85-86, 99, 105-106, 109-110, 116-117. Endnotes, page 164 Endnotes, pages 158, 161, 167 Key village (see Dehahuit’s Caddo village) Kadohadacho (same as Caddo), 55 Tavinron, 99 Louisiana village (same as Kiche village), Kechi (same as Kiche, Kechies, Keechies, 6-7, 9-11, 22, 26, 28-32, 44, 51-52, 55, Tchowainin, 106 Keachies), 9, 77, 133-134. Endnotes, 66, 70, 75. Endnotes, pages 139-141, page 164 Tchowinson, 99 144, 146-147, 151, 156-157, 159 Kiamichi band, 136 Tchownitow, 99 Middle Caddo village, 5-6, 8-11, 17, 27, Tehowahinno, 105 31-33, 44, 50-51, 66, 76, 83. Endnotes, Kickapoo, 60, 79, 134. Endnotes, page 168 Tehowainia, 105 pages 140-145, 149, 157, 159 Mobile, Endnotes, page 138 Tehowawinow, 105-106 Mooringsport Prairie village, 10, 24. Muscogee, 133. Endnotes, page 164 Endnotes, page 145 Tennehinun, 105, 110 Nacogdoches (same as Nadogdochitos), 34, North Caddo village (same as Upper Caddo Teotow, 99 53 village), 5-7, 10-11, 16, 27, 32-33, 44, Nadacos, 34, 42, 44 Tewinni, 99 50-51, 66, 83. Endnotes, pages 140- Tewinnun, 105-106 141, 143-147, 149, 157-160 Natchitoches, Endnotes, page 152 Tiatesun, 105-106, 110 old Keechi village, 93 Osage, 69, 101. Endnotes, page 138 Tinnehinan, 106 old Wichita village, 93 Pascagoula, 63 Tinnowin, 105-106 pueblo(s), 34 Pawnee, 77 Tiohtow, 105-106 rancheria(s), 34 Quachatta (see Coushatta) Tiotun, 99 ruins, 50. Endnotes, pages 151, 159 Quapaw (same as Quappaw), 33, 48, 61, 63, 99, 134. Endnotes, page 148 Toackooch, 106 Sewall’s Caddo village, 7, 10, 19. Endnotes, Shawnee, 60, 77, 134 Tooeksoach, 105 page 144 Shreveport Caddo band, 6, 9, 62, 85-88, Toowaneosun, 99 Sewell’s Floodplain village, 6, 10, 13. Endnotes, pages 138-139 90-91, 94, 133, 136. Endnotes, pages Towabinneh, 105 158, 166-170 Sha’chahdínnih (see Jim’s Bayou village) Towahinnek, 106 Taovayas (same as Tawehash, Taw-a-ash), Sha’chidi’ni (see Jim’s Bayou village) Tranunhin, 117 134. Endnotes, page 168 Small village, 10, 23, 83. Endnotes, page Tawakonees (same as Towackanies, Tsauninot, 86-87, 90, 105-106, 109-110. 145 Endnotes, pages 133, 161, 166 Towockanees), 60, 77, 133. Endnotes, South Caddo village (see Dehahuit’s Caddo page 164 Washington, George, 92, 94, 131, 133, 135- village) 136. Endnotes, pages 164, 166-167, Texas band (same as Texas Caddo band), 169 Timber Hill (see Jim’s Bayou village) 90-92, 94, 131. Endnotes, pages 162, 166-167, 169 Wolff, Capt., 131 Upper Caddo village (see North Caddo village) Tonquarrays, 134 Yalchos, 99 Indians, tribes and bands Wacoes (same as Whacoes), 77, 134 Indians, settlements and related Alabama (same as Alibamis), Endnotes, Whitebead band (see Chonena/Washington Alabama Indian village site(s), 9. Endnotes, page 147 band) pages 140-141 Boluxies (same as Bilusi), 134 Wichita and affiliated bands (same as Big Spring Caddo village (same as East Caddo (not indexed) Wichitas, Wichitaws), 54, 134-135. Caddo village), 5-8, 10-11, 18, 27, Endnotes, pages 164, 168-169 31-33, 39, 42, 44, 50-52, 66, 75-76, 79, Caddo Nation, 7, 11, 26, 30, 38, 54, 61-66, 83. Endnotes, pages 142-143, 145-147, 69-70, 77, 85, 87, 89, 94, 97, 99, 105- Yatasi, 34-36 157-159 109, 111, 117, 133. Endnotes, pages interrogatories, Endnotes, page 157 Border village, 6, 9-11, 21, 27, 32, 55, 66, 83. 139, 154, 162-163, 166 Endnotes, pages 141, 144-145, 151 Caddoques (same as Caddo), 34 Cadodachos (same as Caddo), 34

29 L surcingle(s), 122, 127-129 P whip(s), 127, 129 lammet, 128 people, non-Indian landforms and related M Ames, Harriett, Endnotes, page 151 Boyd’s Hill, 47, 54 Arbuckle, Matthew, 133 memorial(s), 25-26, 30-31, 33-34, 69, 75, 99, Caddo Hills, Endnotes, page 169 Armstrong, Mark. Endnotes, pages 140, 150 106, 134. Endnotes, page 169 Caddo Prairie, 6, 8-9, 34-35, 40, 48, 50, 52, Armstrong, William, 87-92, 94, 131, 133- memorialist(s) (see petitioner(s) 62, 65. Endnotes, pages 138, 142, 161 134. Endnotes, pages 158, 162-164, messenger(s) (see express) Cedar Bluff, 6, 10, 34, 55. Endnotes, pages 166-168 138-139 Mexican(s) (same as Spaniards), 77-78, 99, 101, Askew, H.G., 52 110, 113, 115 clay, white (cream-colored), Endnotes, page Austin, Moses, 73 military/government and related 137 Austin, Stephen F., 42, 72, 79 Attorney General, 85 Coates Bluff (same as Coats Bluff, Coat’s Bagur, Jacques, 28, 54-55 Bluff), 59, 64-65, 81, 119 blacksmith, 59, 63, 69, 99 Bark, François, 110 floodplain, 2, 6, 10, 13, 29, 41, 47. Endnotes, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 61, 63, 65, Beall, Joseph Clinton, 129 pages 138-139 68-69, 85, 87, 90-92, 131, 133-135. geology, Endnotes, page 168 Endnotes, pages 154, 160-162, 167 Becknel, William, 86 Grand Prairie, 133. Endnotes, pages 164, Commissioner, Caddo Treaty negotiations, Benton, Thomas H., 86 168 69, 80, 99, 103, 105-111. Endnotes, Birch, George, 33-34 pages 145, 156, 166 Hill 292, Endnotes, page 141 Bonnell, Joseph, 7, 9, 77, 105-106, 113. Committee of Vigilance, 76-77 island(s), 8, 13, 33-34, 65, 69, 86-87, 101. Endnotes, pages 146, 156-157 Endnotes, pages 145, 161 County Boards of Land Commissioners, 51, Brooks, Jehiel (same as Brookes, Jehiel), 73, 84, 133 levee (natural), Endnotes, page 161 25-26, 30, 34-36, 48-49, 53, 55, 61-65, great father, 99, 109-110, 115-116, 134 68-69, 79-83, 87, 99, 103, 105-108, Peach Orchard Bluff, 48-49, 59. Endnotes, 111, 117, 119. Endnotes, pages 143, gunsmith, 59, 63, 99, 101 page 142 145-147, 154-158, 160, 166 interpreter(s), 30, 40, 63, 69, 81, 87-88, 90, prairie(s) (miscellaneous), 10, 34, 41, 77, 115. Burton, William, 108 Endnotes, pages 137, 145 99, 106, 109-111, 113, 125. Endnotes, pages 142-143, 145, 156, 158, 166 Butler, Pierce M., 94, 133-134. Endnotes, prairies, western, 33, 53, 71, 76-77, 79-80, pages 163 83-86, 113, 116, 133. Endnotes, pages Jerome Commission, 54 Cass, Lewis, 103, 108. Endnotes, page 154 146, 155-156, 159, 164, 166, 168 Office of Indian Affairs (same as Indian Rush Island, 8, 11, 33-34, 65, 69, 101. Department, Indian Bureau), 54, 61, Clark, Mr., 62 Endnotes, page 145 63, 65, 86, 88, 133. Endnotes, pages Columbus, Christopher, 54 160-161, 163 Spanish Bluff, 42-43 Cooper, James, Endnotes, page 157 officer(s), 5, 34, 38-39, 77, 90, 103, 105, 113. Sulphur Prairie, 77 Cortinez, Miguel D., 113. Endnotes, page Endnotes, page 163 Tall-Timber-on-Top-of-the-Hill, 54 155 President (of the United States), 6, 30, 41, Cos, Martin, 72 Whitebead Hill, 93 69, 75, 81, 99, 105-106, 109, 134 Craig, John, Endnotes, page 158 Wray’s Bluff, 83. Endnotes, pages 158-160 quartermaster, Endnotes, page 156 Crawford, T. Hartley, 87, 89-91, 133-134. league, 34-35, 73, 99, 101, 106, 110. Endnotes, Secretary of State, 79 pages 143, 145-146, 158 Endnotes, pages 161-162, 167 Secretary of the Navy, Endnotes, page 159 livestock and related products Custis, Peter (and expedition), 6, 25, 34-36, Secretary of War, 30, 49, 60-61, 69, 75, 38, 40-42, 54-55. Endnotes, pages bag(s), saddle, 122 78, 86-87, 89, 94, 99, 101, 103, 108. 138, 149 bell(s), various, 107-108 Endnotes, pages 138, 154, 158, 163 De Soto, Mr., 115 bridle(s), 108, 122, 127-129 soldiers (same as Spanish Dragoons, Spanish Dean, J., 77 soldiers), 25, 34, 38, 42, 61 cattle (same as beeves), 101, 115, 123, 131, Dearborn, Henry, Endnotes, page 138 134 Supreme Court, 69. Endnotes, pages 145, 156 Delgado, Miguel, 24, 67. Endnotes, page comb(s), curry, 123 143 girt(s), 122 Texas General Land Office (same as Land Office), 18, 23-24, 55, 75, 79-80. Downs, James M., 72-73 hog(s), 101, 131, 134 Endnotes, pages 140-144, 146-147, Doyle, Mr., 115 horse(s), 26, 38, 40, 54, 62, 71, 77, 80, 105- 155, 159 Durst, Joseph, 134 106, 108, 110-111, 115, 123, 128, 134. Texas Historical Commission, 47-48, 53-55 Endnotes, pages 149, 164, 170 Edwards, John W., 99, 106, 108-109, 117 Texas, Republic of, Congress, Endnotes, leather, stirrup, 122, 128-129 Edwards, Jr., Larkin, 63, 88, 90, 99, 106, pages 147, 159 122, 125. Endnotes, pages 142, 158- leather, strap, 122 Texas, Republic of, Provisional Government, 159 martingale(s), 128 Endnotes, pages 155, 159 Edwards, Sr., Larkin, 30-31, 63, 81, 87, mule(s), 38 Texas, Secretary of the Legation to the 90, 99, 106, 108-110, 122. Endnotes, poultry, 134 United States, 89 pages 142-143, 158-159 saddle(s), 42, 108, 122, 129. Endnotes, page mill, horse, 63 Everett, S.H., 78-79. Endnotes, page 156 156 Monterey Cemetery, 28 Field, G.P., 105-106 spur(s), 108, 128 Finnerty, James, 106, 108 stirrup(s) and related, 122, 128-129 N Flores, Dan, 6, 35. Endnotes, page 149 Negroes, Endnotes, page 149 30 Flores, Manuel, 76-77, 113, 116. Endnotes, 158, 161-163, 166-167 Sayre, Judge, 54 pages 155-156 Marcy, Randolph B., 134-136. Endnotes, Schenick, James, 63. Endnotes, pages 142- Forsyth, John, 79, 106 pages 169-170 143 Fowler, John, 60-61 Marlin, John, Endnotes, page 159 Scott, Tyree G.H., 80-83, 85-88, 123. Francisco, 121 Marye, Robert V., 125 Endnotes, pages 155, 160, 162, 164, 167 Freeman, Thomas (and expedition), 6, 25, Mason, John T., 76 Sewall, Charles A., 6, 8-9, 62, 82, 85-89, 34-36, 38, 40-42, 54-55. Endnotes, McAlpin, John, 87, 123 pages 138, 149 125, 133. Endnotes, pages 144, 158, McCrocklin, Claude, 6, 55 161-164, 166, 168 Frost, J.W., 87. Endnotes, page 161 McKenney, Thomas L., 47 Shreve, Henry, 59, 63-64 Gaines, Edmund P., 9, 31, 33, 45, 76-78, McLeod, John C. (same as McLeod, J.C.), 113, 115-116. Endnotes, pages 146, Sibley, John, 25, 28-30, 33-38, 55, 59. 61, 81-82, 87, 99, 108, 117, 119. 155-156 Endnotes, pages 137-139, 146 Endnotes, page 158 Garland, Rice, 69 Smith, John (same as John Smyth. See also McNeil, Angus, 119 settlements and related, non-Indian, Glass, Anthony, 6, 34-38, 55. Endnotes, McWhorter, G.C., 72-73 Smith’s Field), 32, 70 pages 138-139 Medrano, J.M., 77. Endnotes, page 155 Spencer, J.C., 94, 134 Goodnight, Charles, 54 Menard, M.B., 78-79 Stem, Jesse, 135. Endnotes, page 167 Grappe, Balthazar, 106 Michler, Nathaniel H., 134-135. Endnotes, Stroud, Ethan, 134. Endnotes, page 169 Grappe, Dominique, 106 page 169 Swanton, John, 53-54. Endnotes, pages 149, Grappe, François (same as Touline, Tulin), Miles, Dixon, 134. Endnotes, page 169 152 7, 9, 25-26, 34-35, 38-40, 65, 71, 81, 99, 106, 110. Endnotes, pages 138, Monroe, Daniel, 78 Talapoon, Lucas, 40 145, 156, 166 Mooney, James, 53-54. Endnotes, page 152 Tiller, William, 72 Grappe, Jacques, 106 Moore, B.D., 92, 133 Touline (see Grappe,François) Gray, George, 31, 46-49, 53, 60-65, 99, 101. Morfit, Henry, 73 Tulin (see Grappe,François) Endnotes, pages 138, 142, 145, 166 Nelson, Maj., 76 Upshaw, A.M.M., 133-134. Endnotes, pages 168-169 Green, John G., 30, 75, 79-83, 85-88, 119. Norris, Samuel (same as Noice, Mr.), 26, 34, Endnotes, pages 157-159, 161 101. Endnotes, pages 157, 165 Valentin, Joseph (same as Joseph Valentine), 25-26, 30, 35, 55, 87, 121, 128. Griffith, Thomas, 48 Parker, Isaac, 72 Endnotes, pages 155, 163 Harper, Kenton, 92, 94, 131, 135. Endnotes, Pearce (Pierce), James, Endnotes, pages Viana, Francisco, 42 pages 166, 169-170 159-160 Vose, J.H., 77, 79, 101. Endnotes, page 156 Harris, C.A., 85. Endnotes, pages 154, Pearce (Pierce), Thomas, Endnotes, page 159 160-161 Wallace family, 29, 43. Endnotes, page 146 Pearce family, 8. Endnotes, pages 159-160 Harris, Y.R., 117 Wallace, Thomas, 9, 33-34, 43-46, 55, 65, Perttula, Tim, 55 Harrison, Thomas J., 105-106, 110. 71, 82. Endnotes, pages 138-139, 155, Endnotes, page 156 Pichardo, Father José, 42 161 Heard, Daniel M., 106. Endnotes, page 157 Poinsett, Joel, 86, 89 Webber, R.W., 72 Henderson, J. Pinckney, 79 Poirier, François, 69 Wharton, William H., 79 Hitchcock, Ethan A., 133. Endnotes, page Poston, Mr., 62 White(s), 6-9, 31-33, 60-65, 68-69, 71, 73, 168 Potter, Robert, 51, 87, 122. Endnotes, pages 77-78, 83-87, 99, 106, 109-110, 113, Houston, Gen./President Sam, 54, 72, 78, 158-159 115-116, 119, 131, 134. Endnotes, 134. Endnotes, pages 156, 157 Prewitt, Josiah, Endnotes, pages 140, 158, pages 140, 142, 144, 154, 156, 161, 164 Houston, Sam, 54, 72-73, 78, 134, 136. 159 Endnotes, pages 156-157 Price, F.D., 123 Williams, Leonard, 134 Hunt, Memucan, 79-80 Puelles, Father José Maria, 25, 34, 41-42 Williamson, Isaac C., 106 Irion, R.A., 80 Queen, Henry W., 69, 71, 106-109. Williamson, Thomas T., 85-86. Endnotes, pages 161, 163 Irwin, Jacob, 63 Endnotes, page 155 Womack, Larkin, Endnotes, pages 158-159 Jackson, Andrew, 42, 69, 105-106 Raguet, Charles, Endnotes, pages 149-150 Riddle, Maj., 61 petitioner(s) (same as memorialist(s)), 80, 99, Jefferson, Thomas, 6, 41 134. Endnotes, page 147 Jesup, Thomas, 134 Riley, Bennet, 7, 9, 31, 33, 78-79, 115. Endnotes, pages 146, 157, 161, 165 political units Johnston, A.R., 134. Endnotes, pages 168- Riley, James, 94, 134. Endnotes, page 168 Arkansas, 6, 11, 27, 32, 45, 47, 54, 66, 70, 169 87, 93-94, 105, 133-135. Endnotes, Jordan, Levi, Endnotes, page 159 Rind, H.G., 87-90. Endnotes, pages 158, pages 140, 163, 168 162, 167 Kennedy, John, 119 Bowie County (TX), 54 Roberts, Samuel, 89 Key, Jr., Hobart, Endnotes, page 149-150 Bryan County (OK), Endnotes, page 169 Robertson, Sterling, 78. Endnotes, page 156 Kurtz, D., 101 Caddo Parish (LA), 5, 90,125, 129. Robinson, Seaborn, 8, 17. Endnotes, pages Endnotes, pages 147, 161 Lea, Luke, 92, 131, 135 141-142 California, Endnotes, page 165 Lewis, Cadwallader, 129 Rublo, Pierre, Endnotes, pages 138-139 Florida, 78. Endnotes, page 138 Linnard, Thomas, 60 Rusk, Thomas J., 8, 53, 86, 125. Endnotes, Littlejohn, William, 87, 123 pages 159-160, 163, 167 France, 34, 59, 63. Endnotes, page 139 Many, James B., 6-10, 20, 53, 69, 76, 82, 87, Sanchez (same as Sanches), 125 Harrison County (TX), 5, 7-10, 23, 32-33, 51, 59, 65, 68, 71-74, 76, 79-80, 83-85, 101, 103, 109. Endnotes, pages 144, Santoz Cosa, José des los, 115 31 89, 133. Endnotes, pages 137-138, Fort Towson (Indian Territory), 77-78, Superior Community (LA), 28 140-141, 143, 146-149, 155, 157-159, 93-94, 133, 136. Endnotes, pages Texarkana (TX), 69 166 166-167, 169 Tishomingo (OK), 93, 135. Endnotes, pages Indian Territory, 85, 89-94, 131, 133, 136. Fort Washita (Indian Territory), 93, 134- 169-170 Endnotes, pages 162-170 135. Endnotes, pages 168-169 Touline’s vaucherie (same as Tulin’s Lafayette County (AR), 54 Fulton (AR), Endnotes, page 141 vaucherie), 35, 38 Marion County (TX), 25, 28, 53. Endnotes, Gene Autry (OK), Endnotes, page 169 Victoria Wood subdivision (Waskom, TX), page 138 Gilliam (LA), 6. Endnotes, page 138 7, 25 Matamoros (Mexico), 80 Goddard Ranch (OK), 93. Endnotes, page Wallace’s settlement (LA), 43-45. Endnotes, Mexico, 30, 71, 75-76, 92, 101, 103, 105, 169 page 141 109, 134-135. Endnotes, pages 156, Grand Cane (LA), 115 Washington (D.C.), 48, 61-63, 65, 75, 80, 164 Greenwood (LA), 11, 44, 66, 70, 87 82, 85-87, 101, 103, 106, 115, 119, Miller County (AR), Endnotes, page 168 133. Endnotes, pages 160-163, 166- Groce’s Landing (TX), Endnotes, page 156 Natchitoches Parish (LA), 33 167 Guthrie (OK), 54 North Carolina, Endnotes, page 159 Waskom (TX), 7, 25-26, 29, 44, 47 Hosston (LA), Endnotes, page 139 Oklahoma, 54, 92-93, 133. Endnotes, pages Woodville (MS), 72-73 168-170 improvement(s), 5, 50-52, 83-84. Endnotes, sons of the forest, 61 pages 142, 158 Peru, Endnotes, page 149 Spaniard(s) (see Mexican(s)) Jasper (TX), 78 Pushmataha District (Indian Territory), 93 surveyors Jefferson (TX), 11, 32, 45. Endnotes, page Rapides Parish (LA), Endnotes, page 138 149 Aldrich, George, 31, 73 Robertson’s Colony (TX), 78 Jonesville (TX), 29, 52 Boyd, John, 9 Shelby County (TX), 33. Endnotes, pages Karnack (TX), 45 Brookfield, William, 73. Endnotes, pages 146-147 140-142 Logansport (LA), 31 Carbajal, Jose Maria, Endnotes, page 143 Marshall (TX), 7, 11, 32, 44, 52, 66, 83. R Endnotes, pages 140-142, 149, 159- Cowling, William, 10. Endnotes, page 145 radius, Endnotes, pages 147, 158-159 160 Darby, William, 12, 25, 34-35, 37-38, 41-47, runner(s) (see express) Mooringsport (LA), 10, 24, 45, 67. 54. Endnotes, page 149 Endnotes, page 145 Ford, John S. “Rip”, 7, 31-32, 83. Endnotes, S Mt. Enterprise (TX), 42, 44 pages 143, 146-147, 157-160 Nacogdoches (TX), 7, 11, 34-35, 42-43, 51, Graves, John, 87, 121. Endnotes, page 147 San Jacinto, battle of, 32, 77-78. Endnotes, page 53, 66, 72, 76-77, 79- 80, 113, 125. Jones, Williamson, 49-50, 52 156 Endnotes, pages 140-141, 159 Strode, Jeremiah, 73. Endnotes, page 143 settlements and related, non-Indian Nashville (TX), 79 Watkins, Lewis, Endnotes, pages 141, 143, Alexandria (LA), 61, 78 Natchitoches (LA) (same as Nackitosh), 7, 146-147, 160 Austin (TX), Endnotes, page 142 11, 25-26, 34-35, 37, 40-41, 43, 45, surveyor(s), (survey(s), American, 5, 7-10, 15, 19- Avinger (TX), Endnotes, pages 140-141 48, 60-66, 76, 86, 99, 106, 109-110. 24, 26-29, 33, 35, 40, 45, 48-52, 55, 65-66, Benton (LA), 34-35 Endnotes, pages 138, 146-147, 155- 71, 75-76, 84. Endnotes, pages 142, 144, 156, 160 Boggy Depot (Indian Territory) (same as 146-147, 149, 151, 159-160 Chickasaw Depot), 93. Endnotes, New Orleans (LA), 60, 64, 103, 119. surveyor(s), (survey(s), Mexican, 10, 24-25, 42, page 168 Endnotes, page 156 59, 65, 67-68, 71, 73-74. Endnotes, pages Boston (TX), Endnotes, page 141 Old Elysian Fields (TX), 8, 27, 44. 140-143, 155 Endnotes, page 143 Caddo (OK), Endnotes, page 169 surveyor(s), (survey(s), Republic of Texas, 5, 7-8, Old Unionville (TX), Endnotes, pages 10, 31, 52, 76, 79, 83-84, 133. Endnotes, camp(s), non-Indian (same as encampments), 140-141 pages 140-148, 155, 157-160 38, 42, 52. Endnotes, pages 156, 159 Opelousas (LA), Endnotes, page 138 surveys Camp Sabine (LA), 77-78, 113, 115. Endnotes, page 156 Pecan Point (TX), Endnotes, page 139 Anderson, Holland, 8, 17. Endnotes, pages 141, 143, 146 Carthage (TX), 11, 32, 42, 44, 66. Port Caddo (TX) (same as Post Caddo), 83. Endnotes, page 141 Endnotes, pages 158-160 Brookfield, Charles. Endnotes, page 142 Chickasaw Depot (Indian Territory) (see San Antonio (TX) (same as St. Antonio), Cellums, James, 83. Endnotes, pages 143, Boggy Depot) 72, 134. Endnotes, pages 154, 164 160 De Berry (TX), 42, 44 San Augustine (TX), 72, 76 Chaffin, James A., 83 Doaksville (Indian Territory), 93 Shelbyville (TX), 8, 11, 66. Endnotes, pages Crane, Joel B. (same as Crain, Craine), 83. 143, 159 Endnotes, pages 159-160 El Reno (OK), 54 Shreveport (LA) (same as Shreevesport), 6, Dougherty, Patrick. Endnotes, pages 140- Fort Arbuckle (Indian Territory), 93, 135- 8, 11, 19, 27, 30, 32-34, 38, 40, 44, 48- 142 136 53, 59, 61-62, 64-66, 70, 75, 80, 82, empresario, Endnotes, page 155 Fort Gibson (Indian Territory), Endnotes, 85-88, 90-91, 117, 125, 133. Endnotes, page 165 pages 139, 141, 143-144, 146, 158-161, Ewing, Wilson, Endnotes, pages 140-142 Fort Jesup (LA), 8-9, 48, 53, 69, 71, 76, 164, 166-167 Fields, James, Endnotes, page 143 82, 86-87, 101, 103, 109, 111, 113. Smith’s Field (see also people, non-Indian, Flores, Vital, 67. Endnotes, page 143 Endnotes, pages 144, 156 John Smith), Endnotes, page 171 Fuller, E., Endnotes, page 142 Fort Sill (Indian Territory), Endnotes, page Spring Ridge (LA), 9 headright, 5, 7, 10, 73, 75-76. Endnotes, 168 squatter(s), 59, 64-65, 68-69, 72, 133 pages 140-143, 145-146, 158-160 32 Idens, Thomas, 83 (Louisiana) State Highway 169, 29 V Jordan, Samuel, 83 Natchitoches-to-Pecan Point Road, vegetation Mora, Mariano, 67 7-8, 11, 25-27, 29, 32-33, 35-37, 42, 44, 47, 51, 66, 79. Endnotes, Cross Timbers, 71, 78, 84-85, 93, 115, 133. Morgan, Henry, 83 pages 140-141, 143-144 Endnotes, pages 164, 168 Payne, Jedidiah, Endnotes, page 147 Potter’s Road, 8, 83. Endnotes, pages cypress brake, 45 Payne, Walton, Endnotes, page 146 143-144, 158-160 peach trees, 6 plat(s), 6-9, 14-15, 18-22, 24, 26, 28-29, 35, Shreveport Road, 8 wetland(s), 41 40, 45, 48-49, 51, 53, 55. Endnotes, Shreveport-to-Caddo Prairie Road, 50, woodland(s), 41 pages 143-146, 149 52-53 R16W, 7, 9, 27, 50-51, 55, 75. Endnotes, (Texas, Marion) County Road 3300, 28 pages 142, 147, 149, 151 W (Texas, Marion) County Road 3306, 28 R17W, 6, 7, 9, 25, 27, 33, 49-51, 55, 75-76, wampum, 107 84. Endnotes, pages 144-147, 151 (Texas) Farm-to-Market Road 134, 7, 25, 29 waterbodies and related Smith, Franklin L., 83 (Texas) State Highway 315, 42, 44 Attoyac Bayou, 42, 44 Smith, James, 7, 83. Endnotes, pages 143, Bayou Pascagoula (see Pascagoula Bayou) 146-147, 158-160 (Texas) State Highway 43, 7, 10. Endnotes, page 137 Bayou Pierre (same as the western passage), Smith, Robert W., 83 Trammel’s Trace (see also Caddo 8, 11, 26, 32-33, 35, 37-39, 43, 45, 48, Sparks, Richard, 83. Endnotes, pages 158- Trace), 7, 11, 27, 32-33, 42, 44, 59, 65-66, 101, 105. Endnotes, pages 160 51, 66, 72-73, 80, 83. Endnotes, 139, 145, 147 Talley, Ephriam, 83 pages 140-141, 143, 147, 157 Bayou Rapide, Endnotes, page 138 Teal, Henry, 83 U.S. Highway 259, 42, 44 Bayou River (see Buffalo Bayou) Valmore, Francisco, 7, 83. Endnotes, pages U.S. Highway 79, 42, 44 Bayou Wallace (see Wallace Bayou) 143, 146-147, 158-160 U.S. Highway 80, 29, 38, 44, 52 Big Cypress Bayou, 7, 11, 28, 30, 32, 40, 45, Walker, John Peter, 42 usual road (see Eastern Passage) 66. Endnotes, pages 139, 141, 147, 149 Ward, William R.D., 10. Endnotes, page water routes and related Bistineau, Lake, 38, 41 145 ferriage, 123, 128-129, 133 Black Bayou, 45 Whetstone, Peter, 83 Ferry, Caddo Lake (see Edwards/ Blue River, 85, 92-94, 133. Endnotes, pages Ybarbo, Juan, 67. Endnotes, page 165 Schenick ferry) 162, 167-169 Ferry, Edwards/Schenick (same as Bodcau Bayou, Endnotes, page 138 T Shenix/Shenik’s Ferry, Shinock’s Boggy Bayou (same as Boggy (Clear) River, Texian(s), 80, 115-116, 134 Ferry, Caddo Lake Ferry), 8-10, Boggy (Muddy) River), 9, 29, 38, 75, 49-52, 63-64, 67. Endnotes, pages 85, 93-94, 131-133, 135. Endnotes, thribble, 108 142-144 pages 166, 168-170 tools and equipment Ferry, Gaines, 45 Brazos River (same as Brasos River), 72, 77- bunch line(s), 123 Ferry, Ramsdale’s, 44. Endnotes, page 80. Endnotes, page 156 chain(s), 129 140 Buffalo Bayou (same as Bayou River, Stony chisel(s), 129 ferry, un-named, 38 Creek), 34 grindstone(s), 129 pirogue(s), 28, 30, 35, 62 Bullard Creek, Endnotes, page 143 hatchet(s), 122, 134. Endnotes, page 164 western passage (see Bayou Pierre) Butler Creek, Endnotes, page 143 hoe(s), 129, 131 treaties, agreements and related Buzzard Bay, Endnotes, page 149 knife/knives, 107, 110, 115, 117, 121-123, Adams-Onís Treaty, 75 Cache Creek, Endnotes, page 168 127-128 agreement(s), 80, 86-87. Endnotes, page 159 Caddo Creek, 93, 133-134, 136. Endnotes, pages 164, 168-169 nail(s), 107, 129 attorney-in-fact, 30, 105. Endnotes, page padlock(s), 129 163 Caddo Lake (same as Ferry (Fairy) Lake, Sodo (Sheodo) Lake, Clear Lake, plow(s)/plough(s), 131 attorney, power of, 80, 85-88. Endnotes, Shifftail Lake), 5-11, 25, 28-30, 32-35, spear point(s), 107, 117 pages 160, 162 37-42, 44-51, 53-55, 59-61, 63, 66-67, wedge(s), 131 attorney/agent, 6, 8, 10, 62-63, 75, 80-83, 69, 72, 76, 80, 82, 87, 90. Endnotes, 85-91, 105, 133. Endnotes, pages 144, pages 138-140, 142-147, 149, 151 transportation and related 158, 160, 162-163 Canadian River, 93 land routes Caddo Treaty, 25, 69, 88, 90, 105-106. Cass Lake (see Cross Lake) Bill Coleman Road, 8. Endnotes, page Endnotes, pages 145, 156-157 141 Clear Lake (see Caddo Lake) credential(s), 80. Endnotes, pages 157, 160 Caddo Trace (see Trammel’s Trace), Colorado River, 80 land cession, 8-10, 25, 30-32, 57, 59, 68, Endnotes, pages 140, 142 70-71, 75, 80-82, 89-90, 99, 103, 105, Cos Lake (see Cross Lake) Cherokee Trace, 42, 44. Endnotes, 109-110, 133, 136. Endnotes, pages Coss Lake(see Cross Lake) page 157 145, 161, 166 Cross Bayou, 38-40, 44. Endnotes, page 147 eastern passage (same as usual road), 35, Louisiana Purchase, 6, 33, 38, 41, 69 Cross Lake (same as Cos Lake, Coss Lake, 37. Endnotes, page 147 Rio Hondo Act, 65 Cass Lake. See also Sodo Lake, Edwards/Schenick Ferry Road, Texas, Republic of, Provisional Government, Sheodo Lake), 7, 9, 11, 25-26, 29-31, Endnotes, pages 143-144 Article XIV, Endnotes, page 155 33-35, 38-40, 43-46, 54-55, 65-67, Interstate Highway 20, 29 73, 75, 83, 86, 133. Endnotes, pages treaty ground, 65, 69, 71, 103, 108-111. 143-147 (Louisiana) State Highway 1, 28 Endnotes, pages 155-157, 166-167 33 current(s), Endnotes, page 149 Old River (see Red River) Trinity River, 76-77, 80, 133. Endnotes, Cypress Bayou (same as Bayou Cypress, Pascagoula Bayou (same as Bayou page 167 Cypress Creek), 11, 26, 29, 31-32, 43- Pascagoula), 8, 11, 26, 66, 99, 105-106. Twelvemile Bayou, 30, 40, 44 44, 61, 64-66, 99, 101, 105. Endnotes, Endnotes, page 145 Village Creek (see Harrison Bayou/Creek) pages 141 Paw Paw Bayou (same as Village Creek, Village Creek (see Paw Paw Bayou) Cypress Creek (see Cypress Bayou) Quapaw Bayou), 7-8, 25-26, 28-30, Wallace Bayou (same as Bayou Wallace), 26, Fairy Lake (see Caddo Lake) 33-34, 39-40, 42-43, 45-47, 52. Endnotes, pages 139, 143, 146-147 38, 105 Ferry Lake (see Caddo Lake) Pennington Creek, 135-136. Endnotes, Wallace Lake (same as Lake Wallace), 11, flooding/flood(s), 29, 48-49. Endnotes, pages 169-170 26, 29, 38, 66, 99, 105. Endnotes, page pages 138-139 139 Quapaw Bayou (see Paw Paw Bayou) Great Bend of the Red River, 54, 61, 69 Walnut Bayou, 39, 45 Red River (same as Old River), 5-6, 8-9, 11, Great Raft of the Red River, 6, 32-35, 38- 25-26, 28, 30-35, 37-45, 47-49, 51, Washita River, 85, 92-94, 131, 133-136. 41, 43-44, 48-49, 59, 63-65, 69, 78, 53-54, 59-61, 63-67, 69-70, 77-78, 80, Endnotes, pages 162, 164, 167-169 101. Endnotes, pages 138-139, 142, 86-87, 92-93, 99, 101, 105-106, 109- Watson’s Bayou, 45. Endnotes, page 149 161 110, 115, 133-134. Endnotes, pages Wild Horse Creek, 93, 135 Guadalupe River, 80 138-139, 141-143, 145-147, 149, 161, Willow Chute, 8, 35, 39-41. Endnotes, page 164, 168-169 Haggerty Creek (same as Haggarties 144 Bayou), 10, 39 Roger’s Lake, Endnotes, page 143 weather and related Harrison Bayou (same as Village Creek), Rush Creek, 93 cyclone(s), Endnotes, page 149 8-9, 39, 45. Endnotes, pages 141-142, Sabine River, 11, 31-32, 34, 41, 43- 45, 51, drought(s), 92 148-150 66, 72, 75, 77-80, 101, 105, 109-110, Hickory Creek, Endnotes, page 169 113, 115-116. Endnotes, pages 138, El Niño, Endnotes, page 149 Irving’s Bayou, 9 140-142, 146, 149, 156, 159 shower(s), 111. Endnotes, page 149 Jim’s Bayou, 5-6, 10, 25, 28-29, 35, 40-41, Sheodo Lake (see Sodo Lake) thunderstorm(s), Endnotes, page 149 43-48, 50, 53, 55, 67. Endnotes, pages Shifttail Lake (see Caddo Lake) tornado(s), 5, 29 139, 143, 145 Socagee Creek, 42, 75 whiskey, liquor and ardent spirits Karnack Creek, 10 Sodo Creek (same as Sodo Bayou), 30, 33. ardent spirits, 62, 78, 89, 115. Endnotes, Kiamichi River (same as Kio Michie River), Endnotes, pages 147-148 page 155 93-94, 101, 133 Sodo Lake (see Caddo Lake) brandy, 62, 123, 129 Lake Gorza, Endnotes, page 143 Spanish Lake, 76 champagne brandy, 123 Lake Wallace (same as Wallace Lake) spring(s), 31, 42, 52, 75, 78, 115. Endnotes, gin, 62, 123 Little Cypress Bayou, 11, 32, 66, 83. page 143 liquor, 61, 78, 115 Endnotes, page 141 Stony Creek (see Buffalo Bayou) whiskey, 31, 61-62, 78, 115, 121-123, 127- Mill Creek, 28-29 Sugar Creek, 136 129 Mississippi River, 53, 59, 92. Endnotes, Sulphur River (same as Sulphur Fork River), page 138 11, 31-32, 48, 60-62, 64-67, 101. Monterey Lake, 28 Endnotes, pages 139, 141 oil spring, 93, 134. Endnotes, page 169 swamp(s), 29, 38, 41, 115

34 The Author

Jim Tiller is Professor of Geography at Sam Houston State University in Huntsville, Texas. A graduate of the University of North Texas (1963, 1966) and the University of Oklahoma (1968, 1969), he served as the chair of the Department of Geography at Sam Houston for 10 years. He and his wife, Nancy, have a daughter and son and live in Huntsville.