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Environmental Biology ~ Allan M. Jones ~ 2001 Environmental Biology 1 Routledge Introductions to Environment Series Published and Forthcoming Titles Titles under Series Editors: Titles under Series Editors: Rita Gardner and Antoinette Mannion David Pepper and Phil O’Keefe Environmental Science texts Environment and Society texts Environmental Biology Environment and Economics Environmental Chemistry and Physics Environment and Politics Environmental Geology Environment and Law Environmental Engineering Environment and Philosophy Environmental Archaeology Environment and Planning Atmospheric Systems Environment and Social Theory Hydrological Systems Environment and Political Theory Oceanic Systems Business and Environment Coastal Systems Fluvial Systems Soil Systems Glacial Systems Ecosystems Landscape Systems Key Environmental Topics texts Biodiversity and Conservation Environmental Sustainability Environmental Hazards Gender and Environment Natural Environmental Change Environment and Society Environmental Monitoring Tourism and Environment Climatic Change Environmental Management Land Use and Abuse Environmental Values Water Resources Representations of the Environment Pollution Environment and Health Waste and the Environment Environmental Movements Energy Resources History of Environmental Ideas Agriculture Environment and Technology Wetland Environments Environment and the City Energy, Society and Environment Case Studies for Environmental Studies Routledge Introductions to Environment Environmental Biology Allan M. Jones London and New York First published 1997 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2001. © 1997 Allan M. Jones All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Jones, A. M. (Allan M.) Environmental biology / Allan M. Jones. p. cm. — (Routledge introductions to environment) Includes index. 1. Ecology. I. Title. II. Series. QH541.J655 1997 577—dc21 96–47087 CIP ISBN 0–415–13620–2 (Print Edition) 0–415–13621–0 (pbk) ISBN 0-203-13757-4 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-17896-3 (Glassbook Format) This book is dedicated to my family, Angela, David and Gordon, in the hope that it will encourage them in all they do, and to my parents, without whose sacrifices I could never have written this book. 1 Contents Series editors’ preface ix List of figures xi List of tables xiv List of boxes xv Acknowledgements xvii An introduction to environmental biology 1 Chapter 1 The basic organisation of living forms 3 1.1 The fundamentals of life 3 1.2 The diversity of life 21 Chapter 2 The biosphere 35 2.1 The terrestrial biomes 36 2.2 The aquatic biomes 42 Chapter 3 Basic ecological concepts and processes 57 3.1 Energy in ecosystems 57 3.2 Food chains and food webs 60 3.3 Biogeochemical cycles and material recycling 73 Chapter 4 Conditions and resources: major determinants of ecology 89 4.1 Conditions 91 4.2 Resources 100 viii • Contents Chapter 5 Individuals 116 5.1 What is an individual? 116 5.2 Ecological physiology: resistance, tolerance and adaptation 118 5.3 Metabolic rate 122 5.4 Behaviour 125 5.5 Reproduction 130 5.6 Life cycles and life history strategy 133 5.7 Feeding strategies and mechanisms 138 Chapter 6 Populations 144 6.1 Ecological genetics 144 6.2 Population growth and regulation 150 Chapter 7 Communities and ecosystems 162 7.1 Habitats and niches 163 7.2 Patchiness 164 7.3 Trophic interactions and productivity 165 7.4 Succession 173 7.5 Biodiversity, stability and resilience 175 7.6 Biogeography 179 Glossary 183 Index 191 1 Series editors’ preface Environmental Science titles The last few years have witnessed tremendous changes in the syllabi of environmentally- related courses at Advanced Level and in tertiary education. Moreover, there have been major alterations in the way degree and diploma courses are organised in colleges and universities. Syllabus changes reflect the increasing interest in environmental issues, their significance in a political context and their increasing relevance in everyday life. Consequently, the ‘environment’ has become a focus not only in courses traditionally concerned with geography, environmental science and ecology but also in agriculture, economics, politics, law, sociology, chemistry, physics, biology and philosophy. Simultaneously, changes in course organisation have occurred in order to facilitate both generalisation and specialisation; increasing flexibility within and between institutions is encouraging diversification and especially the facilitation of teaching via modularisation. The latter involves the compartmentalisation of information which is presented in short, concentrated courses that, on the one hand are self contained but which, on the other hand, are related to pre-requisite parallel, and/or advanced modules. These innovations in curricula and their organisation have caused teachers, academics and publishers to reappraise the style and content of published works. Whilst many traditionally- styled texts dealing with a well-defined discipline, e.g. physical geography or ecology, remain apposite there is a mounting demand for short, concise and specifically-focused texts suitable for modular degree/diploma courses. In order to accommodate these needs Routledge have devised the Environment Series which comprises Environmental Science and Environmental Studies. The former broadly encompasses subject matter which pertains to the nature and operation of the environment and the latter concerns the human dimension as a dominant force within, and a recipient of, environmental processes and change. Although this distinction is made, it is purely arbitrary and is made for practical rather than theoretical purposes; it does not deny the holistic nature of the environment and its all-pervading significance. Indeed, every effort has been made by authors to refer to such interrelationships and to provide information to expedite further study. x • Series Editors’ Preface This series is intended to fire the enthusiasm of students and their teachers/lecturers. Each text is well illustrated and numerous case studies are provided to underpin general theory. Further reading is also furnished to assist those who wish to reinforce and extend their studies. The authors, editors and publishers have made every effort to provide a series of exciting and innovative texts that will not only offer invaluable learning resources and supply a teaching manual but also act as a source of inspiration. A. M. Mannion and Rita Gardner 1997 Series International Advisory Board Australasia: Dr P. Curson and Dr P. Mitchell, Macquarie University North America: Professor L. Lewis, Clark University; Professor L. Rubinoff, Trent University Europe: Professor P. Glasbergen, University of Utrecht; Professor van Dam-Mieras, Open University, The Netherlands Note on the text Bold is used in the text to denote words defined in the Glossary. It is also used to denote key terms. 1 Figures 1.1 Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic (plant and animal) cell 7 structures 1.2 The structure of simple sugars 16 1.3 The construction of a fat molecule by a dehydration reaction 18 1.4 The lipid bi-layer construction of the cell’s plasma membrane 19 1.5 The structural plan of amino acids 19 1.6 The helical structure of DNA 21 1.7 Examples of a unitary and a modular organism 22 1.8 A comparison of the cladistic and a phylogenetic classification of 25 some vertebrate groups 1.9 The six kingdoms and their evolutionary relationships 26 1.10 The three main types of eukaryotic life cycles 32 2.1 The layered structure of the rainforest canopy 42 2.2 A basic classification of marine ecological groups 43 2.3 The changes in lentic freshwater systems resulting from thermal 47 stratification typical of temperate regions 2.4 The main generalised marine life zones 48 2.5 Diagrammatic representation of zonation on a typical semi-exposed 49 rocky shore in Britain 2.6 The main topographical features of the seabed of the world’s oceans 51 2.7 The effects of salinity variation on the nature and abundance of species 51 2.8 A summary of the main types of estuarine circulation 52 3.1 Energy transfer and flow through a simple hypothetical ecosystem 59 3.2 A summary of the role of decomposers (detritivores and bacteria/fungi) 66 in an ecosystem 3.3 A comparison of a food chain (a) with a food web (b) for related 68 species of herring 3.4 A summary of the ways in which energy is lost during trophic level 69 transfers 3.5 Examples of pyramids of numbers 69 3.6 Pyramids of biomass 70 3.7 Pyramid of energy flow for an aquatic system in Silver Springs, Florida 71 3.8 The food chain of the blue whale 71 3.9 A typical estuarine food web 73 3.10 A simplified energy-flow diagram for a Georgia saltmarsh 74 xii • Figures 3.11 The principal layers and compartments of the Earth 78 3.12 The hydrological cycle 79 3.13 The carbon cycle 80 3.14 Changes in the mean monthly maxima and minima concentrations 80 of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere measured at Mauna Loa, Hawaii 3.15 The nitrogen cycle 82 3.16 The
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