[mJD MILITARY MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 287 YZ 1 A 1 S 1118- 461 AD

IAN I-IEATH ANGUS l\lcBRIDE 1,,,-, I'uhh,h,'tl on t;'~~l IJnwn III 1'1';15 In I)ublisher's IIUle O'q"~I, In "''lmn, ur 11....:,1 ( .."."",,,,r ll/l..h 1.111 Readers m:l~ \\ ish tustud~ this tille in cunjunctioll II ilh l'"lh~", \I"hdon 1lou'-l:,111 1I...... d. the fol1011 ing Ospre} publil..";llion,,: lJ>ntl\lll:'l\\ ;1>11.11 ~"d \ucll..lnd. 'ldh"... r,,~. Smr;JIItIf~ J",I'I vrUllru 1\ lAA 89 IJ)'=(IIIIIII<' .lm"t'S 886 IllS .\lJ\f\ I~O Irllllrso/lltrOIlIIIllIHl Tllrb I.WI) 171-1 .\lJ\A 195 1IIIIIxurj'ulldlltr fulllifEustrrn Ellrllpt lOOO I3b8 'II n[l.hb ~HoJ \/,,,,,,lrun'Jn, I... Jl'Jlong for ,he ru'l'U'o" (lj prn Jle "Utll. "....:-JI(·h. (T" ,~"n' or ""It"" J~ I"<'mlUl'oJ und~r Ih., c.'ln",hl,I>'·"ltn. Jnd I'Jr'·RI., -\n. 1<;1)1I..... r.n "llh" p... bl,u,...... m~\ h.. Artisl's nOll' rrp..Jd~n1. ,rornl on J rel",·,.l "'*cm. or r...n>llmrt oJIt.oulJ he .ok!...... "..,.. 10 'M i.. relainl..-d Ihe publisher. \11 I'ul>ll"Jwr., enquiries should be addrcsS(:d 10: :orpio P.O. IJo, ~j5. Ihilsham, I ,lnl>n In L ...... Iinr.,n h, ....,"11OOb l.rd Pnn'N Ihr_,h \\,,,,""'.,n. , ,tl .llunK "'unJ E. Sussc:\. U:'\2i lSL

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If IOU "uull! h~c III rel"'''"' m"re mf"rm:lI;nll .h"ur ().,I'U') 'hhl.r) h.."h. The O"l're) '1c"M.·lIj:<'r i•• regulJr IWI"leller "hich Clllll:ll11' Hlicle", riC" litle mfi'rmJlI()1l ;l1ld 'I\CU .• 1"Oi:r" Til iuin free "f charl'e pica.,... \I rill' I..: (hpr9 'lililar) Me-,senger. 1'0 lIu~ 5. Rusln1l:I1, \I"..llmn'" NNIU 6YX LA E BYZA TINE ARMIES 1118-1461

INTRODUCTION MILITARY

The '. disaslrou' dcleM b) the CHRONOLOGY e1juk Turk' at ~Ianzikcn in 1071 cffccti,- ly marked thc end of \I ha is often described as the 111 Death of Icxiu J Komneno , 'middle' period of Byzantin history. Thereafter 1122 rn their la'l inroad into Byzantine territory, urn unded on ,\11 'ides h~ ~ unger, m r \ i r u. he I atzinaks arc defeated at he Battle of nationc, and \I ith ic 0\\ n financial an I lllanpO\' er E. ki Zagra. The umans 'ub equentl) oc­ CllP~ re oun:c progre:ssin:l) dwindling, hc ollee ,1I1-p( \V­ their lands. erful Empire slipped into a steady decline which ­ 112+-26 War with Venice_ lh u'h en 'ountcring () 'casional, sometimc length), 1128 Hungarian.. in V'llle the Empire a: far south periods of remission - \\'a~ 10 gradually gather"l ct:d a. Philippopolis (Plovdiv) befor being and, ulrimalcl), to prm e terminal. Howc\'er, the driven back. Empire" dCllli~e \\'a~ anything but peaceful, and, ne 1136-39 John II (IllS 3) ha, ing, de­ 1\3) or ,H1other, for much of the last four cenlurics of spite numerous r verse', recovercd a size­ irs cxis encc it was ro find ir..e1f in a stat of virrually able p rrion of "\natolia from rhe Turk~ con tanl liar. during thc prcviou. two dccades, reconquer. ilician . rmcnia amI 'ampaigns in l orth­ c eJiu~ hOf.';cmcn or,ilc Il:lmlt:d. Tlwu~h tilc U,h cenwr., in li[!/l/ mf/jnrilY of.. "juk.o; in ern yria, rccei, ing the allegiancc of the armour curnpri.~ing Hnml1/inc sen'icc II"cre Crusader principalit} of afrer bc­ Ilurs,~an:fle:n; helmel ,Iml lamd/nr 'ome: lire: sieging the cit) corselet. VOle 1/1>11 rh~' known 10 1m \ e !Jeerr (1137-3,). lonee is \I'idded I \I 0- f/rnloured, 1146 lajor Byzantinc expedition against the: L'eljUJ.. Turks, though . lIt:·c ful. achicH:!> ians at Bartle of emlin (1167) re ul In linJc. recovery 0 , Croatia Bosnia and 1147 .' cond :rusat!c passes through on 'tan­ lrmlum. tinoplc. 1169 Failm of:l joint Byzantine- c:-.p· ition IH7 k )~er II of 'icily at ack again t Damietta. ant! Corinth and 0 'upi' 1171-77 War \\ith \'eni'e folJo\\ing i\fallucl I'. c'\! e1kd. ,Inc t of all \ enetian' within the Empire. 11-t9-52 ,\lanucl I "-omncnos (1143- 0) cru ·hc. \ cnctian~ capwl'C Ragu 'a 1171 and occup. . erb rebcllio and d'fealS the Hungarian Chio- 1171-72 until eha 'cd offb) Byzantine ,trill) which eUllles to its aid (1150) b 'fore fleet. Joint Ven rian-Sicilian at ack on By­ attacking Ilung:lI") itself. Renewed conflie zantine protectorate of An 'ona in 117] j. in IIS--5() again end in r lungarian defeat. '11'0 defeated, Fighting 'nels in onclu, i\'cl) 11-2 Punilive c\peditiol1 a~ain.t Cilieian I\rmenia. in J 177, peacc term' not belllg culcd until 1155-- '\Ilempling to recO" I' the Empire' lo.t II 3. Italian pOl>l>el>!>ion. , 13) zaminc. arc \ iClOrioul> 1172 Serbian re i tancc i tcmporaril) crushed.

(J\'cr 'i'ilian j 'ormans .It thc Battle of 1176 In a campai~'l1 intended to eliminate the \mlria (1155). [ espite this ant! oth ']" uc­ • ultanatc of Rum, .\ lanucl [ is disastrou!>l~ ec .'es, howc\ er, the 'A\ dition e\ enlLlall) d feated by the 'cljllk. at the Banlc of fails. I.asl BYI.:lntinc troops withdrawn from Myriokcphalon. 'onsiderable raets of Itall in IIS(. " natolia once again slip from Imperi~lll:on­ 115 -61 \ l>eric~ of e:-.pedition: again t the 'eljuk tro1 in conscq uenee, despite sc\"Cral Byzan­ Turks rcsults in a Ireal) fa\'ourable to the tine uece, e' bel'\c 11 117f O. I·:mpire. II 1-83 !\ pate of reb 'Ilion fall \\. the death of lltil-ti-t Combined ('urcc" uf Byzantines from ,\1allucll. Jnd Latin' from .Ieru ',tlem and II 4 'y pru secedes from the Empire under its \ntiu -h actiu: in .~ ria lIntil defeated b) governor and self-styled Emperor, Isaac ur cd-I in of '\Ieppo at Battle uf nah. Komneno.. 1165-67 \\ ar I' slimes between Ilungary and tbe II 5 icilian j orman s::tl:k Dlirazzo (Dyr- Empire. lJyzantine \'iewr) 0\ cr the llungar- rachion) and ThessaJonika, the Empire s

The: Byzantine Empire /l80.

Right: Ft'l)nt;cr. o(tllc icacan and [ruin F:mpire·c.1214,;111(/o{tf,c ByzmHine Empire c. /26';

4 sccond-I:uw: I cil~ but arc 'vcntuall) de­ Trebiz nd. e pite \ ictorie. al the Battles of feated. ,'i 'ilians al '0 a si, t Isaac of 'ypru, ro Poimanenon and i\dram~ trion, ;\n immedi­ defeat a B) zantine expedition sent t recu\ er ate Latin attempt to 0\ en\ helm the Ii 'acan th island. Bpamin fail. II 6 Dulgaria ;lI1d ,'crhia sec Ie fr m the Empire. 1205 Defeat f the Larin b~ the Bulgarian: al the 1191 ~ing Rieh;lrd 1 ofEnglnnd onquer!> ) prus Battlc of . drianople oblige them to rccall amI sell" it Itl !Ill' TempI. rs. their forccs from Asia ;\linol", relic\ ing pre ­ 1202 :\kxius 1\ ,son f dq 0 'ed :mpcr I' l'aae 11 'ure on the icaeans. \ngdus (I U{S-lJ), per uade \\:nctian amI 1211 Baule of. mioch-in-Pi 'idia, .\lIi:lI1ce of Lal­ Lalin InU lering for Ih Fourth rusade I in., . eljuk. and Trapezumin Byzantine:- is a"i ·t him in rccO\ ering throne from usurper defeated b) Theodore 1 La brio f,'i '~H'a •\ Ie '\ ius III (I 195-110'), (120 2_). The depo'cd Emperor \Ic.:xius III 1203 renetialls an I "rusaders la~ on'tamin- i, aptured fighting along ide the :elju~,. ople. laa' II resIor d, \\ilh ,\I'xiu 1\ a 1212 Th dol' La. bri, def< at. David Kom­ c -Emp'ror. nena, independent ruler of Byzantine 120~ Isaac and r\lC\ius aI" d'lhron'd and rc­ J>aphlagonia since 1204, and \ nuns most phll'cd b) \lc'\ius \ l)uub', \\ho fl·c. \\h'n of his lands. \ en '(ians and Cru ad rs I' ta~e Conslantin- 1214 icaeans overrun \\'e!'tcrn porriclll ofEmpir' Dlle in I\pri! and 'stablish Iheir own 'Latin of' Trcbizond, l)avid of Paphlagonia de­ Empire'. Prineipallcrriwrie. I' maining- un- [eated and killed b) •'c1juks, der B~ zaminc rule arc thc Empire of ieaca, 1215 Epirote 13~ zantine' cunq uer mlll:h or \ ta­ Ih' })cspolatc of Epiros, and the Empire of t d nia,

__.. _,._ NICAl..... EMPIRE <.l \4 121 Thcodnrc I OULIS of Epiro (12IS-30) 'om­ 12 5 Joint :--lic:l .tn-Bulgarian attack on 'onstan­ mcm:c. :l ,eric, of sue e ful (;( mp,ligns lin pic defeat I b) \'cnetian , ngnin't .he L lin' and Bulgarian thnt ex­ 1238 John III pro\'idc' a contingent of Byzantinc tends 0\ cr rhe next six) car . troop. to fight for the erman emperor 122-1 The dor Douka. r 'Captures The sal nib, Frederick II in Italy, thencefDr\\ ard calling him 'elf Emperor. 12-U 1"0110\\ ing t1cfc:1l of lhc 'cljuk' b) th \ 1 n­ John III \ alat7C. of ieaea (122_­ gal. at the Battle of Kuzadagh 'ulran Kai 54) defeat the Latin :lllhc 'cond Battle of Kho'rou 1J 'ignl. treat) of alliance \\ ilh ] oimancnon. Nicaea, Emperor l\lanud of Trebizond 1225 John III signs a treat) \\ ith the Larin Empire (1-3' (3) become, a \ longol va 'sal. obliging its fort: 'l. lO \I ithdra\l from 1110 't of 1246 :\i 'ac:II1' capture 'r he salonika frol11 \ ia .\linor, and in addition conquer much Epirotes and reconquer .. \drianople and ofThr'll':c. I11U 'h 0 somhern ~laced()nia from Bulgar­ 1230 J artlc or "-lokotnitz:l, Theodore I uuka' of Ian " Thcs:alonib defeatcd b) Bulgarians, \\ ho 1251-52 icacan and Epirotc Byzantines in con- ()\ cnun \ laecdonia and , Ius flict until a frolllier ad\'antag'ous to the 'Empirc' fm rmenr::. inlO rhree mailer au­ filrmcr, is agreed h 'tween them. tonomous units, Thessalonika, Epiro. and 125+-56 Bulgarian try ro rc 'O\'er losl tcrritor) Thessal) . following death ofJohn III of Ticaea bUl arc 123. John III Jefeats Leo abalas, De 'pot of c\'cntualh bearen, . 12:-7--9 Epirore campaign to rc 'apturc Th ~sa­ lonika from 'icaciln ndminate in I3aulc of Pelagonia, in which Epirote and lheir Latin allie arc dccisi\ c1) defealed. 1261 .\Iichacl Ylll Palaeologo' (1-61- 2) usurps '\icaean lhrone from kinsman John 1\' La brio (125 -(1), I Ii general , h:xius trategopoulos recaplu res Constan ti nnple, marking the end fthe Latin Fmpin:. 1262 The Princc of. ch,lea, captured at the Batrlc ofPelagonia, hand o\er to .\lichacl \ III the fi,rtre 'es of.\Ii, tr,t, J\lonel11\ a ia and \ laina in the l\'(ore<1 in exchange for his freedom, bUI war a rainsl the Larins. \ enetians and Epirote' ensue. , 1263 B\zantine, defeated \)\ , chae,lIls at the Bal- , - tic of Prinilza. Thi· year al 0 marks the final 'onfrontation h 'l\l 'en H~zantine and Hun­ garian armie' \\ hen the former ad\ an 'c into \lcst rn and threaten II1Ingarian PLlJ pel-state f \'idin. .\ lichacl YTIT c, (1­ \lire, Bulgarian Blat:k .'ca pons (l\lcscmbri,l, t\nchiaills, 'owpol and De\'ellll.). 1264 Battle f \Iakr) pla~i. Byz:lI1lincs dcle:lt I b~ \ch:lean Frolnk ,

r:111pcror ,\I 111 lid I J.:omrrCI1Os ;Hull,;s C01/ 'OJ'" ,\Iar;n, dall;rhtcl' ofR:l.1 muntl, P,.;n '. uf -III/;Oell, (Ei I ol1ccr;Qn) 1302 Thl: lloman Turk, \\ in lheir fir t \ iClOr~ 0\ er the By7.antin, r Bapheu . Roger dc Flor" merccnar)' atalan 'rand 'ompan) , i· hired b~ Androniko [l (12 '2-1J2,). It arri\e.• t n tantin pic in 1303 and de FloI' j' created meglls dOIl,\. 1304 The aralan rand :ompan~ scor s \ IC­ torie. 0\ cr the Turk at I hiladclphia, T) re ni amI the Iron ates, Bul~'1lri3.n~ attack BY7antine fr ntic!'. ,ndroniJ,.os 11 cedes hie to a enoese ad\cnlurer. 1 05 Following thc I ) zantine-in:tigated murdcr bicldgrllffili ofllw 111"­ We C~'r/1. bill fhere i /10 "h ClllUn from II,~ II a.1 ofI.nOIl inl! II hel1ler of R gel' de FloI' the amI. n 'rand 'um­ Bu olcoll Pll/llC:~' i/1 111".1 rCI'rc.~enc /1Ie ,·1Iidd. pan~ defeats the Byzantinc at the 13alllc of on /;In/i/1opk T1I~ II(JIl­ ofU"z'/Ilri/1c soldiers hem/die I' Il/c:r/1S ~atrrill1.1 Lari/1 merce/1f1rie. or' :\pro: and goe' on the rampage throu rh m Ell ICrn ral"er '''U/1 II c,\/ern crw,;acll'n, Thra ·c. Bulgarians take ad\'antagc of B~ Z:ln­ line dL comfitlll" to reco\ T Black "a port~ 127J Epirotc: under John I Doukas of Thcssaly of lcsembria, An 'hialus and S07( po!. (1271- 1.)), Sllppl ned h~ L. rin " rout Byzan­ 1307 Death or lauddin III, Sullan or Rum. tine for 'l'll besieging eopatras. These \\ irh­ , cljuk sultanate di integrates. dr.1\\ to the 'last, just in time to rein!t)r(;e t 08 Rhod s conqu red by the "'-nights 110.­ their !lcet amI defeat a ,"eneto-Latin 'quad­ pitaller. ron at Bailie of Dem tria~. 1309-11 ambn rand omp:1Il y 0\ nun. 1277 Epirote dele. t B~ zantin .. at the BallI' of The uin r the conAi 't further. I 1- 5 \\ ar het \\ een the Empire and \ enice,

11 2 .·erh. begin con Jue't (J 13~ Lanlinc .\ lac do­ nia, taking 'koplj', 1292-9 13~ I.anl ines 'ampaign against Despora[' or Epiro~. 1296 I urann, ha\ ing changcd hands everal time:, is tinall) 10 l (10 Serbs). By coming to lhe aiu of il G noes' allic [h> Empire hecome il1\uhcd in a war between enoa and \ cni'c the re ullant conflict dragging on unlil 13(1-.

EmpaorJulm \ I IlislOria(' Ka/1w.!.IJuzelw... karual.ouZC/1/J I'r~sidin~ nl~nr ions rile' \ 'arllng-iulls 01 er ,,/1 ('~ume/1il'll II irlll/1eir 1\C• • sel eml council in /.1.;1. rinlc.... \ nrtll/gi:l1ls ill Imnwdi I/cll bel,ill I r"~' :r 'film rr Esl.i Z"l.!'1':'1 in 11Ir ne ,Ire c'igl" \ amllgian 1111 :If(' re 'orded as lI:lrd. i/1 g(lld-rrimn1l'cl, 'urmet! II i,l, long :./1idtl oml/-. IUll'eri 1I'1Iire /lars llnd si/1/!le-etl!!ed a\ '.'1'. rind lillie go" Il.'i. In /1i.'i fmnticr 1O\\11S and fans until thel are de­ feated b~ Bulg:lrialls 1\10 ~ears later at Ballle­ of Rllssucast ra. 1331 OII0I11:111S capt ure Nicaea. 13.13-10 Andronikos III campaigns ;I~:linst Epirotes and f\lbanialls, finall~ cunqllering both Epiros :Ind 'rhessaly, 1334 Serbs under Stefall Dushan in\ ;HIc 1\ lal.:c- doni:l. 1.137 Ottomans capture Nil..omedia. 1.138 Ollom:1I1s t.lptlLre Skutari. 1341-17 Civil war bCI\lecn Empress !\nna, on be­ half or her son john V Palacologos (1341-76 and 1379-91). and john VI K:lIltakollzenos, ending with recognition uf john VI ,IS co­ Emperor (1.H7-54). Ster.1n Dushall takes the opportunit~ 10 Ol'crrlln t·:mpin... ·s 1a~t outposlS in Albania (1343-15). 1346 I-laving conquered Albania and ~Ial.:edonia, Slcf;U1 Dushall proclaims himself 'Empel'llr orthe Serbs :md Grel'ks'. 1.148 Sl'rbs wnquer nonhern Greece, and Thess;II). 1352-57 John \Ts ,Illempt to g:el his son ~bllhc\\ recugnised :l~ heir to the thronc results in SldillllJl/~'/r:m. sclf-,"/I'kcl II ife Ilcll'll:! (,~i,~/a .,f/ris TS:H ",ftlll: Gr~d. I,mtis of Illh T~:Ir 1\':1" .I/nllll(kr) rellelled l:i\ it I\ar, John V being backed b~ Rum:wi:1 I.i,H-5j, II il1l allil sm, S/dim Urosll 1'. Venil.:c, Serbia and Bultt-Iria, I\hile Geno:! :lIld lhe Ottorn:1Il Turl..s support the Kant:l­ 1318 I ,a~t H~ I.amine rulcrs of Epiros and 'rhessal~ kUllzcl1oi. j\l,llthew proclaimed Empcror dic, amI :Irc l>ucccedcd h~ foreign d) nasties. 1353 but renounces cl:tims 1357 in fal'our of 1311-28 G\il \1;ll'S hct\lcen Andronikol> II and his John \,john VI hal'in~;lbdic;lIed 1354. grandson Andronikos II[ (1328-41) take 1354 Ol\oman captlll'C of Gallipoli 111;lrks eOI11­ pbtc 1321-22 :lIHI 1J27-28, l.:ulminating: in menCI'll)ent of their cunquesl ofthe Iblbm. the ;Ibdil.:ation ofthe former. Within :l decadc the Empire is reduced to:1 1.l26 Bursa 1';llIs to thl' Ottolllall Turl..s, bctoming fe\1 dislocated tcrriturics comprising COll­ thcir 11r!>1 capital. stantinople, Thessalonika, lhe J\lorca, :lnd a 1328 Bulg-:lri,llls ill\;u!c northern Thr:lCe but :m' handflll orislands and sC:lllered dties. furced 10 \Iilhdr:l\\' 1355 Scrbian kingdom disintegnnes 1'011011 ing 1329 OIlOl11:1n Turl..s defcat thc B~zamincs at the death ofStef:11l DllSh:lI1. BaltIc of Pdcl..anon and again, the follO\\ing I.H>I OIlOIll:IIlS clplw'e Didymotcichos :Ind. fol­ d:l~, at Philol..rcllc. Excepting Philadelphia IOI\ill~ the defeat of B~z:lIlline-Ulllg;lri:1Il and a fe\1 coa..,tal to\1 Ill>, ;1[[ of n~ zantille fon:cs :Il E~li Baba, '\dri:lllOplc, I\hil.:h Ln '\nalOli.l f.lll.., \\ilhin the ne\t rC\\ ~cars. [n 1366 bCl.:(l111es lIe\1 Olloman L':lpit:ll. the :Illtullln B~I.:ltltinc!> rccOler Chins, 1110S1 n~ zalll ilICS eaptlll'c f\ nchi:llus. uf its Italian deli:nders l>uhse4uelltl~ taling The Empil'e l'cm:lins aloof from a coalition sen ice I\ith the Empire. uf Serbian, Ilung:!ri;m, Bosniall ;md Walla­ 1.130 Sl'r!>i,lll \ictor~ 01<:1' the Ulligari:lllsat B:lttk chian forces whidl, l11;11"ching lu retake I\dri­ of \'dblll.dh. B~/.:llllincs OCCIlP) \ariOll:> allople, is decisi\'ely be:lten b~ the OttOl1l:Lns. BULGARIA

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1 66 Thc crusader Amadco VI of Savuy rccuvers Tile Byzllnlinc Empil"(~c. 135U (Ieli) and c. I-/U3 (rigl1l), Gal1ipoli and lcsembria for the Empire. I 71 Guol11an conquest of . rbia begins with is ne\'ertheless n:instatcd a. heir. l\lilnucl \ icwr) over King Vubshin at rhe Battle of withdraws to Thcssalonib. Cernulllcn. US5 On d 'ath of. ndrnnikus IV his son John 'I'll 1372 Buh~aJ'ia and the EI pire become Ouoman is appointed rLlI I' in 'cl) mbria. vils:a! tatc'. 1387 Ortoman 'llpturc Th..:ssalonika after a 1373- 5 i\ il \1:11' again rads th· Empir" thr..:e-~ car . t\ndronikos IY P;daeologus (1.\70-79) rebel­ L 81) I ccisi\'c Ottoman vi 'wry 0\' r erbs at the ling ag.linst hi: father John \. Andronikos is Battlc of Kossovo, SUpP( rted b)' the (icnocse, John by the 13911 With Ottoman assistan'C John \'11 en Cl'S \ cnctians, and 1(Jth at variou' timcs b) the , hesieging John \I in fortress Ottomans, John disinherits ndronikos in of the Goldcn Gate until ;\ilanuc! come.' to favour or his younger son !\anuc\. his rc. 'L1C. John VII then l',tircs to 1376 Andrunikos IV surrender' Gallipoli to he e1ymbria a. an Ottoman va:saL In the au­ OIlOl11ilnS in exthangc for their help tumn (Jth he and N[;1lluclllrC obliged tu lead against John V, and with Genocse llssi tance Byzilntine contingents to :L sist uomans in s iz s Constantinople, capturing- John an I caprllr' of Phibd lphia, the bst I )zanrinc J\ bnLle!. ,it\ in Asia 'linor. 1J79 Wilh \"enetiiln help, John \. and ,januel 1J92-9-1- Olloman. sui jllg;atc Bulg:lria (1393) and escape. John agrees £I) supply OttOmans II ith Thcssal~ . troops cach 'pring in exchange for their help 1J9-1-H02 OLloman blockade and intcrmiLlcm in recm 'ring Constantinople, II hich is siege of" onstaminopl·. agrecd only OJ condition that l\ndroniko' 1V 1395 Orton an. defeat Byzantines in the l\lorea. :Illd fOl'\rc~sc .. :Irc returned !() the Empire, and :111 B~ 1.:11uine capli\ es :m: relcased. I~II 11 .• \ing supported the \\rong conlcnder III :Ill Ottoman ci\ il lIar, ConswnlinlJpk IS brien~ bcsieged, 1-122 Ollmnan:. a~lin 1I1isucecs~full) besiege Con­ stantinuple. 1-113 Thessalonika, under siege b~ lhe 0Ilom;Il1~, i~ handed mcr w Venice. 1-127 Thc l\lorca IS reorg;lnised into Ihree tIL-spotates b:lsed :11 ;\Iislra, GlarelHz:1 and Kala\"f~ t:1. 1429-30 The despots of lhe ,\ lore;l dcfc;l! CclHuri­ one , Prince of Achac:l, :lnd absorb the principalil~ follo\1 ing Z:lt:caria's de;llh, 1430 Ottomans ret:lke Thess:.lunib alh.·r an eighl-~ C:lr siegc. 1H2 Demctrios, brothel' of Empcror John \"Ill P:llacologcls (l-l-25--1-8), unsuccessfull ~ Ill'­ Const:lIltinoplc supporled b~ 0110­ nun Imops. 1-I4~ ,\ lorcotl' B~ zanlines caplure Alhen.... Thebe~ ami BOCOli;l. 1453 Oltomans c:lplure Constan[inople.:, ending the B~z:lIl\'inc Empire, Const:mline XI Pal:u:olugus (1-1-18-53), the 1:I';t Empcror, i~ killed in strect-fighting after lhe Turks force their Ila~ into eil~. 1-158-60 Onomans comilier the Despor:lle of the ,\ lorea. 1 /l11l (·('nrur.' Ikl'kli"l1 or !>I,idd.'i ilo rdil.bh', 111(' II mifiwr., Io:lilll, :lrllwur is .'dil,(·mlell l-IfJI Ollolllans besiege and e.lpturc Trebizond. \/'lIl1J."'ri,,,., lUll' l"ur.l/~ "rd/"il'. SUi'll sd("'li,'c If" (" ('r. is in I'Jlf>:lr,'ml.. dlHI'(/ ifllpru/l:lbli:, :II/(I II/ml "'/lIiI'1I1('/11 IllmullfwlIl ,fti, .,e(·Ill." ..."rt' lil.e" i,,' Ilml­ /,eriml, 10" Iln',,"' ':1·",'r,llI.. hllrrill:! (·H'('I)fim·/.~"h, i I,.' 111"/1.' (·(J/,f(·/lll'm·:lr.l IIra r ,l",u]:JI , Ildr I'''r/l~',' "I ,.i'·f"re,,' lIre IIl"re III'curl"" ARMED FORCES fir Ildllll'I~, "11 i!>ted pI' 'dominant!) of foreign 111CI'­ ta'\cs to finance ju, t 1,( 00 men to be based in cmu'ic ;In 1includ 'd Ihe Emperor', fcw guard unil:. Bi[h~ ni;l and _,000 morc in Thracc anu l\ l:tccuunia Thc pro\'inci'll armies \\ ere gcncrall~ \ cr) mall at \\015 frustr;lted b~ Ihe uutbreak of th . first of a series the beginning II' the period, \\ hen th') prol ahl~ of ei\ il ,,",trs lhal r:lck 'd the Eml ire from 1321-57. onsi'ted or no more Lhan l he fe\\ garrison troops The lIIegas tllIlII/'slil,os John Kanlakouzenos (latcr [':m­ pcrmancnll) based in 10 'al fonresses. hut Lhey ste:ld­ p ')'111' John \'0 instigated some n:limlls during the il) iner'a 'cd in siz' in Lh' course or the 121h eenLUr). 1330" managing for a II hile t( enforce lhe obliga ol'y Thc) g;enerall~ contributed contingent. to the cen­ , en'ice ofprtll/l1w-hulder . (sl:e belu\I), sll'engthcning tral arm~ on <.:ilmp;lig-n I Ul the Jistances thaL had [Q lhe rr lIlticr garri 'cms, anJ insisting Ihat thc Ireasury be COl creJ of't 'n resuhed in a eOllsi lerablc dcla~ paid 01 licrs on time \\ hi!. t on aCLi\ c t111t~. but most occurring belt,,'!,; a worth\1 hih: tickl arm~ could bc -cmhled. In ~ 1.\11 uc! I s reign ill th· s 'cond ha II' of the Ilth c nlur) the ellSt)ITI began of billcting the cemr,ll ;lrm~ thl'oughOlll the prm inccs each \\ intcr in urdcr to Ce Ihe ... tr:lin on the Impcri:lllrca ur~, and lhe Jistinction h 't\\ cen central :lnd 1 rO\'inci,II ;Hmies b'CllTIC 'OIllC\\ hal blurred. .on 'cLJucntl~ man) pr()­ linci,l units round thelll che. Jrafted il1lo the ccn­ tml arll1~. part icularl) un lerTh ndore IJ (1-5 5<). Belic\ inl:{ thai the arl1l~', wcakncs' resulled rron its hca\'Y t1cpcndenc' on loreign 111 'rccnnric:, he 'on­ e ntnlled thc b "L or the remaining nati\'c troop' in onstantinoplc and redu 'cd thl:: 1 :l~ and J ri\"il 'ges or it. ()reign mcr 'cnaries. d'daring his illt'l1lion r. 1255 to build an ,Hm) not of Turks, Italians or erbs, bUI nfGn.:ck..•. ~ol surprisingl) his successor I\li 'hac! \ TIT. h,lIing 1re\"i< 1I I) bn:n command'r of the arm)":­ Latin mlTccn:lrie.• relcncd t) the <::l11llu) ment or large numhers of foreign troops, 3 mo\"e II hich, along \I ilh his \ igorous c:lmp:ligns to reSI<)I'c the unit.' f the ":mpire, 'inanciall~ cxho1usled its resour 'cs,

A I_ell 'CIIWrI 11,-/-:II1/;lIl' llO\\ in Plm di. 'old;cr \I "lri;,g:; / IlIldbr :rrdr:rcoluc-;cllll11llSCllIll. rsclcr. from" ,rC:H;Il' Bu/gari:r.• of hi efforrs \lcre remlercd I' 'dundrc:ull1edin LHI, 'erhia \la. c:\p 'ctcd to pro\'idc 1 0(0) abl) dcmon­ Fought on both, ides almo"t cntirel) byau\iliar) trating it numerical insignificance. troop prol'iucd h) th' Empirc's common enemie:, the 'erbs and !taman Turks, Ihese ci\ il \lars crip­ Pronoiai pled Byzallline militar. I orendal beyond rcco\ cr.. i\ lany Uyzanrin oldiers 0 the po. Hvlanzik Tt era Thc Empire \I;\. kft \I ith in'iufficienr rc 'our es ro \I cr' mainLaincu b) grant~ of land 'alleu jJrlJ//f/1f1/ maintain more Ihan a handful of troops. John ( prul'idences' or 'solicitude. '), These \I ere not actu­ l-:.anrakouzcnos' 0\1 n ;mn) , \I ith \I hich he 1\ a' able to all) ;1 right tllthe land itself but rather to th revcnue capture Con ·talllinople in 1347, comprised ju.t and labour sen'ice. \I hich lhe district an I its inhabit­ I,non m 'n. The Empire wall left \lilh no oplion but ant· othel'\\j,c o\lcd to rhe state, '(hough it \1.1:­ 10 "ign :t trc;H) a "kno\l!cuginl!: Ottoman. uzcrainry in largely b) mean. ofsuch prol/oini that th Kornnenoi 1372, and B. z:Jlltine troop, \ltTe thercafter provided Empcror , and c pedall) M.anud I, re-c tablishcd to light along "id . rhe Oltomans,. arting in 1373. Tn the ccnl"ral army in the I_th century, the) nevcnhe­ 137<,1 John \' 'Icn agreed with 'ulran !\Iurad (in Ie.. remained rehlri\cl) uncommon until the hHe return lilr his aid in ) et anOther ci\ il \lar) to "uppl) 13lh ccntur), and b) rhen were all'l::ad)' in dccline. him \I ith 12,O()O soldiers el'er) pring, but th·' idea The prrlllllin-holdcr, t) picall) a nati\'c hea\)' ':11­ that rhe Empire could r;lise thi" man) men b) rhe 1 /1l'Ol/oio was u'ually in rhe pro\'in 'es, rhe pronoiar him'elf was generally a soldier of the central arm). and thus in clfect an absenree landlord, IIe \I a: not, ho\\'e\er, a full-time soldier but a re en ist, called out for temporary service when require I but orhen\ i, pa)­ ing a rax on his I' '\'enue ' which helped finance field armie elsewhere. Being in many ca, e «(~)II/{/I(/i), sam pronoiar:- \I re ae 'ompani d in ae­ lion b) retinues made up 0 their lIil':l!ioi (kin~men and omp:lI1ion) and /like/IIi (rcminers), the Ianer om time including hou ehold mere 'n. ri 'S, The large't such rerinu's arc unlikel) ro h;1\ exceeded .\0- '0 m 'n, the majOl'ir) prohably coml ri ing am 're handful. Some prol7oiai, however, of a type which were more usuall) refer!' d to a' lIiklllllllllill, \I ere DC ' n- idcrabl) I \IeI' \alue, gen rating only a 'ixth to an eighlh of what mighT be can idered a\'crage re\'enue. Thes' smaJlholdings, h lei b) soldier-t:-um rs, prob­ abl) provided light c'1\alJ) and infantr: rather lhan h avy , :lnd, along with 'collce.:lil'c p/"II//fJ/lfi, held b) \\(101' more 111 n together h) the.: miu 13th c 'l1\ my \\ ere 1he prine.:ipal mean. (lr maintaining

'1' J\lidwd. ii-om a 11111 cenlllrl' Thcs ~;JIOl1ikfll/SIC;JI';"C. 1Ie rrppc:II','; I/) II <;'flr rr quilred c~r'e1cr. nalive pn I incialll'llops, induuing some (or perhaps .--IIIIIKIa disapp 'ar 1\ ith the loss of sia l\ linnI', m t) garri 'ons. Such. mallholding s klier. contin­ and in th Empirc's European pos cssion, 1/Ieglill/ ued ro be Ii-wnd under -\ndroniko: II and el en laler allagll/ (or 'grcat' al/agia) app ar in thcir place. 1'::1ch (th la.1 err;W( In strcngthcn their numbers date:> to prO\'incc ecms to ha\'c constilllted one /IIega/a 137_) but durin r the I-hh century lheir importance 1//ll/gILl, \\ hich was named after it (e.g., lhe rapiJI~ dedincd a~ fronlier land \\ re progrc 'si\-c1~ Thl's.wlol/ikmol/ from Thes alonika, lhe I I::.,)'t'/clklll/ ab:lndon J to th . Turks. from \'izye, and thc . ·cr,.'o,ilmll from,'ern;s), and lnitiall~ non-hcrcdit,lr~, th COil vcr i( n of somc probabl) \ inuall) cvcry native oklicr to be round prlilloiui inlO her 'dilar~ holding~ during ,\Ii hac! \\ ithin the pr \ incl', h rs and r t, garri nand \ Ill'. reign \\as probably an attempl to Slem lhi· reservc troops alike, was incorpor.llcd \\ irhin il, decline, \\ hile a sudden dramatic im;rcasc in the whence the men were 011 eli \'el) re~ Hcd to as number ofhercditar~ prcJlloiul in the 1340 \\<1' prob­ mega/oa/II/gilal, .lIegll/1I Illlagia occur from the 1280' ab[~ an :mempt III \\ in the support of lhe I~lll/(Il/JI and un'jved until the mid l-I-tl1 enrur~, di. appear­ during the cil il \\ars.. 'uch alieO, h(m e"er, along \\ ith conlinuou. rri­ wct' based fell to the Turks and erbs. By~antinc IOriall()sse.~ and lh' e\cmptions 'rom milirar~ scn'ic unit organisation th 'reaftcr seems to hal c bcen 011 an which \\CIT, incornprehcnsibl~, gr~lntcd to many ntircl) ad hoc basis. pronoiars, illl:1 ilahl} resulled in Ihe lotal collap'c of the pmllll/a s~ sl 'm long before the end of the 14th Guard unit ceOlur~ , liard regimcllts that sun i\'ed inlO the I(nmnenoi cr'a at the end of h 11 rh ccntur) eompri. cd the ni t organisation Helairela, lh' H.rAor/llhi/oi, the ,·ltlUI//(lloi and the Anm .ub-li\isions \\en: called b~ a \al'lelY of / llrl'llll!roi or "arangian Guard to \\ hi 'h .I xiu. I name:. nit: ':llled h~ lhe middle B~zanrinc em', had add d the I 'csi/llri/ai, rl' ·pon. iblc (ell' guarding bOlldoll (or It/gll/o) and /IIoira, riginaJl} bn lies of ~OO lhe Impcri'll treasuries. Of these units, onl) the and about I non men till occa. ionall~ OC'lIl' in the \'arangians sun'i, ed Alnill" death, to \\ hieh the earl} pan of lhe I criutl, but th:lt most commonly I 'I/rt!al'ioltli, mc­ time uo.;cd. imrl~ il a generic term lO d . crib 3 bou) of olui r~, the ollllgioll prop'r, uri 'in~lll~ (in the IOlh cCl1lur)) . SQ...:trong rro p h3d by now acrual!) rephu.: 'd the earlier //(/1/(1011, and il.'cJr b 'com aunitofl11ost cUll1monl~ JOO, or 'ometim" up to 500 men, 'nil.' :ll1d multiple. 01'300 or ncarl~ ,100, OC 'ur repc;l1cdl~ in latc B~ zal1lin ~our 'CS, In all probabilil) IIllagio lIere in theor) sub­ dil ided into the units of IUO, SO and 10 III n thal arc 1110 II 'C:l,'ionalJ~ encounlered. In bailie a/IIiKill \\er group d, u 'uall) in lhrees, inlo larger bodies called IIII'I'IS .(y"lan'I.I· I/ld/lll 01' sometimes /agll/II/II. 'on­ fu ingly, hlHl '\er, the hll>t lcrm \\as also ,till used in lit r3r~ sOlll'ees 10 describc much smaller unit. .

.I 13lh c:c:nlUn 11, /1I1l1;nC I,'PC in I1w 121h-UIII he/mel. IJrim'm :11 /1 '/m '1.\ (;t'nlcrrit,!;. hut elurin}! Ihe: (II illl Il1e 'hrim' .~l)nlC'{;l1Ic.~ 1-Ilh ('cneun 1/)('\ seem lu /illic 1I10r(' limn 11 lIared 1m \ e I,eell ~Ii.~p"; ·e:ell,., rim) II ere 1he: ba 'ciner' liimiJ",. to tl1o, predOm;lllllH H.I7.;llIlim' or II c. {an . Pl/fillI/lil/lIl. ,-\ceordin F ro P. cudo-/(odinos Ih' full trcngth of the entir(' Taxeis or' cenrral army afi'cl' 11()1 was 6,000 men. organised in L allagia, so none of he guard I' gim nt it included can h~l\ e I 'en \ cr~ Iarg , The guard that Kantakollzcnos established to protcct EmperorJohn \' in1.HI con. isted of just 500 III 'n pIllS amlin) 'I."e-bcaring barhariani> Ii. '" Yamngiaml a' w rc thcn in service', The xistence of the Varilngian liard is still r 'cordcd in 11-01-, and it i' not impo' 'iblc that the uni lIni\'cd until thc \'ery end of rhc Empire. 110\\ cver it h'1 .11'0 bccn 'uggested that in the I ~th cenrur) it. durie lllay ha\'e pas 'cd to a Cretan guard unit I he existence or \\ hich is recorded in I·L2. 1t is po ible evcn likel), th3t during the :i gc or :1 n­ sLanlinoplc in H~J this unit \\a. represented b~ the Crctans \\ ho defended three towers ncar Ih BIaehern. c so tcnaeiousl~ [hal the TUl'h ,lllowcd them 0 dC! art unmolested. Certninl~ pahll':c II') ps' 3re m ntioncd during the final siege, '\norhcr r reign guard regimcnt \\ hieh, it has been suggc'ted. u]'\'i\cdatlca ta latea 11-37,consi,tedofCaralans, John \'1 Kantakouzcnos haying e, tablished a 500­ 'trung unit from rhe. e in rhc mid 14th c 'ntur) , One final bod) guard unit eompri 'cd the Emper­ nr's u\\ n oik"ioi anu lIil'c/I/I, who arc in\'ariabl~ II be found accompanying him in ae ion, Kinnamos, for in 'tance, r 'conls .\lanucll being accol11pani'd in 111-0 b) ,I regiment 'consi.'ting of l'hus' near(' 't him in blood, among \\"hom were man) or his most intimate .\li/iwr\ suinl from :1 /./t/I ro be decornrcd lI'ill1 snml/ ccnwri , \I illl croS.';l'~, lI!Ji/l' r/w iI/ncr as, (leial s and ho. \\ ho had marri'd hi . i, ter " d"'rtI~:rt'ri. Ih'lll ,,"'lIllinc 51/,.{"(,(, is painted lI"ill1 \\ hile Niculi, Barbaro lells u that :onstanrinc Xl. long Iri'In~I//;Jr;'/tidd. TIlt' "l'rlh',11 hlul' /.lId lllJilc ~ JflCt' rlf(!Jl' 'illidcl "PI ('"rs (rip's and rod spms, \\ hen d tending on tunrinopl in 1453 had an e cort 'Ol1sisling or u great part of his barons and knight .', unil, \\as added h~ either John IJ or, man; probabl~. .\Ianucl l. IJc~pitc occurring in Psclldo-/(odinos Pro im:ial armies and li'onticr defence

Book 1d'()/1i(l'.~ oft', I.H~ thc \'Bnlariots seem l() bl1\" The provinces or ,ltt'I/I((I((, the admini. trnti\'e di\'i­ disappeared nft T 1272, .lpparent\~ being replaced b~ sion imo \\ hieh the Empire had been di\ idcd in the the PUmmOl/tll, a nati\c regiment consisting of one middle B)-%3ntinc period, \\ 'J" gradual!) rC-Slruc­ Ill/lIp./IIII or infillltr) and one or en .. lr), Outsid(' [Ured during rhe eenrur) f 110\\ ing thc Bat tic of p, cudo-Kodino' this unil is bSI 111 'ntioned in 131 S. ~ lallzikcn, so (hal b) the 1150. the) basicnll) com­ T\\o olhcr Uth l.:cnrllr~ units ... tillm Iltioncd in lhe prised: in Analolia - :appadocia, ~haldia, :ilicia, Book /II OfFcl',I, the 1111111'11/1/11 (inf;lntr~ ard er~ or Kib) rrJiotun, .\ I~ lasa .\1 ·Ianlludion. Teokastra. mi\cd Grcl'O-Turki~h parenl,lgc) and the T::,I/l'ol//'s i'Jikomedia, , Optil11aton. Paphla[..onia (a Illllt'c-armed bod) gllar I (I' marine ,), appellr to !3oukcllarion, and TIlri1kc ion; ,nd in Eurupe ­ hav' comtilllh: I gU;lrd r 'giment· nl~ briefly ,1l1d l3erroi~1 Bralliee\ o-Nish, I ~ ITa 'hion-Ohrid, JI 'lIas flJl' m 1St of the cenrur) the onl) I abcc units re­ ,\ Iaccdonia, ikopolis, Parisrrion, Pcloponncsc, SCI'­ maincd the \ :\I';\Il~iall u,lnl and the \'ardariOls or bia, ,'koplje, 'trYl11on, '[ hcs:alonika, Thraee, and \'olcrun. C:tlmp:lri~()l1 \\ ith l';lrlier li!>ts or /lIollllla II ill and m:lintaincd l:irgcl~ b~ t:D,Cs Je\ied on loeall:ind­ shall tb:lt Ii.'\\ of the 10th-11th eentur~ prm'inces O\\l1ers and lllona:-.tcries, and Idlerc\er it could be had suni\cd inf;lct. afforded th('~ hO:lstcd their 0\\11 perm.mcnt garri­ As B~ zalll inc territor~ stcadil~ shr.lI1k prm int.:i'll son~. These, generall~ hired b~ means of ~ome 10!.:;l1 :md frontier defence bcc:ltlle cnccti\ el~ s~ non~ mOllS, arrangement rathel' than \ i:1 the central :Illministr:l~ E.1ch ufthe pl'm ince~, unlillhe 131h eClltllr~, contin­ lion, \1 ere llsuall~ llati\t$ rathel'thall foreign mercc­ urd to be gO\erned b~ a Ilul/.\' (''), \\hu \1:lS naries. It I\as the~ I\ho eonslilllled the nudeus of simu1t:lneoll:>l~ l'\lllllllallder of \\ hate\ er armed eat.:h pnJ\ ilKi:l1 anll ~, force:> il could 1llU~h:r, Beneath him thl' milital'~ Ilm\c\ er, man~ membcrs ofsuch garri:-'lm~ \\ erc rcspon:>ibilit~ for each 1U\\11 I\as in the h.mds 01':111 not tedlrlic'lll~ soldiers at all. hut rather ci\ ili:1Tl officer called a ~'II.~/l"IIpIlJ'/I/ \ or 'fortress g-u'lrd', I 10\\­ \\:Itl:hmen called IZ(I~'/II/('S, pnliJrming- occasion.l] or Clcr, b~ the 14th o.:nlur~ the /1i/'lI/llla, ;tlre:ld~ much ~ometimcS permancnt guard dut~ (/,::,flhllll'kI' 01' smallcr than their middle pcriod l:Olln'Crp:lrts, had ngll/), Slidl civilian W,lldlTllcn similarly manned the been rcpl:leed b~ ;111 c\en 1>I11;lllcr :ulminislrati\e uni!. simple \\:Itch-to\lcrs (p)'r.r!.oi) built in large numbers most often ctlk·d a l'I/II'Pfllll~'IIJI, eentred'on a h,slrlJII during thc 13lh-151h CCOllll'il's, partieul:irl~ in (a I\alled tU\lll I\ith a l:entr:ll ~eep). To fulfil his 'rhrolCl' :lnd ,\ I:H:edonia. IIH.lced, mainten:lllce of the milil:lr~ duties the gmcrnnr, no\\ J..nO\ln ai> :Il'/,pl/{//l' Empire's defences relicti he:l\ il~ on fhe enort~ of the or 'head', \\ :l~ hl'ncefllrt h assisted h~ the hl,~/l"fIplt.l'/11 \' 10l:al popul:ltiull 101' both m,lllplnler and lin:lnt.:e, (sp{'cificall~ n:spnnsible for the ph~i>ical condi,ion ol" though it is on l'cl:Onl that ,he lllone~ somelillle:-. the prO\ inCl~'s ddi.:nce~), :lnd abo h~ an urtic('r callcd levied to hirc additional mcn \1:1:-. frcqllentl~ gi\l'll b~ the TurJ..i~h-deri\cd uf 1;";(/fJII$lm', \dlU com­ (Jnl~ \1 ilh '\er~ bad grace'. manded thl' ~lrri~ol1. In \I:mime the ~'(pl/(/II' a:.­ In fronlier districts thc local populaliun \1:1:-. sumcd the ruk of ljLJarlermaster general and admin­ oftcn reinl"orced b~ mean'" of lllililar~ colonies, stlmc- istered the prO\i~ion ofsupplie~ to hi:-. tmops in the proh;lbilit~ b~ field, II ho in all \\ere ('Ollllll:mded the CIII'I/r,\ "J1g;/g"IlI"llf 1;'011I JIIII/dlm' c-'''''M'kl.~, ;lfld I:.uOIlSIU,~. Illl' Sk\"llil7.C." Codex 1ldlllc's wi'h m:d.-gu:tI"lJs (,~<:e","d Imll'lJl'tllc I3t/l Il!;ld,' ofkfltllcr ,..Irips, .\Iost sil.e;\l>le prmineial. and all frontier,IUI\Ili> C-'l'llfur.,). '1'IIl'"n}f'I!!Olli,.ns (EVI CQ/kefion) constituted slll:h l'lInl'll. Their defenec!> \Iere built wcar 1li1'-kng'f/1 SGlk ;1m/ lime~ l:Onsi~tin1! of for{'i~n ethnic g:roup>. (either sen il.:e. Demoralised h) these reforms man) fled or, l11l'rcen;lrie~ (II' pri>.llllcr... -uf-\\ ar) but lIs11:l11) of n:lt~ \\ hen mustered, dispersed to protect their own prop­ i\ t'S, encourag-o:d h~ .1 \ .Iriet ~ ofindlleo:mcnlS, su<:h ,l~ ert). Some nell defected 10 the Turks. This led 10 f:l\ c\cmption, and the gr"nlin1! of prfll/UUII to 'the the gradual disinlegration ofthe .\n:nolian frontier, a mort' illu>.triom;, nOl just W settle in such iJ1~ccure process ael.:ckratcd by ,\lichacl \'l1l's preol.:cup,nion area~, hut 10 participate :lcthcl~ in their defence. \\ith tho: Empire's \\cstcrn defences. B) the {'Ild nf During the >.econd halfoflhe I.\theenlur~ llumerous the 13th centur~ tht~ '\nawli:m prO\inecs hatllargcl) slll:h militi:llllen found themsehes fon:ibl) coll\erled been lost and their armies had all but disintl.'gr:ttcd. inlO part-time >.oldier>.. >'Uh~l.'llllClltl~ holding their Some troops \\cre ... till sent to Europe from AnalOlia lands in e'\ch,mge lor p"id, hut obli~l1(lr), l1lilitar~ as late :IS 132R, but Ihereafter the) ce;lsed to exist.

Ldi: (T"p) Mid 1-1111 cC"lIlr.1 lJy"'-'lIlfill(' s"llIil'rs (rom II,C R1l1ll:1Ilt:t: "I" AIc>.:Llldt:r lhe Grt:HI, II cllr;llg" mi.\lurI· o(IIwil :",d IWlld/Hr cor.~dels, IIwilIIlJIJfJ", 'Illd "rimmed Ildmefs Wilil/ell/her [II·..·fI/II iI.,. (1l,,'/oII) Also (rom 1111' ROInanec of Alcxl.nder lhe Grc;lI. 'Ili" (lOr/ra.l·al 01" Hfll ('('fllllr.1 fjl'""lIllilJe Ill'HI I t-al :/11'1 is ,,;'o/l;,IJly 011<' or rill' 1Il0~' :IITurml' ,.. be 1i.>IlIlfI. .""'C· ;1l1'"rrit'lIbr 1111.' tilll.I·­ ~,rmourL'll figllr(' 11.~ ,~IISfl(.·lI(kd(I" I'olc.~ ali(I hi"" jill! ill 11,(' "';ml'. (lllsl;lllIo [lIn,h'" • ~. ,- .~I • f " (Ii \'cnl·...i,,) The nav~ The dn:line (lfIJ~ Z.tnline n'l\ .11 pml cr \\ hidl bCg:lll in lhe 10th l.:enlur~ h.lt! been hrief1~ arrested b~ ·\k\"iw,i Il\oll11lellfls. hut OIlltinued follol\ ing his death in IllS. 'I'hen:a(ter \ucccssilc Emper01's larg"c1~ de­ pended un the Italian maritime republics uf \'enit:e. Genoa and Pisa for n;l\al dt:fence. these agn:eing IU prol ilk shiplo and men in e\"chang:c for P;I~ and fUIOllntblc lr;ltling; etllH:C~S;Vns \Iithin the Empire. An :lgreement made l\lth \'enit.:c in 1187 is f:tirt) t~pie:l1. Thilo M'I out Ihat, ;1I six months' notice, the repuhlil- \Intlld pWIlde -H)-I 00 g"alle~s (equipped at thl' Empirl'\ C\IJl:nse). on \1 hich three (lUI of c\'er~ four \"enelial1 col()nilot~ \I ithin the Empire were ex­ pected tu loCI"I c. In the e\ 1'111 of an unexpceted emel'~ g('llC~ the l:ulunilots \lCI'IO e~pel:tcd to sene aho;lrd B~I.;lnlirllo lelol>c1lo lnsll:ad. 'Iohe n;ltilc fln't \I.Il> relived h~ .\I;lnllcll, so that for the c\pnlition to 1)'1Il1iclt.l in 116Y he \las able to I)rolidl' 111:lq;c \\.ll'shipso 150 galleys and 60 trans­ ports. 11()IIeH:r, the dedine resumcd under his SllC~ ccssors. B~ 11% Ihl'!"e Ilcre onl~ 30 galle~s stilt aflo:u. ;\nd II hen the l'llunh Crusade appeared before Consl'lIltirmpk ill 1203 the 20 1\01'l11-e.lICI1 hulks that Tt'll1,lin"d I\er,' onl~ fit to hc llsed;b Iireships. ~lidl;ld \·111 rebuilt the tleet ,tg";tin tt)IIO\ling the CUIl.~f:llllillujJlc 1"llkr CCllfun·. whell IJ\"7.amillt-° l:r~ :\icu;:ln reCl)\ ofCIlIlstanlinnplc in 1261. erCII ing­ ,1/ lad., fh"n lite Mam.sscs II ril''''~ sfill rd, ;,b1i~cd ffJ it Illth GII:::,IIIIJldlll, Tzakolll'S and PT/isa/t'II/II;. The Codc:.. ,,(I.H4--I';' TlI~' (lcst-'rib~' il rv rlll·ir rc:/C/crs lUll cr ,/(o(cIIClu is :rrmcd ill cur,.~icl,·r:lMc,h-IW·/. Grloco~Lltin CIlZI/IIJU/IJ/ \lere h'llr-brclods, said t'o \.-illl 'I cr(Jss/IOIl, or .Vornw/ll' il \l·:I.~ 11,,11 U8Cf' 'dtril{' 7ealo(llollC\l> in balllc :tnd prudcnee from the IZ'll1gra (ldICIl~'~' ill (/C{CIlCI' o{fi)l"fi(j~'lfiolJs. ~·'·rI.~.~fmwnlen ~'lllkd 13~7antinl's, impelullsit~ :Iltdacit~ 1l"('H' w,e/"m i" Ilrc OpCIl fie/ti. alld and from the I'l-anl;nllurui). COII.~i(lcrc,/ r/lOugll IJ."zaJl/;"t' (roops ', Thl' T:;II~'IJI/I'.~ :lnd Prll.wll'llirli, howcvcr, " fiJreigll l\'~':IPf)ll (il WII," n/flrrt>mi,,~Rid':lnl Ihl· IIftCII t-',,/lcd 'rllr LI/in 1.,ioIlIlCHrI'S 1:I",IiIl~ Ilcre ll:lti\l's; the ftlrllll'r, rrotnthe .\Iorca, served ,IS uri ho...') III(" t-.,.n,~.~"oll· C:'"Jlru8 ill /191 inc/ue/cel marine.... \I hile the lattcr Int)\ idcd oarsmen. ITllw;ned II "Iri/, in Illc cr(J.~shllll""C". This rel.:lJlllotiwtl'd n:ll~ l:ompri.wd 80 ships by 1~lIlpire t-'\'~'JI in /Jt~, '411> lUG II hl:ll. :->hOrll ~ afll:r his :tl:l:CS~illll, 1\ I1dronikus II dish'lllded it and dil>tnissed at IC:1St Ihe CIIZWUU/nt eontribmc 10 g",lllcys 10 :l n:lval Icague against thc and T:,(/hJ/lI',~ ill an allempt It) rcducc l.:osts, instead Turks, 1100Ie\cr. though thc ill1pre~smellt of nwr­ dt'pcnding enlil'd~ 011 Genoest: vessels (of II hieh 50­ chant vcssels mighl occ:lsionalt~ boost the apparent M) had bt:t'll hircd 1)\ 121)]). 111l> OlIn plans 10 strength uf Byzantin" flects lO 100 or even 200 rCSllrrCl.:t tht, tll'l't h~ the t:unstnu.:tiotl of 20 g:lltc~s IesseIs. 10 remained the tlla,-.:irnlltll n umbcr of acttt:11 r. 1.ll11 appear tlf hale hecn slill-born, IC:l\inp: his warships cver ent:ourltered aOcr this date, :IS in 1352, gr:llul,oll \t1dronikll~ III 10 initiatc its lill;)1 t'c\ilal. 13%.1421 ;tnd 1453. lit: re-elllpl(l~ed Ihe (,'IIZ/IIII//{/JI alld, pt"l)hahl~, the Pm.wlt'/JlIII tilllO\lin~ \ndl'onikos Irs ahdic:uiOIl III The chain ofcumm:lnd Ul~ (th,'~ :It"\' ~till rl'eonlcd :U least as late as 1422 Thullgh ;t sophlsticaled hicrareh~ of t1lililar~ ranks and l.lhl rt: ... pel.:tilcl~) .•llld b~ 1332 \l;lS :lble to existed in the latt· Byzantine p"l'iod. lheir bestowal reflected till' l!l,:grec ur (:1\ our \1 ith \\ hich the recipi­ Supreme commander of the Empil'c'~ armed ent \I,I~ regarded b~ till' Emperor rather th~1tl denot­ IllITes \\ as, of i.:OUI'SC, the Emperor. \\ ho Cll~IOJllaril~ ing th:1l hl,.'l..:ould fultllthe partil.:ular Illilital"~ I"c~]lun­ led major c\pedition~ in person. The complC\, thc~ :.ibilitie:. implied h~ hi~ titll'; :ll1d it \Ia~ hi~ ol'clkal chain of i.:um1l1:l11d bel1c:llh him is ..ct oUI in hier;tn.:hiGII "lIll Ih,ll qualified him lill" milil:lr~ com­ Pseudu-Kudinos' IJI/II~' oI (Hlic""~ (r. 1355) a.. cum­ mand. not the numinal funetiun ofth\'" post he heid. prising: I. ; 2, S'I,hllS/f/hll/'lr; 3. C:H:~;lr; 4. It i~ therefore uI1Mlrpri... ing: to lind Ihat m;lIl~ field­ .\leg(/.( dlJJlU'Jfl~'O,~ (~el1inr ar1l1~ i.:onun:mder in Ihe cummander:. ai.:tll~lll~ held i.:i\ ilian ranks, ami Ih;1l ,Ibsenl..:e of Ihl: preceding); 5. ,\It~~(/S limn kOIll~ 11;1\ :11 uflin:rs olien i.:oJ111l1andcd ,Irlllies: II hile ,lrl11\ mander of the T1a\~); 6. Pm/lls/mlor (deplJ\~ 01'4); 7. officers :.ometime:. i.:(lmfll:lndcd neets, ,II/'K(U .l"/l"(Ifllpl:dflrrll("~ (prdcl..:t of the militia, i11l1"O-

Thi,.. I':'}:(' f",m /Ile Kumance lllUl />;'S,:,II<'fS, ml'· Ill' III

duced III Theodore II in the mid 13th eCIHllr\ and crossbo\\'mcn; and .10, Pmlokllltt"s (premier count, a ft'sponsihle filr the collunissariat); 8. II/I'.I.:IIS n:l\'~ll o/Ticer), flr/llIll/l1"'f/lI.~ (colllmander ofthe 1111 pl'rial relinllc); 9. Amongsl the ei\ ilian officials found in command 1I1',l!/is klllll/.,'II/MlIS (colll11under of Ihe I,atin rnen:e­ or armies in the 13th-15th l:cnturics \\ere the narics, introduced b~ John III Vat,Hzes); 10. JIIt'glls piIl1"'/'IIt')' (Imperial butler), I/I,',\'II::'UII (court mediator). "m/llI,~III"/II,\' (cornrn:mtler of the Watch); II. 11It'glis pllrtlk/lIIllOIllI'ItIlS (chamberlain) :Ind pml/l{'(:.allll'l"'" htllllTt'ltIrdlCS (nolllillall~ commander of the arm~ 's (t rcasurcr of the Imperial \1 arch·obe), nK're{'n:lr~ c!cnll'lus); 12, Hpi II/II simio/l (prefect uf the :lrm~, another 13th celltur~ intl'oduction); 13, Firearms and the Empil'e [)U1lll"til' or till' Sd/IJltu (once the seniur arm~ com­ The usc of gunpOllder al'tillcr~ u·el)\ steadil~ C:lS!­ mantler, hut nO\\ :I ceremonial POS!); H, ,1/1'.1:(/5 \\anls from I':urope in lhe course oflhe I~th ccntur~: Jm/lll,~l/f/llS of till' I:lcet (depll!~ of 5); 15. its usc is tirst recorded in Illlllg~lr~ in 1J5~, in lhe Pflllllspal/IIII"/I1,{ (comrllander ofthe Emperor's S\\ t11'l1­ \\"cstern in \')78, ,l1ld in Serbia during thc bear~'r~): HI. 1I,'gll.( using handgun!>. E\en ~u, the 13~/.antincs had ~C\er:ll nallles lill' the h:llldg-ull. call­ ing it either a 11/11(1'/1(/0"/111.1/1 ('It'atl-tlm)\\cr') or else a skl/pda or' IIiUp/UI,1 (corruptions of the Il:llian :lIlt! Turkish \1 unls for h,lndg:lll1s, Jr/l/oPPI'II/i :lIld luji:"k).

'SOLDIERS HIRED AMONGST ALL NATIONS'

Soldiers ufthe latl' B)7.:I11tine period mo~tl~ fdl into one ofthrec distinct cltegl)ril'~: pI'lJl1oiari>; i>mallhilld­ ing: !>oldier-C:lnllCrS; or forci~nH:rs, either aU\iliarie:-. 01' . nistincti{ln~ het\lcen lhci'oe catego­ ries \\cre often blurred. Some ~lIJ:1.ili:lrie.~ reel'i\ed pa~. for instance, numerous l1lercenarie~ reed\ cd prlll/O;l/;, and SOllle sm:tllho1ding soltlier:-. reee!\ cd ,\ ':1 i 1·:1 rnwlJr"11 11.'7:11I' ;Ill' 11,(' Kurn:llw~ (If:\kxandcr (·~"';I/,.. ,,(,1,,' . Ih~ Grcal. (f",~li'""1 p,t~ as well as land. But in hroad tl'rm~ pronoiar~ IJ"I"~~lfJgi:/fI/"'ritl(l frum 1':l1<'lli~o di \ ('/1('7.;;') \1 ere the least COllllllon troop-t) pc and mcrcellarie:-./ auxili;lrie~ h~ liJr the Illust COllllllun. Indeed. thc Emperor I.:tlultl not affi)rd In hire him he ~nld his greater pan of all late B~ z:lllline armies eon~i~ted tit" senke~ 10 the Turb in~tc:ld. lim..:igners, :llld the n,lli\c element \I:JS Ml ~ll1;llIthat The B~7:JnlilleS Ill'\er uscd gunpoIH!cr :lrtiller~ foreign commentators uften barel~ nutiecd it\ C\i~t­ in the fieltl. :Jnd tht· unl~ pl:ll:t· kno\\n \(J h,j\'e been encl'. defended b~ gun.. \I:IS Con~tantillople itself. II hich The importance of merccnari(;~ had :.teadi!~ in­ Iud an tllll..nO\ln hut c1earl~ insufficient llumber b~ creased follol\ing the los~ of hia \Iinur and ib H.i3. The.,l' included ..ome br~e enough (firing l1l:!l1pOI\er resenes in the 1.1le 11th eentur~, de~pite ~Ol..g/I)Olh shot) th:!t aemrding" to Ch:llkol..olld~ les lilt: Empire's increasing dinicull~ in pa~ ing them :1\ :Jntl I.conard Ill' Chill:-'. both C~C-\\itllesses. their its econorn~ progrcssi,el~ collapsed. 'I'heir l'mplo~­ di:.charge ·shool.. the 1\;IIL~, and did more d:Jmagc to l1lenl \1 ~lS simpl ~ an ackn(l\I Icdgcl11elll of1he fact 11,;11 thcm than to the enelll~', J ,conard adds til:l\ others \Idl-annetl 'profl.:ssiollal' soldiers \1 ere lIst!:!II) more \~oLlld !lut he fired ler~ often because ofthl' shunage lu~al. and llndelliabl~ mure cffel:ti\e, Ihan natilc of pOlHlcr and ~hOl'. hut that I\hell the~ \Ierl.: tlu':,1 troop!>. GllIsell 'gn':lt t!c~t ruer iun ofmen' :Jlllungsl (he '!'urks. Although ~11C\\ \1 ere n~lIiH' UY7.:11lIilles and (1Ih­ I bndglln~ Illa~ not h;\\l: bel:1l adopted h~ the cr~ eonsisled of rows ~ellbl \Iilhinthe Empire in 1I~/.:l1llinc:-. :It :111. thel'c being no c\ idellce thaI the) exchange for milit:lr) sen icc, most \1 ere :.impl.\ indi­ l\t'rl' hl:)ond a rd'crt'IlCe b) the historial1 DOlll..as I'idual roreigners taken on as required, Mml(: heinp: (Ilho \1 rotC I. 1~(2) that B~7.alllines defcnding Con­ m;lillt~lined 011;\ penn,lllenl basis I\hilc ulher~ Ilerc ~1:ll\lil1(1plc in 1~:H ;~h()t lead b:Jlls I\hich II ere pro­ emplfl~ed olll.1 lemporaril~. Though il :-.cem:. lil..d~ pelled b) pOll del'• .i anti IOat atirne. :l1ld a~ small a~ thal provincial gU\crnors and field commander\ POlllie \\:lllllll~'. Iiolle\er. the fact that he I\:l~ not sumetimes hired thcir 0\111. in eler~ 1..110\\11 in~tallce himself pre!>el1t ,It the si(·ge. anti his u~e llf ~llnlO!>t the the~ \Iere hired direcll~ h~ the central );(l\cftunclll. S;II11C \Iol'd~ to tlesnihe h,lIldg:un~ llsed b~ the I IUll­ 1\ hich called lhem III1Slll/Jp/WI"fII, aftcr Ihcir P:l~ !t.lrian~ in 1HO. render hi~ ~ICCOlltlt .,u!>pecl. C:ert:linl~ (I!IISI//II,~ or I"/IglI). C:onseqllentl~ 1110~1 I\ere tilUnd in, or alLlehed tll, the u;llIml arlll~ _ Pa~ lIas in Ihcor~ about 5-S,OOO Ilerc seuled a... 1llili,ar~ colonists in diSlrihllled e\er~ 1110 III si\ rno11lhs bill mrcl~ 111:1­ 'I'hrace;n 1301, recci\ing tlliee lhc pa~ urthe he... 1 terl:lli"cll 011 time, de~pite 11K fau th:11 dcla~s often n:l1i\·e troops. HOllc\l:r, this cOl11ingenl did not :In­ prompled tn:t~s de~el"1i(lll", S\lcr WClllO discipline. nor did thl'~ get on Ililh the 111 the plT;od from 1302 llIu;1 lhe U70s SOl1W Calalans Ilith Ilh()mthc~ Ilcrc hrig;lded;ll l,~f)3~, mcn:ell:lrie~ 111're hired ill read~-c'fJ?,ll1ised t:ompan­ and ;tllcrealions wilh lhc !:Incr led to their LlItcr ics (c:llled ,~I'lIll"/Jph/lll) p:l;d b~ their own leaders. Thl' deSlrlll:lion b~ lhe Calalans in 1306, most "amoll~ II:I~ the Cl1al:lll 'Grand CoIllP:lIl~' of Ro!!"er de I"lor. the 11~1.:ln,ille e\perienec or \Ihieh t\lb;tnians II:lS probahl~ lhe re:l.'oOll II h~ slibseqllC11l nwn.:enar~ 'I'hese begalllo hc lound in Ij~z:1lltil1e emplo~ dUfing oomp:l1lie.'o unl~ l)l:l::biclll:lll~ l:\l:eeded 100 men, Bil­ the lirsl half or lhe 14,h centlll'~, hut Ilcre lItilised ter 11l1·morie ... clt'mas... dl·...enions in the 11th Cl:lltur~. chiefl ~. if not exclusi I'el~, in 'l'hessal~ and I he j\ lorea, moSl Si~l1itie:mtl~ :11 ,\lanziJ..en. had similarl~ t:lLlght appcaring in lhe hiller in IHI). In thc l.WOs lhe 11I/:lllline.'othat il Ila~ besl ifallmcreetlarl unils 'I·hcodore I Palaeologos (Despot 13X3-14(7) :IIIOI\ed wert: J..l:ptlO 11lan:l~l>:lhle proponions, and if was otll~ :tbOll! 10,000 Alh:lIli:HlS to settle ;11 thc ,\Iorea in II hen lhi~ k~~oll II:' ... filr~ollell aftl:r the 12lh celltllr~ e,\change for T11ilit:Il'~ scn'it:c, :Illtllheir \llllllhers arc lh:ll I;lrg-e-!<>cllc de...crliun... res1I111l:d, unreliahl~ claimed 10 h:l\c rcachcd 30,000 h~ lhe 'I'he fo1lml il1~ \1iC(ion:u'~ . of 12th-151h cellt ur~ 15th cenlur~. SetTing principall~ as C:llalr~, the~ fOTl'il-!"n Oll1t illg"Clll'" shuuId hdp Ihe n:alkr :Ippn:ci:llc I\crc lhe lllainst:l\ of the forces I\ith Ilhich the lht: lTlJl~ cO~1llopol;t:Hl nalurc ofbte H.I z:ml ine :Irrnies, Despots reconquered llluch of lhe j\lure:l in the 1430s and IHils_ The~ ilwariabll sel'led under lheir I\lalls 0\\11 leaders, :tnd :lpparellll~ speei;llised :Il> frQntil'r Oftell referred 10 a... 1I11$.'·/I,I!i"llil, thesc Ilcre nom­ guards, inalh-Chri\li:m TllrJ..s from lhc Cuu.::Isu.... :lnd in B~I.:II11it1l· .'oenicc prolided lig-hl. hClII-armcd C:I\­ l\nnenians alr~ _ Thl'~ arlO J..lltl\lll to hall' been elllplo~ cd from In the 12th-13th centuries colllingents of !\rlllenl:\ll the latc 111h celllllf~ to at lea"'l the mid 12th, and au"iliarics rail>cd in Cilki:1 IIITC oCc:Jsillllal1~ re­ a~:Iiti in lhe mit! 1.\lh eelllllr~ :Ind at thcbeginningof corded fighting alongside B~z:llltine field armie\ in lhe I-hh, The ehnJllider \lunt:lIlcr S:l\S thcI Ilcrc Non hern S~ ri~l and t\n:llol ia. 'I'hc arm~ ofTIll'Ollorc cllnl>idcn:d 'Ihe best cl\:llr~ lhere;s in lhe East' II hcn I of Nicae:l. lor instanec. included Armcnian lroops

11",,"/1/;1/<' ""nlJ"I"~ IIC'T ;rnal"i"/I!.1 1"'n'lI·ri;.!;.!~d 1J'llk,"~' 'Tt'onk" ill 1.i3f1 ;I,~ h:n illl! 1fJ(} III .IfNI ",'r,~Ill"1I oper:1till~ 'Ill.' "I" 1\\ 0 //1/111.., o(o:m., IIllwu}:I",oml' ,It.,.,. l,ml>,,"I.' !>lill fittcd .. illl Grn·1. li'T l>iplums:ls /11 1<' ;IS Illl' 1/ iOs ,I,...... :1,.11>;1")<'11' "/il.,.\I"rd.~ i, 1I111./W\\Il. IIIOll}:/1 II'l'l'l' i,.. ';/1'" I'C'IIS')/l Irl ,~HI'PIJ,~l' I1ml - II"lil.l' (it·,w~,w "'IfI \ "11,'1;:11/ I l',~",<·/-: -"Ill <" ,'" <'II 1''';<'11 ): I 1Il/'"'' "<'I" ' "I"li/kl'l l" ('II:" I"'l' l"; I ~.i./, Til<> 1'1<'11,,-,. h:I , l'/I (}:I,."m.·Jlllr,".'/~I1J n'm"I',' }!llll.·.. d.."it"n/ Ill'n'. l!('II";U;.! dmI":I"fI"';,'" i,' 1:'/1",,1'.'" u Imllll'·'." :I'-"l'n..,,,,,I,,I>I.. (j:l7m"ul"i. (/11,'1;11"" f.'l1<'"i.." IIi I (',w;<;;J) in 121-l. T\\dfth-t:cntUl'~ Cilil,;ian cOlltingerus Ilcn: dl~eti\eI~ indistinguishable from Ilillill' B~zal1tine trorlps, hUl h~ the 13th I.:entll"~ theirelluipmCllt II;IS becoming distinctly \\'c!>lcrnised under lhe influence of the neighbouring Crus;H.!cr print:ipalitie!>,

Bulgarians '\ficr J\liehacl \'Ill fielded :lnunspeeiflcd nU11lhl'r of Blllg;lrians at lhe Hallie of Pclag"llnia (1251)) the~ appeared \1 ith increasing regularil~ until the !>eeond half of 1he I~l h eelllur~ . :\pparcnl I~ I hc~ \\ ere ol"lell hired as ready-formcd eOlllpanie~ of brigallll~. ~ueh as the .IOU-strong ullits led b~ Choirubo~ in 13113­ ~ and Sehaslopoulns in 132lJ, and the 1,IXlO men r:lised b~ thc former in \.lOS. These appear 10 hale consisted cxdu~ilel~ uf bl)\I-:lrmed lighl G)\:llr~. Allied l'ont ingents \1 ere also nce,lsionall ~ sllpplil'd b~ Bulg-aria's tS:lrS during: 1321-52, SlH.:h ,l~ the 1,000 prO\ ided 10 Emprl'ss Anna in 1.H6,

Burgundi;tns The Duke of l3urgllnd~ sent 300 men to the a""isl­ ane..:. of 1)e",pot Con"l;llltine in Ihe .\Iore:\ in 1-l~5. ;Ind :-lra~ Burgundi:l.ns found their 11,1~ inlO B~I.'Ill­ Iinc sen icc on 01 her oCC:lsion~ in t hl' 15th cent lIrl.

Catalans ()ec:l:-ion:l.ll~ employed since the 12705, the large"\ conlingent of Kflll'!(/I/I); e\er hired b~ till' B~Zatllines was 's C:llalan 'Grand COlllp:ln~', tot,Jlling perhaps 1,500 cl\alr~, ~,OOO IllIItlgl/(/7.'f1Tt'I (an .'\mbic term best Inmsl:ned as 'nlidl'r~' or 'skirmishers') and 1,000 other inl;1Jltr~ \\hen it 11;1" hired in 1302. Unlor'lun;ltcl~ the cornpan~ 's ~uc­ cesses prompted de FloI' 10 :lfrug;l1lee and, C\cntu­ a1J~, open hostilit~ 1O\\;lrds the emperor, InstrlH.:tifln~ 10 reduce the strength of hi~ lill'l.:e to 3,000 \Icre ignored, so in 1305 the B~z;lJ1tines had de 1"101' :l.ssassin:lIed :lIld dispersed the eompall~ h~ lell·ee. Even so, in 1307 one c1cmetll re-enlcrcd B~zantine sen ICC, Follo\\ing an unsul.:cessful i\ragonesc-\"enelo­ B~I.:II1tine n:I\:JI en~t.Jg:l'mell\ against the Genoesl' olllside Con~tantinople in 1352. 3-500 Cllahllls st;J~cd ,\liliran s:lill/ li'lJ/1l a mill arroll"" POilll-ul'lIt'nl1osl, on in John \'I's :-.en·ice, heing org:miscd inlO a fU IIHI: ;4fll "I:mu!",' Im(/ fill: t'omposifc how bod~guard uni!. B~ 135~ onl~ 100 oflhese Ilcre left, St'rbirHl dwrdl I"rt·st·IO, "irlr il.~ Imr" nnt:I.,~, III't· hut the unil itself rna~ h,l\e :.ur\'i\'ed inro lhe 15111 Umlr 1111: flui, ,'r, II illl il,~ II dl Iwrlr:l.'"('cI. lid "I'I:/l ffI n" t'"llilt, centur~ . retan. being '( fBritish race', e\'en though it also cont. ineo 'rclc \Ias pan of the 1'~l11pire unljl seized b) \'cnice 'c:lndinalians until 120-+. It \\a prolnbl all but durill~ t1w Fourth :ru~ade, so ir i. ullsurprising to entire!) I~:ng:lish by 1272, when \ lichael \ III specifi­ find numerous C:rcl~1l1 reful{ee. 'uhsequcllll) ~ed.ing eall~ refer. ro ir II 'ompri ing t,'lIglill'i.'(I/,l/IIlf.III. Ir ~ lum 1\ ilhin the Em\ ire. in lll' I.ll . 13lh centtlr~ 'cems like!~ tl1<\t the English 'men-3[-arm," recordcd an unknll\\ n nUlllher of Crctan.' II cn: clllcd in \. ia among,t Con, tanrinople' ocfcnders during' 139 ,\ tinol' in c\change fi)r :.cn icc a' Gl\ ab') men, 1+01 \\ ere Yarallgi;)n uarcJs. Like their Pach~ mcrc!> recording Cretan IT ugees to h,l\' Seandina\ ian predecessors, English guard men con­ formcd;l ... izcahll: clement of ·\ndroniko.. II'.. :1rmies. sistc I of;lxe-,lrmed inf'lntl·). The \ er~ I;) t reference ub dl'scrihe~ Cret. m. among:.l :onslalllinoplc's to llxe-bearing soldier, 'of British ra 'c' (I ·cur!. in dcfenocr. in )-L2.,: 'the most Etithful ;,uhjcCls of the 1-+0-+. 'mpire', In 1-+52 \ enice :.pecificllI) gr,lnred permis­ 'ion for the ":mpire 10 recruit ~rclan soldier: and Georgi,lls ilor ,a pri\ iltl!e deni '0 to ulhel' pU\\l:rs. Georg1an mercenarie are occilsionall) recordccJ in the 11th centllJ') being pre:cTlI for instance, Unl, and 'on, el)ucntl) \\ cre usu:JlI) brigatkd alongside zes, cljllks and other Turki!.h troop... I;inr em plo) ed at the end oflhe Illh (emur), CUI ):IIlS cons! it med onc or the most impor­ lam clementi'> or Ilyzantinc armics lIlHil thc first half of the 1-1- h 'enl ur), L1lO:.e in lhe 'elllr;)1 arm) being collect iH: 1.1 rckn 'd to ,Ii'> the ,\';J..:)/lllIkllll (;) term origin'lll) used tll deserihe Ihe arm) '. Patzinak II' lOp. ). In 1241 John III settled pcrh,lp' as 111;\11) m. HI,nOll :li'> milil:lr~ coloni~ts in Thrael: and .\narolia, from \\ hen: the) \I ere frequcnrl) mu. tercd for cam­ pai!!lli> in Europe, ccrtainl~ up until 1291 and po'­ ,ibl~ later, Thc) ... ccm to h:l\ C C\ entllall~ become Hcllcni cd, a Greek-<;pcaking CUIll:lll C\ en be 'oming //Itgl/.\· dfl/ll('.~/d·lI.i under \ ndroniko:-.Il. CUlllan troop' In Up-allline cmplo~ in the 1.,20s dcrilcd from an allxiliar~ wllling-cnt Il:mcd b) SlcEIIl rUi>h II of crbi:\ to \ licha II \: (co-emperor Ill) 1310) and ne\ er rerurm:d.

'nglishmcn The Eng-lish IIcre fiHlnd in l3~zalltinc emplo) b) the 10 Os. I urinp; the course or th' 12th eclllUr) they lICIT ab. orb d into the \'arang-ian Guard in increas­ ing nllmber~, .,0 lh~ll h~ C. 11 ( () il \IOIS described as

.\1il1 Nrh ('('lIl11n ,Ii Tl>illII $lr;I/I. TIll: depicliOIl 01"1 he fn' co tlcpil'li"i.., $1,idl1 a'i eun cd. EU"IIl/lill" I-'/u(,i(/II._ in:l admill<:cl/,I naggl'r'arcl1 111m 'JIll I' nlf' C"'I, \I il" I,i" IrL'rc, i... L·oll/irmL·tllJ,' or/lCr rri:r"gll/:rr "I,idd ."lIlIrec". ,1I._pclltktl /1.\ II guig('- Empire b~ l-..in~ ~eorgc n (1212-_3). In\" pro\ ided in 1259 in. " Frank.' or '''-c!rs', The) had been hired in by hi, son \ Ian fred, King of, 'icily. The most 'cl­ consi I rablc numbers sincc the lIth centur), ini­ ebratcd au:\iliar) contingcnl \\a' lhat of !\Iarshal riall) from Norman 1tal~ and 'ieil) but subsequently Boucicault in 1399, 'onsisling of 000 mcn-at-arms chiefly from Ihe Pall'. tinian :rusader, tarcs until 600 \ al'l ts anti 1,000 archers, all paitl for b) King: their dcmi 'C, and there;lfrcr ,ia Franki!-oh reece. 'harle ,- of Fmnce. ~ lost of these returned home Their nUJl1ber~ ill rea 'cd con ider:lbly under the the -am )ear, bur a -ixth of their numher remaincd Latinophil' Emperor \lanucl I, .0 that aner the in Constantinople until 1..Hl2, Turk' the) \\ere the pI' 'dominant cle­ m 'nl. Though some lIt:re infal1lryrnen, specificall~ ILonguls . peciali.ts such as nossbo\\'mcn and, in rhe 15th 15th 'CIHlIr) Olloman hisrori;ln records \ longo] 'entlll'), h;IlH..Igunl1er~, mo·t \\eIT in \'itably ar­ all:.iliarie' in a i aean Byzantine arm~ tlefcated by moure I earalr) men, the S >ljuks as arl) as th reign of \dtan "-ai KobaJ Larin and, to :1 les~er ext 'nt, .uman mer 'enarie~ (1220-37). Though this is unre 'orded d:cwherc, ,\ [ichacl \'llL had certainl) 'oncludcd ,I tre:llY with the Ilkhan 1I1Ilagli b) L6\ and in 1282 \\as pl'O\i led II il h -1-,000 .\ longols b) ogai Khan of the oldcn 110rde, with \\ hich he marched again,'l The, al). In 1305 lIkhan Ijeitu promised -1-0,000 troops In

• crllian (Ie/i) m,d Komneno,.. ofC.I·prlls l3ulf!arinn (right) /iring' (\\,0 arrows at Killg i'I'Ill0Ilrt'd ell ,'11 In 1l1CIl Ric/Wi'll frolll/lOrsel",d. ;n lighl ing' as hurse~"rcllel's, 111)1, Cerwin!., composire fmm mid 141h cell/lln bml's >Ire clepi '/Cd m:rnl/.~L'ripl,~, T/lere ;" no :11l1ongSI rhe lI"l'npu/l.'; of 'imil:lr picror;;,1 e\'idcncc mosl milirrln slIinrs in Or8'"7~'1llrillcc:'\'I1/1'I men "He B'"Z'"Hi':'c arl. II c:rn 1/ ing hOI\"', Ihough'fllt, Ilwrcinrc Ile 'onc!mJccl f:rcl rl1:11 B",wllrinc Ih:II, ue,sp; fr: 1,,11 il/g' Iltllen rtrcllCr. \\,e're freqllelH/J rllll 01'/'11'0111' /i'om ,ll.iIl hri/:aded :rlongside W " 1.1:i1J - dl/ring' IIhidl IImlllJ.'.:llld Turks tllllh' periucll.Jyzantillc ,murct'," h;lI(Ieliel "' rt nd 111 u!>'r inv lriabh' describe rheir' Ihac/clT'e h'IIT heen "'II :lIr.\ n;en 1i;:ll/ing Oll!.\ mOlllJICcI ;nclic:1Ies rlmr II';II, '"/It·(' :wd .SII ord - IIJL' tI,C\ did; find rhe Enl!li. h h'lll dc"r!l nt'l t'r enlireh cll;onider .Imhroisc disappeared. ' :Iell/l! 11.1 I'cel)/'d." I!milL' 13)/.antine 'oldiers 12th-13th nturi·s 1: _ ".1 _man 2: \lan-:lt-arm' 3: Inrantljm. n

2 3 I: \lmughavar mere nary; c. 130~ .' um n mere na1), c. 1 00 3: \1an mercenaf). 13th century I: Byzantine 3: Bvzanline or Bule:arian infaOlr\'man. c. 13"0

I: 'crbian au. iliar)', 14th century _: Hulgan n auxililU'). c. 1345 :. rbian knight., I: High-ranking B)·zantine ollie r. court dre.. ~: Turkish mcrcenlU). c. 12th century 3: Turki·h auxiJiaJ°J. 14th-15th centuri I: uman mercenary Nth cenrury 2: Alb Dian m rcena.r)', 1-til cenruT)' 3: ItaJian mercenary, 14-3

2 I: D) zantinc militia, 15th ccntury 2: B)/nntinc co,' II") man, 143 3: Trapc7.Untinc, 1461 \ndronikos II and in 130 de!>patchcd 30,000 into l3irh~ nia ro r '0\ er num roll. B~ zal1line lOll n from Ih Turb. The \lol1gob :-\ndroniko~ subsc lucnrl~ e1ded :lg,lin t the,·crb... II ere perhaps an elemenl of the e.

Patzinaks Th Turkic Pechen 'gos or Patzinak., nen an:haicall~ r ferred to a '.\:~ th.· con titutcd the maiurit~ ofthe Empire\' hiatic m 't'Ct:narie:-. during the middle B~­ I3ntine pcriod, hut thcir cmpl()~ment lias in decline b~ the 12th cenllll'~. P:lll.inak: captured at Eski Zagra in IL_ lIer' ,;cttled a" milit:lr~ colonists in Thrac and \ lacedonia, and thri\ cd Ihere unlil th Larin nque:t in 1204 bUI the Ia. t record uf Patzinak men: nomc. in the field "eem!> to darc 10 1136-.W.

Ru ,.jan. \u:-.iliaries IIcre pre/\ ided b~ \ariou. Rus. ian princes in the '-th eenLur~. Thc~ prolxlbl~ sel'\ed in Lhe \ :tJ';)ngian Juan\.

candina\ ians \t the beginning of Ihi'i period the \ :trang-ian uard lill conl'listet! prcdominanLl~ of 01'11 cgians and Dane. and '''-ing :\crrir's .'aga' claims rhat a: late a 1195 \I(',iu'> III made a direct rClJue't to th kings of candina\ ia for 1,200 men to fill its ranks. •Janish' lnIar hmen arl' tll'lt re 'orded in I~()4.

erhs In the fit.., half of t hc 12th cenlllr~ the 'erb' \\ cr' bliged to pnl' ide Ihe Empir' II iLh JOO l::1\.lr~ for campaign" in \sia \Iinor, a figurc increa. cd. folloll­ ing:erhia's defeat h~ \lanucll in 1150 10 ~O() or -\ 'iatic campaign. and _,()OO for 'cn icc in Europe, rhers II ere prm idcd b~ . 'erhian pri. oners seuled in '\nlltolia b~ John II in the 112()s. E\en aftcr :erbia's eees 'ion from the '·:mpin.:, cOllLingent!> of crbian

In ;'1'11 I-I'h ('e"'un soldier' w J>(. round ill porrr.J.;;l/llf, " J)t'm~'trill", Jrce",:, compri. i/ll! pour­ p.l/ron ,~"i/l' of poin!, m"iI euncle', Thc...... n/oni}'". }'i//inf! "1:0;111' gorg 're (/wod or co//"r?). Kalojlln III'lJull!ilri 1'(1197­ cuirit·. 1!;I/IIht"'Oil, 'tr1'C'/I t·... ' 1.07). K"llIj,",:, "rlllour (proh"hl,l Illllil d,,'u...... e...). In. ell re. emh/e., ,11:1' cl/i..,...e.... and helnle'. de.-cr;J>ed IJI Tllt'lIdon' K."lojlln' 4l/il/('d cuisscs P:l/.,,:ulol!o.~ in 1316." 11 /I C p/ll/e },n('e-gll:,rd~ ',Ipieal hllrnessof,/lt' "rwell d. \I e\lt'rni..c(IIJ,1 /"nri/l ' J'lIr/lDul!h "'om II 141h eef/lur.\ • 'crl,ian Inunll, Illes mililan' .<;:Iinl' (:ould 11 e:l ih be: Unmmin ·s. Thel' ,,:e:llr IllrrlClI:rr or,'clels Ilnd arc armed II ilh lance. 'word :md e0111posilC bOil. Thcnl:lin figurL'/1I1 . IIi... Ire/mel SUS" 'nd .£1 b.1 it· c1Jin- rrap.

mcn:cnaric~ and au'\iliari 'S continued LO be re~u1:lrl) fightin fur the Byzantines date. to 1352, when John ent.:ountcrcd in B) z~nline sen ic '. For in ·tan e, there \' \\ ;lS pnl\'ided \\ ith 4,000 ca\"alr), II ere 600, or' \ 'rhap~ LOO(). in \ lichael nil's arm) at Pdagonia. \Ili' I 'ontingents of 'erbi:lI1 amiliarie urk (th lugh 1101 ,1h\a)~ .lctuall) compo. cd of erb') (lir·J C\tcn 'i,,:1) during the middle Byzantin cr~, stcadil) increa~ 'd in il.c and importance Juring the thc emplo) ment of large num1 er' of Turl.:· II ;IS fir"t h,ll( of the 14th l'entur) .. 'Ief~n lrosh II. for rc\i\ed under .\li 'hael nil in the secon I halfofthl.' imt:lI1l'e.IO.lncd :\Iicha 11'\ 1,000 :uman c.nalr) in 13th ccntLlr). 1[' is recorded a having S,OOO \:Ijuks 1312, IIhilc John \ Ilia' provided \\'ith German in his pa) b) 1262 \\hen those assuci.lted with the Iller 'cnarie!> in I.H2 3. The Ja!>t instance of Serb central arm) II ere referred to a. th Pe/". iko/I COl'( .. From the 1,hh eentur~ on, \\hen thl') wnSlituted the largcst foreign dement of virtual!) e\er~ Byzantine field ;lrIll~, stich conlingents Ilcre normall) of allied 3uxili;lrics rathcr th;lIl nU;I'(:cn,lries, n;cci\ ing no pay but rCI;lining wh,l\c\cr buot~ and prisoners fell into tlll'ir h'\llds. Umur of t\)din pro\-ided 2,000 slleh auxiliar~ ca\"llr~ for i\ndronikos Ill's Albanian cam­ paign of 133;, subscllucnlly suppl)ing Juhn VI K;mtakouzcnos \\ith 6,000 in l.HJ and perhaps 5,000 morc in 1.145, whilc thc Amir of Saruhan provided the Emprcss Anna I\ith 6,000 in I.H6. Thcreaftcr, hOM'H'r, sueh contingents t1suall~ consisted ofOuo­ man!>. John \'I had 6,000 Ottom;1I1 auxiliary cavalry in 13-+5, 10.000 in I.H8, and ;IS 1ll,U1y ,IS 20,000 ­ responsible fur the recapture of Tlll'ssalonib fl'Olll the Serbs - h~ l:HI). Illnlc\er, Kantakullzellos him­ self obscned of such sizcable contingents that they II ere '100 nUlllerous ful' the Romans 10 control', and tendcd 10 strike Ollt on their own 'whenever there was hupe uf gain', ;IS thc~ did in 135-+ when thc 10­ 2U.000 then nominally under his orders seized the cit~ of GallipoIi lor themselves. Yet despitc this the sen ices of Ottoman contingents were regularly soug-ht b) onc side or the other in thc Empire's numerous intern:ll pO\lcr strugg-les throughoul the l-+th ;Ind c;lrl) 15th c('nturics. Oftell 10 be found brig-aded alongside the Turks in the 12[h-J-+th centuries. and sometimes indistin­ guish;lbk frnm them, 1\:15 a corps of regular troops C"JlIed the -'-'wrl·"plllll"i or 'sons ofTurks'. NOl11inall~ consist ing: of the dcscendalUs of Christianised Turks or the i~slle of mixed unions, on occasion they in­ cluded natin;s of the Empire's Anatolian provinces, So/e/h'r Ii-mil :, fi-,'sco in dClCrrnillcsinc,' lI"C knfl\l Ilho I'achymeres records shaving their he,lds Turk­ III" Chl/rehor,hc \'irtu,,'!.\' /lotlrillg II 10m II ish-fashion in order to juin them. The} :ll'e rardy IJnmt"cllion. /"isln•• / Jill n·"llIn' HI'7.11Il fill'· ,'xcclJI,'d .~/wrl h· :Ifkr /·H9 "rllltJur. /\'e;,c i,c ""rrics" encountered follolling the desertion of 1,000 during: lind I/lflUglJf lU'dcpicl .~m,,// drnll"r s/ridtl: the Itllt1c of Aprns in 1305, though some of the COIISlml/illl' Xl. Tllc 1/lOlIg1lUIICOllllilOIl, r/u::sc (Ji.~I1I',,,"f.rcd deserters rejoined in 1312, "lX·W·"'-"Or,II" I'C''\' ncn:r ,.11I ird.r 1r"tfi1ifJ~1:I1 cel uil'rn'c/ll "mollgsf IJy-";""lillc p"rlraycd i.~ im/)(J.~.~ih/cto cal'alr,Vlllcn. U1.es :\ Turkish people \er) similar in appearance :lnd (1071) and 1\ Iyriokephalon (1176), but disappear identical in armament to the Cumans and/or Sdjuks after the laller date_ (from \1 hom sume sources ha \ e di llicllIt) disl il1­ I,wishing them), the Uzes \1 ere found in the B:llbns Vbehs in the l1th-12Ih centuries. The lJ)zantinc:-. elll­ First emplo)ed in the 11th eentur), Vbeh or phl)ed them in considerable numbers, and they :lp­ \\'alJachian troops were regularly utilised throughout pal'l'J1tl~ o.mstituted th('1arg:est part ufthe Empire's this period, despite being considered 'failhless and Turki:-.h mercenarics at the time uf both Manzikcrt perverse'. There Were \V;lllachian mercenaries in the Epirote arrn~ al 1)l'1agonia :llld in :\lil'11ac1 IX's :nm­ Empire's frontiers continucd to contr:ll:l. l3crrr:lndon ie!> ,II the bqdnlling- or the I-hh l:l'1l1ur~, \1 hile ,Ill,: de 1a BroClluicre, \ isiling Constantinople in H3J, ,'IIIi'mk of Duhrudj:l M:n1 1,000 au,ili:lries Iu !>upport obsened that b~ thell Byzantine tcrritor~ cXlended Empres!> '\nn:l in 1346. \\:lllal'hiall mcrcenaries also no morc Ihan t\IO da~s' ride from lhe cil) \\all.... ;]~~i~led in till' defence of COll!>t:uuinoplc in 1422, B~ the time Ihe OttOlll:tn ... appe~lrcd before Con­ :tlld the future rlm'm/l' \ lad 11 Dr:lcul \\:lS ':lll olTicer st:llll;nopk's \\alls li:)r Ihe final tillle in H53. what in t he :lrlll~ , ufJohn \ Ill. p;lssed for the Imperial :lrm~ prohabl~ compriscd bcl\\ccn ~lbOlll 1,000 and 1.500 men. H~ \\hal mUSI ha\'c been a supreme effort. ho\\c\'cr, ;1 g:lnison of THE END some 7-9.1100 fighling: men \1'~IS ;lsscmbled. of" II hUIll, according to George Sphranlzes - ordered 10 take:l OF THE EMPIRE ccn"lIS of Ihem h~ Emperor ConSI;lnline XI - 4,773 \\ere B~z:\lllirll..'s. The bal:ll1ce of' 2-4,000 mcn The ci\il \\ar~ of the 14th centur~ had e-;h:1Usted the (Leonard of S:I~S 'hardl~ as many as 3.000'), la~t ofthe Empire'~ dimini10hing resource:'>. Repeatell along \\ilh 100l11e 11\0 to threc dOl.ell ships. sc\cral of U~I.Jlltinl' :Jppl':Jb lU the \\'e:'>1 thereafter for militar~ \\ hich \Iere equippcd \1 ith gUllS. \1 erc pro\ ided h~ ami financial aid, el en \1 hen malic in person h~ forcign \ oluntecrs and lllCrCellal"1es, m:linl~ \I:l1lud II in U9IJ-1403 :lJ1d John \ III in 14:\7-39, \ eneti:lll~. Genoese and C:ualans loo\..ing aner lheir geller:lll~ fell 011 L':lr~ dcafened b~ rdig-iOlIS discord commercial interests. 1\ ':ln~ of the Genoese aCIll:lll) (the Empire being Orthodm. \1 hile Europe \1:lS C~ltlll:: from lhe republic's eol()n~ ofGalal:l. just across Cllhlllic), and e\cn \Ihen Ihis dinicu1t~ \\:\s nomi­ lhe Golden I lorn from Constantinople. despite this n:lll~ men.'ollH,' b~ the unpopul:lr Union of" the suhurb remaining lechnit':llI~ neutral in Ihe conflict. churches in l-tW Ihe ~iltl:l1inll remained crfcclhcl~ .\losl prominenl of the Genocse COnlll1~lmlcrs 1I1H:h:lllgcd.Under euntinuom Oltoman pressurc the \\:lS GiO\al111i Giuslini:mi Longo, \\ho recei\ed the rank ofprQllJSfrtllOr and \\ as 0\ crall cummander of1he Ohn·r._'" 'HId n'\ ,'r"(' uf:. ('I/lIil'lI/nll /Wfnl.\ eil~ 's def('IKes. lie had afl'i\ed \\ilh 1\\"0 g:tlleys :Ind u"'lIj.~f'lk;lh1l' /Ill·dlll/hlll b.\ I'i",uwllf/ Turl.i.../. 3-400 men ((}-700 if one counl.." Ihe g;tl1c~ cI'c\\s) (/439) purfn•.' ill): ":lll/ll'ror ;lIl1u"II(·('. (Iidfi..." jollll \ til. IIi... rI.·","s 'Illd .\tu...,'urn) equipped and raised enlircl~ at his own expcnse, The men, de~cribed a~ 'in full armour', \Icrc armed \Iith ships plus transports, and 160,000 men (t;tll~ing" illl crOSSblll\S, handg-llnsand e\cn cannun. Venio.:':...:on­ l)uuhas' rc!cn:nce tu the Ottomans uutnumhering tribution to the dc/ence, under the command oftheir the defenders hy 20 to one), seem more probable, In bllilli in Comt:lllliIlOp1c, Girolamo Minollo, ":Olll­ addition the Sultan had broug-ht together a t11as~i\ I.' prised five ships, \1 hi..:h landed a 101,11 of 1,000 men. artiller~ lrain lhal included bOlh gUllS and ":ol1\en­ Another largd~ Italian contingclll had arrivcd \\ irh lional siege-engines. :\ Genocse e~e-\\ ilness Slates the jl, and lonnentia' in all, ;\Ill! of 200 halldg;tlllner~ and nossbtl\l men. '\1 1c:I,~1 50 of Barharo th,1I lhere \Iere 12 principal gLttl~, \\hich these \\ere i\'eapolit'IIlS, hUl thl' rest \Ien: hired On l'arioLts soun:c~ record firing shot of bel\leen (j() and Chios (as, ":(Jin..:idenlall~, \\ crc somc of Gillstiniani's as much as 850 kg. (200-1,900 Ibs). The largest of men). these \1 ,IS so tllassi\e thaI il could hard) be t11l)\cd h~ The Olloll1:1n siege heg'

On." illt: /J.• !'is"/Ic1I" of IlnWII,illt·lrur..;e-lmn't·Ss, I~JS, IJ. liS t·,r,.h "s rllt' IJr/r CC:~'/lll"l I,,;rn·..; "ere g<'IlCmll,1 ;,; sl,o,., .~1l1l1'1.1. :lIlil lIWS,l.h7.H"/;lIt· SfJ/(Iiers I'n;. ilk" rlu';" Oil n. I k", \ n., "In /11('" ru(/t' desfriers lih· ',Ileir II .·sle,·" eoWIl"""H rfS, lit:',r'·,...:lrtllccl !Jors.·",,'" r;tli,,}! lII:1r.·s ..,. }!ddilll!.o;, Ilnrhi'lII. /)'/lIlIlSt'cn"am! Elks.o;,,,, I,,,,'st·s II crc (·o/l..;irkrt·(/,!lc /,.'..;f ill lilt, Urll (Til/Uri, but \lllu/el h:1\ t' h.·cII /;,rl:<'h u/lou/Him.hh:II,'lin' I~t/l, "!lell III11IC:lri';II, 'I'Ilcssrlli,"'t :lIllI. "ll"". 'fllrh,,', mUl/llfS ....,.•.'" 10 /m \ t· I'rnfOll1ill:! /(·d. (tllll' n:. COl',' ,.it:/l/ Ih',,"i,," (Ie.... \lus.:...·s S"fi'l/l:wI) \Iere eH'ntuall) obliged to fall back behind the outer fighting, followed soon afler b~ the majorit) of his \\:111 a~ consider'lble ponions \1 ere reduced to rubble. leadcrless men, so demoralised the ddcnuers that the further damage being caused b) Ihe recoil of their Turks \Iere subsequcntly able to break through in OIl n gUllS and b) mining :md countcr-mining opera­ sc"eral places. tluns \\hit:h t'fi.~~-ernssed back ;lnd forth heneath the Despitc counter-.1Itads launched in the Slreets foundations. b~ v'l1'ious By ....:llltille :Jnd ltali;tn comm.mdel's, in~ On 181\ \,1) a prenlatun.· ,lltempl h~ the Turks III eluding Ihe emperor himself, Ihis marked the elld uf bring up :1 siege-tuI\er in preparation for a gene!":11 or~lIlised resiSlance. All thosc Ih:1I could nO\I fled for .Issault ended ignollliniousl) \\ hell it \\ as sct aflame as the handful tlf ships anchorcu along the Gulden soon as it t:1I11e within range of the defenders. NOI Horn. GiuSliniani was amongst those who escaped, long 'Iftcr\\al'd~ pans of the inner wall 11n,llI) l:ol­ getting as 1'.11' ,IS Chius be/on: he succumbed 10 hi" lapsed in Ihl: \ itinit~ orlhe G,lIc nfSl. Rnmanus. and WOUllUS. ConSlantine XI, 110wc\'er, died atlon~­ under l:0\ cr ofdarkness the' rlll'ks ~l'l :Ihout bl'idging mousl) in the stl'cets, sl\ord in h,Uld, jllst Ol1e of Ihe huge moat 1\ itll piles ofrubble in prepar:lIion for ~,OOO B~zalltines and Ilalians killed that da~. Ihe final assault. \\ hich began in the sIllal1 hOllrs of29 1\1a). The first 1\\0 \I;I\"es of Ihe ;lss:lult filr(;e, eon~ sisting respettivel~ of irregul:lrs (man~ of Ihem Christian conscripts from Greece, IlungMy ,tnd Ihc THE EMPIRE OF Balkans) and .\llalO1iall IroOpS. wen.: bealen back TREBIZOND frum the breaches. man) being: consumed by hurled from the \\"alls. Ilo\\"('"er, the third OHO­ Trcbizond had bewme effectively independent of man line, m;ld\,.' III' of J'll1issuies :lnd (l!h(~r elite Constantinople shonl) before tIll: latter fell to the !roop~, pressed home ils .1It.ld, al Ihe heigh! of forces of the in 120~. With lhe which, jusl before {I:lWll, Giustiniani was desperately assistam;c of troops provideu b) their aunt, Quccn \\oundcd, I lis II ithdraw:II from thc sccne of thc Thamar of Georgia, Ihis tin~ 'Empire' on the south~

"'ilil'C"I/I~'l'IlIUl'_1 TllrJ. isll l·;I\';l/n'. Ii-filII fJ"cI·d~lllmdl·," I'cl"cg-rinalioncs, TllfW;!ll .W"IIC In""1" lur/)'llIS 0/1",,.1; II C

tern 'l,tlincoflhcBl cl 'eawa founded b) r\\o Impcrial pan). Dc pire 0\ cr-oprimistic \ pectationf, rot her " .\lcxius amI I a\ it! (the laner uhscquel1ll), I) (clr igner. in the I-th centur) thal it could rai c bur brieny indep ndenr rul 'r of Paphlag-onia), \\'h) 15-_5.000 111 'n, the Iarge"t r 'cor led Trapczulltine II ere grandilon' ofE1111 'l"or.\ndrunilosl K0111n n, field arm), assembled ill 1366 to impre the :\mir of (II 3-l5). from \\ hom til' Trapezuntinc Emperor the neighbouring q Qo:-unlu (White 'he'p Turks), 11:1: kno\\ n ail the Ilt'gl/s A:Ollllh'IIf1.C Irs . un ivai actualJ) toralled onl) about _,000 men. ther c\ i­ thereafler depended III0 I' on diplom.lC) and the dcnee conlirms that 1'1' ·hi/.ond\ ilrmics \lcre il1\ari­ country' rugged Pontic gcograph) than militar) abl) mall. including a \10 lem account of (. 1350 might, p:micul:ul) after the S liuks overran it· \\est­ that describeil it: oldiers a" 'fe\\ in number and ill­ ern half in 121 +(in the proce" 'C arating its fronrier equipped'. In 1355, for in tance, the lo's of at m sl from rhe I<~mpirc (f Nica ·il). This rendered the +00 men in .1 hallie again. 1 rhe Turks was considered 'Empirc' an inconscyucnliall ell) f,rar' ofdiminUli\'c .1 m'ljor di a. tel', \\ hill' in 1.'( 0 half of an arm) lhat proportionil. To\\ ardil the elo e of '\ndronilos had been di\ided into t\\O parr!. (mpri.ed just £l0() idon's reign (12-_-3 -) .'diuk 'uzcraint) \\'a' a '­ inl:lIltr:- men (the other half can 'jsring of elmllry and kno\\ ledged. and hiil iluccessors \\ re lhereafter 'another \ er:- Jape parr) of fOOl-:oldi 'rs)... mall ohligcd to supply 20() mcn to the diuk arm) \\ hen \\onder, thercfore, that .ll"tcr the mid 14th cenlur) ailed lor ( 'omrared ro +Ot) supplied b:- the Eml eror Trehizond large!) aband lI1cd militar) confrontation or i'\ica a). 1"0110\\ ing the \longol d fe.n or the in E1\ OUl" of diplomatic marriage alliam:e.. \1 ith its djuk al Kuzadagh in I_ ..B . lIzcraint) \\a' lran ­ PO\\ erful lurki h neighhours, in particular I11nin­ ferr'd to the real "-han and sub -cquentl:-, in all taining dO'e relation \\ith the .\q QO)'llJ1lu b:- thif, prooabilit:-. 10 the Jlkh,lIlids and. later . till. to meanil fore\'cral gcneration " Tamerlam: (\\ ho called for rhe Trape1.lIntines to The Empire's fromier defence \\ as in the hand.. prm ide him \I illl III g,lIlc) s or u~c ag.lin.t the of local warlords of mi:l.cd l3yz.lIlrine .lml nilli\c Ottoman Turk: in 1402, thoueth th r' is n e\'idem:c (chien:- La/. or T-:'lIlIlIoi) u scent, who maim'lined thai the) oblil'ed). thcir 0\\ n Cortres 'es and garrisons in e\.change 1(11' Trcbil.ond\ militar:- SI I' 'ngth. ne\ er consid -r­ official I' cognition of their bnd il pr(JIwi{/i. The) able \\il<, 'rippkJ in 1J~O-j - b~ a 'eries ofci\ il \\:lr~ "ere jll titiabl) consith.:rcd lillie better than banditil bct\\cen rhe pmn:rful pro\ im:ial nol ilil) .1Ild rhe b:- tra\'ellcrs, from \\ hom exorbitant sum. \\ ere c\- torled in C\l.:h:Itl!!e fiJr e~wrt~ amI :-afl' pa~~ag-e. ,\ IOSI (1-l-29~58) planncd a coalition :lg"ainsr the Ottomans uf Ihe Empirc \\as similarl~ re"p(lll~ih1<: for it:. 0\\11 in 1-l57 it~ must irnport:lllt Illl'mbcrs \\cre hi ... defl'nl.:e. beinl! urg:miscd into sc\ cr:lllerritnri:11 units brOlhcr-in-l:l\1 Thc "inl! of Geur~i:L, :lnd thc '\q in \\ hidl lhe 0\\ ncr.. of ~mallholdin!p., I\cre knu\1 n b~ Q~)~unlu AmiI' Uzun l!assan, \\ho, b~ 1\\0 differclll traditional Jj~ /;lnt inc mil it:lr~ tcrm!'> .. ueh a... Jlm/<:t!,III, marriage alljance~, \\a!'> ... jmllhaneullsl~ his llcphc\\ ,,/rilll/lf(/l and ht."ropltl'/ai'l's. :lnd \\cre ubligcd to :lnd ~()n-in-I:I\\. perform milif:lr~ ..en iCl' \1 hcn calkd upon. It \1 :l!'> nol until 14-42 that the Ot!Omans lal,llH:hed .\ \cn. !'>mall l.:cll\ral :lrJ11\. ;11 ...0 seems to h:l\c Their first assault on Trebizund. Though the dt\ nistcd. This i... probahl~ rcprcscllled h~ the troup of 100 c;lI:llr~lllen \Ihich in 1370 :H:companicd Em­ peror .\1c\iu... III (1.\"'1J-90) on c:lmpaign. and fhe I-lO men as.'>igned b~ ;\1:lIluc1 III (131J0-1-l17) to c<,cort till' Spani"h amhassadur Ru~ Gonzalez dc CLl\ijo in 1-l0.... Such household troops probabl~ consisted of rnen:cn:lries. to \Ihum fherc arc occa­ sional rdcrenl'c", throughollt thi!> period. Some such mcn:cnaric!'> \Il>re Ucor!!ialls. hut most \\cre ·rurks. ...0 fh:1f till' larger pan I\ere. umurpri ... ingl~. c;1\·alr~. !\ fe\1 I,at in!> 111:1 ~ aIso h:l Ic foulld their \1 \1 erc :ll!'>o somctimes madc a\ :libble. or;1I Ie:!:.t promi!'>cd, b~ lhe Empirc· Turk- i'ih :lIld Gcnr~i;1J1 nl,'i~hholll's. ,\ hm ~ of thc c 1\ crc allied b~ marria!!e to lhe Impcrial Ellllil~. In J\pril 1...0... , for inst;llll:C, (\10 of the fiJur principal :lIlies of .\I,ll1uc1111 resulted from slH:h 1ll,llrimonialtics (his nephe\1 ·\It:lTll11r of I.imlli:t and brothcr-in-Ia\\ Sulcim:lll of Chal~bi

·I'/WII;:" tl,., /mlll ":III.~' /UI\" br):l'1.' /ai" ill r"ill,,, sille., J.HJ, porti"'I-" or C"m."afllill"l'k:" /II:I,,,,,,i,., fiJrlificllitms 1"('111:1;11 illJl'n'ss;,"(, .',"('11 wda.l. TIl.,s., /11 U ,i.,,,·,,, IIr.' "f,lIe S) fill''' rl"'1ieal/y n·s«,r.,., /'JI·'I"('SS o(,h., G"Jf1"1I Gal.,.

R;;:hr: S'TtiutI tlll"l)ll).:I, COII."t:mrill0I'Ic:" I:mel II ,,//,0;. (G'mIJrid}!.· LiII;••'I"!>·i'.1 Pn....s) I\all- II ithsWlld bmb thi sicge and another in 1456, I lisLOr~ of the \'arangian Guard' ]0111"11111 OJ'RO/ll1I1I Lhe Empire IliI obliged Lo m,lk . ub. tantial tribute .llIdit's-' 'VB (19-1-7); G. . enni 8)'::::.allli/l1l/ and pa~ mellli> follo\\ ing tbe 'ccond attack. It wa a re­ Ihf Frallks I .:;() 14_0 (1982); D.]. canakoplos TI,e quc:t I) John IT' brother and SlICC" '01' Dayid l:':lIIpcror ,Il/rhat'! Plliaeulugll.i nl/l/ the lI'esl 125, -/282 (l4.',-hl) that thi· tribute be rcmitted \Ihich (1959); Lad) oodenough (tran .) The h""IIIt!t'III pI' Il1ptcd the thiI'd and final a(tac~ in H II, II h n a .11 /llIlaIIcr ( 1967); JI. \\'. .I:-lazard ( d.) A His/{}Il1 ({Ihc maSSI\C Iloman 111J'l:c of allegedl) 60,()( () h I' C, rtlSfu/es Yols. II-III (1969-75); JR. l\lclvillc Jone. '(),O( 0 fl)(Jt .md 1-3()() o;hips d'scendcd on the cit). (tr ns.) YiuJ!fi Barbam: Dial]' oJlhe 'iegt' fd' '(11/51011­ The coalition \\ hidl John 1\ and had so lilloplc 1453 (1969) and The. 'Iege (if COI/Sllllllillllp/e pain (irl..ingl) put IOgether in. tantl) fell apart, isolat­ ].1.-3: • 'CL't'/( ~'ollle/llJl("III:J' Jf(oIlIlIS (1972); \.E. ing Trcbi;-ond. \\ hich .. urrendcred in ;\ugllst after :1 Laiou COIISIIIIIII/lip/e IIl1d Ihe Lallll.: The Fort'igll icgc hl~Ling jll~L a fe\\ \\eel.. -. The I/t'glH A.Ol/lI/t'/JfJS Polil)' I~r JI/III'III/Irus [J 12/2 13_ '(197_); .'\. Lo\\c 0:1\ id, initiall) :ent into c\ilt:, was e:.ccul·d t\\ 0 The CII/a/1I11 I ellgcllllfe (1972); H.E. LurieI' (tram•. ) }ear.~ Iatcr. Crllsadl'rs liS CIJrfl/lit!as: 7'hl' Imlllide (~r lilt' ,I/orea (1< 6-\-)' EJ 1. j\leNea1 (tran..) The flllt/liesl I~r C(JI/­ R 'commend -d I'ending SllIlIlillllp/e: RobeI'I dt' IIII'I (1936); P. 'vtagdalino The .\1. \ngold I f)J'~III1/illt' Gl/l'l'l"/IlI/t!lI/ ill l:.'.rilc: GOi.'­ ElI/pll'(' 0.1', Ilallud J Klll/lllel/OS J 1-13-/1 () (1993); H.j. (mlllt'll/ 111/(1 . '(JOt'I)1 IIl1ler llIt' Lllskllr/{Is I~/ Nirat'a :\lagoulias (trans.) Dedlllt' III/d Fall ,~r Byza/JllulI/ /0 110-1 1](,1 (1975); J.\\'. Barker I/al/lle! /I Ihe 0/111/111111 Tllrf....s. ~JI Doukas (1975) and 0 Cily ,{ PI/II/t'I/If/glis 13lJI 1-1_.:; (ItJ69); 1\1. '. l3artusis The B.)'~lIl1lillll/: .1111/1115 or ikellls Chllllialcs (J<.HH); F. Lu/I' J~)r:::.I/I/llllt' 11'110': /1"1/1.1 al/t! . -I/OI'~)1 I ]IN /-IS3 ~larzial (trans.) l'illdUlrtllluill's C/lfIl1Iirle I~t /he (19<.1-); . Utlindal 7'IIe 1 £I I'llIIgili liS I~r r~)I;::,al7/illlll Four/h CruSlltll' (Il/(l lilt' CIlIlf/Ilt'SI I!r Om.\·lall/il/ople (197,'); C\\. Brand J~)';:'I/I/IIIIII/ Cllldi'(I/IIS lire II t'sl (190,»; \\'. ,\liller Trebizf/I/I/: Tilt' Lasl Cred' EII/pire JlSO IlO'; (1%,) and (tran..) Dft'''. I/j .7olt/l 11/11/ (1926); 0.1\1. icol Tlte Lllsl t'ulunes oI I~J';:'lIIl1illll/ IJIII/llt'! COII/III'/III.\" (1976); R. I all kin' 'The Lat r 126/ /·1.)3 (197_) and Tht! Despalalt' l{Epiros /261

~~ "ou A PERI80l0S TONOlS 1\\() trw", ..... ="]~:"*:::::: q :::::: COUNTRY ? 'P 'P 10 III ®'SUMM,r MtTAES

COUNTRY leVEl

Approximate Section and Restoration of the Walls of Theodosius II J.lN (IWH); \1. I'hilippides (tl';IOS.) Tltt' FilII oI"II' l:r,lll~ \\lJI'I,::1 hip-lcng:th leather corselet instcad, this IJI';:'{IIIIIIII' Hlllp/l"l': I CltTl/mdl' /II' Gnll:r:t' Splt"'IIII::'t'J II1\:Iriahl~ h,l\ ing a horizont:ll !lrc'lst-hand, the I'ur­ 1-101 J.l77 (19NO); I).E. QlIdler '/'lie Fuurlll Cl'IlSIulc: Pl)-'-C of \1 hich ma~ h:l \ e becn to secure I he t\\ 0 hal \ es Thl' CUIII/III'M f!F C,)II$lIl1l1lllUplt' 1201 120-1 (1978); ot'the cuirass in place (though thi~ doc... not explain C.T. Ri~~~ (tl":l11".) "mill:)' oI IIdlll/l'd lilt' C/llII/IiI'rur \1 h~ ~lIch hrCill>t-balli.b also occur in conjunction h)' 1\',./IIml1llll$ (]l)5-l); S. Runciman Tltt' Full {!fCrm­ with mail c.:orsckts). sUmlillI/ph' J.IS.' ( 11)65) all d .1IIJ//"{/: 11)';;(111111I1' CfIpllIII Characteristic armamcnt of 12th celltllr~ B~z;lO­ offltl' p/'/iJpfllllll'SC (1 WIO): G.c. Soulis 'I11t' .)'erbs alld tine c;l\alr~lllcn consisted of lancc :lnd s\\onl. 1~1'Z1I11II/1/11 dur/llg '''t' Rl't./!,It II/Tsllr Sll'p"m /)//sr/1/ (/1/(1 Though huth \ltJUllen ami cmc \:tnce... \\crc llscd the Ills SI/(CI'$.om (II)S"'), adoption of the Weslcrn custom of couching the lancc undcrarlll- I\hich had become normal B~zan­ tine practicc b~ thc 1150s - mcant thaI thc forlller THE PLATES \\crc preferred. The chroniclcr Choniates obsencd that 'nc'\ihle reed spears \Iere nut at all adcquatc' for A: IJyz:IIH;tleso/(/iers. 12fh-l.Jlh (,'(.'nfllr;e." this son offighting. Byz:mtine s\\ords \\cre indistin­ '\lthoug:h fiJrl'i~n influences - e~pedall~ Italo-Nor­ guish:lblc 1'1'0111 thosc of Weslcrn Europc (in HOn 1ll;1ll ;lrld Turki~h - \\cre eOIl~iderahle b) the 12th I~rnpcror ,\tll1uel II nCIl exprcssed thc \'ie\1 thai CClllllr~, B~/.:11lIille equipment portra~cd in contelll­ English s\\ords \\CI'C copied li'o1l1 thosc of B)"':Ul­ porar~ plctlll'e~ ret:lin ... .-.e\cr:ll di.-.tillcli\l: charactcr­ lium). Kinn:1tl10s. \Iriling: carl~ in the 13th ccntur~. i~til:s. lllo~t llotabl~ the leathcr fringcs and plt'I'It,/!,I'S at states thaI maccs I\erc also CllslOlll;lril~ carried b~ w:lisl and Shollldcr~, Thoug:h I:lmcllar and sc.:alc :lr­ B\. zantinc ca \';11 n. men. mour rcm:lincd inllsl' ulHil al kast till' 141h ccntur~, Shields wcre prillcipall~ Ill:lde of light, soft mail armour predominatcd. Corselets Clllle in "ari­ \\ood, cdged in lcather or Iron, co\'Crl'd \Iith parch­ ous sl~ks. uswlll~ I\ith shon slee\cs but sometimes mcnt 01' leathcr ;In appcarant;c is simil:lr 10 th:11 of corltempnral'~ \Vestern Europcan mcn-;II~:lrms. Other m:tnuscripts illumln:lted ,H Acrc depict Il~zan­ tine troops who. in hC:lllmeS ,lt1d sllrcoats. arc indis­ tingulsh,lblt: from Western knights. Signilieantl~ the

..1 siml'fislit'mllf' uf fJ"bt.'t'. .vUlt' I/mf lilt.· Com;f... ",jlloll/t.' (/rll\lll ill dUllbk 1:11111 "nih nfnllf 1~11'" I' F/nn'mioe lIoNf, frlllll till.' (j"fck" frH\di..r,lJuoII.k/lllfllllt.·. G:lII' rorrres" flllf\ ,u I'll" :I._ Tlu' 111:1.;:''';1 I.' duwdl ur 1111' Ubd,<'rll:lt.· di"·f";<',, /-IHgjll Sop/li:. stlllld.\' WI IJl'llm(/ rill' Gulclt-II florn fl,., riJ!./II. lllli/t· 1111.' I:lQ!<' 11<'$ ,lit· SII/JIII'I, urJ't'm, ur I",i1(/;111{ fOil "I'd." f 1>(.' '''II GIlI"r", /toft;s 'ilt· JJI"d'<'nl:l<' mpin: i knO\\ n to h,1\ e I een importing nrms and B2: wnan merCcna,..", C. 1300 3rml lIr ti'0l11 the \\ cst, \'ia lrnl~, b~ 1261 nt the \ 'r~ Th ' ·e4u<.:ncc of'l-lung ri~1I1 church llluraL at \' 'l'kej latest. Lomnici on \\ hich thi. figure i ba 'cd -hO\\ that .\3 i~a t~pical \n:llolian B)Lanline infamr)l11an under the quilt d hood he \\lAlrS hi hair \er) long, bn 'cd Iargel) on Q.lIeen .\ lelis 'ande' P. alter 1)1' r. \\ hid \\ as normal practice.: among:t th :ul11an (ee II. 1 3. Inf

.tn ()UQII1111 llOopccI iron gun of 14M, idcntical 10 riet·c~ lI."ctl IIg ,i/l,'" COilStil11/ i TIIJpit'. /(rilU/lOll/us rCl'urds 111011 Ihc ,en lr,rI!CSlo( .If 'llIl1~'d II~' gllllS ill 145.1 \I a.' ,,17 melrc.' (16.8/1) long, made ill /110 lIa/\ es chile SCI' ""t'd wg'ell,er. Tht, bon' II I.' 76 III (JOin.) in ellc (1'011/ 11,l1f((ar rile ,,'11111) lind 1.icm (JlJin.) in Ihe bud. Im/f(in/' 11ll' llifrgL'). In IIr ' illll."tr IIcd c\'lmp/c til' hull'c:, u'cigllcd I) I/}ns ench. in hug 'lagon. IIhich were drawn ul in a ue en \I'e of 1350-55 in the i\luna ter) f Zemcn i. t~ pica\. laager ;wound lheir « mp- 'ites :H night. \ 1 ) t wor a shurt mail cor, clet with hart leen;, and occasionally a collar, though me ubstitUlcd 1: Byzillltin .'ollier, c. 1-95 lam Ilar armour. hi Id varied omcwhal in ,hape, Th r~ p ofarmour II urn b) tl is oldieI' from Byzan­ the Bulgarian, fa\ouring: the conl'cmioll,ll W stern tine ~Iacedunia (ba-ed largely on a church mural in Europ 'an heatcr-shield (l er the longcr, sll'aighl­ hrid) flouri hcd in J )zantium and ncighbouring sided triangular Bp;antine variet) (though Ihc~ u 'ctl crbia durin~ thc pcriod (. 11 0-1330, and erhap both), 'and also still used bu klcrs, until (. 1350. It t. "icalls 'ompri 'cu a mail-lincd 'wai'tco.H' 110m OIer a I athcr cor.del and, under D: Byzanlin' oldi "', 14th ntur' lh,ll, 'calc or !:Jmellar body-armour and a 'epa rate, The 'e 'oJdiers arc from pictures in the R,JII/(/I/ct! (II rigid collar of Icnil:al laminae, abres and 'abn::­ ,'I!C.I'(//Irier Ihe Ire"l. len armoured a heavil) as J I hiltcd, \lords began LO make an appearan 'c among: 'I would hal'e been uncommon, armoured hOI' 'es evcn 13~ I.anlines and 'crb' alil-e;ll aboul lhis time, more ,0 (this \, hole manu cripl C ntains onl) two arm urcd horse" and one. oldi I' II ith mail Ol'cr his 2: EpirOl . Byzantine soldier. Nth c ntury face). Doubtk s such comprehensive armour I\ould hhough lhe almund- haped shield of ') could till ha\'c bc n a"ailable onl~ to soldier, 0 elite guard b' ound in 0 'c:u,ional LIse as late a c, 1350, b) the units 'ome of whom were till uniJormed. P udo­ late I'th Cenlllr) it was being displa 'cd b) the long, l(odino describe, the Vardariots wearing red amI traighl- ided triangular variety 'arried here. lostly the Tz"ko/les sky blue (embroidered on brea t and ahoul -+: em (I in,) II ide but Iarying in height be­ 001 k with twO white lion, face to rae). regoras lll'en YO-ISO 'm (3-Sft) th 'se appear to haH; been mention uni onn in the mid Hth century, II hilc of\er) light conslruclion, The ,'pur' lIurn by thi· the 16lh cenrury Ottoman historian Bitlisi mention' figure (ba.ed on ~e\eral Thes. alonikan depictions of thal B.'zantinc soldiers cu, romarily II ore :-.earlet. 't Demctrius) indicate wc 'tern influen ·C. The 'ouree shows 'oldiers equipped like 1J2 fighting both on fOOL and on horseback. ote that he '3: Byzil1ltine or lJulgar;an infantryman. still carrie' an almond-shaped shield II hich gcncr- c. /3.;0 Tile costumcs ufelle 'I: influence prc\'a/ent 'ontempOl'lIncl rcd cQ:les(onc lI'itlll1 II/,i/(' paC/crn), w/lilc til (;lll ling figure. riglH, Il ears a II'Ilite co II and ycJ/(l1I wIlie, all~ disappe:m.:d at abom this time. D3's quiltcd memoirs and piclUres in Serbian manuscripts. Cer­ armour is idelltical to that found in Western Euro­ lainl) the Serbs ill the Nicaean army at the Banle of pean sourCes of the sallle date. the terms PIl/l/PlJill1 Pdagonia in 1259 \Icre horse-archers. and glllll/ll>.WII llsed 10 descrihe such corselets both occurring in a list of H~za11line arms dating to 1326. £2: BuJgariiw iHlxiJiary, c. 13-l5 Hi:. arrull-lluiler is I)f Persi.ln t~pe rather than the Pil.:tori.11 suurces demunstrate that the similarity be­ more usual f\siatic \arict~. tween Bulg,lrian and l3yzantine equipment persisled until Bulg;lria fell 10 the Onom:1ll Turks at lhe end of £1: Serb;,,,, ,/Uxil;;lry. 14(1, celllury the l-hh centur). Bulgarian eOSIllllle, hO\lel'er. re­ The freswes of t. 1:)09-14 on which this figure is mained distinctly Balkan. The source for this figure based delllonstmll' Ih.11 Hlh Cel1tllr~ Serhi'lll equip­ is the ;\Ial/fl,Ut'S Codl'.\" made few TS:lr Iv,lll Alexander ment. Ilk,,' 14th IXlltllf_1 Bulgarian, differed little (1331-65), the illustl':Jtions or \\ hich indicate th.1I Ihc from that or B~z;Jntium, though the Scrbs, whilst long gown oftcn concealed light body-,ll'l11our (Bul­ making some usc of the triangular shield by then garian mail or lamellar curselets often reaching only preferred in the Empire, continued to favour the to the waist or hips). All Bulgarian cil\'alr) men \Iere almond-shaped I ariet ~. 'fheir preferred weapon customarily armed with a composite bow, though combination appC:lrs 10 hale been Ianee (still olien their he:n') cavalry at least also carried a latlce. \Iieklt-d olemrm), .~I\nrd, m,u.;e and Clunpositc bUll. The fact that Serhian arrnllured cal'alr~ of the 13th E.1: Scrbii11l knight, 13th century and 14th centuries \1 ere preparcd to light as hurse­ Under cunstalll pressure from the Ottomans archers is contirtlll~d b~ K,ltltakoui'enos' military throughout Ihe second half of the Hth century.

Serbia heg:1ll to imporl j growing \'olJlme of its arms frnm the \Vest. in particuhlr from Venice .md 1..0111­ bard~. 13~ the 15th centur) better-elluipped Serbs had become indistingui.~hable from their Italian counterparts, except in relilining a shield (probabl~ in response 10 the 01101ll:JtlS' dependence on arch­ ery). Ironically contingents or Serbian he:!vy cav:Jlr) consequently appeared in most Ottoman field armies during the first half of the 15th ce1l1ur). becoming famous tor thc clTecti\·cness of their dose-order charge. A 1,500-strong SlTbian contingent cven al­ tended thc siege ofConSI:mt inople in H 53.

FI: High-ranking UyzillIlinc Ol1iCCI', cour( elres... Takcn from:l manuscript portrait of r. IH2, Ihis is ,'\Iexius Apokaukos. III"'~(JS dOll.l' IHO~5, ,I devious m'lnipulalOr responsible for ddibemtel~ prmoking the eil iI war of 134 I~ 7 10 rlln her his own am bitions. Despite 0\\ ing his iniliill athc:lllcclllem at cOLIn to John K'11ltakouzcnos. he was ne\'enhcless Ihe princi­ p,i1 supporl\.-r of John's adversar~. the Empress Ann:l, until murdered b) political prisoners while li~itillg a jail. ·I'hl.: st)le of his long:, ornate gO\ln is t~pical of tr:llli,ion:11 13th-15th centur) H~z:lIltin(' upper-class dress. Ilhich \las imariabl) bright and rit.:hl) embroidcrcd, oficll in gold thrc.ld. 1"1: Turkish /IIl'ra·fIlII:,'. 11,h Cl'tl/U/:I L71~~ :llld Sdilll..~ Ilerl' hUlh emplu~l:d in htrgc IlUrll­ her~ Ulllilthe I I70s. :l1ld \Ie 1.110\1 frolll :\I:L:ount~ of tht, B,l1tleof\l~ritll.t'ph:llon (1176) lh:1I1he~ \\t're.to all 111ll'n'" :11ld purpo..e... indi~lin~t1i .. hable. I'rediL:t­ ahl~ mosl \lere light hor'ic-an:her.... hut ...ollle \\ere :ll'IllOllre~1 ("-innamo.... Ii-II' i,"'t:lllee. reL:urds 'an ar­ moured re~in1t"llt ofTurl.,· ill the 1I~/antinearm~ at Semlin in 11(7). Thu...e th:J.t :.cllkd in the Empire often 1001. B~/.alltillt, \\i\c\ :lIld ...omctimt'S adopted Christianit~, l'mhr:3L:ill~ B~/.a11line L:uhurc ~o thor­ oughl~ that it i.. not UIl..:onUllon to find TurJ..s hold­ ing senior pu~t... in the ImperiJI hierJreh~,

F3: Turkis/l ;1II\i/;;,r,'. Hr/1-l,;l/l ccnturil'.<; Ottoman soldier.. in B~zal\linc emplo~ customaril~ t'On...isted of light L":I\alr~. ThL'M: \Iere generJII~ armed \lith J compo"itc hem. to \lhil.:h mo... t added a !W.hre and "omt' .1 light tlllt:e, \ "m:lll. round \\ooden shidd \la... al-.(I not 1I1ll'Ollllllon. Tht:ir drt s \\a... picts charaCleri'itic \lhani.1ll CO'>llllllC. \Ihich (.'On­ hea\il~ influcnl.:t'd h~ Ibll.:m CO.. tulllt:. wnsi ting of sisl\:d of a tall. hnl;ul-hrimmetl hat: iolcc\ dt'Ss !lillie: bagg~ trou..er.., '>t'H:rJI Inllg t:01l0n mix:... \lurn olle and a L"OOt \Iilh t'\lrt:md~ lung ~Iec\es. from \lhieh mer :l1lutht:r••lIld .m mller robe of feil de..cribcd as the arm.. llsuall~ emergcd thruugh a iolit at the .. houl­ both Iighl Jilt) \\Jlt:rpruol. B~ the 15th eentllr~ thi ... del' or dbu\I, It \I.l~ from the \Ib:mi::an ... th:lI Ihis lI!iuall~ had \t'r~ lUll!'...lit ~Iee\e ... \\hieh \I ere CllS­ fa~hiun \1:15 copied b~ both Turb ::and 1t:\lian!!o (the tQmJril~ tied hehind the h.ld, in .u.:liull. In addition latter pa...... in~ it on til \\ L~tt:rn Europe timing (he the long rube.. \Iere often tuded into the lOp of the 151h L1.:ntllr~). The coat ~ollletillle!!o concealed a mail bag!!~ troll'.cr~ lor frt:edOlli of mm ement. corse\t:t. hut lllo~t o\lballian ... \\elU unarmomed. D.llna...eene le:llher huo",. :llld :1 turban (uslIall~ T~piG11 armament con..i<,led ofa light .1-3,7 metre II hile) \1 rapped ruund :1 red cap, completed lheir (10-1 2ft) l:lllCC \1 ith :I blade :It each end (Ihe ::.t1.~U/(), co...lUllle, a"(l':light. broad "'\Iord. :llld:l ht::I\~ mal.:t:,

G I: Cunmn 1I1C,'lTIltI/',I. /,If 11 c('nlury GJ: Iwliall 1)I('·"C('·I1:1r,l, I.J.B The eu... tllrlle llflhi.. II:lrriclr. fl'Olllthc famou ... A'ipc)' ~Iatl~ of the \\ eSlern mt·reenarie... :ll1d \Ulllllteer~ A'nill/h, tll:lIlu~Ll'ipt d:llin~ 10 rhe I.lflOs. is mOl'e \1 ho a~:>;sletl ill lhe linal defencc ofCOll.'>talltinople in I~ piclI th:,n Ihilt nfpIal e 112. :llHl is ioilllilarl~ recorded 1453 Ilere armed "itlt h:tnd~uns :lnd L:l'Ossb(J\I~. in nUllieroll~ 141h CClllur~ SllUrL:CS, 'rhe ch:lr:Klcris­ though speari> and j:I\'Clins are abo rt:conlcd. Tht' IlL: \I;dt'-hrimllled hal:-the~ all ~kpll.:t \ar~ ~ornell hal lllajU1·it~. being se:llllen, lIQuid halc \10m onl.\ light in shape, htll ill\:lriahl.1 h:l\e the hrim slit :It the front :ll'lllilur. or none :11 :111, bUI a proportion - 3-400 of or s;de~ :llld turned lip or dUIIIl in dillerent 11:l~S. Gillstini:lIli .... men. ror' in .. t:l1lce. and some of till' "Jole hi ... I:,ir hair. \Ihich ~:l\C ri'ie In the n:lme... \ eneti:ln~ - \1 ore pble half":lrmuur, POlm'IS)' ami Fuln." h~ \1 hidl lhe Clllllalls I\ere I.no\ll\ 10 Ihc Ru .. ~i.llh :lnd German.... buth deri\ing HI: llyz;wtitl(· militiaman, 15,h ("('ntur.1 from \lonl.. llle.lIlill~ ·~ellO\I·. Tht: mell \1 ho I.:Olhlilutetl the,: l!reater part of lhe B~/.;lIltine defender:> nfCon... t:ullinop[e ill 1-153 \\ere Gl: ,1Ib:lni;11l IIJ(:n'cfmr.l. 1.'t1l l'cntur,1 inn,pericnced ci\ ili:lll", Tht:,e :lfe de...crihed h~ Thi.. figure. h.l ..ed 1.lr:.:-d~ un.\ 15th centur~ j>llrtl':lit I.t~(l]lartl of Chio... a.. IlIclding Iheil' arm'i 'accurding: of thl' re"I ..I:lllte \t::ulcr SI.:mtlerheg (1+B M~), de- 10 the light ofnalUre 1':11 her th:lll \lIth an~ iol.i]]'. anti I\e knml from other SOlll"CCS that town-dwelling Tile li111 orTrcb;um(/. SpC>l rs, call only be from fJ pain/cd Floren/;nc c/isringu;sllcd /i'om Llrc;/' I Fantine 'i\'ilians lIen: larl,(c1) ignorant of w. d'arc cas,soll ofc. /·/62. The /loman opponcnL hy thc and inlariabl) rc!uct;llll to ti.glll: lhe fact lhar .everal BI'Zfllltinc defender . ubsritu/ion uff;rll. fl~mcd thou:aml rallieu to ConSIJntin pi" de cnee in 145.) 16th compo itL' plumcd /1a/. for /urhans. I,Oll' " L'1Ir1'cd -"fibre' and i ;lCIU;lll) excepti mal. Leunaru records them heing armeu mo. tl) II ith 'word., spears and shields, a vi'itcd :on tantinoplc in 14-33 hc saw one ofJohn'. mailer number IHl\'ing bo\\. ; howel er, the (e\1 thai brother and a SCI re of horscmen practising horse­ he III ,ntion a' being cros ,bo\\ -armeu \\ ere probably archer) in thc Hippodromc. lie records that this rC running up lhe i., 'iignificant lhal II hl'n Berrrandon ue la Brocquicre sid's and, plume of crane feathers.