Beardsley's Theory of Analogy

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Beardsley's Theory of Analogy INFORMAL LOGIC XI.3, Fall 1989 Beardsley's Theory of Analogy EVELYN M. BARKER The University of Maryland 1. Is the Argument from Analogy a consequences of an "abdication of Fallacy? statesmanship."2 Kissinger cites historical analogy as the only basis for sound judg­ In the various editions of Practical Logic ment in international diplomacy: and Thinking Straight Monroe Beardsley History is the only experience on which pioneered informal logic, the assessment of statesmen can draw. But it does not teach reasoning techniques employed in actual its lessons automatically. It demonstrates the human situations. 1 Although acknowledg­ consequences of comparable situations, but ing the prominence of analogies in reason­ each generation has to determine what situa­ ing, he contended that analogy has some tions are in fact comparable. heuristic uses, but an argument based on one Such analogical arguments, as Kissinger is inherently fallacious: points out, are directed to finding suitable Analogies illustrate, and they lead to premises for wise and prudent action. hypotheses, but thinking in terms of analogy Beardsley's intellectualist approach limits becomes fallacious when the analogy is us­ rational argumentation to asserting premises ed as a reason for a principle. This fallacy as evidence for the truth of a conclusion. is called the "argument from analogy." Consequently he overlooks or misconceives (PL 107) the character of some forms of analogical Beardsley's view implies that no serious argument prevalent in practical reasoning. reasoner will use analogies between things It is misleading to speak of "the argument in drawing conclusions, or be persuaded by from analogy," as Beardsley does, as if all another's introduction of them. According­ are of the same kind. 3 ly, an important source of human Historical analogy, or "learning from knowledge is proscribed: historical analogy, experience," most nearly resembles reasoning based on direct comparison of arguments of inductive analogy: From past situations with the present. observed facts about previous instances one In practical reasoning, however, one draws an inference about what is likely to must often reach a judgment about the be true of a new instance sharing salient crucial features of some particular situation characteristics with them. Beardsley denies, in order to determine an appropriate course however, that inductive analogy is "a suc­ of action with respect to it. Analogizing its cesful kind of inductive argument" (TS2 features to another whose favorable or un­ 66). favorable outcome is already known, far Beardsley's theory of analogical reason­ from being fallacious, is at least common ing exemplifies overformalization in reduc­ sense and at most wisdom. For example, ing diverse kinds of analogy arguments to in a recent newspaper commentary head­ a single form, then assessing them all lined "A Stable World: Lessons of World fallacious because of the logical War II", Henry Kissinger compares the characteristics of that form. This results in current international situation with that a "denaturalized epistemology" of leading to World War II, warning of the dire analogical arguments, one with inappro- 186 Evelyn M. Barker priate concepts of knowledge, unrelated to define a fallacy as an argument that seduces reasoning techniques successfully employed one into thinking that the evidence provid­ in a range of actual situations. ed by its premises suffices for the truth of In order to track Beardsley's claim that its conclusion. an analogical argument is inherently fallacious, we must have in view his general theory of argument. Like many, he divides 2. Beardsley's Formalization of arguments into two exclusive kinds: deduc­ Analogical Reasoning. tive and inductive. A deductive argument makes the claim (correctly or incorrectly) Beardsley first formulated the principle that the truth of its conclusion follows of analogical argument in this way: "If X necessarily from the truth of the premises, and Y have a number of characteristics in because the argument is formally valid. He common, it is likely that any further calls all nondeductive arguments inductive: characteristics found in Y will also be found Such arguments make a lesser claim that in X." (PL 108) Few if any analogical "the evidence is sufficient to make the con­ arguments make such a sweeeping claim. clusion, at the very least, more likely to be He subsequently toned down the conclusion, true than false." (PL 197-203, TS228-29, schematizing the argument as follows: TS423-27) X and Y both have certain characteristics He insists that "any compelling argu­ a, b, c ... And it is known that Y also has ment must be one of these kinds, and another characteristic q. Therefore: X has moreover, it must conform to the standards the characteristic q. (TS2 65) of its kind." (PL 197). As Beardsley His reason for calling the analogical describes the argument from analogy, it is argument fallacious remains constant, a neither formally valid, nor does it fit his two thesis we may call the Principle of Infinite models of inductive reasoning, explanatory or Indefinite Variability, italicized by me hypothesis and inductive generalization. Not below: surprisingly, an analogical argument fulfills Beardsley'S conception of a fallacy: .. .if two things have a good deal in com­ mon ... the likeness may justify a further in­ An argument is a good one only if it pro­ vestigation to see whether they actually do ceeds in accordance with some rule of in­ have more in common. But it does not justify ference and thus can be justified by appeal our believing that they have more in com­ to that rule. If it purports to conform to a mon without the further investigation. No rule of inference, and thus acquires some matter how many characteristics a pair of plausibility, though in fact it violates that things have in common, there may be any rule, then it is said to be fallacious, or to number of other ways in which they are dif­ contain a fallacy. (TS4 26) ferent. (PL 108, TS2 66) As we shall see, the analogical argument With a little logic-chopping it is quite turns out not to have a justifying "rule of true that any two things, even identical inference" of its very own, or more exact­ twins, can readily be shown to have an in­ ly, its "rule of inference" contradicts a definitely large number of different principle Beardsley enunciates. In defining characteristics. But this logical point is ir­ a fallacy relative to its peculiar' 'rule of in­ relevant to whether there are significant ference" Beardsley betrays a formalistic similarities between the things analogized view of what constitutes "good argument" on which a reasonable judgment affirming as well as what constitutes a "fallacy". A an additional similarity may be based. In­ broader conception of both need make no ductive reasoning is useful because observ­ reference to the existence of a peculiar' 'rule ed similarities enable us to to make predic­ of inference." For example, one could tions about the future, which eventually are Beardsley on Analogy 187 confirmed or disconfirmed. tween blue-eyed parents and their offspring: In holding that analogical reasoning is fallacious because a conclusion may tum out John's parents both have blue eyes, and so do Jim's; John has blue eyes; therefore, Jim in fact to be false, Beardsley applies a must have blue eyes. (TS2 66) stricter standard to it than to ordinary in­ ductive reasoning-one appropriate to Beardsley's comparison of these two deductive reasoning. A "good" deductive arguments shows that they have the same argument has both 1) a valid logical form logical form, but that form is of such a kind and 2) true premises, so that the truth of that the premises may be true without the the conclusion follows necessarily from the conclusion also being true, that is, the argu­ truth of the premises. In effect, he accuses ment is formally invalid. In the first, we the analogical argument form of being in­ would not be surprised by the falsity of the valid, so that the truth of its premises does conclusion; in the second, we would be. If not guarantee the truth of its conclusion. But we insist on interpreting the argument from an analogical argument need not, and usual­ analogy as making a deductive claim, which ly does not, make that deductive claim. requires a valid argument form as well as Beardsley's formalization of the true premises, we would indeed have to call analogical argument tempts one to suppose it fallacious. the assumed resemblances a, b, c and the But the issue is, should we view' 'the inferred resemblance q are independent analogical argument" as making a deduc­ variables. Yet Beardsley's own definition tive claim that the conclusion follows of an analogy points out that they are all necessarily from the premises? Since interconnected: An analogy is an "extend­ analogical arguments are based on the ed simile" in which two things are com­ characteristics of the referents of the two pared in terms of the structural relationships terms analogized, the semantic interpreta­ holding between their characteristics or tion of the terms drives the argument rather part-whole relationships (PL 105-6). This than the logical form of the argument interrelatedness among the resemblances statements. The "must be" can reasonably mentioned in the premises tends to justify be understood as the less insistent "most an inference about a further resemblance. 4 likely" of an inductive claim. An invalid Like inductive reasoning generally, an deductive argument readily converts into a inductive analogy is not based merely on respectable inductive argument, as many in­ its stated premises but on all our knowledge troductory logic books say. If this is the about the world. The grounds for the argu­ case, an analogical argument, rather than ment include our independent knowledge being inherently fallacious, has more or less about the things analogized and the weight depending on what we know about characteristics attributed to them.
Recommended publications
  • The Argument Form “Appeal to Galileo”: a Critical Appreciation of Doury's Account
    The Argument Form “Appeal to Galileo”: A Critical Appreciation of Doury’s Account MAURICE A. FINOCCHIARO Department of Philosophy University of Nevada, Las Vegas Las Vegas, NV 89154-5028 USA [email protected] Abstract: Following a linguistic- Résumé: En poursuivant une ap- descriptivist approach, Marianne proche linguistique-descriptiviste, Doury has studied debates about Marianne Doury a étudié les débats “parasciences” (e.g. astrology), dis- sur les «parasciences » (par exem- covering that “parascientists” fre- ple, l'astrologie), et a découvert que quently argue by “appeal to Galileo” les «parasavants» raisonnent souvent (i.e., defend their views by compar- en faisant un «appel à Galilée" (c.-à- ing themselves to Galileo and their d. ils défendent leurs points de vue opponents to the Inquisition); oppo- en se comparant à Galileo et en nents object by criticizing the analo- comparant leurs adversaires aux gy, charging fallacy, and appealing juges de l’Inquisition). Les adver- to counter-examples. I argue that saires des parasavant critiquent Galilean appeals are much more l'analogie en la qualifiant de soph- widely used, by creationists, global- isme, et en construisant des contre- warming skeptics, advocates of “set- exemples. Je soutiens que les appels tled science”, great scientists, and à Galilée sont beaucoup plus large- great philosophers. Moreover, sever- ment utilisés, par des créationnistes, al subtypes should be distinguished; des sceptiques du réchauffement critiques questioning the analogy are planétaire, des défenseurs de la «sci- proper; fallacy charges are problem- ence établie», des grands scien- atic; and appeals to counter- tifiques, et des grands philosophes. examples are really indirect critiques En outre, on doit distinguer plusieurs of the analogy.
    [Show full text]
  • Circles and Analogies in Public Health Reasoning Louise Cummings
    SUMMER 2014, VOL. 29, NO. 2 35 Circles and Analogies in Public Health Reasoning Louise Cummings School of Arts and Humanities Nottingham Trent University, UK Abstract 7KHVWXG\RIWKHIDOODFLHVKDVFKDQJHGDOPRVWEH\RQGUHFRJQLWLRQVLQFH&KDUOHV+DPEOLQFDOOHG IRUDUDGLFDOUHDSSUDLVDORIWKLVDUHDRIORJLFDOLQTXLU\LQKLVERRN)DOODFLHV7KH³ZLWOHVV H[DPSOHVRIKLVIRUEHDUV´WRZKLFK+DPEOLQUHIHUUHGKDYHODUJHO\EHHQUHSODFHGE\PRUH authentic cases of the fallacies in actual use. It is now not unusual for fallacy and argumentation theorists to draw on actual sources for examples of how the fallacies are used in our everyday UHDVRQLQJ+RZHYHUDQDVSHFWRIWKLVPRYHWRZDUGVJUHDWHUDXWKHQWLFLW\LQWKHVWXG\RIWKH fallacies, an aspect which has been almost universally neglected, is the attempt to subject the fallacies to empirical testing of the type which is more commonly associated with psychological experiments on reasoning. This paper addresses this omission in research on the fallacies by examining how subjects use two fallacies – circular argument and analogical argument – during a reasoning task in which subjects are required to consider a number of public health scenarios. Results are discussed in relation to a view of the fallacies as cognitive heuristics that facilitate reasoning in a context of uncertainty. Keywords: analogical argument, circular argument, heuristic, informal fallacy, public health, reasoning, uncertainty I. Introduction puns, anecdotes, and witless examples of his forbears. The study of the fallacies has changed :KHUHSKLORVRSKLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRQWKH considerably in
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of Reasoning in Constructing a Persuasive Argument
    The Role of Reasoning in Constructing a Persuasive Argument <http://www.orsinger.com/PDFFiles/constructing-a-persuasive-argument.pdf> [The pdf version of this document is web-enabled with linking endnotes] Richard R. Orsinger [email protected] http://www.orsinger.com McCurley, Orsinger, McCurley, Nelson & Downing, L.L.P. San Antonio Office: 1717 Tower Life Building San Antonio, Texas 78205 (210) 225-5567 http://www.orsinger.com and Dallas Office: 5950 Sherry Lane, Suite 800 Dallas, Texas 75225 (214) 273-2400 http://www.momnd.com State Bar of Texas 37th ANNUAL ADVANCED FAMILY LAW COURSE August 1-4, 2011 San Antonio CHAPTER 11 © 2011 Richard R. Orsinger All Rights Reserved The Role of Reasoning in Constructing a Persuasive Argument Chapter 11 Table of Contents I. THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSUASION.. 1 II. PERSUASION IN ARGUMENTATION.. 1 III. BACKGROUND.. 2 IV. USER’S GUIDE FOR THIS ARTICLE.. 2 V. ARISTOTLE’S THREE COMPONENTS OF A PERSUASIVE SPEECH.. 3 A. ETHOS.. 3 B. PATHOS.. 4 C. LOGOS.. 4 1. Syllogism.. 4 2. Implication.. 4 3. Enthymeme.. 4 (a) Advantages and Disadvantages of Commonplaces... 5 (b) Selection of Commonplaces.. 5 VI. ARGUMENT MODELS (OVERVIEW)... 5 A. LOGIC-BASED ARGUMENTS. 5 1. Deductive Logic.. 5 2. Inductive Logic.. 6 3. Reasoning by Analogy.. 7 B. DEFEASIBLE ARGUMENTS... 7 C. THE TOULMIN ARGUMENTATION MODEL... 7 D. FALLACIOUS ARGUMENTS.. 8 E. ARGUMENTATION SCHEMES.. 8 VII. LOGICAL REASONING (DETAILED ANALYSIS).. 8 A. DEDUCTIVE REASONING.. 8 1. The Categorical Syllogism... 8 a. Graphically Depicting the Simple Categorical Syllogism... 9 b. A Legal Dispute as a Simple Syllogism.. 9 c.
    [Show full text]
  • Misreading Skepticism in the Long Eighteenth Century: Studies in the Rhetoric of Assent
    Misreading Skepticism in the Long Eighteenth Century: Studies in the Rhetoric of Assent By Adam Sneed A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (English Language and Literature) in the University of Michigan 2018 Doctoral Committee: Professor Marjorie Levinson, Chair Professor Gregg Crane Associate Professor Sean Silver Professor Silke Maria-Weineck Adam Sneed [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9205-1715 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first thanks must be to the University of Michigan for the opportunity and privilege to pursue the life of the mind. I am deeply grateful for the tremendous and constant support provided by faculty and staff of the UM English Department. I am indebted to the Rackham School of Graduate Studies for two timely dissertation fellowships and to the U-M LSA International Institute for the opportunity to pursue archival research in Scotland. I thank the members of my dissertation committee: Sean Silver for providing a constant model of passionate, creative scholarship; Gregg Crane for first dislodging me from a neo-Kantian, Skeptical perspective; Silke Maria-Weineck for cheering on the polemic; and my wonderful chair, Marjorie Levinson, for supporting and encouraging me at every stage of the dissertation process and for bearing with me as the project evolved over time. I would like to thank my dear friends Samuel Heidepriem, Emily Waples, Logan Scherer, Kristin Fraser Geisler, Ryan Hampstead, Joe Chapman, Anthony Losapio, Sarah Mass, Alice Tsay, Lizzy Mathie, and Amrita Dhar for their love and support through the years in Ann Arbor. Special thanks to my dear friends Kathryne Bevilacqua, John Paul Hampstead, and Julia Hansen, who read and commented on drafts in the final stages.
    [Show full text]
  • Problems in Argument Analysis and Evaluation
    PROBLEMS IN ARGUMENT ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION Windsor Studies in Argumentation Volume 6 TRUDY GOVIER Windsor Studies in Argumentation Windsor Ontario Canada Problems in Argument Analysis and Evaluation by Trudy Govier & Windsor Studies in Argumentation is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Copyright Trudy Govier and Windsor Studies in Argumentation ISBN 978-0-920233-83-2 CONTENTS WSIA Editors v WSIA Editors' Introduction vii Preface viii 1. Rigor and Reality 1 2. Is a Theory of Argument Possible 20 3. The Great Divide 56 4. Two Unreceived Views about Reasoning and 84 Argument 5. The Problem of Missing Premises 123 6. A Dialogic Exercise 161 7. A New Approach to Charity 203 8. Reasons Why Arguments and Explanations are 242 Different 9. Four Reasons There are No Fallacies? 271 10. Formalism and Informalism in Theories of 311 Reasoning and Argument 11. Critical Thinking in the Armchair, the Classroom, 349 and the Lab 12. Critical Thinking about Critical Thinking Tests 377 13. The Social Epistemology of Argument 413 WSIA EDITORS Editors in Chief Leo Groarke (Trent University) Christopher Tindale (University of Windsor) Board of Editors Mark Battersby (Capilano University) Camille Cameron (Dalhousie University) Emmanuelle Danblon (Université libre de Bruxelles) Ian Dove (University of Nevada Las Vegas) Bart Garssen (University of Amsterdam) Michael Gilbert (York University) David Godden (Michigan State University) Jean Goodwin (North Carolina State University) Hans V. Hansen (University of Windsor) Gabrijela Kišiček (University of Zagreb) Marcin Koszowy (University of Białystok) Marcin Lewiński (New University of Lisbon) Catherine H. Palczewski (University of Northern Iowa) Chris Reed (University of Dundee) Andrea Rocci (University of Lugano) Paul van den Hoven (Tilburg University) Cristián Santibáñez Yáñez (Diego Portales University) Igor Ž.
    [Show full text]
  • Spiritual Laws and Supernatural Power… 36
    The Universe Within A Unicorn’s Manual II EDITION Charles Smith III Formatted and Edited by Paul Millage & Charles Patrick Robinson Cover Art Illustrated by Anna Jackson 1 Unicorn: an abstract variable for any marginalized demographic of society. 2 Dedicated to my mother, and anyone who has ever felt lost, insecure or inadequate. I hope this helps. Kings and Queens –ALL of us. Joy comes from within. 3 When I was a young child, my classmates and I congregated in the school gymnasium for a theatrical play in which the antagonist attempted to extract all the colors from the world. 4 Acknowledgments and Special Thanks This is a satirical conglomerate of affirmations, mantras, quotation, and spiritual intermediary interpretation. A multidimensional prismatic explanation of existence. A wizard’s spell book. A divine hodgepodge with a sporadic all-inclusive element of tangentiality; just like the absurdity of articulating the great divine. You will notice numerous quotes throughout these pages. It’s my way of paying tribute and homage to the greats who have come before me. I believe the divine lives within and speaks through each of us. I piece together different ideas to find common truths, therefore creating a larger, more beautiful reality. I offer up a unified voice throughout existence stitched together by a common thread of destiny called love. A cosmic game of “connect the dots.” I invite the reader to inquire and support the plethora of artists I've paid homage to, for if I've seen further it's because I've stood on the shoulders of giants.
    [Show full text]
  • Critical Thinking
    Critical Thinking Mark Storey Bellevue College Copyright (c) 2013 Mark Storey Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is found at http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.txt. 1 Contents Part 1 Chapter 1: Thinking Critically about the Logic of Arguments .. 3 Chapter 2: Deduction and Induction ………… ………………. 10 Chapter 3: Evaluating Deductive Arguments ……………...…. 16 Chapter 4: Evaluating Inductive Arguments …………..……… 24 Chapter 5: Deductive Soundness and Inductive Cogency ….…. 29 Chapter 6: The Counterexample Method ……………………... 33 Part 2 Chapter 7: Fallacies ………………….………….……………. 43 Chapter 8: Arguments from Analogy ………………………… 75 Part 3 Chapter 9: Categorical Patterns….…….………….…………… 86 Chapter 10: Propositional Patterns……..….…………...……… 116 Part 4 Chapter 11: Causal Arguments....……..………….………....…. 143 Chapter 12: Hypotheses.….………………………………….… 159 Chapter 13: Definitions and Analyses...…………………...…... 179 Chapter 14: Probability………………………………….………199 2 Chapter 1: Thinking Critically about the Logic of Arguments Logic and critical thinking together make up the systematic study of reasoning, and reasoning is what we do when we draw a conclusion on the basis of other claims. In other words, reasoning is used when you infer one claim on the basis of another. For example, if you see a great deal of snow falling from the sky outside your bedroom window one morning, you can reasonably conclude that it’s probably cold outside. Or, if you see a man smiling broadly, you can reasonably conclude that he is at least somewhat happy.
    [Show full text]
  • Critical Reasoning and Writing
    CRITICAL REASONING AND WRITING Noah Levin Golden West College Book: Critical Reasoning and Writing (Levin et al.) Cross Library Transclusion template('CrossTransclude/Web',{'Library':'chem','PageID':170365}); TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE 1: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL THINKING, REASONING, AND LOGIC What is thinking? It may seem strange to begin a logic textbook with this question. ‘Thinking’ is perhaps the most intimate and personal thing that people do. Yet the more you ‘think’ about thinking, the more mysterious it can appear. Many people believe that logic is very abstract, dispassionate, complicated, and even cold. But in fact the study of logic is nothing more intimidating or obscure than this: the study of good thinking. 1.1: PRELUDE TO CHAPTER 1.2: INTRODUCTION AND THOUGHT EXPERIMENTS- THE TROLLEY PROBLEM 1.3: TRUTH AND ITS ROLE IN ARGUMENTATION - CERTAINTY, PROBABILITY, AND MONTY HALL 1.4: DISTINCTION OF PROOF FROM VERIFICATION; OUR BIASES AND THE FORER EFFECT 1.5: THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1.6: DIAGRAMMING THOUGHTS AND ARGUMENTS - ANALYZING NEWS MEDIA 1.7: CREATING A PHILOSOPHICAL OUTLINE 2: LANGUAGE - MEANING AND DEFINITION Rational people ought to concede he was right about one thing: many disagreements stem from linguistic problems. To resolve this, we simply (though it’s not actually simple) must use language clearly and precisely. If we eliminate all linguistic issues, then we’re left with the more meaningful philosophical problems, and real arguments can now happen since we know exactly what we’re talking about. 2.1: TECHNIQUES OF DEFINING- “SEMANTICS” VS “SYNTAX” AND AVOIDING MORE AMBIGUITY 2.2: CRITERIA FOR FRAMING DEFINITIONS- IT’S ALL ABOUT CONTEXT AND AUDIENCE 2.3: DEFINING TERMS APPROPRIATELY 2.4: COGNITIVE AND EMOTIVE MEANING - ABORTION AND CAPITAL PUNISHMENT 2.5: FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE AND PRECISION IN SPEECH 2.6: DEFINING TERMS- TYPES AND PURPOSES OF DEFINITIONS 3: INFORMAL FALLACIES - MISTAKES IN REASONING What is a fallacy? Simply put, a fallacy is an error in reasoning.
    [Show full text]
  • Reviving the Argument from Design: Detecting Design
    REVIVING THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN DETECTING DESIGN THROUGH SMALL PROBABILITIES† William A. Dembski Northwestern University Department of Mathematics Evanston, IL 60208 Portions of this work were presented at the biannual meeting of the Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences (30 May 1991) and at the 50th anniversary meeting of the American Scientific Affiliation (29 July 1991). †This work was completed while I was a postdoctoral fellow in mathematics at Northwestern University under the direction of probabilist Mark Pinsky. REVIVING THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN DETECTING DESIGN TIJROUGH SMALL ·PROBABILITIES I William A. Dembski P ! Northwestern University and Department of Mathematics Evanston, IL 60204 Evanston, IL 60208 ,--..,_ i 1. The Old Design Argument , In its most general form the argument from design contends that the order and complexity exhibited in nature could not have sprung from nature, but instead required the skill and power of an intelligent designer.1 The argument is one act in the philosophical drama known as metaphysics and ontology. In recent times metaphysics and ontology have fallen into disrepute. The reason generally cited is that past metaphysicians made a habit of introducing specious entities which on the one hand hindered the progress of science, and which on the other hand were rendered obsolete by science. Yet despite scientific naturalism's desire to be rid of metaphysics, there is a sense in which meta~hysics is unavoidable, and this concerns the question of ontological commitment, i.e., what do we believe exists? · The question about what exists and what constitutes the fundamental principle of existence has a long and pugnacious history.
    [Show full text]
  • Towards Explaining Natural Language Arguments with Background Knowledge
    Towards Explaining Natural Language Arguments with Background Knowledge Ioana Hulpu¸s1, Jonathan Kobbe1, Maria Becker2, Juri Opitz2, Graeme Hirst3, Christian Meilicke1, Vivi Nastase2, Heiner Stuckenschmidt1, and Anette Frank2 1 Data and Web Science Group, University of Mannheim, Germany [email protected] 2 Institute for Computational Linguistics, Heidelberg University, Germany fmbecker, opitz, nastase, [email protected] 3 University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada [email protected] Abstract. In this paper, we propose the task of argument explicitation, a task that makes the structure of a natural language argument explicit, as well as the background knowledge the argument is built on, in the form of implicit premises or contextual knowledge. The purpose of argument explicitation is to support the understanding of an argument by providing users with an end-to-end analysis that offers a critical assessment of arguments including identification of argument weaknesses. Besides, the results of the argument explicitation process can be used by machines to retrieve similar arguments as well as counter-arguments. We propose a framework for argument explicitation that joins a variety of AI and NLP- based argumentation mining sub-tasks that by now have mostly been treated separately in the literature. We identify the challenges this task entails, while at the same time highlighting the opportunities brought by the recent development of structured, external knowledge sources. 1 Introduction The analysis and use of Argumentation in natural language texts is an active field of research in Artificial Intelligence. Common lines of work include the identification of argumentation units [32, 44, 50, 52] and relations [11, 36, 40, 50], the measurement of argument quality [24,57] and the synthesis of argumentative texts [56].
    [Show full text]
  • The University of Chicago Communication Ethics in Social Conflict: Nonviolent and Christian Perspectives a Dissertation Submitt
    THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO COMMUNICATION ETHICS IN SOCIAL CONFLICT: NONVIOLENT AND CHRISTIAN PERSPECTIVES A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY RUSSELL P. JOHNSON CHICAGO, ILLINOIS JUNE 2019 © 2019 by Russell Paul Johnson All Rights Reserved Table of Contents Acknowledgments..........................................................................................................................v Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 Audiences .................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter Outline............................................................................................................................ 9 1. The Three Voices in the Ethics of Communication ............................................................. 14 I. The Etiquette of Democracy: Stephen L. Carter on Civility .................................................. 15 II. Realistic Radical: Saul Alinsky on Victory .......................................................................... 20 III. Being Just a Listener: Sally Miller Gearhart on Open-mindedness .................................... 25 IV. The Limits of Open-mindedness ......................................................................................... 30 V. The State of the Debate ........................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of Reasoning in Constructing a Persuasive Argument
    THE ROLE OF REASONING IN CONSTRUCTING A PERSUASIVE ARGUMENT RICHARD R. ORSINGER [email protected] http://www.orsinger.com McCurley, Orsinger, McCurley, Nelson & Downing, L.L.P. San Antonio Office: 1717 Tower Life Building San Antonio, Texas 78205 (210) 225-5567 http://www.orsinger.com and Dallas Office: 5950 Sherry Lane, Suite 800 Dallas, Texas 75225 (214) 273-2400 http://www.momnd.com State Bar of Texas 37TH ANNUAL ADVANCED FAMILY LAW COURSE August 1-4, 2011 San Antonio CHAPTER 11 The Role of Reasoning in Constructing a Persuasive Argument Chapter 11 Table of Contents I. THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSUASION.. 1 II. PERSUASION IN ARGUMENTATION.. 1 III. BACKGROUND.. 2 IV. USER’S GUIDE FOR THIS ARTICLE.. 2 V. ARISTOTLE’S THREE COMPONENTS OF A PERSUASIVE SPEECH.. 3 A. ETHOS.. 3 B. PATHOS.. 4 C. LOGOS.. 4 1. Syllogism.. 4 2. Implication.. 4 3. Enthymeme.. 4 (a) Advantages and Disadvantages of Commonplaces... 5 (b) Selection of Commonplaces.. 5 VI. ARGUMENT MODELS (OVERVIEW)... 5 A. LOGIC-BASED ARGUMENTS. 5 1. Deductive Logic.. 5 2. Inductive Logic.. 6 3. Reasoning by Analogy.. 7 B. DEFEASIBLE ARGUMENTS... 7 C. THE TOULMIN ARGUMENTATION MODEL... 7 D. FALLACIOUS ARGUMENTS.. 8 E. ARGUMENTATION SCHEMES.. 8 VII. LOGICAL REASONING (DETAILED ANALYSIS).. 8 A. DEDUCTIVE REASONING.. 8 1. The Categorical Syllogism... 8 a. Graphically Depicting the Simple Categorical Syllogism... 9 b. A Legal Dispute as a Simple Syllogism.. 9 c. Disputed Facts; Disputed Law.. 9 2. The Hypothetical Syllogism... 10 a. The Conditional Syllogism.. 10 b. The Conjunctive Syllogism... 10 c. The Disjunctive Syllogism.. 10 3. The Dilemma.. 10 4.
    [Show full text]