Elementary Logic: a Brief Introduction

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Elementary Logic: a Brief Introduction ELECTRONIC TEXT Elementary Logic: A Brief Introduction, Fourth Edition By Michael Pendlebury Published online by the Department of Philosophy, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg in December 2013.1 Pp. vi, 151 © 1997–2013 Michael Pendlebury The copyright of this text is the property of the author. Without the written permission of the author, the text may not be used for commercial or fundraising purposes, or altered or edited in any way. Until further notice, the text may be used freely and without the author’s permission as follows: 1. Individuals may use, print, and copy the text for personal information, education, or entertainment. 2. Instructors in nonprofit educational and organizations and institutions may prescribe or recommend part or all of the text to their students. 3. Individuals and nonprofit organizations may supply printed copies of all or part of the text to anyone subject to the condition that they do not charge them more than the reasonable cost of printing it. 4. The text may be cited or quoted in other publications subject to the condition that it is clearly identified and attributed to the author. The Author Michael Pendlebury is Professor of Philosophy Head of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies at North Carolina State University. He studied at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (BAHons, MA in Philosophy) and at Indiana University, Bloomington (MA, PhD in Philosophy, MA in Linguistics). He has taught philosophy at Illinois State University, the University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, and for twenty years at the University of the Witwatersrand, where he was Professor and Head of Philosophy when he left to take up his current position at North Carolina State University in January 2004. He has published articles on a wide range of philosophical topics, and was editor of the journal Philosophical Papers from 1986 to 1998. 1 The URL of the Department’s home page at the time of publication was http://www.wits.ac.za/academic/humanities/socialsciences/8641/philosophy.html. [BLANK PAGE] ELEMENTARY LOGIC: A Brief Introduction Fourth Edition Michael Pendlebury Department of Philosophy University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg December 2013 Copyright © Michael Pendlebury 1997, 1998, 2002, 2013 Preface The first three editions of this text were published in booklet form by the Department of Philosophy at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg (“Wits”). I prepared these editions of the text for students in some of the courses that I taught at Wits between 1997 and 2003. The Department carried on using the third edition after I moved from Wits to North Carolina State University at the end of 2003. At the beginning of 2013, I was surprised and gratified to learn that during 2012 the Department had supplied over 1,500 copies of the text to students in various courses. This prompted me to offer to prepare a new edition and seek to get it published in a form that would make it unnecessary for the Department to print and distribute booklets. On the advice of Dr. David Martens, Head of the Department, I decided that it would be best to publish it as an online electronic text, because this would be the most effective way to make it accessible to students at Wits and elsewhere. I am grateful to Dr. Martens and the Wits Philosophy Department for agreeing to publish the fourth edition on the Department’s website. The biggest change I have made in the fourth edition is to add a fourteen-page section on analogical arguments (section 4.4) to the chapter on deductive validity and nondeductive strength (Chapter 4). The second biggest change I have made is to expand the material on formal validity that constituted the first section in the chapter on propositional operators in the third edition so that it also covers syllogistic logic (as it should) and give it a chapter of its own (Chapter 5) before the chapter on syllogistic logic. In addition to these two major changes, I have made numerous improvements in substance, clarity, and style throughout the text, and have changed or adjusted many examples to increase their shelf life. Although I believe it is possible for many readers to learn something worthwhile from this text on its own, it was designed primarily to serve as an aid to systematic teaching in the classroom. I do not believe that the text (or even a very effective course based on it) can produce robust critical thinkers, and it aims only to lay some foundations on which students can build by applying the basic concepts and skills that it covers to all their reading and thinking. I am grateful to Barbara Aarden, Rashad Bagus, Colin Hossack, Darrel Moellendorf, James Pendlebury, Brian Penrose, and Mary Tjiattas for useful assistance, advice, or ideas with respect to the first three editions; and to David Austin, Damien Bruneau, David Martens, Thomas Pendlebury, Ken Peters, and Mary Tjiattas for useful assistance, advice, iii or ideas with respect to the fourth edition. I am also grateful to the Wits students who took courses in which I prescribed the first three editions between 1997 and 2003 for exposing some of the limitations of those editions. MP Raleigh, North Carolina 18 November 2013 iv CONTENTS Preface page iii INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter 1 IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS 1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions 2 1.2 Statements and Propositions 9 1.3 Recognizing Arguments 15 1.4 Compound Arguments 22 Chapter 2 EVALUATING ARGUMENTS 2.1 Logical Evaluation 29 2.2 Some Fallacies of Inadequate Support 36 2.3 Three Further Fallacies 41 Chapter 3 MEANING AND DEFINITION 3.1 Meaning versus Denotation 48 3.2 Types of Definitions 55 3.3 Evaluating Theoretical Definitions 61 Chapter 4 DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY AND NONDEDUCTIVE STRENGTH 4.1 Deductive Validity 66 4.2 Nondeductive Strength (I): Inductive Arguments 70 4.3 Nondeductive Strength (II): Abductive Arguments 76 4.4 Nondeductive Strength (III): Analogical Arguments 81 Chapter 5 FORMAL VALIDITY 95 Chapter 6 “ALL,” “SOME,” “SOME NOT,” AND “NO” 6.1 Categorical Propositions 103 6.2 Standard Form Syllogisms 112 6.3 Other Arguments 120 v Chapter 7 “NOT,” “IF,” “AND,” AND “OR” 7.1 Symbolization (I) 127 7.2 Symbolization (II) 133 7.3 Valid and Invalid Argument Forms (I) 138 7.4 Valid and Invalid Argument Forms (II) 143 Appendix on Truth 150 vi INTRODUCTION This text is an elementary introduction to applied logic. As such, it is centrally concerned with the identification, clarification, analysis and (most importantly) the assessment of arguments. The text has two main aims, which cannot be completely separated. One is to give readers a practical appreciation of some basic essentials of logical theory. The other, which is probably more important for most students, is to develop some key basic concepts and skills that should help them to improve their ability to understand and evaluate texts that involve significant reasoning, and to enhance their powers of clear, critical and constructive thinking. I have tried to write in clear and accessible English, but have also tried not to oversimplify. For, if a text in applied logic is too easy and does not encourage serious thought about the topics it covers, then it will inevitably fail to develop the student’s capacity for critical reading and thinking. You should therefore be warned that it is not possible to come to terms with the following material simply by reading it over once. It must be worked through and understood paragraph by paragraph, and page by page. It will also frequently be necessary to refer back to earlier passages in order to make sense of something under discussion. Except on an initial skimming of a section to get an overview of its contents, your goal should always be to understand as much as possible before proceeding to the next paragraph, page or section.1 This might require several re-readings, as well as serious attempts to work through problems and examples with the help of pencil and paper. It is always best to study material in the text in advance of classes covering that material. Finally, as an essential check on your understanding, you should attempt all the exercises at the end of each section before proceeding to the next section. You should also deal immediately with any shortcomings in your understanding which these exercises reveal by reviewing appropriate parts of the section concerned, and, if necessary, seeking assistance. A great deal of the material covered in the text is cumulative, and it is often difficult to follow later sections without an adequate grasp of earlier sections. 1 If you use a dictionary (which is a good thing to do), please note that ordinary dictionaries are often unreliable on technical concepts of specialized disciplines. This includes the basic concepts of logic. In the case of these concepts, you should not depend upon a dictionary, but on the definitions and explanations given in this text. 1 Chapter 1 IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS 1.1 Arguments, Premises, and Conclusions An argument in the logical sense is a piece of reasoning in support of a conclusion. In order to keep things simple, let us restrict our attention to the central case of what may be described as propositional arguments1 that are expressed in language. This allows us to identify an argument with a group of two or more statements one of which — the conclusion — is advanced by the speaker or writer2 on the strength of the others, which are known as premises. Let us use the following pedestrian example of an argument to help clarify some of these terms. (A) Mary has got an A on all her work for the course other than the upcoming final exam.
Recommended publications
  • Beardsley's Theory of Analogy
    INFORMAL LOGIC XI.3, Fall 1989 Beardsley's Theory of Analogy EVELYN M. BARKER The University of Maryland 1. Is the Argument from Analogy a consequences of an "abdication of Fallacy? statesmanship."2 Kissinger cites historical analogy as the only basis for sound judg­ In the various editions of Practical Logic ment in international diplomacy: and Thinking Straight Monroe Beardsley History is the only experience on which pioneered informal logic, the assessment of statesmen can draw. But it does not teach reasoning techniques employed in actual its lessons automatically. It demonstrates the human situations. 1 Although acknowledg­ consequences of comparable situations, but ing the prominence of analogies in reason­ each generation has to determine what situa­ ing, he contended that analogy has some tions are in fact comparable. heuristic uses, but an argument based on one Such analogical arguments, as Kissinger is inherently fallacious: points out, are directed to finding suitable Analogies illustrate, and they lead to premises for wise and prudent action. hypotheses, but thinking in terms of analogy Beardsley's intellectualist approach limits becomes fallacious when the analogy is us­ rational argumentation to asserting premises ed as a reason for a principle. This fallacy as evidence for the truth of a conclusion. is called the "argument from analogy." Consequently he overlooks or misconceives (PL 107) the character of some forms of analogical Beardsley's view implies that no serious argument prevalent in practical reasoning. reasoner will use analogies between things It is misleading to speak of "the argument in drawing conclusions, or be persuaded by from analogy," as Beardsley does, as if all another's introduction of them.
    [Show full text]
  • Language and Definitions
    This asset is intentionally omitted from this text. It may be accessed at Language and Definitions www.mcescher.com. (Waterfall by 1 Language Functions M.C. Escher) 2 Emotive Language, Neutral Language, and Disputes 3 Disputes and Ambiguity 4 Definitions and Their Uses 5 The Structure of Definitions: Extension and Intension 6 Definition by Genus and Difference 1 Language Functions When people reason, they typically do so using language, manipulating proposi- tions in a logical or informative spirit. But language is used in a great variety of ways, only some of which are informative. Without the intention to inform, we may express ourselves using language: “That’s really great!” we may say; and the poet, overcome by the beauty of an ancient city, channels his emotions in writing these lines: Match me such marvel, save in Eastern clime— A rose-red city—“half as old as time.”1 Of course, some expressive discourse also has informative content, and may express attitudes as well as beliefs. Grow old along with me! The best is yet to be, The last of life for which the first was made.2 Moreover, some discourse is directive, with or without expressive or informa- tive elements. It seeks to guide or to command. “Step on the scale, please,” we may be told, or we may receive this good advice: Drive defensively. The cemetery is full of law-abiding citizens who had the right of way. A mixture of functions is a natural feature of almost all our uses of language. We can see this in our own speech and writing.
    [Show full text]
  • The Argument Form “Appeal to Galileo”: a Critical Appreciation of Doury's Account
    The Argument Form “Appeal to Galileo”: A Critical Appreciation of Doury’s Account MAURICE A. FINOCCHIARO Department of Philosophy University of Nevada, Las Vegas Las Vegas, NV 89154-5028 USA [email protected] Abstract: Following a linguistic- Résumé: En poursuivant une ap- descriptivist approach, Marianne proche linguistique-descriptiviste, Doury has studied debates about Marianne Doury a étudié les débats “parasciences” (e.g. astrology), dis- sur les «parasciences » (par exem- covering that “parascientists” fre- ple, l'astrologie), et a découvert que quently argue by “appeal to Galileo” les «parasavants» raisonnent souvent (i.e., defend their views by compar- en faisant un «appel à Galilée" (c.-à- ing themselves to Galileo and their d. ils défendent leurs points de vue opponents to the Inquisition); oppo- en se comparant à Galileo et en nents object by criticizing the analo- comparant leurs adversaires aux gy, charging fallacy, and appealing juges de l’Inquisition). Les adver- to counter-examples. I argue that saires des parasavant critiquent Galilean appeals are much more l'analogie en la qualifiant de soph- widely used, by creationists, global- isme, et en construisant des contre- warming skeptics, advocates of “set- exemples. Je soutiens que les appels tled science”, great scientists, and à Galilée sont beaucoup plus large- great philosophers. Moreover, sever- ment utilisés, par des créationnistes, al subtypes should be distinguished; des sceptiques du réchauffement critiques questioning the analogy are planétaire, des défenseurs de la «sci- proper; fallacy charges are problem- ence établie», des grands scien- atic; and appeals to counter- tifiques, et des grands philosophes. examples are really indirect critiques En outre, on doit distinguer plusieurs of the analogy.
    [Show full text]
  • Circles and Analogies in Public Health Reasoning Louise Cummings
    SUMMER 2014, VOL. 29, NO. 2 35 Circles and Analogies in Public Health Reasoning Louise Cummings School of Arts and Humanities Nottingham Trent University, UK Abstract 7KHVWXG\RIWKHIDOODFLHVKDVFKDQJHGDOPRVWEH\RQGUHFRJQLWLRQVLQFH&KDUOHV+DPEOLQFDOOHG IRUDUDGLFDOUHDSSUDLVDORIWKLVDUHDRIORJLFDOLQTXLU\LQKLVERRN)DOODFLHV7KH³ZLWOHVV H[DPSOHVRIKLVIRUEHDUV´WRZKLFK+DPEOLQUHIHUUHGKDYHODUJHO\EHHQUHSODFHGE\PRUH authentic cases of the fallacies in actual use. It is now not unusual for fallacy and argumentation theorists to draw on actual sources for examples of how the fallacies are used in our everyday UHDVRQLQJ+RZHYHUDQDVSHFWRIWKLVPRYHWRZDUGVJUHDWHUDXWKHQWLFLW\LQWKHVWXG\RIWKH fallacies, an aspect which has been almost universally neglected, is the attempt to subject the fallacies to empirical testing of the type which is more commonly associated with psychological experiments on reasoning. This paper addresses this omission in research on the fallacies by examining how subjects use two fallacies – circular argument and analogical argument – during a reasoning task in which subjects are required to consider a number of public health scenarios. Results are discussed in relation to a view of the fallacies as cognitive heuristics that facilitate reasoning in a context of uncertainty. Keywords: analogical argument, circular argument, heuristic, informal fallacy, public health, reasoning, uncertainty I. Introduction puns, anecdotes, and witless examples of his forbears. The study of the fallacies has changed :KHUHSKLORVRSKLFDOUHÀHFWLRQRQWKH considerably in
    [Show full text]
  • FURTHER REMARKS on DEFINITION and ANALYSIS 19 Cf
    FURTHER REMARKS ON DEFINITION AND ANALYSIS 19 Cf. C. G. Hempel and Paul Oppenheim, "The Logic of Explanation," Philosophy of Science, vol. 15 (1948). While this definition is adequate for many purposes, it is oversimplified in some ways. Theorem 1 depends on the form of this definition, but our general approach is consistent with any explieatum of 'explain.' 1~ Cf. footnote 6. i~ For example, T'~ may state that T~ holds under specified conditions. le Cf. H. Feigl's contribution to the symposium on operationism in the Psychological Review, vol. 52, no. 5 (September 1945). Further Remarks on Definition and Analysis by IRVING M. COPI UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN A NUMBER of acute criticisms have been directed against some of the views presented in my essay "Analytical Philosophy and Analytical Propositions" (this journal, December 1953). I welcome them as providing stimulation and opportunity for penetrating more deeply into the issues involved. The central notion in my discussion is that of a theoretical de/init/on. A theoretical definition of a term is intended to formulate a theoretically adequate characterization of the objects to which that term applies. One gives a theoretical definition of a term to attach to the term, as intension, that property which in the context of a given theory is most useful for understanding or predicting the behavior of those entities which comprise the (usual) extension of that term. In his "Definitions in Analytical Philosophy" (this journal, April 1954) Michael Scriven has correctly observed that a given theoretical definition is compatible with a wide range of different theories (p.
    [Show full text]
  • Emergent Properties of Terrorist Networks, Percolation and Social Narrative
    Emergent Properties of Terrorist Networks, Percolation and Social Narrative Maurice Passman Adaptive Risk Technology, Ltd. London, UK [email protected] Philip V. Fellman American Military University Charles Town, WV [email protected] Abstract In this paper, we have initiated an attempt to develop and understand the driving mechanisms that underlies fourth-generation warfare (4GW). We have undertaken this from a perspective of endeavoring to understand the drivers of these events (i.e. the 'Physics') from a Complexity perspective by using a threshold-type percolation model. We propose to integrate this strategic level model with tactical level Big Data, behavioral, statistical projections via a ‘fractal’ operational level model and to construct a hierarchical framework that allows dynamic prediction. Our initial study concentrates on this strategic level, i.e. a percolation model. Our main conclusion from this initial study is that extremist terrorist events are not solely driven by the size of a supporting population within a socio-geographical location but rather a combination of ideological factors that also depends upon the involvement of the host population. This involvement, through the social, political and psychological fabric of society, not only contributes to the active participation of terrorists within society but also directly contributes to and increases the likelihood of the occurrence of terrorist events. Our calculations demonstrate the links between Islamic extremist terrorist events, the ideologies within the Muslim and non-Muslim population that facilitates these terrorist events (such as Anti-Zionism) and anti- Semitic occurrences of violence against the Jewish population. In a future paper, we hope to extend the work undertaken to construct a predictive model and extend our calculations to other forms of terrorism such as Right Wing fundamentalist terrorist events within the USA.
    [Show full text]
  • Logical Reasoning
    updated: 11/29/11 Logical Reasoning Bradley H. Dowden Philosophy Department California State University Sacramento Sacramento, CA 95819 USA ii Preface Copyright © 2011 by Bradley H. Dowden This book Logical Reasoning by Bradley H. Dowden is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. That is, you are free to share, copy, distribute, store, and transmit all or any part of the work under the following conditions: (1) Attribution You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author, namely by citing his name, the book title, and the relevant page numbers (but not in any way that suggests that the book Logical Reasoning or its author endorse you or your use of the work). (2) Noncommercial You may not use this work for commercial purposes (for example, by inserting passages into a book that is sold to students). (3) No Derivative Works You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. An earlier version of the book was published by Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, California USA in 1993 with ISBN number 0-534-17688-7. When Wadsworth decided no longer to print the book, they returned their publishing rights to the original author, Bradley Dowden. If you would like to suggest changes to the text, the author would appreciate your writing to him at [email protected]. iii Praise Comments on the 1993 edition, published by Wadsworth Publishing Company: "There is a great deal of coherence. The chapters build on one another. The organization is sound and the author does a superior job of presenting the structure of arguments.
    [Show full text]
  • Kuhnian Incommensurability Between Two Paradigms of Contemporary Linguistics
    Kuhnian Incommensurability Between Two Paradigms of Contemporary Linguistics Philip Smith Ph.D. Thesis School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics The University of Sheffield March 2011 Slowly we are learning, We at least know this much, That we have to unlearn Much that we were taught, And are growing chary Of emphatic dogmas; Love like matter is much Odder than we thought. From 'Heavy Date' by W.H.Auden I must review my disbelief in angels. Brian Patten - Angel Wings Abstract This dissertation proposes a theory of reference for the language of scien- tific theories. This theory of reference looks at the nature of postulation in scientific theories, and shows that mental posits are metaphorical in na- ture. It is a hybrid of internalist and extensive reference theories. This, allied with the competing epistemological assumptions of competing schools of ltngutsttcs, can account for the existence of incommensurability across two paradigms of ltngutsttcs, The relationship between transformational generative grammar and socio- linguistics is vexed. Both claim the same object of study, but with radi- cally different methods and aims. This dissertation shows that the meta- phorical nature of the posits used in each leads to incommensurable vo- cabularies. Thomas Kuhn's notions of paradigms and incommensurability are used to elucidate this relationship. Chapter one proposes and explains the theory of reference. Chapter two defines the major areas of the thesis. Chapter three explores the history of linguists claiming that a particular area of linguistics instantiates a Kuhnian paradigm, and looks at arguments concerning the possibilities for studying language scientifically. Chapter four explores the epistemological bases of TGG and sociolinguistics, starting from Chomsky's claims to do 'Cartesian linguistics', and concludes that opposing epistemological com- mitments lead to incommensurability.
    [Show full text]
  • UEB Guidelines for Technical Material
    Guidelines for Technical Material Unified English Braille Guidelines for Technical Material This version updated October 2008 ii Last updated October 2008 iii About this Document This document has been produced by the Maths Focus Group, a subgroup of the UEB Rules Committee within the International Council on English Braille (ICEB). At the ICEB General Assembly in April 2008 it was agreed that the document should be released for use internationally, and that feedback should be gathered with a view to a producing a new edition prior to the 2012 General Assembly. The purpose of this document is to give transcribers enough information and examples to produce Maths, Science and Computer notation in Unified English Braille. This document is available in the following file formats: pdf, doc or brf. These files can be sourced through the ICEB representatives on your local Braille Authorities. Please send feedback on this document to ICEB, again through the Braille Authority in your own country. Last updated October 2008 iv Guidelines for Technical Material 1 General Principles..............................................................................................1 1.1 Spacing .......................................................................................................1 1.2 Underlying rules for numbers and letters.....................................................2 1.3 Print Symbols ..............................................................................................3 1.4 Format.........................................................................................................3
    [Show full text]
  • 35. Logic: Common Fallacies Steve Miller Kennesaw State University, [email protected]
    Kennesaw State University DigitalCommons@Kennesaw State University Sexy Technical Communications Open Educational Resources 3-1-2016 35. Logic: Common Fallacies Steve Miller Kennesaw State University, [email protected] Cherie Miller Kennesaw State University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/oertechcomm Part of the Technical and Professional Writing Commons Recommended Citation Miller, Steve and Miller, Cherie, "35. Logic: Common Fallacies" (2016). Sexy Technical Communications. 35. http://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/oertechcomm/35 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Open Educational Resources at DigitalCommons@Kennesaw State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sexy Technical Communications by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Kennesaw State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Logic: Common Fallacies Steve and Cherie Miller Sexy Technical Communication Home Logic and Logical Fallacies Taken with kind permission from the book Why Brilliant People Believe Nonsense by J. Steve Miller and Cherie K. Miller Brilliant People Believe Nonsense [because]... They Fall for Common Fallacies The dull mind, once arriving at an inference that flatters the desire, is rarely able to retain the impression that the notion from which the inference started was purely problematic. ― George Eliot, in Silas Marner In the last chapter we discussed passages where bright individuals with PhDs violated common fallacies. Even the brightest among us fall for them. As a result, we should be ever vigilant to keep our critical guard up, looking for fallacious reasoning in lectures, reading, viewing, and especially in our own writing. None of us are immune to falling for fallacies.
    [Show full text]
  • Developing a Theoretical Framework of Responsiveness In
    DEVELOPING A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF RESPONSIVENESS IN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND NON-PROFIT ORGANIZATIONS by DIVYA NARENDRA BHEDA A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Education Studies and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2013 DISSERTATION APPROVAL PAGE Student: Divya Narendra Bheda Title: Developing a Theoretical Framework of Responsiveness in Educational Institutions and Non-Profit Organizations This dissertation has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in the Department of Education Studies by: Dr. Ronald Beghetto Co-Chair Dr. Joanna Goode Co-Chair Dr. Mia Tuan Member Dr. Patricia A. Curtin Outside Member and Dr. Kimberly Andrews Espy Vice President for Research & Innovation/Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2013 ii © 2013 Divya Narendra Bheda iii DISSERTATION ABSTRACT Divya Narendra Bheda Doctor of Philosophy Department of Education Studies June 2013 Title: Developing a Theoretical Framework of Responsiveness in Educational Institutions and Non-Profit Organizations A number of education institutions and non-profit organizations seek to be responsive toward the stakeholders they serve. They engage in numerous organizational and evaluative processes to be perceived as responsive. They consider evaluating and improving responsiveness, important to their practice. Unfortunately, such efforts are often impeded because there is a lack of clear understanding regarding what “responsiveness” means. One reason is that the current professional literature on responsiveness provides fragmented, ambiguous, and limited definitions of responsiveness.
    [Show full text]
  • Better Thinking and Reasoning Chapter 11 Test Answer
    Name ________________________________ Better Thinking and Reasoning Chapter 11 Test Page 1 Answer each question. 1. Define formal fallacy. an error in the form of reasoning (caught by using a truth table) 2. Define informal fallacy. an error in the relationship of the premises (caught by examining context) 3. When is a valid argument unsound? when it has a false premise 4. What should you always do after you have completed your essay? rewrite it and check it for logical fallacies Classify the informal fallacy in each deductive argument as accident, begging the question, composition, division, or equivocation. 5. Anyone who thrusts a knife into another person should be arrested on the grounds of attempted murder. Since surgeons regularly put knives into their victims, they should be arrested for attempted murder. accident 6. Every atom in this chair is invisible. Therefore, the chair is invisible. composition 7. Please be quiet. You are making far too much noise. begging the question 8. A watermelon is a fruit. Therefore, a small watermelon is a small fruit. equivocation 9. The average American family has 2.4 children. The Smiths are an average American family. Therefore the Smiths have 2.4 children. division Classify each deductive argument as displaying a false dichotomy or having one of these three formal fallacies: affirming the consequent, denying the antecedent, or improper negation. 10. If your pet is a whale or a dolphin, then your pet is a mammal. Judy is not a mammal. Therefore, Judy is not a whale or not a dolphin. improper negation 11. If Probst won the election, then we would have a Democrat for mayor.
    [Show full text]