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A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details i Nationalism, Militarism and Masculinity in post-2003 Cyprus Stratis Andreas Efthymiou Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex April – 2014 ii For Andreas and Angelos Toumazou i Acknowledgments There are many people I would like to thank, and decided to not select some of them, as I have been fortunate to have many lovely companions in this academic, but above all personal, journey. I would like to wholeheartedly thank Katie Clerides who has several times read my work and who has warmly encouraged me throughout this academic journey, always showing much belief in my abilities and potentials, from undergraduate to present day. My special appreciation and thanks to Prof. Maria Hadjipavlou who has opened up the space of research on gender in Cyprus and has, from the beginning of my undergraduate to the completion of my PhD, patiently guided and supported me through this journey. I would like to thank Prof. Gillian Bendelow who strongly encouraged me, especially in doing a PhD. I deeply appreciate Prof. Luke Martell who has taught me what education is and should be about, just by being himself. I appreciate the personal and academic support Dr. Elizabeth Craig has offered in this journey. My Supervisors, Dr. Ben Fincham and Dr. Louiza Odysseos, have provided valuable feedback throughout this process. Prof Barbara Einhorn has been a great inspiration for innovative research and under her role as my supervisor provided me with a warm and supportive environment in the first stages of this work. My aunt, Maria Peristiani and her family have been supported me in this process in many significant ways. Carol-Ann Penn has, in and out of her role as my dyslexia tutor, been a great source of academic support and development since my undergraduate. I would sincerely like to also thank my friend Frosso Skoteiniotou who has patiently read my work throughout all these years offering valuable comments and always believed in my academic and interpersonal abilities. I would like to express my gratitude to my childhood friend Michalis Mauronicolas who has been a great supporter of my PhD and has ensured the successful conduction of key parts of fieldwork. My friend Jenny White has been a warm companion in this journey. John Blake, my landlord, has in his own ways supported and contributed to making this journey more pleasant. Kristina Ilieva has with pleasure and eagerness supported me in all ways in these hard final stages of the thesis. ii University of Sussex Stratis Andreas Efthymiou Doctor of Philosophy Sociology Nationalism, Militarism and Masculinity in post-2003 Cyprus Summary This thesis addresses the relationship between Greek Cypriot nationalism, militarism and masculinity following the opening of the borders in Cyprus between North and South in 2003. Drawing upon empirical research conducted in Cyprus in 2011, the thesis argues that there is an integral relation between nationalism, militarism and masculinity and that since the opening of the borders, there has been a re- constitution of this relationship. In the re-constitution of this relationship what appears as the weakening of each component is illustrated to be an adapted reiteration of its co-constitution under new social and political parameters. This adapted reiteration is a continuation of the Greek Cypriot perceived nationalist militarist masculinist stance of power in the conflict situation against ‘occupation’ and explains, amongst other post – 2003 nationalist, militarist and masculinist reiterations, as to why the opening of the borders has not helped in the bringing together of the two communities. On the contrary, in fact, in some cases the adapted reiterations have helped new divisions to emerge. The research reveals that the inextricability of masculinity in this three-fold co- constitutive relationship is significant in the adapted reiteration of an identity, which exists beneath the politically symbolic or institutional level – and is hindering the process of reconciliation. It is argued that despite there being a shifting away of the hegemonic masculinity of men from the national struggle, and thus also the conscription service, towards a transnational entrepreneurial masculinity, there remains a broader masculinist discourse in this co-constitutive relationship, which I name in this thesis as nationalist militarised masculinity. This is significant because it is a discourse that is integral to this Greek Cypriot nationalist militarist masculinist stance, with its adapted reiterations, that creates obstacles for reconciliation. The results of this thesis highlight the necessity of addressing the co-constitution of nationalism, militarism and masculinity in Cyprus and likewise in other post-armed conflict societies. iii Table of Contents Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I SUMMARY II TABLE OF CONTENTS III ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS VI 1.CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 7 1.1. OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE RELATED TO THE SCOPE OF THE THESIS 9 1.1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES 13 1.3. CHAPTER OUTLINE 17 2. CHAPTER TWO: A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE CYPRUS CONFLICT 23 2.2 THE BI-COMMUNAL CLASHES OF 1955-59 24 2.3 THE WAR OF 1974 27 2. 4 THE OPENING OF THE NORTH-SOUTH BORDER IN 2003, EU ACCESSION AND ANNAN PLAN 28 3. CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW 32 3.1 INTRODUCTION 32 3. 2 NATIONALISM 33 3. 3. MILITARISM 44 3.4. GENDER, NATIONALISM AND MILITARISM 52 3.4. NATIONALISM, MILITARISM AND MASCULINITY 59 3.5. NATIONALISM, MILITARISM AND MASCULINITY IN CYPRUS 67 4. CHAPTER FOUR: METHODS 69 4.1. QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY 69 4.2. INTERVIEWS 72 4.6 REFLECTING ON ISSUES THAT EMERGED WITH EACH DISTINCT GROUP OF INTERVIEWEES 94 5. CHAPTER FIVE: NATIONALISM IN POST-2003 CYPRUS 107 5.1. INTRODUCTION 107 iv 5.2. LOOKING BACK THROUGH POST-WAR CYPRUS: DISCOURSES OF ‘I DO NOT FORGET’ - ‘I STRUGGLE’ AND THE ‘BORDERS’ 110 5.4. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN A VICTIMISED CYPRUS AND THE MOTHERS OF THE MISSING PERSONS 131 5.5. ENACTING NATIONAL MEMORY AND DELIBERATION; CROSSINGS AND ‘OCCUPATION’ 139 5.6. DEMANDING CLOSURE OF THE BORDERS: THE APPEARANCE OF ULTRA-NATIONALIST POLITICAL FORMATIONS AND ‘OCCUPATION’ 153 5.6. CONCLUSION 158 6. CHAPTER SIX: MILITARISM IN POST-2003 CYPRUS 160 6.1. INTRODUCTION 160 6.2. LOOKING BACK: THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEOLOGY OF DEFENCE 162 6.3. THE SOCIAL FORGETTING OF ‘DEFENCE’ 170 6.4. THE ROLE OF THE EU ACCESSION FOR THE CHANGING IDEOLOGY OF DEFENCE 178 6.5 THE ROLE OF THE EU IN THE DEFENCE POLICY 183 6.6. MOURNING AND MELANCHOLIA ABOUT THE UNDERMINING DEFENCE AND IDEOLOGY 200 6.7. CHANGING CIVIL-MILITARY RELATIONS AND THE GOVERNMENTAL PRESSURE TO RESPOND TO THE DECLINING ‘DEFENCE’ 210 6.9. CONCLUSION 223 7. CHAPTER SEVEN: MASCULINITY IN CYPRUS FOLLOWING THE OPENING OF THE BORDERS 226 7.1. INTRODUCTION 226 7.2. LOOKING BACK: THE CYPRUS PROBLEM, THE POST-WAR NATIONAL STRUGGLE AND G.C. MASCULINITY 228 7.3. THE TRANSITION OF A STATE TOWARDS A EUROPEAN MASCULINITY 236 7.4. DESTABILISATION OF A MILITARISTICALLY BUILT HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY 240 7.4.1 WESTERN INFLUENCES ON MILITARY MASCULINITY IN CYPRUS 241 7.4.2 FROM WITHIN THE BARRACKS TOWARDS A SOLDIER'S INDIVIDUAL GOALS FOR PROSPERITY 245 7.5. SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE CHANGING GOALS AND DESIRES OF A SOLDIER 253 7.6. CRITICISM INVOKING ANXIETY OF THE COMMUNITY’S OWN LOSS OF FIGHTING SPIRIT AND COMMITMENT TO STRUGGLE 263 7.6.1 THE RE-ADAPTATION OF NATIONALIST MILITARISED MASCULINITY UNDER NEW SOCIAL AND POLITICAL PARAMETERS 269 7.7. ULTRA-NATIONALIST GROUPS AND MASCULINITY 273 7.8. CONCLUSION 280 8. CONCLUSION: ASSIMILATING NATIONALISM, MILITARISM AND MASCULINITY WITH ‘NORMALITY’ 283 8.1. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES REVISITED 284 8.2. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 285 8.3. THE CO-CONSTITUTION OF G.C. NATIONALISM, MILITARISM AND MASCULINITY 286 8.4. KEY FINDINGS 287 8.5. CHANGING IDENTITIES: IN-BETWEEN ‘I DO NOT FORGET’ AND A NEW ‘I STRUGGLE’ 291 v 8.6. FUTURE RESEARCH 294 8.7. CONCLUDING THOUGHTS 297 APPENDIXES: 299 APPENDIX 1: ACCESS LETTER TO THE NATIONAL GUARD 299 APPENDIX 2: CONSENT FORM FOR SOLDIERS OR OFFICERS 299 APPENDIX 3: THE ECONOMIC MIRACLE OF POST-WAR CYPRUS 300 APPENDIX 4: PHOTOS OF THE MOTHERS OF THE MISSING PERSONS 300 APPENDIX 5: MATERNAL POST-WAR CYPRUS EXPRESSED THROUGH LITERATURE AND POETRY 301 APPENDIX 6: FINANCIAL RESOURCES INVESTED IN ‘DEFENCE’ 302 APPENDIX 7: DEFENCE TAX 302 APPENDIX 8: SINGLE AREA DEFENCE DOCTRINE 302 APPENDIX 9: PICTURE OF ‘ATTILA’S BOOT’ 303 APPENDIX 12: SONGS DEDICATED TO TASSOS ISAAK AND SOLOMOS SOLOMOU 305 APPENDIX 13 CONSENT FORM 305 APPENDIX 14 SAMPLE OF INTERVIEW AGENDA 306 APPENDIX 15 SAMPLE OF NVIVO CODE 309 REFERENCES: 1 vi ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS DHSY Δημοκρατικός Συναγερμός (Democratic Rally of Cyprus) EDEK Κίνημα Σοσιαλδημοκρατών (The Movement for Social Democracy) EDHK Εθνικιστικό Δημοκρατικό Κόμμα (Nationalist Democratic Party) EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone ELAM Εθνικό Λαϊκό Μέτωπο (National Popular Front) EOKA Εθνική Οργάνωσις Κυπρίων Αγωνιστών (National Organization of Cypriot Fighters) EU European Union FRONT Μέτωπο (Front) G.C. Greek Cypriot ROE Representative of ELAM SADD Ενιαίο Αμυντικό Δόγμα Ελλάδας-Κύπρου (Single Area defence Doctrine with Greece) T.C. Turkish Cypriot 7 1.Chapter one: Introduction This thesis examines the relationship of Greek Cypriot (G.C) nationalism, militarism and masculinity in Cyprus following the opening of the border1 (2003) and argues that there is a co-constitutive relationship between them.
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