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PHD-12-MCATEER (2).Pdf CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY Daniel McAteer The Development of Novel, Low Sensitivity, Gas-generating Formulations for Hotwire Ignited Devices Department of Engineering and Applied Science PhD Academic Year: 2012 - 2013 Supervisors: Professor J Akhavan & Dr A Contini April 2013 CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY DEAS PhD Academic Year 2012 - 2013 Daniel McAteer The Development of Novel, Low Sensitivity, Gas-generating Formulations for Hotwire Ignited Devices Supervisors: Professor J Akhavan & Dr A Contini April 2013 © Cranfield University 2013. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced without the written permission of the copyright owner. Abstract A novel, low sensitivity, gas-generating composition was developed to replace an existing primary explosive, potassium picrate, for use in a generic squib device. The novel composition was based on energetic materials researched from the open literature. The chosen materials were synthesised or purchased and combined in order to produce formulations which would reproducibly ignite when contacted with a hotwire. The formulations were assessed for their chemical compatibility and homogeneity by small-scale hazard testing, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The compositions were test fired within squibs coupled to a pressure bomb and the pressure generation and rise time was measured using a piezoelectric gauge. Keywords: Squib, Bridgewire, Electroexplosive Device, Igniter i Acknowledgements I was able to pursue this PhD thanks to the support and encouragement provided by my parents, without them I would not have made it this far. A courtesy note is included for my brother and sisters who, although thoroughly uninterested in my research, were present throughout my studies and offered support of a sort. Sincere thanks are owed to my supervisors, Prof Jackie Akhavan and Dr Alex Contini who have offered me support and guidance throughout my project. My sponsors, AWE, provided much of my experimental apparatus, my funding and a lot of advice along the way. I am particularly grateful to Dr Chris Barnett, Prof Peter Golding and Mr Mike LeFlufy. I feel very fortunate for the advice and training I received from Mr Gordon Dyte and the cooperation and support provided by Leafield Engineering and Chemring Energetics UK. I am indebted to Miss Helen Stenmark (Eurenco), who kindly provided my main charge explosive, N-guanylurea dinitramide. I have been overwhelmed by the assistance and friendship which has been provided by the staff and students at Cranfield University, especially but not limited to, Dr Matt Andrews, Mr Anjum Agha, Mrs Samira Belgiche, Dr John Bellerby, Mr Keith Brook, Dr Emma Burke, Miss Vivian Christogianni, Mr Scott Connors, Mr Roger Cox, Dr Nigel Davies, Dr Licia Dossi, Dr Lyndsay Dunne, Mr Nathan Flood, Mrs Sally Gaulter, Dr Phil Gill, Mr Richard Hall, Mrs Sue Hardy, Miss Maggie Harris, Dr Jackie Horsfall, Dr Natalie Mai, Mr Iain McKay, Mr Adrian Mustey, Mrs Ann O’Hea, Dr James Padfield, Dr Jon Painter, Mrs Pat Pye, Miss Cath Sinnott, Mr Chris Stennet, Mrs Tracey Temple, Dr Susan Waring, Mrs Pam Waymark, Mr Peter Wilkinson, Mr Matt Weaver, Dr Colleen Williams and Dr Mike Williams. To my friends. Ben, Christine, Daisy, Emma, Evan, Nick and Tobi who listened while I moaned about things not working. Thank you for not telling me to be quiet more often. And to Heather, who has waited (not always patiently) for what must have seemed like forever, thank you. iii Table of Contents Abstract ..............................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... iii List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables .................................................................................................................... xv List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xxiii 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Aims of this study ................................................................................................... 3 2 Literature Review........................................................................................................... 5 2.1 The Output of the Device ....................................................................................... 6 2.1.1 Summary .......................................................................................................... 9 2.2 The Energy Input ..................................................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Ignition ........................................................................................................... 10 2.2.2 Transfer of Heat from Wire to Explosive ....................................................... 11 2.2.3 Propagation of Ignition .................................................................................. 14 2.2.4 Methods of Ignition ....................................................................................... 16 2.2.5 Alternative Ignition Systems .......................................................................... 21 2.2.6 Ignition Overview .......................................................................................... 24 2.3 Energetic Materials ............................................................................................... 25 2.3.1 The Explosive ................................................................................................. 25 2.3.2 Combustion Chemistry .................................................................................. 25 2.3.3 Explosives in Use............................................................................................ 27 2.3.4 New Materials and Methods for their use .................................................... 28 2.3.5 Adapting Formulations .................................................................................. 29 2.3.6 The Obstacles to Novelty ............................................................................... 32 3 The Project ................................................................................................................... 34 3.1 The Current Device ............................................................................................... 34 3.2 Project strategy..................................................................................................... 36 4 The Down Selection of Energetic Materials ................................................................ 40 4.1 Formulating the Ideal Explosive ........................................................................... 40 4.2 The Process of Elimination ................................................................................... 45 4.3 Burn Rate Enhancement ....................................................................................... 47 4.3.1 Bis(triaminoguanidinum)-5,5’-azotetrazolate (TAGzT) ................................. 49 4.3.2 3,6-Bis(1H-1,2,3,4-tetrazol-5-ylamino)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (BTATz) ................ 50 4.3.3 3,3'-Azobis(6-amino-1,2,4,5-tetrazine) (DAAT) ............................................. 50 4.3.4 3,6-Dihydrazino-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (DHT) ....................................................... 51 4.3.5 3,3'-Diamino-4,4'-azoxyfurazan (DAAF) ........................................................ 51 4.3.6 3,3'-Diamino-4,4'-azofurazan (DAAzF) .......................................................... 52 v 4.3.7 Bis(triaminoguanidinium)-3,3'-dinitro-5,5'-triazolate (TAGDNAT) ............... 52 4.4 Oxygen Balance Enhancement ............................................................................. 53 4.4.1 2,4-Dihydro-2,4,5-trinitro-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (DTNTO) ................................ 54 4.4.2 Ammonium nitrate (AN) ................................................................................ 55 4.4.3 3,6-(Bistrinitroethylamino)-1,2,4,5-tetrazine (BTAT) .................................... 55 4.4.4 N-Nitro-2,3-dinitrooxypropan-1-amine (NG-N1) .......................................... 56 4.4.5 Ammonium dinitroguanidine (ADNQ) ........................................................... 57 4.4.6 Ammonium 5-nitrotetrazolate-2N-oxide (ANTX) .......................................... 57 4.5 Nitrogen Content Enhancement .......................................................................... 58 4.5.1 Hydrazinium 5-aminotetrazolate (Hy5AT) .................................................... 59 4.5.2 5-Aminotetrazolium 5,5’-azotetrazolate (5ATzT) .......................................... 59 4.5.3 5,5’-Hydrazinebistetrazole (HBT) .................................................................. 60 4.5.4 Bis(tetrazolyl)amine (H2BTA) ......................................................................... 61 4.6 Main Charge Selection .......................................................................................... 62 4.7 Conclusions of the Down Selection Process ......................................................... 65 4.7.1 Polyphosphazenes ......................................................................................... 65 5 Results
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