Mirroring Yaksha - Yakshi in : Inscriptional Perspectives

Sandhya M. Unnikrishnan1

1. Department of History, NSS College Manjeri, College Road, Manjeri, Malappuram, Kerala – 676 122, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 17 August 2019; Revised: 13 September 2019; Accepted: 25 October 2019 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 463-470

Abstract: Inscriptions are historical source material and also useful to know the language, script, taxation, administration, religion and social life during the early period. Studies are conducted about Brahmin settlements, and the temple oriented societies and agrarian developments in the medieval Kerala society, but not many studies were made about the sramanic religion and their institution in Kerala society. The Jaina order, the development of Jaina settlements along the trade routes, the decline of these centres, the re-appropriation and assimilation of their pantheon and deities, etc. are the areas left behind by most of the historians. The present paper is an attempt to trace out the evidence about the Jaina Sasanadevatas – Yaksha and Yakshi found in the temple inscriptions, rock inscriptions and copper plates from the ruins of Jaina bastis.

Keywords: Inscriptions, Jainism, Sasanadevathas, Yaksha, Yakshi, Brahmin Settlements, Kerala

Introduction Archaeology and epigraphy can be considered as the two hands of history. Other than legends and literary evidence, archaeological and epigraphical sources are dependable. In the history of Kerala, the temple records engraved on the walls, stepping stones and base stones throw light on several factors that mould history. Most of them were written in old vattezhuthu or in Tamil- mixed language. It was very difficult to read this old language and to collect details mentioned in the epigraphs. It was Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai who ventured into this task for the first time (Puthussery 2007). He can be considered as the first scholar who utilized the temple records for writing history. Later, Dr. M. G. S. Narayanan followed his foot- steps and deciphered many inscriptions for historical purpose. Dr. M. R. Raghava Warrier has also made valuable contributions to the study of epigraphs.

The temple epigraphs speak about the donations and land endowments made by the rulers, local chief, merchants, merchant guilds and groups to the temples. During the Chera period, the temples had assumed great significance as the centre of socio- economic and political integration. K. A. Neelakanda Sastri has stated that the temple ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7: 2019

was not just a religious institution, but as social institutions it seems to have filled in the past a considerable place in the economy of the National life (Sastri 1932). The focus of political and economic power had clearly shifted from Brahmin settlements to temples during the 9th and 10th centuries. The expansion of agriculture, rise of Brahmin settlements and developments of agamic temples led to the formation of temple centred society. The further expansion of temple culture was stimulated by the Bhakthi Movement. Some of temple inscriptions display the names of traders and trade guilds that supported the activities for the progress of the temples.

Together with the socio-economic activities, factors regarding the religious life of Kerala are also available from the epigraphs. The archaeological and epigraphical references point out that even before the establishment of Brahmin settlements, there flourished Sramanic religions and their strong holds in Kerala. How these strongholds were erased; what were the accommodations, assimilation, acculturation and appropriations that occurred in the religious realm of Kerala are to be analysed to find out the eradication processes of the Sramanic institutions, especially the Jaina vestiges and their deities. The Sasanadevathas of Jaina Tirthankaras - Yakshas and Yakshis - were completely disappeared from the minds of the common people; but their reflections are seen in the archaeological and epigraphic relics of Kerala. The present paper is an attempt to find out such reflections in the inscriptions from Kerala temples.

P. B. Desai has stated that the cults of Sasanadevathas or Yakshis were introduced in the Jaina pantheon, as an attempt to attract the devotional mind of the common people (Desai 1957). The Yapaniyas, a section of Jaina monks were, behind this attempt. As a part of this, they introduced Tantrism, alchemy, Rasasiddha, Mantravada, etc. in the Jaina order. The Yaskshi-Yakshas cult is introduced for the sake of getting material benefits and to achieve the desires fulfilled (Shah 1987). The spread of Jainism and the cult of Sasanadevathas in Kerala had occurred in the northernmost part from Karnataka and in the southernmost part from Tamil Nadu. With the decline of trade, the travelling traders did not come in large numbers. The Jaina temples were located along the trade routes and they had received huge donations for the maintenance and for the day to day expenditure of the temple. But, as there was a shortage of income to these temples, most of the temples were either transformed into Hindu temples either by purchasing or by confiscation (Padmakumariyamma 1995).

The Wayanad region has many structural evidence like ruins of temples, sculptures, inscriptions, etc. Sometimes there may be inscriptions referring to the offerings to Sasanadevathas hidden among the ruins of the dilapidated temples. The Thalakavu stone inscription of 850 AD contains reference about a Yaksha to whom the Nalpattennayiravar constituted a lamp. Some land property was also allotted for perpetuating the lamp. Thalakavu was a Jaina Yaksha temple that had depended on the long-distance traders and the local agriculturists (Gurukkal and Warrier 2018). This may be the only reference to a Yaksha temple and the inscription mentioning offering to Yaksha. This inscription was unnoticed until K. K. N. Kurup discovered it from

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Thalakavu, Poothadi village in south Wayanad in 1970 (Kurup 1974). It is deciphered and published by Dr. M. G. S. Narayanan.

The Varadhur Jaladhara Inscription of 1684 AD found on a copper tablet states about certain gifts of gold, silver, bronze and copper to five chaithyalayas of Wayanad. It was given by Lalithappa of Aramana Basti from Karkala. There is another reference for providing twelve kasis for the Sasanadevathas of Aadinatha, Chakreswari and Gomukhayaksha but no images of the Sasanadevathas are found out from among the ruins. Raghava Warrier was the first to read and publish this epigraph (Warrier 2009). The Ay-rulers of the seventh century AD had the influence of Jaina establishments like Chitaral, the famous centre of Jaina Yakshi cult and kings like Vikramaditya Varaguna had connections with the Jain monks like Achananti and Uttananti (Gurukkal and Warrier 2018). A record of the 28th regnal year of Vikramaditya Varaguna states that Gunatangi Kurattiyar, the disciple of Arattanemi Bhattara of Perayakkudi has given some gold ornaments to the Bhattariyar (Goddess) of Thirucharanattumalai (Rao and Aiyer 1920). The inscription contains some more names who made donations to Thirucharanattu Bhattariar. This list includes Achananti, Uttananti Adikal of Kattampalli, Veerananti Adikal of Malaippalli and Varaguna, a disciple of Thirucharanattu Bhattariar (Rao and Aiyer 1920). One of the south Indian inscriptions has a reference to a lady ascetic by name Thirucharanattu Kurattiyar (Sastri 1925).

A vattezhuthu inscription carved on a rock in the southern side of the temple states that the construction of the srikoil of Thirucharanattumalai (Chitaral) was made by a priestess named Mattavala Narana Kurattiyar (TAS I). The same devotee had offered a metallic lamp stand and a golden flower to the Goddess. Another inscription carved on the stone mentions about an offering given to the temple. Now this stone has been made a stepping stone to the pond in front of the temple. As per this inscription, one Vijayachandra Vipaschit made a stone entrance to the temple. This inscription mentions the deity as ‘Varasundari’ (Padmakumariyamma 1995). This epithet is connected with Ambika Yakshi, the most popular Yakshi worshipped in Tamil Nadu. The inscriptions of the early period speak of the Goddess as Thirucharanattu Bhattariyar. But the later inscriptions mention the Goddess as Thirucharanattu Bhagavati. A Tamil inscription is found on the boulders of the temple describing the provisions made for the requirements of the temple. In this inscription, the Goddess is saluted as Thirucharanattu Bhagavati. The date of this inscription is 1250 AD. Hence, the appropriation of the Jaina Goddess to Hindu Bhagavati has already been over by 12th century AD (Padmakumariyamma 1995).

The Hindu temples also had records and inscriptions describing the offerings given to Goddess Yakshi. The Huzur treasury plates belonging to the Vishnu temple is having a reference to the expenditure incurred for the special offering to Mayi Yakki (Mahayakshi), the Upadevata of the temple. Sixteen nali paddy is set aside for the offering during the festival of Onam (Rao and Aiyer 1988). This reference is showing

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that the ethnic Goddess Yakshi has been approved and consecrated as the upadevata in the structural temples of Kerala. Kanyakumary inscription (Rao and Aiyer 1988) of Veera Rajendra has a reference to king Panchapa, who, by cutting open five arteries of his body, fed five Yakshas with blood (Verses 36-46). There is a reference to Yakshi of Palamudu in the Pattali copper plate of Pattali (Rao and Ayyar 1988). It is not clear if the Yakshi is the Upadevata of Pattali temple or Mannadi Bhagavati temple. Both these temples are referred in the copper plate.

When the temple inscriptions are referred, the interesting feature noticed is the occurrence of individual names like Yakkan, Iyyakkan, Iyyakki, Yakkaravan, etc. It may be assumed that these names are connected with Yakshas and Yakshis. The temple inscriptions are mostly the records of land transactions, land endowments and donations of land provided for the temple activities. The above mentioned names are occurring in the inscriptions as donor or done on behalf of the king or a ruler of a principality in the temple councils for taking important decisions. In both these cases, these names are appearing either as a landlord or as a ruler of a principality. Some of the inscriptions having reference to such names are given below.

Kandiyur Inscription, 947 AD: This inscription is about the land endowments given by Narayanan Chandrasekharan to Punnassery Iyakkan Parameswaran and Iyakkan Keralan for Karanmai (TAS I). They should pay 33 Parai seed annualy and 3 nalis of paddy daily to Thirukkadiyoor Devan. If they failed to supply, they should forfeit as much of land as required for the seed.

Tirukkakkarai Inscription, 950 AD: Yakkan Kunrappolan of Panritturuthi, who was one of the feudatory chiefs of Indukkodai Varma. The content of the inscription was to register a gift of lamp to Thirukkakarai Bhattarar by Yakkan Kunrappolan and another individual. This inscription is in Vattezhuthu, engraved on the south and east of the surumandapa of the Vishnu temple Tirukkakkara (Rao and Aiyer 1988).

Tirukkakkarai Inscription, 960 AD: This inscription is also in Vattezhuthu. The content of the inscription is about some regulations regarding the code of conduct for temple servants (Rao and Aiyer 1988). They should not borrow money; if they do so the debtor as well as the creditor should pay 100 kalanju gold to the Bhattarar. Yakkan Kundrapolan of Panripparuthi – ruler of the country, Kothai Keralan and Sankaran Sreekandan are the names mentioned in this inscription. Another inscription mentions Yakkan Polan of Vembamalai offered two perpetual lamps and one agram to the Bhattarar. Kannan Poraiyan - chief of Kalkkarai Nadu and the koil adikari agreed the deed and received the land needed for this purpose.

Thirukkakarai Inscription, 972 AD: This inscription is incomplete which lost the last portion of the first three lines. It registers a gift of money (36 kalanju of gold) to the Bhattarar from Kannan Kumaran of Karilam so as to enable the temple officers to

466 Unnikrishnan 2019: 463-470 purchase certain land from Iyakkan Kothai of Iravimangalam and Kannamangalam (Rao and Aiyer 1988). Inscription of Nedumpuram Thali, 960 AD: This inscription is not complete. It gives the offering provided by the following people. 1) Iyakkan Indirayuthan, the chieftain of Nedumpurayoor Nadu - 1 agram. 2) Melthalippurathu Changara Nangachi - 1 agram. 3) Nedumpurayoor Eyakkan Ayyan – 1 uthamagram. 4) Eyakkan Chathan – 1 Adisankaran agram. The land endowment for this expenditure is also mentioned in inscription (Puthusseri 2007: 364).

Tirunelli Copper Plate, 1005 AD: The content of this inscription is to record the land endowments for feeding the Brahmins and for the daily offering to Tirunelli Thevar, and for a Nandavilakku. The signature of the witness is done by Ameyamangalthu Yakkan Chathan, the commander in chief along with the koil adhikari Attoor Kunjivikraman and other individuals (Pillai 1963).

Nedumpuram Thali Inscription II, 960 AD: The chieftain of Nedumpurayur Nadu, Manal manrathu Eyakkan, koil adhikari and 18 representatives of the Nadu met in the temple premises to make regulations regarding the land endowments for feeding the Brahmins and for providing the paddy before Thulavishu and Medavishu, failing to which fine should be levied (Puthusseri 2007: 52).

Thirukkodithanam Inscription, 1050 AD: This records arrangements for panchavadyam in the Tirukkodithanam temple. Lands were given as grant for the expenditure of panchavadyam. A meeting of the sabha of the village was met under the presidency of Iyakkan Srikanthan of Manalmanram, the chieftain of Nanjurai Nadu for making some regulations for panchavadyam (Rao and Ayyar 1988).

Thirukkodithanam Inscription, 1010 AD: A record regarding the gift of land to the Bhattarar of Thirukkodithanan temple for feeding twelve Brahmins, one perpetual lamp, one day Vishuvilakku, and 12 nali offering to Bhattarar on new moon day. 400 kalam together with some other land yielding 4800 parai paddy was given as danam to the god. This endowment is made by Iyyakkan Govindan of Mulavukadu (Rao and Ayyar 1988).

Kollam Rameswaram Inscription, 1102 AD: Agreements signed by Ramakulasekhara Varman for providing agram, day to day expenditure, and for conducting Thirukuthu in the Thirunada of Thirukunavatha devan, etc. Certain land property was set aside for this purpose. The promise is made by Ramakulasekhar washing hands to Yakkan. This inscription is too damaged to decipher anything beyond this information (Rao and Ayyar 1988).

Thiruvalla Copper Plate, 11th Century AD: A reference to a number of perpetual lamps set up by various persons; one among them is Yakkan Kodai of Peruvayaloor and for this purpose lands were granted to Thiruvallavalappan (Rao and Aiyer 1988:

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141). A reference to one Ponniyakkanayan of Kidanguparal made a gift of land yielding annually 75 parai paddy which was to be spent for offering Akkaradalai to the deity and for performing the kuthu in the Kuthambalam of the temple (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 142). A reference to Kumaran Iyyakkan, the governor of Thekkinkuru in Vembolai Nadu gave land for offering and a lamp, silver salvar and a necklace set with rubies (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 147). There is a reference to Iyyakkan Govindan of Kodikkalam who gifted a village, Nedumbalanadu for maintaining nine persons for panchavadyam (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 147). This gift was caused by Iyyakan Govinadan, the officers of the temple and arunnuruvar (the six hundred). A reference is made about certain Yakkiyammai, wife of Kunran Iravi of Ponapallam who offered ten kanam of gold towards the income of rice for offering to be made to Thiruvallavalappan as soon as he roused from sleep every morning (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 151). One reference is made about Yakkan Kodai who has taken land on mortgage from Kiruttan of Karpulai and from this land ten parai of paddy should be granted to the temple for the above mentioned offering (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 151). There is reference about one Neelakandan Yakkaravan of Vadaissery who assigned plots of land for food offering to the God (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 153).

Thiruvannur Inscription, 1044 AD: There is a reference to Kanayappalli Yakkan Cellan, who mentioned the gold to be received from Thiruvannur deity to be paid by the naduvazhi and the servants of the deity (Sastri 1925). There is controversy among the scholars about the meaning of this inscription. Paliyathu Kannan Kandan, the governor of Ramavalanadu and his officials including arunnuruvar decided to reject the claim of Kanayapalli Yakkan Cellan, to receive a payment of gold from the temple because there was no precedence of such action.

Conclusion The above mentioned inscriptions contain the names like Iyyakan, Yakkan, Yakki, etc. We are not in a position to conclude that these names were connected with a particular religious sect, especially the followers of Jainism. But we can have some inferences to conclude that these names have some connections with Jainism. V. S. Agarwala (1970) has stated that Yaksha appears in the Sinhalese language as Yakka and Yakshi as Yakki. So Yakkan and Yakki may be the descendants of the traders who had come from Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and settled in early Tamilakam. One of the inscriptions states that a merchant who had come from Sri Lanka had dedicated a lamp to the temple of Suchindram in the kingdom of Venadu (ARIE, 1896). Jainas were traders who were engaged in internal trade and commercial activities in the Early Medieval times. The Thiruvalla copper plate contains references to oil merchants like vanikar, ennaivianiyar and vaniyan who came from Sri Lanka (Rao and Aiyer 1920: 131-207). With the decline of trade, the Jain traders transformed themselves to agriculturalists and settled themselves along the plains. From the predominantly trading economy of the Early Historic period, Tamilakam (including Kerala) was now in the process of changing towards an integrated agrarian order with the temple as the centre; consequently the

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Jains reoriented their socio-economic structures (Champakalakshmi 2011). In this context, it should be remembered that the names mentioned in the inscriptions were rich landlords or persons enjoying high status as koiladhikari, naduvazhi or commander in chief.

The rise of Brahmin settlements and temples with the greatest socio-political economic institutions, together with the decline in the flow of traders from distant lands, made the Jaina institutions in extreme poverty. They lost the royal patronage also. In this changed situation, many Jaina temples were re-appropriated to Brahmin fold either by political appropriation through confiscation or by the purchase by the Brahmins. As a case study, the Thiruvannur inscription of 1044 AD may be taken. There is a reference about Kanayappally Yakkan Cellan, who is expected to receive gold from the Thiruvannur deity, to be given by the naduvazhi and the servants of the temple. Different scholars have interpreted the inscription in different ways. However, Yakkan Cellan was not given the gold on the ground that there existed no such precedence. But it should be noticed that Yakkan Cellan might have demanded the gold because he might have been the authority of the temple property. There might have occurred a transfer of ownership from Yakkan Cellan to the naduvazhi, a representative of Brahmin hegemony. A reference to Thirukkunavi and such other terms gives a clue that Thiruvannur was a Jaina centre.

It is a social custom in Kerala to express the identity of individuals with the family name first, fathers name in the middle and finally the individual name. When we examine the names mentioned in inscriptions this custom can be witnessed. Manalmanrath Iyyakan Indirayuthan is a typical example. Hence the names like Yakkan, Iyyakkan, etc. may be connected with Jainism whose forefathers may be Jains.

As a result of the re-appropriation and transformation of the Jaina vestiges and their deities the Jain community in Kerala had lost their existence in the society. Gradually they absorbed themselves into the Hindu order. In the changed social scenario, many Jaina landlords and traders offered huge donations and land property to the temples to regain their existence in the temple-oriented society. This fact also points to the inference that the Yakkan, Yakkaravan, Eyakkan, Yakki, etc. might be the link in the order that existed in the pre-Brahmin settlements.

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