Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences Research
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ISSN: 2634 - 8845 Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences Research Research Article Open Access Car Sharing In a Compact City: Pinning Down the Benefits and Barriers Lucia Sobiecki and Ralph Chapman* 1Graduate Programme, Environmental Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand ABSTRACT New Zealand’s sprawling urban development and high levels of car dependency have resulted in significant environmental impacts, including increased carbon emissions and pollution. Car sharing can support sustainable transport patterns by offering an alternative to private vehicle ownership. Internationally, it has become increasingly popular but is still in the early stages of development in New Zealand. A survey of 356 Wellington residents and interviews with 13 car share stakeholders collected data on interest in car sharing and barriers facing the service in New Zealand’s capital. The results suggest that car sharing could become an important mobility option in Wellington and further policy support for car sharing could enable Wellington to take full advantage of its benefits. *Corresponding author Ralph Chapman, Graduate Programme, Environmental Studies, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Centre for Sustainable Cities, Wellington, New Zealand. E-mail: [email protected] Received: July 31, 2020; Accepted: August 06, 2020; Published: August 12, 2020 Keywords: Car Sharing, Benefits, Barriers, Policy, Wellington, Most car sharing schemes are ‘round-trip’ as the user must return New Zealand the car to the same place it was accessed, and pay for the entire time from gaining access to the car, to returning it [10]. Some cities Introduction have also introduced ‘point-to-point’ or ‘free-floating’ car sharing, New Zealand is one of the most urbanised countries in the world, which enables users to pick up the car share vehicle from one car with 86 percent of New Zealanders living in cities and towns park and return it to a different car park. This allows one-way [1]. However, New Zealand’s main cities are characterised by journeys, providing greater flexibility for users’ travel journeys. urban sprawl and high levels of car dependency [1]. The car In these models, the fleet of car share vehicles is generally owned ownership rate is the highest in the Organisation for Economic (or leased) by a professional car share operator [10]. An alternative Co-operation and Development [50]. In 2013, 76 percent of New business model is peer-to-peer car sharing, in which the vehicles Zealand households had one or two vehicles, and over 16 percent are owned by private individuals rather than a central operator. had three or more vehicles [2]. This high level of car dependency The car share organisation facilitates an online marketplace to has led to adverse environmental impacts, including growing connect vehicle owners with prospective renters [10]. transport carbon emissions and pollution. In 2015, the energy sector produced 40.5 percent of New Zealand’s gross greenhouse In recent decades, car sharing has been fostered by technological gas emissions, and over 40 percent of these emissions came from developments such as automated booking and smart-card vehicle road transport [3]. Road transport emissions have increased by access [5]. Technology will likely continue to play a significant over 70 percent since 1990 [3]. role in the development of car sharing, in particular the integration of electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid vehicles into car Car sharing can help countries transition towards more sustainable sharing fleets [5,11]. This could have a significant influence on the transport patterns by offering an alternative to private car impact of car sharing on carbon emissions, especially in countries ownership. ‘Car sharing’ refers to a system in which a fleet of with a high level of renewable electricity [5,11]. In 2016, a total of vehicles is used throughout the day by different individuals [4]. 84.8 percent of electricity generation in New Zealand came from Individuals and businesses can benefit from having access to renewable resources [12]. Accordingly, widespread EV use could a car without the responsibilities and costs of private vehicle significantly reduce vehicle carbon emissions in New Zealand. ownership [5]. Car sharing can reduce car ownership and vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT), in turn reducing carbon emissions Despite the benefits of car sharing and its increasing popularity and pollution [5,6]. It can also facilitate the uptake of alternative overseas, it is still in the early stages of development in New transport modes, improve public health, improve people’s transport Zealand. Car sharing is not well known or widely used, even in choices and equity, and save individuals and businesses money the biggest cities, Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington. This [7,8]. As of 2014, car sharing was operating in 33 countries, five study contributes to the literature by exploring car sharing in continents, and an estimated 1,531 cities with approximately 4.8 New Zealand, specifically in Wellington, New Zealand’s capital million users sharing over 104,000 vehicles [9]. and third largest city. It investigates who is interested in using car sharing, and whether this is comparable to international J Ear Environ Sci Res, 2020 Volume 2(3): 1-8 Citation: Lucia Sobiecki, Ralph Chapman (2020) Car Sharing In a Compact City: Pinning Down the Benefits and Barriers. Journal of Earth and Environmental Science Research. SRC/JEESR-123. DOI: https://doi.org/10.47363/JEESR/2020(2)123. patterns of car share use. It also explores concerns people have disasters [21]. Increased physical activity from more walking and with using the service, and potential encouragements. In addition, cycling reduces the risk of mortality and morbidity from a range this study examines the barriers facing car sharing in Wellington of illnesses, including obesity [22]. In addition, car sharing can and potential policy solutions from the perspective of a range of improve equity by offering a cost-effective alternative service to car share stakeholders. The paper begins with an overview of the people who are disadvantaged by their current transport choices, international evidence on the benefits of car sharing and common for example, low-income households who cannot afford to drive barriers, and the current car sharing situation in New Zealand. at all [7,20]. Following a summary of this study’s methodology, the results from both the survey and interviews are presented, and the paper Car sharing can also save individuals and businesses money [23- concludes with a summary of the key findings [13]. 25]. It can provide the benefits of private vehicle use without the costs and responsibilities of car ownership [5]. The cost of Background operating and maintaining a private car is increasing in many cities Car Sharing Benefits around the world. Much of this cost is fixed, paid regardless of Internationally, car sharing has resulted in a wide range of economic how much the car is driven [26]. For people and businesses who and environmental benefits. Shaheen and Cohen analysed a range only need to use a car occasionally, car sharing can be a more of studies on the impact car sharing has on car ownership. They affordable alternative to ownership, especially for cars driven less found that one car sharing vehicle replaces the need for 4 to 10 than 10,000 kilometres per year [7]. Overall, the international privately owned cars in Europe, 9 to 13 cars in North America, and evidence suggests that car sharing offers a range of benefits, 7 to 10 cars in Australia [5]. Car sharing can significantly reduce especially as a result of reducing car ownership and VKT. car ownership in households that already own one vehicle or more. In Europe 15 to 34 percent, and in North America 11 to 29 percent, Car Sharing Barriers and Policy Support of car share participants sold their private vehicle after joining car Internationally, car share operations have faced a range of barriers share [5]. Car sharing is also an important tool for deterring carless before they began to provide the full benefits of their services. households from acquiring a vehicle: North American research Start-up costs for car share providers has been a significant barrier. found that about 25 percent of car share members would consider Car sharing only becomes financially viable when the car share purchasing a vehicle if car sharing was no longer available [14]. vehicles are used intensively [4,7,27,28]. Relatively few car share systems are self-supported from user fees; most depend on financial Car sharing can also encourage people to use cars more sparingly. assistance from government and private investors [4,29]. Public Shaheen and Cohen estimated that car sharing reduced VKT in policy support has included start-up grants and guaranteed use of Europe by 28 to 45 percent, and on average by 44 percent in the service by central or local government agencies [28]. Private North America. Car sharing can increase car use for households developers have invested in car share companies by incorporating who previously did not have access to a car; however, this is car share into new developments, helping overcome parking usually offset by the reduced VKT among drivers who would constraints [28]. otherwise own a personal vehicle [6,7]. Research undertaken in North America found that most people who joined car sharing Internationally, most car sharing services have required free (or were carless; therefore, car sharing provided additional vehicle reduced cost) access to on-street car parking spaces in order access which came at the expense of public transport usage [8]. to operate [5,10,30]. Gaining access to such spaces, which are However, this drop in public transport use was offset by a similarly typically owned and controlled by local governments, can often sized increase from others who joined car sharing and reduced be a barrier for car share providers.