Platforms in Aotearoa our fast-growing

Kevin Jenkins

The Otago Farmers Market Photo: Liz Sinclair My favourite farmers’ market in Aotearoa is in . Digital platforms Talk of ‘platforms’ – or the ‘sharing Over the warmer months it has the best fresh produce in economy’ – sometimes seems to be : Central Otago apricots the size of peaches, old- ubiquitous. But how significant is this model, and what kinds of policy and school gooseberries, greengage plums. But the Otago Farmers regulatory issues is it raising? Market also offers a physical pun. It’s at Dunedin’s famous As Facebook, Amazon, Ali Baba, Tencent, and so on have grown to Railway Station, and there on the station platform you’ll dominance over the last decade, these huge also find many artisan products, like seaweed condiments, digital marketplaces have become the face of the model. However, the repeated citing craft beer, and bread of every kind. A ‘platform’, according of just this small group of behemoths has obscured the true depth and breadth of the to Choudary and Parker, is ‘a business model that uses platform phenomenon, and also the pace technology to connect people, organisations and resources in of change. The model is expanding and innovating quickly, and much of this is at ecosystems to exchange goods, services and ideas’ (Choudary smaller, local scales. and Parker, 2016). Take a broad view of ‘technology’ and the With the focus on the big international players, it’s easy to overlook the fact that Otago Farmers Market is a platform on a platform. this model is becoming pervasive here in New Zealand. The collective benefits these Kevin Jenkins is Managing Director of professional services firm MartinJenkins, a Director of the local platforms will provide will be digital automation firm Quanton, and Chair of the School of Government Advisory Board at Victoria enormous, making the lives of New University of .

Page 10 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 14, Issue 1 – February 2018 Zealanders better. But, as throughout the (the ‘why’), often with added value through adds that platforms ‘enable scale by world, there are also significant policy and an algorithm (so that users receive only the allowing others to generate profits in the regulatory challenges that need to be most valuable information). Second (the “long tail” of the distribution curve – worked through. ‘how’), they enable a great user experience avoiding diminishing returns associated when attracting, facilitating and matching with traditional (linear) value chain How we talk about digital platforms transactions. The third characteristic is the models’. They also enable asymmetric The language we use to describe digital layering of new interactions (Uber Eats is growth and competition by ‘driving the platforms is not yet settled, and this a recent New Zealand example). demand of a core market through matters because it in part reflects different complementary markets, which are often perspectives and interests, as Kenney and Choudary and Parker use the Uber subsidized (or free) to users and which Zysman have pointed out. ‘Platforms’ is the example to explain why platforms are cross industry lines’ (Accenture, 2016). term used by more academic commentators, so powerful:they eliminate gatekeepers, Parker and Van Alstyne (2016) argue but common parlance generally favours unlock new supply and demand and that platforms invert companies, ‘the sharing economy’, which suggests create community feedback loops. transforming their traditional focus on something more unambiguously benign. Uber, for example, performs a internal value creation to an outward focus Kenney and Zysman write: ‘Its boosters matching service that serves as a on external value creation. They also note have called it the Creative Economy or virtuous cycle. More demand is met by that their use of assets that they don’t own the Sharing Economy, whereas those less more opportunistic drivers, which allows them to grow much faster than convinced of its beneficence have dubbed increases geographic coverage, which traditional firms. it the Gig Economy or the Precariat’. They point out that Facebook is not based on ‘sharing’, but rather on monetising human A 2016 report by global technology effort and consumer assets, and they link this to some key policy and regulatory firm Accenture adds that platforms challenges: ‘the advantage of platform- ‘enable scale by allowing others to based companies often rests on an arbitrage between the practices adopted by platform generate profits in the “long tail” of the firms and the rules by which established companies operate, which are intended to distribution curve – avoiding diminishing protect customers, communities, workers, returns associated with traditional and markets’ (Kenney and Zysman, 2016, p.62). (linear) value chain models’. Rob Stock argues that calling platforms ‘the sharing economy’ is misleading, because very few of the people involved are actually sharing anything. Rather, leads to faster pickups, which Non-profit and cooperative platforms platforms are about ‘good, old-fashioned encourages more customers to join the But not all platforms are about making deals being done between asset owner, and platform and more people to sign up money for their owners. There is also a less asset hirer’. Using New Zealand-based as drivers. Driver downtime is lowered visible world made up of ‘many platforms platforms as examples, he breaks down and so are prices, which leads to more that have created massive value, but have those involved into ‘sharing opportunists’ scale. (ibid.) never made a profit, and don’t even strive (generating extra income from an existing to make money – on purpose’ (Evans and asset, like renting out a motorhome on They also note that this network effect Schmalensee, 2016, p.2). Both MasterCard Mighway); those driven by economic is different from that of the 20th-century (starting in 1966) and Visa (in 1971) were necessity (renting out a room on industrial era, which was primarily about not-for-profit membership associations LookAfterMe, an -like platform for monopolies based on supply economies of that charged just enough to cover costs, mature women); and, finally, those scale. Digital platforms, by contrast, enable until they were IPO-ed into profit-making involved for purely commercial reasons the possibility of monopolies based on in the 2000s. (buying a car specifically to rent it out on demand economies of scale. Many other multi-sided platforms Yourdrive) (Stock, 2017). A 2011 collection of essays on platform haven’t made the leap to profit. Standard- economics suggests that two-sided setting organisations (SSOs) help members The power of the platform platforms arise where there are externalities agree on standards and publish them at low It seems that successful platforms have and where there are transaction costs that cost, or even free. These include those relating three key characteristics (Choudary and otherwise prevent the two sides solving the to mobile carriers, handset makers and chip Parker, 2016). First, they enable exchange externality directly (Evans, 2011). A 2016 providers. Evans and Schmalensee claim of value between producers and consumers report by global technology firm Accenture there are almost 1,000 SSOs, and that SSOs

Policy Quarterly – Volume 14, Issue 1 – February 2018 – Page 11 Platforms in Aotearoa: our fast-growing sharing economy

Figure 1: Ranking by number of companies manufacturing supply chains); and five Industry investment platforms (like Softbank, which eCommerce/Marketplace isn’t a platform as such, but has invested in Fintech Yahoo! Japan, Ali Baba, Housing.com in India and others). Internet Software and Services Evans and Gawer investigated which Social & Social/Messaging sectors the platform firms were most active

Media in, and found that ranking sectors by the Transportation number of platforms in each one revealed a different pattern than ranking by market Travel value. (Evans and Gawer, 2016, p.17) Internet Software and Manufacturing This first international survey Internet, Search and Services discovered that there are some sectors Enterprise Software where platforms are yet to make much

01020304050 headway. Despite there being hundreds of Number of Records workplace platforms like TaskRabbit,

Source: Evans and Gawer, 2016, p.17. which match demand for tasks with individuals and their skills, none has got Figure 2: Ranking by market value close to a US$1 billion valuation. Evans and Gawer wondered if ‘inherent Industry fragmentation by type of work and by Internet Software and Services geography may have caused lack of eCommerce/Marketplace scaling’ (ibid., p.17). The healthcare sector App Marketplaces and Manufacturing is another example. On the other hand,

Search, AdTech and Services the lack of progress in those sectors may simply be a case of ‘watch this space’. Social/Messaging A number of traditional firms are now Media striving to add platforms (ibid.). Daimler, Enterprise Software for example, bought RideScout, a US transaction platform that aggregates IoT, Software and Manufacturing transportation and parking options in Travel real time, and MyTaxi, a German ride- Fintech sourcing platform akin to Uber. Time will tell how successful the traditional firms $0B $100B $200B $300B$400 B$500B $600 B$700B will be at disrupting themselves, but many Company Market Cap Source: Evans and Gawer, 2016, p.17. of the commentators on disruptive technologies are backing the new entrants. published more than 200,000 standards modern “middlemen”, not recognising the On the other hand, Bughin, Catlin, Hirt between 1975 and 2011. A recent study also value-add’ (Uenlue, 2017, p.1). and Willmot distinguish between found that these platforms were responsible incumbents that move boldly and those for ‘a significant amount of economic growth The growing dominance of the big platforms which don’t: in the last several decades’ (ibid.). Certainly, The first global survey of platform both Apple’s iOS and Google’s Android are companies valued at US$1 billion or more Incumbents moving boldly only possible because of SSO-created identified 176 large platform companies, command a 20 percent share, on standards. valued collectively at over US$4.3 trillion average, of digitizing markets. That In response to ‘death star platforms’ (Evans and Gawer, 2016). The survey compares with only 5 percent for like Airbnb, so called for their pursuit of report divided these companies into four digital natives on the prowl…we world domination, we have also been categories. There were 160 transaction found that revved-up incumbents seeing the rise of platform cooperatives platforms (social media, marketplaces, create as much risk to the revenues of (Johnson, 2016). One example is media, music, finance and gaming); five traditional players as attackers do. Fairmondo, a co-operative version of eBay innovation platforms (software firms like And it’s often incumbents’ moves that founded in Germany. Salesforce which ‘derive much of their value push an industry to the tipping point. Despite all this, one recent article notes and innovation from co-creating products That’s when the ranks of slow movers that platforms ‘are still being and services’(p.14)); six integrated get exposed to life-threatening underestimated. Incumbents and business platforms (which, like Apple, for example, competition. management literature title them as combine double-sided markets with

Page 12 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 14, Issue 1 – February 2018 The Accenture report mentioned above high-profile public debate about regulation regulated industries like taxis and hotels cited a prediction that by 2018 more than of the ride-sourcing industry, leading to (Kenney and Zysman, 2016). Berlin is an half of large enterprises will either create eventual changes to legislation. Victoria example of a city that has restricted Airbnb, or partner with platforms. It claims that University law professor Gordon Anderson not to protect the traditional hospitality 25% of the world’s economy will be digital also remarked recently that New Zealand’s sector (e.g. hotels), but to preserve supply by 2020 (compared with 15% in 2006), and current employment law is ill-equipped to in another sector – that is, residential with platforms representing a fast-growing cope with the new ‘gig’ economy: ‘You can’t rentals. In New Zealand, Queenstown is proportion of that. It adds: use a mid-20th century legal structure to doing the same. Interestingly, Airbnb’s own deal with a whole new mode of employment’ data shows no diminution in Airbnb Largely driven by platform strategies, (Harris, 2017). supply in Berlin, indicating that the there are more than 140 ‘unicorns’ Kenney and Zysman go further than restriction may have had little effect there with a total valuation of more than this, though, arguing that, as many have (Morris, 2016), although arguably this is [US]$500 billion – ‘unicorns’ are suspected: simply a matter of time. Kenney and startups with valuations of $1 billion Zysman also cite the European Com- or more based on fundraising. Within Platform entrepreneurs increasingly mission’s taking on of US platforms five years, a core component of believe that if they possess a first- around anti-trust policy, and the clashes corporate valuations and capital mover advantage, they can, in fact, between ICT firms and platforms around markets will be based on their remake existing law by creating new intellectual property. They also point to platform ecosystems and digital assets. (Accenture, 2016, p.38) Another challenge is that network Platforms are outpacing policy and regulation effects mean that platforms often grow The rise of the platforms is important for exponentially, with this pattern only public policy for several reasons. The digital economy is becoming a dominant part of being noticed when scale is achieved the world economy, and the new platforms are on the way to becoming the dominant and, again, ‘facts’ have changed. business model in the digital economy. The new model has created a plethora of new or radically changed marketplaces that are practices on their platforms that issues raised about network policy driven disrupting current rules and demanding new essentially establish new norms of by clashes between traditional carriers and ones. As well as crossing technologies, they behavior. It is often said in Silicon platforms, such as some US carriers are disintermediating markets and adding Valley, ‘Don’t ask permission; ask for blocking advertisements on smartphones. value to both sides: this has significant forgiveness’ ... The code writers, Policy-makers and regulators are implications for officials who are assessing taking Uber as an example, have scrambling to keep up. relevant benefits between suppliers and already reshaped social behavior. Under the broader heading of ‘digital customers in order to determine whether Government rules will influence how trust’, the 2016 Accenture report raised the there is a need to intervene and, if so, how the new technologies are deployed issue of data ethics, encompassing ethical to intervene. and their consequences, but in a questions going beyond simply privacy – The platform phenomenon also raises , government such as who owns data, who can use it and issues for the current machinery of decisions may be constrained by the who can access it. government. Most policy advice is ‘facts’ in the software. (Kenney and generated by sector agencies, and those Zysman, 2016, p.67) How might policymakers and regulators agencies have already been grappling for respond? some time with how to shift from silos to Governments often welcome the rise of Policymakers and regulators face some successful cross-agency work. The new platforms as a way of spurring innovation big challenges. The usual approach of digital platforms are reinforcing the need and improving productivity through better identifying issues first is made more difficult for new multi-sector approaches. utilisation of assets (Evans and Gawer, by the nature and speed of innovation. A Much legislation and regulation 2016). On the other hand, they also realise feature of disruptive technologies is that predates the digital world, and is difficult to that platforms present challenges across a they are not always easy to identify early on, apply or enforce in this new context. Kenney range of policy issues, including labour, because they often emerge from a different and Zysman talk about how the rise of tax, competition, use of data and privacy. industry: for example, an online site from platforms is challenging current policies Some platforms are creating piecework the world of ICT allowing TradeMe to and regulations. A local example is Uber’s ‘jobs’ outside the ambit of traditional displace printed ‘trade and exchange’ arrival in New Zealand, which sparked a employment law, and others are disrupting publications.

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Policymakers and regulators need to conditions of human social existence Platforms in Aotearoa: origins and recent find the right lens or lenses to give a … this presupposes a regulatory developments coherent picture of what’s happening. environment that supports the TradeMe was an early New Zealand Looking at issues through an historical development, application and platform, established in 1999, quickly regulatory lens immediately raises the exploitation of technologies that will followed by Bookabach in 2000, Holiday question of which regulatory regime contribute to such an overarching Houses in 2003 and Holiday Homes in 2004 should apply, or whether a new sector has purpose, an environment properly (Charity, 2015). Since then, local platforms emerged that requires a new regime. geared for risk management and have started to emerge exponentially. None Another common default is to look at benefit sharing. may have hit the US$1 billion benchmark issues through the lens of specific yet, although some have faith in accounting technologies, such as artificial intelligence They list four key challenges for platform Xero, but there are many in the or smart devices. However, that has the risk regulators: race. of being too narrow, because many Relative to such a project, regulators Transport is a fertile area here. platforms integrate different technologies. are liable to be called to account if: MyCarYourRental matches people wanting A technology lens also carries the risk that 1. they fail to take sensible to rent a car with people overseas who have many innovators themselves may not fully precautionary measures relative to parked their car at Airport: understand the implications of the the risks presented by emerging instead of paying for parking, the travellers technologies they are driving, let alone the technologies; can make cash. YourDrive matches people seeking cars for casual rental with car owners seeking to share their cars when ... traditional regulatory model of policy they don’t need them. Transfervans describe themselves as an ‘Uber style development and review cannot cope delivery service for over-sized items’, with the rapid-fire disruptive change matching customers with van or truck owners and focusing on the ‘last mile we are seeing, the familiar model risks delivery network’. Zoomy is a local competitor to Uber in the related ride- simply being too slow. sourcing sector. There are also lots of new local financial services platforms, such as Sharesies, which allows people to invest policymakers and regulators. Further, by the 2. the purposes or objectives that $50 in the same options as people time they do grasp the implications, further they are pursuing (or, the manner investing $5,000, and Harmoney, self- ‘layers’ may have been added and other ‘facts and means by which they pursue described as a ‘peer-to-peer money on the ground’ may have emerged. those objectives) are judged to be marketplace’. The Financial Markets Another challenge is that network illegitimate; Authority listed eight effects mean that platforms often grow 3. their interventions are ineffective services in New Zealand in November exponentially, with this pattern only being and not fully fit for purpose; or 2017: two examples are Snowball Effect, noticed when scale is achieved and, again, 4. they have failed to make an initial for investing and capital raising, and self- ‘facts’ have changed. Some of these targeted and sustainable regulatory described as a ‘curated marketplace which regulatory challenges – including speed of connection; or, where regulation simplifies access to a range of investment change and the need for a wide-angled lens has become disconnected, they opportunities’, and PledgeMe, which has – were explored recently in this journal in have failed to make an appropriate funded commercial and other initiatives, a discussion of ‘regulatory stewardship’ as reconnection. (Brownsword and including some that are both (like Eat My involving ‘a whole-of-system view, and a Goodwin, 2012) Lunch). proactive, collaborative approach to the In fact, local platforms are multiplying care of the regulatory system(s) within Policymakers and regulators in everywhere. Boosted 365 is ‘here to remove which an agency works’ (Winson, 2017, Aotearoa face the challenge of truly every possible barrier between artists and p.3, citing New Zealand Government, understanding the business models backers’, and has funded a Mäori trading 2017). underpinning the emergent platform card game, an annual arts and theatre event The Cambridge Core website sum- firms, both globally and domestically, as for shoe lovers, and more. Shuttlerock, a marises some key points made by they are evolving at pace and growing software content marketing platform, Brownsword and Goodwin: exponentially, as well as blurring the lines became a ‘layer’ on Facebook’s global between sectors and driving the emergence platform when they became one of 15 If law and technology are to work of whole new sectors. Facebook partners globally. Housesitters together to improve the basic and Kiwihousesitters compete in the

Page 14 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 14, Issue 1 – February 2018 house- and pet-sitting market, while who often don’t use them; other corporate Sharedspace does the same for commercial parks are available for long-term or casual space. Platforms for platforms are renting to firm employees. Parkable has emerging too: there are now ‘collaborative enabled an internal day market for those economy meetups’ in Auckland – organised parks. Different payment regimes can via an online platform – that are designed apply (for example, who gets the payment for people to share how to share. and at what price). This enterprise approach has multiple benefits, including Parkable and Campable: home-grown less demand on the city’s overall parking disruptive platforms supply, easier access to parks for all It is worth looking at a couple of local employees, and cash benefits to either the platforms more closely. Parkable is an ‘park owner’ or the firm. Another value excellent example of a home-grown app- created is that clients can include a visitor based disruptive transaction platform car park when they send meeting that displays Choudary and Parker’s three invitations. characteristics of successful platforms. Brody Nelson, the founder of Parkable, Parkable addresses the difficulty in also launched Campable, which matches finding a car park in our cities, where a motorhomes with private land. It solves the third of congested downtown traffic is problem of excess demand for traditional simply looking for parking (Barter, 2013). motorhome parks by adding private land to The Parkable app matches demand with the supply, and it also eases the freedom supply (reported ‘live’ via an Internet of camper problem. There is much debate in Things network of sensors), creating value Wellington about freedom campers for both – the first characteristic of success. congesting and even befouling the south The original idea was to access – or ‘share’ coast, because of the limited space and toilet – unused parking spaces for events, such as facilities. Campable allows a visitor to find residential driveways near Eden Park a local person willing to let them park in during big rugby games. This is still part of their driveway – and perhaps use some of the business, but Parkable has found that their facilities – for a fee. higher-frequency demand embeds habits So Campable adds value to both sides, faster, and it now focuses on daily employee and its growing business shows that it is parking. One key innovation has been on offering a good experience. It also tantalises the supply side, with most of the over 4,000 with the prospect of spreading economic places they manage in Auckland being benefits wider with what it calls ‘micro- non-traditional parking areas such as tourism’. We know that authentic underutilised church, supermarket and experiences are the new ‘tourism gold’, and school parking lots, vacant lots, and areas making it easy for tourists to spend a night that are between tenancies. on a lifestyle block off the usual tourist Thousands of drivers are now using the paths, and to meet working locals and Brody Nelson, founder of Parkable and Campable app. It is growing fast both in Auckland consume locally made product, is very and in other cities. This demonstrates the attractive. second characteristic – a great user integral to the design. Each apartment will experience when attracting, facilitating A mash-up of platforms to address have its own bedrooms and bathroom, and matching transactions. accommodation and transport issues but other facilities will be shared, such as Things really get interesting, though, A second layer of the rise of platforms cooking, lounge and laundry. This reflects when we look at how Parkable is layering locally, and a perfect illustration of how a trend in places like New York called ‘co- new interactions, the last of the three key descriptors are not keeping pace with living’, or a ‘disruptive alternative to the way characteristics. As it learns from how the real world, is a mash-up of platforms people live’ – one example is WeLive’s 200- people behave on both sides of the currently taking physical form in one fast- unit fully furnished and fully serviced site platform, Parkable is innovating furiously. growing New Zealand centre. A shortage of at 110 Wall Street, Manhattan (Winston, One fast-growing example is Parkable for worker accommodation there is exacerbated 2016). Business, which manages excess demand by limited public transport and increasing The New Zealand concept does not stop and underutilised supply of parking spaces traffic congestion. A developer is planning there though. Parkable will manage its car within an organisation. One of the a new build of 300 apartments (many parks, cars for casual use will be provided platform’s clients allocates its best already pre-sold to employers for worker by a car-sharing platform, and the facility corporate parks to its senior executives, accommodation), with several platforms will run buses with bookings online.

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The regulatory challenge in Aotearoa regulatory model of policy development – naturally – a new New Zealand platform So far, so exciting. However, both Parkable and review cannot cope with the rapid-fire was launched in November 2017. It’s called and Campable run the risk of getting disruptive change we are seeing: the familiar Ooooby, and its website notes: ‘We deliver ahead of existing laws and regulations. Two model risks simply being too slow. fresh fruit and vegetables from local and districts have banned Campable, seemingly A major part of the problem is getting organic growers to you every week. It’s like because of fears of negative impacts on local timely intelligence about new business food delivery from a farmers market.’ That motorhome parks (akin to cities looking to models and new technologies. kind of local dynamism is driving much of ban Airbnb due to fears of a negative impact Traditionally, our officials have had a deep the growth and innovation among digital on local hotels and motels). understanding of the particular industry platforms, beyond the big, oft-cited players Another obstacle is the Camping- they create policy for and regulate; but in like Facebook and Amazon. Grounds Regulations 1985, which were our new world of cross-discipline, cross- Here in Aotearoa, the digital platform issued before mobile telephony and the technology platforms, New Zealand’s phenomenon is as pervasive – and as fluid internet. The regulations require policymakers and regulators are grappling and exciting – as anywhere else. As around landowners to obtain a resource consent with the problem that disruption to their the world, our policymakers and regulators before they can have more than one industry may well come from outside it. are reckoning with the quickening pace and motorhome stay on their land, but local They therefore also need to be aware of unpredictability of the phenomenon, with authorities can issue exemptions. what’s happening outside their industry its tendency to go off in quite unexpected The motives for regulation in this area and beyond its traditional technologies. directions. Platforms have been getting are obvious: to ensure appropriate capacity Armed with better intelligence, officials ahead of the curve, raising complex issues and environmental management, and to set then need to be able to apply a new, higher in regulatory areas such as tax, employment, health and safety standards. Again, though, level of forecasting capability. By getting health and safety, consumers and the facts are getting in the way. Freedom more intelligence earlier, then responding competition. Those who make and enforce camping is arguably a response to lack of to it quickly and effectively, officials will be policy in this country have the critical job supply in the right places. Further, Campable able to aspire to something approaching of managing and influencing that growth, displays the second characteristic of good ‘real-time’ regulatory change. through providing a regulatory framework platforms: that is, it uses algorithms to This is a massive challenge, but New that will allow the considerable promise of provide valuable information to all sides. Zealand officials do have one advantage platforms in economic and social benefits Drivers can access real-time amenity and here: the opportunity to learn from to be realised. capacity data and feedback from others overseas experience. We are certainly not about their experience. Landowners can trailing the international field, but there Acknowledgements access feedback about drivers. Regulators are some frontrunners whose regulatory The author thanks Girol Karacaoglu, can access data about usage, feedback from responses we can dissect and learn from, Liz Sinclair, Bill Moran, Hanna Tevita, both sides and so on. In other words, whether in competition law or property Brody Nelson and Jonathan Boston for Campable offers a different way of meeting rights or other fields. Developing new their insightful comments on a draft of the objectives of the regulations, and one regulatory models in Aotearoa for the age this article, which led to a number of that provides a lot more data about of the platform will depend on us improvements. compliance. successfully applying lessons from abroad. We are no different from the rest of the world: ‘The current New Zealand Conclusion regulatory framework does not provide Back on the platform at my favourite effective regulations for apps such as Uber local farmers’ market, Dunedinites are and Airbnb’ (Henderson, 2016, p.5). connecting, sharing and exchanging – including talk and ideas, not just berries A more responsive regulatory model for the from the Taieri Plains – but doing it in platform era their largely pre-digital ways (there’s a bit Experience of the platform era so far of EFTPOS). In parallel, though, many of seems to be telling us that the traditional the products are also being sold online, and

References Accenture (2016) Accenture Technology Vision 2016: people first: the Bughin, J., T. Catlin, M. Hirt and P. Willmot (2018) ‘Why digital strategies fail’, primacy of people in a digital age, Accenture McKinsey & Company, January https://www.mckinsey.com/business- Barter, P. (2013) ‘Is 30% of traffic really searching for parking?’, www. functions/digital-mckinsey/our-insights/why-digital-strategies-fail reinventingparking.org, 7 October Charity, J. (2015) ‘Peer-to-Peer: the sharing economy in New Zealand’, Brownsword, R. and M. Goodwin (2012) Law and the Technologies of the Management Magazine, April Twenty-first Century: text and materials, Cambridge; New York: Choudary, S.P. and G. Parker (2016) ‘How to build a successful platform Cambridge University Press business’, INSEAD blog, 3 June, https://knowledge.

Page 16 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 14, Issue 1 – February 2018 insead.edu/blog/insead-blog/how-to-build-a-successful-platform- Kenney, M. and J. Zysman (2016) ‘The rise of the platform economy’, business-4728 Issues in Science and Technology, 32 (3), Spring, pp.61-9 Evans, D.S. (2011) Platform Economics: essays on multi-sided businesses, Morris, D. (2016) ‘Banning Airbnb hasn’t had much impact in Berlin – Competition Policy International yet’, fortune.com, 4 December Evans, D.S. and R. Schmalensee (2016) ‘Some of the most successful New Zealand Government (2017) Government Expectations for Good platforms are ones you’ve never heard of’, Harvard Business Review, Regulatory Practice, Wellington: New Zealand Government, http:// 28 March www.treasury.govt.nz/regulation/informationreleases/pdfs/good-reg- Evans, P.C. and A. Gawer (2016) The Rise of the Platform Enterprise: a practice.pdf, accessed 29 November global survey, Emerging Platform Economy series, 1, New York: Center Parker, G. and M. Van Alstyne (2016) ‘How digital platforms are for Global Enterprise revolutionizing markets’, Platform Economics, 7 April Harris, C. (2017) ‘NZ law ill-prepared for gig economy, professor says’, Stock, R. (2017) ‘The share club’, Dominion Post, 8 November Stuff, 26 November, https://www.stuff.co.nz/business/ Uenlue, M. (2017) ‘Platform business model (part 2): fundamental industries/99140479/nz-law-illprepared-for-gig-economy-professor- principles’, http://www.innovationtactics.com, 11 April says, accessed 29 November Winson, S. (2017) ‘Regulatory stewardship: voice of the regulator’, Policy Henderson, L. (2016) ‘Innovators or rule breakers? Regulating Uber, Quarterly, 13 (4), pp.3-9 Airbnb and the sharing economy’, LLB dissertation, University of Otago Winston, A. (2016) ‘Co-working company WeWork unveils its first co-living Johnson, C. (2016) ‘11 platform cooperatives creating a real sharing apartments in New York’, dezeen.com, 6 April economy’, www.shareable.netblog, 18 May Master of e-Government BETTER GOVERNMENT THROUGH TECHNOLOGY Gain the knowledge and TRIMESTER TRIMESTER TRIMESTER competence to understand, analyse, design and ONE TWO THREE manage transformational EGOV 501 Managing Service EGOV 502 e-Government, EGOV 503 Managing ICT- e-government initiatives. Transformation (Core course) Public Sector Reform and Good enabled Forms of Public The managerial aspect and Governance (Core course) Engagement The challenges, Connect with experts and issues of ICT-enabled service The theories, principles, conditions and requirements a global community of transformation in the public models and strategies for using for managing the use of ICTs to classmates sector. transformational government achieve effective forms of public initiatives to establish good engagement. GOVT 518 Comparative Public Your courses are designed governance, drawing on Management (Core course) EGOV 521 Research Project by experts in government international and New Zealand Comparative public management Applications of theoretical, experience. and ICT and taught by and public policy, with emphasis conceptual, analytical, practical leading academics. Be part on contemporary developments EGOV 520 Introduction to and research methodological of a school that attracts in Asia–Pacific and beyond. Research in the Public Sector knowledge to the design An introduction to approaches, and conduct of an applied not only local professionals 2 x 15 point electives from ethics and methods of doing research project in the area of but a talented group of EGOV 500–599, MMIM 500–599, research in the public sector. transformational e-government. MMPM 500–599, MAPP 500–599 international students. This course is co-taught with MMIM 513 Managing IT-related GOVT 561. Change FURTHER MMIM 510 Information Systems The impact of information INFORMATION: Management (Core course) technology on an organisation The principles and practices and issues concerned with IT Academic enquiries of managing the information related change. e [email protected] systems function within an 1 x 15 point elective from EGOV organisation. Enrolment enquiries 500–599, MMIM 500–599, e [email protected] 1 x 15 point elective from EGOV MMPM 500–599, MAPP 500–599 p +64-4-463 6599 500–599, MMIM 500–599, MMPM 500–599, MAPP 500–599

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