ASSOCIATION FOR CONSUMER RESEARCH

Labovitz School of Business & Economics, University of Minnesota Duluth, 11 E. Superior Street, Suite 210, Duluth, MN 55802

Objectivity and Gender in Consumer Research: a Feminist Deconstructionist Critique Julia M. Bristor, University of Houston, Texas Eileen Fischer, York University, CANADA

[to cite]: Julia M. Bristor and Eileen Fischer (1991) ,"Objectivity and Gender in Consumer Research: a Feminist Deconstructionist Critique", in GCB - Gender and Consumer Behavior Volume 1, eds. Dr. Janeen Arnold Costa, Salt Lake City, UT : Association for Consumer Research, Pages: 115-123.

[url]: http://www.acrwebsite.org/volumes/15552/gender/v01/GCB-01

[copyright notice]: This work is copyrighted by The Association for Consumer Research. For permission to copy or use this work in whole or in part, please contact the Copyright Clearance Center at http://www.copyright.com/. Objectivity and Gender in Consumer Research: A Feminist Deconstructionist Critique

Julia M. Bristor, University of Houston, Texas Eileen Fischer, York University, CANADA

Objectivity in consumer research is affected by the intentionality or conscious sexist motivations on fact that it is a gendered enterprise reflecting a the part of specific individuals. To the contrary, distinctly male perspective on male problems. The we contend that it is precisely because gender origins of this bias can be traced to the traditional biases are fl subtle, unexamined part of our positivist model of science which incorporates cultural anti institutional world view, and research asymmetric assumptions about gender. As a result, tradition, that they are difficult to identify and the scientific enterprise is closely associated with problematic to correct. However, as was Jessie masculine traits and distanced from feminine traits. Bernard (1973), we are "concerned,as any fair This paper explores specific ways in which biases n1inded person must be, with the effects of sexism are manIfest in consumer research, and briefly in the position of women in our profession and in suggests ways in which feminist scholars are our society; but [we are] also concerned, as any attempting to eliminate these biases. dedicated [consumer researcher] must be, with its affects on our discipline as well," (pg. 776). INTRODUCTION Second, post-positivists generally argue that obtaining objectivity in practice is impossible, if Objectivity has long been considered a hallmark not undesirable (cf. Anderson 1986; Lincoln and of science. In the last decade however, consumer Guba 1985). However, the concept of objectivity researchers have raised important questions is complex and multidimensional. Few would concerning objectivity (c.f., Anderson 1986; Hunt suggest that systematic biases that lead to 1990; Peter and Olson 1983). One aspect of this incomplete and distorted forms of knowledge are discussion has involved the role of values in acceptable, especially when that knowledge is research, and whether a value-free enterprise is presented as gender inclusive are desirable. Here, possible. Even conservative researchers have we only argue that gender biases represent a conceded that research is likely to be value-laden correctable and undesirable lapse of objectivity. (Hunt 1990). However, the discussion has not Third, gender biases can occur in both directions; been very specific about the sorts of values that however instances of biases against women are far might be brought to the research workbench or more pervasive than biases against men (Eichler whether some sorts of values are morelless 1988). Finally, space limitations prevent us from appropriate than others. In this paper, we argue examining the important issue of how gender that values associated with gender, the set of biases are intertwined with race, class and cultural socially constructed characteristics associated with biases. the feminine--masculine dichotomy that provide a fundamental aspect of life through which humans The paper is organized as follows. We first trace think about and organize their social activity have the source of much gender bias to the history of a significant and constraining effect on the the development of consumer behavior as a social practice of consumer research (Harding 1986). science. Second, we provide some specific Specifically, we use a feminist deconstructionist illustrations of gender biases in consumer approach to explore ways in which a n1ale or research. Finally, we draw on the feminist androcentric perspective has informed consumer philosophy of science literature for suggestions as research and led to gender biases in areas such as to how such problems could be eliminated in problem definition, methodology and resultant consumer research. knowledge.

As a starting point, we wish to be extremely clear on four points. First, that we are not presuming

115 THE HISTORY OF CONSUMER RESEARCH inquiry has been implicitly founded on this model.

Relatively speaking, consumer research is a young Using this as a backdrop, there are two main discipline in the social sciences; the first arguments on which claims about in-principle Association for Consumer Research conference genderedness of science turn. The first argument was held in 1969 and the Journal of Consumer is that the natural sciences have been gendered Research was founded in 1974. Like most other and gender biased from their inception. social science disciplines, philosophy of science Numerous feminist deconstructions have shown issues have provoked substantial and often heated that the model of science is imbued with sexual debate. Unlike the closely related field of metaphors, including rape and violation, and marketing, it has been consumed less by the socially constructed gender dichotomies that are question of whether it is a science or not and assigned on the basis of biological sex, and are more with issues concerning "good"and "bad" differentially value-laden (Harding 1986; Keller science. This is because from its inception, 1990). Things masculine, and thus men, are consumer research has achieved scientific accorded power, dominance and a higher worth credibility by emulating the theories and methods than things feminine, and thus women. For of psychology. Although much older, more example, Jordanova's (1980) study of eighteenth­ credible and accorded greater scientific stature and nineteenth-cenruryFrench and British within the hierarchy of the social sciences, biomedical scientists which reveals how gender psychology has also had its share of internal symbolism has been used to reconceptualize philosophical and methodological debates (Taylor nature as female. "Science and medicine as 1973). Sherif (1987) characterized the field as a activities were associated with sexual metaphors scientific hierarchy consisting of experimentalists which were clearly expressed in designating nature at the top, then tester/statisticians, then as a woman to be unveiled, unclothed and developmentalists, then social psychologists and penetrated by masculine science," (Jordanova finally clinicians at the bottom. Since the route to 1980, pg. 45). One example of the confounding of scientific respectability has been rigorous scientific biology with social constructions of gender and methods, each field within this hierarchy has gender roles is seen in the wax models of humans sought to improve its status by adopting used in anatomical drawings and educational perspectives, theories and methods as high on the displays at museums: hierarchy as possible. For the top of the hierarchy, the natural sciences provided the "The female figures are recumbent, frequently needed exemplar. There, empiricism was well adorned with pearl necklaces. They have long established, and asymmetric gender assumptions hair, and occasionally they have hair in the pubic dating back to Aristotle were deeply entrenched area also. These "Venuses"as they were (Lange 1983; Spelman 1983). Since much social significantly called lie on velvet or silk cushions, in phenomenon is not directly observable, the a passive, almost sexually inviting pose. requirement for direct observation via the senses Con1p~rable male figures are usually upright, and inhibited the development of the modern social often in a position of motion," (Jordanova 1980, sciences until the 17th century when Rene pg.54). Descartes resolved the mind-body problem. The mind-body problem asks whether the human mind Thus, since the social sciences are modeled is separate or connected to the body. Decartes' directly on the natural sciences, and since the conclusion that they were separate enabled social natural sciences have incorporated such gender scientists to dismiss the mind as either constructions, it follows that the social sciences inaccessible or non-existent (Rubenstein 1981). have as well. An10ng it many effects, this enabled social scientists to use the scientific method, complete The second argument for in-principle with a mechanistic, stimulus-response view of genderedness involves showing that the causality, and methods through which hun1an paradign1atic status of physics as the model of behavior could be manipulated and studied as science, is inappropriate because it is actually a though they were any other inert, passive object. special case of the social sciences. This position Until quite recently, most consumer research (cf., Harding 1986; Nielsen 1990) is advanced on the grounds its subject matter is relatively simple

116 compared with the social sciences. Further, while This view has significant implications for physicists need not employ interpretive skills to consumer research. One implication is that grasp the meaning and purpose of their subject gender, which is a social construction, is assumed matter, "doing"physics, (e.g., developing to be equivalent, or "hardwired"to biological sex. constructs, theorizing), like any other human In other words, men are viewed as "naturally" enterprise, involves social interpretation and more objective, quantitative, and rational and thus perception (cf., Zukav 1979). On these such well suited to be scientists (Keller 1990). On the grounds it is argued that physics is really a special other hand, won1en are viewed as "naturally"more case of the social sciences. Thus, if it can be emotional, expressive, and nurturing and thus well shown that gender biases exist in the social suited to be wives and mothers. Although few sciences, it follows that the natural sciences now believe this to be the case, and more women contain them as well. In the last decade, are receiving their PhOs, encouraging larger numerous feminist deconstructions have explored numbers women to enter the sciences is still a the effects of using a masculine model in the serious problem. Further, judgments about a social sciences. In the next section, we add to this woman's likely role in an academic setting may be tradition by exploring some of the gender biases informed by views about what constitutes "natural" in consumer research. roles for men and women (Aisenberg and Harrington 1988). Thus, women consumer GENDER BIAS IN CONSUMER RESEARCH researchers in academic settings may be automatically assumed to be a secretary or Although thus far we have been speaking of student by colleagues and students with whom gender bias as though it there was one type, it they are not personally acquainted (Aisenberg and actually occurs in numerous forms. While Eichler Harrington 1988; Simeone 1987). Even when this (1988) has done an excellent and comprehensive assumption is corrected, women often have job of categorizing gender biases, the goal of this difficulty being taken seriously as a professor and section is much more modest. Having argued that researcher. Another implication is that the the positivist model of science itself is biased, we implicit themes of domination and control can provide illustrations and examples of how gender have serious consequences for how the concerns biases are manifest in five general areas of of women as consumers are viewed. For example, relevance to consumer research. Betty Friedan (1969) analyzed the marketing of household products in the 1950's and 1960's. She The first area relates to views of consumer argues that marketers were afraid that if women research as a scientific enterprise which implicitly were too progressive and turned their focus incorporate socially constructed dichotomies outside the home (e.g., career), they would reduce involving gender. These dichotomies, which are their purchases of marketers' products. Thus, in considered to be isomorphic with biological sex, order to prevent this from happening, marketers carry differential value whereby masculine traits needed to create outlets for women's creative are associated with science and assigned a much energies and create the illusion that their higher value, while so-called feminine traits consumption choices were important ones. To do symbolize the opposite of what is considered to be so, they perpetuated the "feminine mystique" or scientific and are devalued (Keller 1990). As the idea that a woman's ultimate fulfillment and examples, consider the following dichotomies: expression of her femininity came from her role subject (knower) vs. object (known); active vs. as a wife and mother (Friedan 1969). passive; authority/questioner vs. answerer of questions; objective vs. subjective; mind vs. body; The second area that gender biases are manifest scientific vs. artistic; rational vs. emotional; is in the language of consumer research and its thinking vs. feeling; hard vs. soft; quantitative vs. concepts, images and metaphors. On the qualitative. In each case, the former is associated language issue, one sign of progress on this issue with the masculine, the later with the feminine. is that the journals and conference proceedings Further, implicit in the model of science is the are generally employing gender-inclusive language, notion that there is a need to maintain the al though it seems that verbal discourse is still too separation, domination and control over the later, often gendered. Feminist analyses have lest life be overwhelmed by irrationally alien repeatedly pointed out that: gendered terms such forces (Harding 1986). as "he"and "man"are never gender neutral; it is

117 insufficient and inadequate to intend a term to be consumer research example provides striking gender inclusive because the reader's/listener's contrast to organizational buying behavior where interpretation may differ; and even when the term marketers, consumers and researchers have is unambiguously inclusive, the result may be odd, usually been male. For over a decade, amusing or insulting (e.g., "Some men are researchers have protested the use of the female") (Moulton 1977). Gender biased stimulus-response model (cf. Bonoma, Bagozzi language can be especially problematic during and Zaltman 1978). Further, industrial marketing data collection and can seriously affect is the source of the currently popular notion of interpretation (Eichler 1988). As an illustration, developing long term customer relationships (c.f., and not an attempt to single anyone out, Wilson Dwyer, Schurr and Oh 1987). and Peterson (1989) presented respondents with the following scenario in a word of mouth study in The third area that gender biases are manifest is which the us~ of "he"might be problematic: in research problem identification and definition. "Suppose you found out your neighbor had Under positivism, these biases become virtually purchased Brand [A or B] (of a digital tape invisible because of the sharp distinction that is recorder) and that he had to take it back..." It is drawn between the contexts of discovery and unclear as to whether "he"was intended to mean justification (c.f., Deshpande 1983; Hunt 1990). male, or any human. Yet responses are likely to On the positivist view, the methods and activities have varied depending on how this was of discovery are irrelevant because adherence to interpreted, as well as by respondents'sex. We positivism's scientific prescriptions during suggest that because of the product involved, it is justification will ensure objectivity, thus there need more likely that respondents would have be no "logic"of discovery. On the view that interpreted the neighbor as male. This is following the scientific method results in theoretically problematic however because no objectivity, it becomes quite inappropriate to where in the paper is it suggested that the suggest that the formulation of a research research question is about the evaluation of problem is gender biased. However, post­ positive vs. negative word of mouth information positivist analyses (cf., Suppe 1973) have pointed from male sources. out that discovery and justification are not separate activities, and that problem formulation While language is generally becoming more is not value neutral (Garfinkle 1981). Further, gender inclusive, many concepts are gendered. feminist analyses suggest that the unquestioning For example, the marketing concept is acceptance of white bourgeois experience as the underwritten by an implicit theory of the norm means that the problematics in many fields consumer as female (although clearly no one reflect a distinctly male perspective on male thinks all consumers are female) (Fischer and concerns (Harding 1986; Millman and Kanter Bristor, forthcoming). Although the concept is 1975). While not likely to provide an exception, typically expressed as determining the needs and consumer research does provide an ironic wants of consumers while meeting organizational contrast. Since the marketing concept is implicitly goals (c.f., Kotler 1984), marketing activities such informed by a "consumeras female" notion, as "targeting,''''segmenting,''and "penetrating" women are central to consumer research and not suggest a view of the marketer-consumer relation routinely ignored and rendered invisible as in that parallels traditional stereotypes concerning other fields. Yet, following on our metaphor of male-female relationships. In such stereotypes, a traditional n1ale-female relations suggests that man uses gifts of ftattery to court a woman (meets problematics may be dominated by the male's her "needs")in order to achieve sexual (marketer's, researcher's) viewpoint and concerns, gratification (his "goal"). These marketer­ not the female's (consumer's) (cf. Firat and Lewis consumer relations are suggestive of dichotomies 1985). Indeed, the suggestion that the marketer's mentioned in the previous paragraph, e.g., mind viewpoint dominates consumer research is not vs. body and active vs. passive. Further, it also new (Holbrook 1987). reveals a mechanistic, stimulus-response model of causality where the marketer "does"something to The fourth area in which gender biases are the consumer to produce a response that clearly manifest is in the theories and methods used by opposes the more interactive relationship implied consumer researchers. As one illustration, by the marketing concept. Interestingly, this although the "consumeras female" informs

118 consumer research, sex and gender are rarely there is a high degree of fit between explicitly incorporated as theoretically important consciousness and behavior. Because nlany variables, excepting the rare case when such women's behavior has been constrained by social variables are the topics of research (cf., Qualls norms, there may be a weak link between their 1987; Fischer and Arnold 1990). Yet, research behavior and how they actually think and feel results from other disciplines provide evidence (Westkott 1979). Consumer researchers have only that important gender differences exist in, for recently begun to conduct experiential, example, how children learn to delineate "subject" interpretive research. Much needs to be done to from "object"(Keller 1990), moral development investigate, for example, what it means to be a (Gilligan 1982), and the interpersonal orientations female consumer, or how women feel about and range of social experiences that boys and girls stereotypical or sexual portrayals of consumers (as arrive with at puberty (Gilligan 1987). Such opposed to whether it increases sales) (cf. Firat differences haye important implications for and Lewis 1985). consumer research, for example, in theories of consumer socialization, as well as how researchers The fifth area in which gender biases can be seen construe, approach and interact with their is in actual marketer-~onsumer relations. subjects. To the extent that gender and sex have Admittedly, consumer research results do not been considered in consumer research, they automatically translate into managerially relevant usually have been analyzed for categorical sex knowledge. On the other hand, there is an differences (e.g., whether there was a difference important interplay, starting with the way betvleen men's and women's ratings), as opposed consumer researchers frame their research to how gender affects various consumer behaviors. questions. To some consumer researchers, the Many scholars criticize the search for biological tendency to view consumers as though they are sex differences, as opposed to similarities (c.f., fish (Tucker 1974) is an unfortunate reflection of Eichler 1988). This is illustrated by quantitative marketers' influence in setting consumer research analyses using hypothesis tests which traditionally agendas (c.f., Holbrook 1987). To feminists, the take the form of: tendency to view consumers as manipulable objects is an unfortunate reflection of Ho= No difference between sex stereotypical gender constructions that are at best H A: Differences between sex. outmoded, and at worst reflections of desires for a continuation of white bourgeois male dominance. Because of the bias toward rejecting Ho and As one such illustration, (1990) publishing significant results, published research recounts the Ms. editors' largely unsuccessful tends to emphasize differences, not similarities, a struggles to convince advertisers that their readers problem which is exacerbated by the sensitivity of were demographically and psychographically such tests to sample size. As Hyde's (1981) meta­ suitable advertisement targets for cars, computers, analysis shows, even statistically significant cosmetics, etc.1 As another illustration, Parker differences may be so small they are meaningless. Brothers' new game "Careers for Girls" has come Yet, they may be used as the basis of public policy under heavy criticism because while "career" and other decisions. options include supermom, fashion designer and college graduate, there is a noticeable absence of As another illustration of gender biases in theory careers ret1ecting policy making or leadership and method, data collection methods may be (Ellerbe 1990). Finally, MatteI's Barbie dolls have discriminatory. The preponderance of been criticized repeatedly, representative of which quantitative behavioral data is problematic is McKillop's (1990) editorial column. He argues because it is not very effective for studying that a lifesized Barbie would have a chest experiential aspects of consumption (Hirschman measuring over 44 inches and suggests that this and Holbrook 1982). This problem is more merely represents male desires as to the average serious for women than men because so much female form, and that it conditions young girls to social science research can be characterized by think they are nothing more than trophies for male perspectives on male experiences (Harding men. Further, McKillop asks why, if Barbie is a 1986, Millman and Kanter 1975). Further, role model and helps build girl's esteem, she lives positivism's historical preference for observable in such a white world, and what kind of a message behavioral data is based on the assumption that this sends to black children? Everything about

119 Barbie, including the black Barbie with a "George and sink in to the morass of complete cultural Hamilton cocoa butter tan" is white. Finally subjectivism." The need is to "separate clearly McKillop wonders why Ken differs from Barbie. objectivity from the myth that research is value First of all, he doesn't have comparable free." Thus, she finds it "useful to think of proportional sexual endowment that would serve objectivity as an asynlptotically approachable but to erode boys' self esteem. Second, whereas some unreachable goal, with the elimination of sexism Barbies are bendable--poseable, so that she can in research as a station along the way," (pg. 14). be put into any position desired, Ken only bends Perhaps paradoxically, the motivation to produce over. a more objective and complete knowledge by correcting the scientific record of androcentrism CONCLUSION: FEMINIST SOLUTIONS and inaccuracies about women is decidedly political and infornled by social values. By now, readers who concur with our general Objectivity will be increased, not by value assessment that consumer research contains neutrality, but by commitments to gender biases are undoubtedly wondering about antiauthoritarian, antielitist, participatory and viable solutions. One approach is to assume it emancipatory values and objectives (Harding will be self-correcting by increasing the number of 1986). women engaging in consumer behavior research, either naturally, or via affirmative action Instead of relativism, feminists are engaged in programs; and/or by adding women to consumer developing criteria to show that feminist analyses. While well intended, these solutions explanations are more adequate that others, some would only be treating symptoms. Until the of which may be found in various forms of realism scientific model itself is corrected, receiving more (Nielsen 1990). Further, much feminist women into the academy and training them in the scholarship is devoted to developing ways in which methods of science merely perpetuates such scientific inquiry can be made more objective. biases. Similarly, simply grafting women onto One way is through feminist empiricism (Millman existing theories is ineffectual because the theories and Kanter 1975) which argues that gender biased themselves often ret1ect a male bias (Calas and research is simply "bad"science and therefore, the Smircich forthcoming; Firat and Lewis 1985; solution is to practice better science. Such a view Harding 1986). challenges the practice, rather than the norms of empiricism and thus, leaves in tack principles of Another approach might be to adopt a relativist good science as we know it (Harding 1986). On stance. If feminists were merely arguing that the other hand, it takes a tough stance on the men's experiences provide a partial grounding for practice of science on three grounds (Harding knowledge claims, then relativism would be an 1987). First, it argues that the context of appropriate epistemological stance. However, discovery, including problem identification and sexist and non-sexist claims are never equally discovery, is as important as the context of plausible (Harding 1986). Harding argues that we justification. It also argues that traditional cannot just Hadd women" and gender to existing practice will not naturally eliminate biases. bodies of social belief because they do not only Finally it argues that in addition to more closely ignore women/gender, they also distort our following research norms, alternative approaches understanding of all social life by ignoring the to inquiry that challenge traditional habits and ways women and gender shape social life, and by raise profound questions that are not marginalized advancing false claims about women and gender. as deviant are required. Thus, feminists oppose relativism fairly consistently. This opposition, however, does not The second way research might be made objective preclude the view that: science is not neutral, is with feminist standpoint epistemologies objective or value free; that categories of (Harding 1986). A standpoint epistemology knowledge are human constructions; and that argues that less powerful members have potential theories contain a consistent observational and for a more complete view of reality because they evaluative bias (Gilligan 1987). Further, Eichler can be sensitive to both the view of those that (1988, pg. 13) believes that feminists can be dominate and their own minority view (Nielsen critical of how objectivity has been used in 1990). Nielsen (1990) argues that the dominant practice without "having to abandon the concept view is partial and perverse because it is in the

120 interest of those in power to maintain, reinforce Calas, Marta B. and Linda Smircich and legitimate their own dominance and particular (forthcoming), "Re-WritingGender into understanding of the world. She argues that the Organizational Theorizing: Directions from n1inority view is more complete because to Feminist Perspectives," Re-thinking Organization: survive, both views must be understood. Thus New Directions in Organizational Research and feminist standpoint epistemologies suggest that Analysis, Michael I. Reed and Michael D. women's views and understanding are more Hughes, eds., London: Sage. complete and should inform research. Deshpande, Rohit (1983), ""ParadigmsLost": On To conclude, like other social science disciplines, Theory and Method in Research in Marketing," consumer research incorporates subtle but JOUTfUlI ofMarketing, 47(4),101-110. asymmetric assumptions about gender. It is far easier to identify the resulting biases than to Dv;yer, R. Robert, Paul H. Schurr, and Sejo Oh propose adequate solutions. Our brief (1987), "Developing Buyer-Seller Relationships," descriptions of feminist empiricism and feminist Journal ofMarketing, 51(2),11-27. standpoint epistemologies did not do justice to the fact that, neither they, nor feminist post­ Eichler, Margrit (1988), Nonsexist Research modernism which was not even discussed, raise Methods: A Practical Guide, Boston: Allen & many tough and controversial issues about which Unwin. feminist scholars are not in unanimous agreement. On the other hand, there is a definite sense of Ellerbe, Linda (1990), "A Game to Limit Girls for optimism that by uncovering and eliminating Life," Houston Chronicle, December 2. gender biases, feminist scholarship can make significant scientific contributions to the social Firat, A. Fuat and Linda Lewis (1985), "A sciences. Critique of the Orientations in Studies of Women's Consumption Culture, in Historical Perspectiv~ on Consumer Research: National and Interruztional Perspectives, C.T. Tan and J.N. 1Ironically enough, they made this argument Sheth, eds., Singapore: National University of repeatedly on the basis of quantitative data. Singapore, 225-229.

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