SPATIUM International Review ISSN 1450-569X No. 30, December 2013, Belgrade ISSN 2217-8066 (Online)

SCOPE AND AIMS The review is concerned with a multi-disciplinary approach to spatial, regional and urban planning and architecture, as well as with various aspects of land use, including housing, environment and related themes and topics. It attempts to contribute to better theoretical understanding of a new spatial development processes and to improve the practice in the field.

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF PUBLISHER Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS VICE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Igor Marić, Director Jasna Petrić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia ADDRESS Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, IAUS SECRETARY "Spatium" Tamara Maričić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, tel: (381 11) 3370-091, fax: (381 11) 3370-203, e-mail: [email protected], web address: www.iaus.ac.rs IN PUBLISHING SERVICES AGREEMENT WITH Versita Sp. z o.o. ul. Solipska 14A/1 02-482 Warsaw, Poland FINANCIAL SUPPORT Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia “SPATIUM” is indexed in SCOPUS database by Elsevier. EDITORIAL BOARD Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, Belgrade, Serbia; Branko Cavrić, University of Botswana, Faculty of Engineering & Technology – FET, Department of Architecture and Planning – DAP, Gaborone, Botswana; Tijana Crnčević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Kaliopa Dimitrovska Andrews, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Zeynep Enlil, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Department of City and Regional Planning, Istanbul, Turkey; Milorad Filipović; University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Panagiotis Getimis, Panteion University of Political and Social Sciences, Dept. Economic and Regional Development, Athens, Greece, and University of Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany; Grigoris Kafkalas, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Spatial Development and Research Unit-SDRU, Thessaloniki, Greece; Douglas Kysar, Yale Law School, New Haven, USA; Luigi Mazza, Politecnico di Milano, Department of Architecture and Planning, Milano, Italy; Nada Milašin, Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Bernhard Müller, Leibniz- Institut für ökologische Raumentwicklung, Dresden, Germany; Zorica Nedović-Budić, University College Dublin, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Ksenija Petovar, Belgrade, Serbia; Vesna Popović, Institute of Agricultural Economics - IAE, Belgrade, Serbia; Mila Pucar, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Karl Peter Schön, Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning, Bonn, Germany; Wilfried Schönbäck, University of Technology, Department of Spatial Development, Infrastructure & Environmental Policy, Centre Public Finance and Infrastructure Policy, Vienna, Austria; Paolo Tomasella, Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia, Udine, Italy; Dragutin Tošić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Dobrivoje Tošković, Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia. PUBLISHING COUNCIL Mila Pucar, President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Jasna Petrić, Vice President, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Tamara Maričić, Secretary, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Branislav Bajat, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Milica Bajić Brković, Belgrade, Serbia; Dragana Bazik, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Branka Dimitrijević, Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow, UK; Milorad Filipović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia; Igor Marić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Darko Marušić, Belgrade, Serbia; Nada Milašin, Belgrade, Serbia; Saša Milijić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Zorica Nedović-Budić, University College Dublin, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Policy, Dublin, Ireland; Marija Nikolić, Belgrade, Serbia; Vladimir Papić, Belgrade, Serbia; Ratko Ristić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia; Nenad Spasić, Belgrade, Serbia; Božidar Stojanović, Belgrade, Serbia; Borislav Stojkov, Belgrade, Serbia; Dragutin Tošić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Geography, Belgrade, Serbia; Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; and Slavka Zeković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia. ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROOFREADING REVIEWERS Marija Obadović, Belgrade, Serbia Enaya Banna-Jeries, Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Department of Urban & Regional COMPUTER DESIGN Planning, Haifa, Israel; Ljiljana Blagojević, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Jelena Stevanović Stojanović, Belgrade, Serbia Serbia; Željko Cvijetinović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Belgrade, Serbia; Vladan Đokić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Jasna Galjer, COVER PAGE DESIGN University of Zagreb, Faculty of Philosophy, Department for History and Art, Zagreb, Croatia; , IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia Tanja Bajić Boško Josimović, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Grigoris Kafkalas, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT Spatial Development and Research Unit-SDRU, Thessaloniki, Greece; Nađa Kurtović Folić, University Milena Milinković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences, Department of Architecture and Urbanism, Novi Sad, Printed in Serbia by Planeta print d.o.o., Belgrade, Serbia; Marija Maksin, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Dijana Milašinović Marić, Faculty of Technical Serbia Sciences, Architecture, Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia; Vladimir Milenković, University of Belgrade, Number of copies: 200 Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia; Ana Niković, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Gabriel Pascariu, University of Architecture and Urbanism „Ion Mincu“, Faculty of Geography, Urban and Territorial Planning Department, Bucharest, Romania; Jasna Petrić, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Mina Petrović, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Department of Sociology, Belgrade, Serbia; Mila Pucar, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; Dobrivoje Tošković, Belgrade, Serbia; Miodrag Vujošević, IAUS, Belgrade, Serbia; and Siniša Zarić, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Economics, Belgrade, Serbia.

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C O N T E N T S SPATIUM International Review No. 30, December 2013, Belgrade

Miodrag Vujošević Editorial

1-6 Travis O’Doherty, A novel method for feasibility testing urban sustainable Brian G. Fitzgerald, development policies Richard Moles, Bernadette O’Regan

7-11 Paul Waley Cities in transcontinental context: A comparison of mega urban projects in Shanghai and Belgrade

12-17 Elisavet Thoidou Strategic spatial planning in the era of crisis: Current trends and evidence from the metropolitan area of Thessaloniki

18-22 Ratko Ristić, „Blue-green“ corridors as a tool for mitigation of natural hazards and Boris Radić, restoration of urbanized areas: A Case study of Belgrade city Veliša Miljanović, Goran Trivan, Milanko Ljujić, Ljubomir Letić, Radovan Savić

23-27 Siniša Cvijić, Cultural and historical heritage – An asset for city branding Jasna Guzijan

28-32 Dijana Simonović Rehabilitation of urban identity of cities in the Banja Luka region through urban form regulation

33-39 Nataša Danilović Hristić, The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Nebojša Stefanović Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness

40-46 Vladimir Stevanović Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

47-53 Violeta Orlović-Lovren, Tourism development in Serbia - On the way to sustainability and Tijana Crnčević, European integration Saša Milijić

54-60 Željko Bjeljac, The role of event tourism strategy of Serbia in strategic planning Marijana Pantić, Marko Filipović

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EDITORIAL

Dear readers,

As announced in the previous issue of journal SPATIUM, this issue contains another part of the contributions to the 2nd International Scientific Conference REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG, which took place in Belgrade, 22nd-25th May 2013, organised by the Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia. The remaining part of contributions to this issue of journal covers a variety of thematic fields, viz., the role of the public in urban planning, ideological and aesthetic aspects of architecture, and sustainable tourism development.

Editor-in-Chief

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SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.4(415) ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 1-61-7 502.131.1(415); Original scientific paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330001O

A NOVEL METHOD FOR FEASIBILITY TESTING URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT POLICIES

Travis O’Doherty1, University of Limerick, Department of Chemical and Environmental Science, Centre for Environmental Research, Limerick, Ireland Brian G. Fitzgerald , Limerick City Council, City Hall, Merchants Quay, Limerick, Ireland Richard Moles, University of Limerick, Department of Chemical and Environmental Science, Centre for Environmental Research, Limerick, Ireland Bernadette O’Regan, University of Limerick, Department of Chemical and Environmental Science, Centre for Environmental Research, Limerick, Ireland

Policy making to promote more sustainable development is a complex task due in part to the large number of both stakeholders and potential policies. Policy feasibility testing provides a guide to the viability and practicality of policy implementation and forms an important part of an evidence based policy making process. An extensive literature review has identified no standardised approach to feasibility testing. This paper addresses this knowledge gap by describing a novel method using Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for feasibility testing of policies aimed at increasing the sustainability of towns and villages in Ireland. Feasibility results are provided for 40 frequently cited policy interventions tested for 18 settlements in Ireland. Policies were selected in the arenas of transport, food, housing and urban form, energy, waste and water. Policies are feasibility tested through analysis of operational evidence from both quantitative and qualitative data sources. Following testing, policies are ranked in terms of feasibility. This research examines the effectiveness of local and national level policies and the importance of both local community involvement and central government regulation in policy success. The inter-settlement variation in feasibility testing scores prioritises policy selection and aims to reduce cherry-picking of policies to support the viewpoints of the decision maker. Although developed for an Irish urban context the methods described here may have applicability elsewhere. Key words: feasibility testing, sustainable development, evidence based policy making, integrated assessment modelling.

2011). As a result the planning profession in building, and tax revenue have fallen sharply 1 INTRODUCTION Ireland remains unclear as to what sustainable and unemployment levels have risen. The A major challenge facing the world is the need development means and this represents a Irish policy response to recession thus far has to urgently enhance sustainability in response barrier to progress. There is a need for a focused almost exclusively on the banking to the inter-related challenges of climate common policy framework to provide spatially system and austerity measures, while the change, dependence on fossil fuels, food differentiated policies and planners must avoid immediate and important issue of global shortages and growing population (Harvey and a “one size fits all” approach to planning policy warming has been sidelined (Scott, 2012). In Pilgrim, 2011). Engendering more sustainable (Lazarević-Bajec, 2011; Scott, 2010). Putting this economic climate there are few financial patterns of energy use is a difficult task due to the concept into practice is proving difficult in the diversity of both stakeholders and potential many countries and methods are evolving. The This paper was presented at the 2nd International Scientific policies. This is further compounded by the research described here aims to reduce the Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL definition of sustainable development which is risk associated with decision making through PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, development of a standardised method for Belgrade, 22nd-25th May 2013, organised by the Institute of vague and offers no clear policy guidance, Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia. providing stakeholders with the opportunity to feasibility testing of policies for urban areas. cherry-pick those aspects which best suit their This research is funded as part of the Science, Technology, Research context Research and Innovation for the Environment (STRIVE) sectoral or policy agendas (Stupar and Nikezić, Programme 2007–2013. The programme is financed by This research was developed in the context of the Irish Government under the National Development Plan 2007–2013. It is administered on behalf of the Department 1LG007, Department of Chemical and Environmental the 2008-2013 Irish economic and social of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government by the Science, University of Limerick, Ireland climate where economic growth, new house Environmental Protection Agency which has the statutory [email protected] function of co-ordinating and promoting environmental research.

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resources available for development of new METHODS implementation. Thirdly, Multi-Criteria technologies. However, significant reductions Decision Analysis (MCDA) is employed to in energy use may be made through the wider The proposed methodological steps for prioritise alternatives for the decision maker by adoption of existing proven technologies via feasibility testing of policies in urban areas of transforming a complex problem into a single better planning and behaviour change, on the Ireland and results of 40 frequently cited criterion problem and ranking alternatives assumption that if such technologies were used settlement level policy initiatives are described according to their feasibility. to their full extent there would be a large in this section. Policy feasibility is analysed reduction in human environmental impact and through the examination of operational Selection of policies fossil fuels dependency (EPA, 2007). evidence from both quantitative and qualitative data sources. Policies are evaluated according A literature search identified six policy arenas for As described by Brković and Milaković (2011) to a three step process. Firstly, policies are settlement sustainability enhancement: transport, urban areas administrators are constantly identified and described. Secondly, policies food, housing and urban form, energy, waste and searching for policies which will sustain future are tested through the Sustainability Evaluation water. These arenas were considered to development, improve settlement competiti- Metric for Policy Recommendation (SEMPRe) encompass main environmental impacts within veness at regional and national level, and developed by the research team (Fitzgerald et settlements and showed clear policy relevance. provide an attractive environment to satisfy the al., 2012). SEMPRe calculates the expected Within these arenas published cases describing needs of inhabitants. Robust evidence is needed percentage improvement in per capita implementation of relevant policies were to support policy implementation and further sustainability for a settlement following policy strengthen linkages between researchers and policy makers. This study employs evidence Table 1. Policy initiatives satisfying selection criteria based methods to evaluate the feasibility of Policy arena Policy policies designed to increase urban Transport National level policy initiatives sustainability. Feasibility testing determines the 1. Eco-driver training viability and practicality of policy 2. Reduced speed limits 3. National road pricing scheme implementation. Many papers discuss the 4. Subsidised public transport benefits of feasibility testing e.g. Grimes-Casey 5. Low rolling resistance tyres et al. (2011), Hak et al. (2012) and Rametsteiner Local level policy initiatives et al. (2011) but a literature review did not 6. Urban freight distribution centres identify papers which describe a method for 7. Bicycle sharing system feasibility testing of sustainability policies. Many 8. Promotion of electric vehicles 9. Short term car rental scheme sustainability policy studies cover a narrow 10. Congestion charging geographical area with little policy variability. In 11. Bicycle lanes addition studies generally focus on one aspect 12. Financial cycling incentive of sustainability and do not permit policy 13. Cycling facilities evaluation across sectors (OECD, 2008). There 14. Integrated public transport fare system 15. Safe school routes are a number of methods for analysis of policy 16. Commuter workplace travel plans outcomes, such as Environmental Impact 17. Parking cash out Assessment, Strategic Environmental Food Local level policy initiatives Assessment or Sustainability Impact 18. Communal allotments Assessment. These methods are either project 19. Farmers markets based, or evaluate broad policy impacts, they do Housing and urban Local level policy initiatives form 20. Smart growth programme not test policy impact at settlement scale. In 21. Passively heated buildings addition the majority of urban sustainability 22. Teleworking from home research focuses on large cities. In Ireland in 23. Higher urban density 2011 cities accounted for approximately 33.3%, 24. Green mortgages towns accounted for 28.7% and rural areas 25. Green roofs accounted for 38% of the national population Energy National level policy initiatives 26. Reduction in standby energy use (CSO, 2011). Here, policies for towns and 27. Salix and Miscanthus as home heating fuels villages in Ireland are analysed, as they play a 28. Wind Energy key role in securing balanced regional 29. Smart electricity meters development. For the purpose of this study 30. Prepaid electricity meters small settlements have been classified as urban 31. Demand side management programme 32. Mandatory home energy audits areas with populations of 500-1,000 persons; Local level policy initiatives medium settlements 1,000-9,999 persons, and 33. Solar water heating large settlements 10,000-30,000 persons. This 34. Energy recovery from waste research aims to inform policy makers of likely 35. Radiation barriers to reduce heat losses from buildings outcomes of policy implementation, taking Waste National level policy initiatives account of obstacles and possible unintended 36. Waste prevention campaign 37. Reduced packaging effects, such as policy backfire or rebound effect Water National level policy initiatives (Druckman et al., 2011). 38. Low water use fixtures 39. Water harvesting Local level policy initiatives 40. Constructed wetlands for tertiary wastewater treatment

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identified. Policy selection followed these criteria: produced. Policy cost effectiveness, a timeline environmental problems in the past (Alvarez- for implementation, uptake rates and Guerra et al., 2009; Kiker et al., 2005). The 1. Policies were frequently cited and described in applicability in an Irish context were estimated criteria chosen for use within feasibility testing quantitative terms. on the basis of previous experience elsewhere. were: timeline for policy implementation, cost of 2. Supporting evidence on policy impacts from The scale of policy implementation is examined, policy implementation and improvement in per reliable sources was available. as some policies are more suited to national capita sustainability. For the three criteria, the 3. Policies were relevant to identified urban level implementation, while others are more expected consequence for implementation of sustainability arenas and relatively easily suited to local level implementation. In addition each policy was assigned a numerical score on understood and explained. key agencies responsible for policy a scale of 0-10, with more desirable outcomes 4. Policies were suitable in the context of Irish implementation are identified. For illustration given higher scores (see Table 3). towns and villages. purposes feasibility test information for an A weighting of 1 was attributed to timescale for energy policy is shown in Table 2. Application of these criteria resulted in a total of policy implementation and cost of policy 40 policies being targeted for further analysis Following quantified policy impact via SEMPRe implementation. A weighting of 2 was assigned to (Table 1). All impacts of sustainability enhancing and gathering of feasibility test information improvement in per capita sustainability. The use policies cannot be measured quantitatively; for MCDA is then employed for policy prioritisation. of sustainability impact as a factor in feasibility example, policies aimed at increasing quality of MCDA provides a framework for assessing testing is self-evident, as the purpose of the test life satisfaction and biodiversity are difficult to policies across differing criteria, and such was to evaluate the feasibility of policies which measure. Such policies fall outside the scope of methods have been successfully applied to would impact upon sustainability. The use of cost the methods adopted here. This is not an exhaustive list of all sustainability enhancing Table 2. Feasibility test information for an energy policy policies but a selection of frequently cited environmental policies relating to enhancing Policy: Energy recovery from waste settlement sustainability. Policy description and aims: Energy can be recovered from waste through Anaerobic Digestion (AD) of organic wastes. A carbon neutral form of Quantified policy impacts energy is produced in the form of biogas which can be used to develop heat or electricity (Singh et al., 2010). The use of residues as a fuel source does not impinge on food production. In addition to the energy production An existing database of over 300 economic, benefits, AD reduces the quantity of waste sent to landfill which will help in meeting Ireland’s obligations under the social and environmental attributes of 79 Irish Waste Framework Directive and Landfill Directives, and the digestate can be used as a fertiliser. settlements, located in three regional clusters in Lessons learned: It has been demonstrated in countries such as Sweden, Germany and Switzerland that greater efficiencies can be central and western Ireland provided a baseline achieved through upgrading biogas to biomethane which can be injected into the national gas grid or used as a against which the effects of new policies could be transport fuel (Browne et al., 2011). A relatively large initial capital investment is needed to construct anaerobic modelled (Moles et al., 2008). This database was digesters; the cost is a function of plant size, feedstock and technology. In the case of plants producing electricity previously used to identify key links between from combined heat and power the cost per unit energy decreases with increasing plant size up to 1000 KW attributes of urban settlements and their per capita equivalent, above this few benefits are gained through increasing plant size (Walla and Schneeberger, 2008). Likely effectiveness in achieving objectives: sustainability, through the calculation of a Assessments of waste to energy technologies conclude that they are an economical process for renewable energy Sustainable Development Index (SDI), based on production. There is an abundance of feedstocks in Ireland, for example, slaughterhouse, agricultural and municipal the aggregation of 40 indicators for each of 79 wastes or wet biomass (Singh et al., 2010). In excess of 40 million tonnes of agricultural slurry is land spread in settlements. Using this database SEMPRe was Ireland each year, resulting in eutrophication, air pollution and toxicity in water bodies (Browne et al., 2011). employed to quantify the percentage increase in Implementation: per capita sustainability for a settlement, which Already in Ireland many large sewerage treatment plants include AD and the biogas is used within the plant for combined heat and power. In an analysis of the cost of biogas production in Ireland Browne et al. (2011) found that might be expected following policy biogas production from the organic fraction of municipal solid waste was the most cost effective at €0.3/m3 implementation, using published analyses and followed by slaughter house waste at €0.54/m3. A more attractive feed in tariff rate would further incentivise direct Irish experience (Fitzgerald et al., 2012). investment in AD. Public resistance to anaerobic digesters may also be an issue in Ireland similar to the resistance This feasibility testing method incorporates data to incinerators in recent years; therefore involving the local community is important. Biomethane has the potential from SEMPRe to determine the feasibility of to be a cost effective natural gas substitute, however due to reduced energy prices there is an incentive for greater use – the rebound effect. Using a variety of different methods Haas and Biermayr (2000) and Sorell et al. (2009) proposed policy implementation. estimate the rebound effect for space heating is likely to be less than 30%. Policy summary: Policy feasibility testing Capturing this resource would be a considerable step in addressing Ireland’s renewable energy targets, reducing the country’s dependency on energy imports. In other European countries AD has been found to be economically Policies found to have positive impacts on the SDI viable and provide benefits such as low cost hot water and electricity to local communities. Larger AD plants are were subjected to feasibility testing, based on more efficient than smaller plants. criteria adapted from those provided by Ledbury Policy champions: et al. (2006). Firstly, a clear description of the Department of the Environment, Community and Local Government, Teagasc – Irish Agriculture and Food policy objectives is provided. Secondly, an Development Authority, Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland, Environmental Protection Agency. assessment is made of the likelihood of the policy when implemented meeting its objectives, based Table 3. Policy feasibility scores on effects achieved elsewhere and key issues Timescale Score Cost Score Improvement in per capita Score which may influence implementation. Thirdly, the sustainability (%) possibility of unintended consequences such as <1 year 10 Low 10 >4 10 rebound and backfire effects are considered. 1-2 years 8 Medium 5 3-4 8 2-3 years 6 High 1 2-3 6 Fourthly, a plan of action designed to assist 3-4 years 4 1-2 4 decision makers with policy implementation is >5 years 2 <1 2

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and timescale as the two other factors in feasibility RESULTS implementation and 7 are more suited to local testing was influenced by the need to prioritise level implementation. policies which could be introduced quickly at low The scores for each criterion identified for policy cost. Rametsteiner et al. (2011) supports the use feasibility scores (timescale, cost and DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION of cost as a factor in respect of feasibility testing improvement in per capita sustainability) were of sustainability policy and the importance of weighted, aggregated and expressed as a This research addresses the important policy timescale in sustainability policy implementation percentage of a maximum value of 100 (Table 4). issue described by Daly and O’Gallachoir is widely recognised (Bond and Morrison- The improvement in per capita sustainability (2011): that quantification of the impact of Saunders, 2011). It is acknowledged that there is shown in Table 4 represent averages for policies is essential for policy makers to an inherent subjectivity in establishing weighting applicable Irish settlements. compare different policy measures, to ensure the most effective and feasible policy is and scoring systems. It is believed that the criteria All 40 policies are applicable in larger implemented, and to assess how individual and their weighting adopted here are appropriate settlements, 36 policies are applicable in policies combine to contribute to overall within a contemporary Irish urban context as they medium sized settlements while 26 policies targets. The methods presented here do not address areas of concern or greatest relevance in are applicable in small settlements. With advocate the purely positivist approach policy implementation. A different ranking system regard to implementation level, 19 policies are whereby empirical evidence alone informs might be adopted depending on the needs of more suited to national level implementation, policy. It is acknowledged that public and decision makers in other jurisdictions. 14 require both national and local level political support is crucial and knowledge and

Table 4. Multi-criteria analysis of policies Type of Settlement Per capita implementation applicability Level of Timescale Cost sustainability Rank Policy Small = S feasibility National level = N increase Medium = M (%) Local level = L Large= L 1 Wind energy N, L S, M, L 6 5 10 78 2 Energy recovery from waste N, L S, M, L 8 5 8 73 3 Mandatory home energy audits N S, M, L 10 10 4 70 4 Salix and Miscanthus as home heating fuel N, L S, M, L 8 5 6 63 5 Low water use fixtures N S, M, L 8 5 6 63 6 Wetlands for wastewater treatment L S, M, L 8 5 6 63 7 Eco-driver training N S, M, L 10 10 2 60 8 Farmers markets L M, L 10 10 2 60 9 Urban distribution centres N, L M, L 10 10 2 60 10 Heat loss barriers N S, M, L 10 10 2 60 11 Reduction in standby energy use N S, M, L 10 10 2 60 12 Low rolling resistance tyres N S, M, L 8 10 2 55 13 Demand side management N S, M, L 8 10 2 55 14 Teleworking from home L S, M, L 8 5 4 53 15 Green mortgages N S, M, L 4 5 6 53 16 Communal allotments L S, M, L 4 5 6 53 17 Passively heated buildings N S, M, L 6 10 2 50 18 Safe school routes N, L S, M, L 6 5 4 48 19 Bicycle sharing scheme L L 6 5 4 48 20 Bicycle lanes N, L L 6 5 4 48 21 Subsidised public transport N M, L 10 5 2 48 22 Financial cycling incentive N, L M, L 10 5 2 48 23 Cycling facilities N, L M, L 10 5 2 48 24 Waste prevention campaign N S, M, L 10 5 2 48 25 Parking cash out N, L M, L 8 5 2 43 26 Short term car rental scheme N, L L 8 5 2 43 27 Reduced speed limits N S, M, L 8 5 2 43 28 Integrated public transport fare system N, L M, L 8 5 2 43 29 Smart electricity meters N S, M, L 8 5 2 43 30 Prepaid electricity meters N S, M, L 8 5 2 43 31 Solar water heating N S, M, L 8 5 2 43 32 Reduced packaging N S, M, L 8 5 2 43 33 Water harvesting L S, M, L 8 5 2 43 34 Green roofs N, L S, M, L 8 5 2 43 35 Congestion charging N, L L 4 5 4 43 36 Electric vehicles N S, M, L 6 5 2 38 37 Commuter travel plans L M, L 4 5 2 33 38 Smart growth programme N, L M, L 4 5 2 33 39 Higher urban density N M, L 2 1 4 28 40 National road pricing scheme N S, M, L 6 1 2 28

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creativity are valuable in the policymaking a large amount of scattered evidence S. J. (2011) Product and policy life cycle process. Additionally it is recognised that the describing impacts of policy when inventories with market driven demand: an assumption that a policy may be transferrable implemented elsewhere. This approach engine selection case study. In: Hesselbach, J. from one urban area to another is only valid restricts the opportunities for those against and Herrmann, C., (ed.), Glocalized solutions within a detailed understanding of the policy policy change to argue that it is too risky to be for sustainability in manufacturing. Heidelberg, context and knowledge of the local area the ‘first jumper’, or that simply it is Springer, pp. 558-563. (Macário and Marques, 2008). impractical to implement such a policy. Haas, R. and Biermayr, P. (2000) The rebound Although the research is developed in the effect for space heating empirical evidence New insights emerge as to which policies are context of the 2008-2013 Irish economic and from Austria. Energy Policy, No. 28(6-7), pp. most effective in increasing sustainability in Irish social climate, there are no barriers to its 403-410. towns. Of the policies investigated, those aimed at implementation elsewhere, with indicators and Hak, T., Kovanda, J. and Weinzettel, J. (2012) A promoting indigenous forms of energy and weighting customised to local conditions. method to assess the relevance of increasing energy efficiency such as wind energy sustainability indicators: application to the and energy recovery from waste, rank highest. References indicator set of the Czech Republic's This finding is supported by Jollands et al. Sustainable Development Strategy. Ecological (2010). On average, water, waste and food Alvarez-Guerra, M., Viguri, J. R. and Voulvoulis, Indicators, No. 17(0), pp. 46-57. policies also scored relatively high whilst N. (2009) A multicriteria-based methodology for Harvey, M. and Pilgrim, S. (2011) The new housing and urban form and transport policies site prioritisation in sediment management. competition for land: food, energy, and climate scored lower. With regard to implementation; Environment International, No. 35(6), pp. 920- change. Food Policy, No. 36, Supplement 1, the highest ranking policies require a mixture of 930. pp. 40-51. local and national level implementation, and Bond, A. J. and Morrison-Saunders, A. (2011) Jollands, N., Waide, P., Ellis, M., Onoda, T., local level policies score higher than national Re-evaluating sustainability assessment: Laustsen, J., Tanaka, K., de T'Serclaes, P., level policies. The importance of local level aligning the vision and the practice. Barnsley, I., Bradley, R. and Meier, A. (2010) The community buy-in has been highlighted by Environmental Impact Assessment Review, No. 25 IEA energy efficiency policy recommendations Lucas et al. (2008). The methods developed 31(1), pp. 1-7. to the G8 Gleneagles Plan of Action. Energy here may be used both by communities to Brković, M. B. and Milaković, M. (2011) Planning Policy, No. 38(11), pp. 6409-6418. construct bottom-up sustainability strategies and and designing urban places in response to Kiker, G. A., Bridges, T. S., Varghese, A., Seager, by central government to promote top-down climate and local culture: a case study of T. P. and Linkov, I. (2005) Application of sustainability strategies. Mussafah District in Abu Dhabi. SPATIUM multicriteria decision analysis in environmental International Review, No. 25, pp. 14-22. Due to the rebound effect (Druckman et al., decision making. Integrated Environmental 2011), only a proportion of expected Browne, J., Nizami, A.-S., Thamsiriroj, T. and Assessment and Management, No. 1(2), pp. Murphy, J. D. (2011) Assessing the cost of 95-108. sustainability improvements from policy biofuel production with increasing penetration implementation are achieved in practice. This Lazarević-Bajec, N. (2011) Integrating climate of the transport fuel market: A case study of research attempts to take rebound effects into change adaptation policies in spatial gaseous biomethane in Ireland. Renewable and development planning in Serbia - a challenging consideration in policy evaluation through the Sustainable Energy Reviews, No. 15(9), pp. use of quantitative data based on previous task ahead. SPATIUM International Review, No. 4537-4547. 24, pp. 1-8. experiences. 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2

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Received February 2013; accepted April 2013

6 spatium

SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.4(497.11) ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 7-111-7 711.4(511.31) Original scientific paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330007W

CITIES IN TRANSCONTINENTAL CONTEXT: A COMPARISON OF MEGA URBAN PROJECTS IN SHANGHAI AND BELGRADE

Paul Waley1, University of Leeds, School of Geography, Leeds, UK

This study of urban developments in Belgrade and Shanghai is set in the context of comparative urban research. It presents two ostensibly contrasting cities and briefly examines urban development patterns in China and Serbia before focusing more specifically on mega urban projects in the two cities – Pudong and Hongqiao in Shanghai contrasted with New Belgrade. While the historical genesis of the Chinese and Serbian projects differs markedly, together they provide complementary examples of contemporary entrepreneurial urban development in divergent settings. China and Serbia share a heritage of state ownership of urban land, and this characteristic is still very much a feature underpinning development in Shanghai and other Chinese cities, as well as in New Belgrade. In both territories, state ownership of land has contributed to a form of urban development which – it is argued in this paper – can best be seen as state-based but market-led. The comparative study that this work initiates will, it is hoped, contribute to an understanding of contextual change in the two worlds regions of East Europe and East Asia. Key words: comparative urbanism; urban restructuring; mega urban projects; state ownership of land; Shanghai; New Belgrade.

is only with an element of comparison that the cities, while not overtly comparative, THE CASE FOR COMPARATIVE fruits of research can rise above the parochial nevertheless serves to draw attention to URBAN RESEARCH 1 and say things to broader audiences about commonalities through its focus on the role of There may be an element of surprise, even change in the contemporary world. capital management industries. Strategic comparisons draw attention to specific incredulity, in placing Belgrade alongside The urban setting lends itself to comparative work, conditions in order to build up arguments, as Shanghai. What can be the point in this act of given a base line of commonality that occurs will be shown here. Contextually sensitive– urban comparison, when on the face of it there when we apply the same (or very similar) regional comparative studies seek to position is so little in common between these two terminology – city, metropolis, the urban, etc. themselves at a meta or regional scale in order cities? Shanghai is one of four municipal However, to avoid random and haphazard acts of to draw out a finer stratum of distinctions and provinces in China, with a population of over city twinning, some sort of typology of commonalities. Such work has been 23 million, but standing at the centre of an comparison should be observed. The historian particularly fruitful in the context of research on even larger conurbation that stretches far Charles Tilly proposed four types of comparison – European cities (Le Galès, 2002; Stanilov, inland. If Belgrade, with its population of well individualizing, encompassing, universalizing, and 2007). This paper is particularly inclined under 2 million, were located in China, it variation-finding (1984:81). In adapting this towards strategic comparison, in the belief that would be ranked a small-scale city. In the typology to the context of comparative urbanism, I selective, indeed strategic, comparative work European context, it is a medium-sized suggest a three-fold framework: systemic– of this nature can help by highlighting certain regional centre with important locational convergent, strategic, and contextually sensitive– key aspects of urban change in the advantages within Southeast Europe. Relatively regional (Waley, 2012). Each has its own value, contemporary world. Strategic comparative small it may be, but Belgrade is a capital city; and none is exclusive of the others. Shanghai is not. Comparative research, work, it could even be argued, holds a crucial however, does not need to limit itself to the Systemic–convergent comparative work tends role in the everlasting tension that marks all predictable. Any research that focuses on cities to be driven by a preoccupation with social theory, between the search for is likely to include a comparative element, if underlying patterns related to the movement only obliquely. Indeed, one could claim that it and impress of capital. This approach sees This paper was presented at the 2nd International Scientific contemporary capital as a force for global Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, 1 convergence. Urban research, such as the work Woodhouse Lane, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK nd th of those writing under the rubric of global Belgrade, 22 -25 May 2013, organised by the Institute of [email protected] Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia.

spatium 7 Waley P.: Cities in transcontinental context: A comparison of mega urban projects in Shanghai and Belgrade

commonality and the identification of This paper, then, represents an exercise in redevelopment process themselves. difference (Pow, 2012). As Hörschelmann and strategic comparative urbanism. It seeks to China’s local-level governments have generally Stenning (2008:349) have argued, the trick is compare developments in two very different managed to remain in control of urban to get the balance right in comparative work cities in divergent world regions, cities which restructuring. They have created a host of joint- between an appreciation of local difference and nevertheless exist within a governance venture companies and wholly owned an understanding of ‘embedded[ness] in framework that bears some similarities. It does subsidiaries whose raison-d’être is property global networks and relations’. this both as an exercise designed to contribute development, companies that have pursued to comparative urban studies but also as a Research on cities in Central and Eastern urban restructuring projects to the benefit of contribution to a discussion of possibilities for Europe (CEE) has alternated between a both municipal but also corporate coffers planning and governance in Belgrade and convergent approach emphasising transition (Hsing, 2010). Urban restructuring in China is Serbia. The paper starts with an overview of towards a recognisably global capitalist model indeed led by the state, but it is animated by urban restructuring in the two countries, laying and a regionally sensitive approach built on the capital. Urban land therefore has become partly out very briefly some of the major trends in concept of path dependence, paying close commodified, even though it is owned by the urban development. It then moves onto a attention to historical embeddedness. A number state, and the buildings built on it are largely consideration of the two outstanding mega of commentators, especially in the 1990s, assimilated into the market. The urban urban development projects in Shanghai, one posited a set of common patterns in the landscape is no longer flat; instead, it has the of them, Pudong, well established, the other, trajectories of countries in Central and Eastern peaks and troughs that we associate with Hongqiao, still in the construction phase. It Europe alongside China and Vietnam, especially commodified urban space. State-owned compares these with developments in New in urban development, although with a growing enterprises have played their part in this Belgrade, which, although very different in its assertion of the importance of path dependency transformation, alongside municipal conception and history, is a field for the same (see Ma, 2002, for a review from a Chinese governments, making available plots of vacant types of entrepreneurial investment as is perspective). They saw countries in both parts of land in central and inner city areas. Shanghai. Special emphasis is placed on the the world as going through a similar ‘phase’ of role of mega urban projects to engineer change It is a real restructuring that is occurring, both transition, even if along differing paths – market in the production of urban space through the at the city-wide level, as Chinese cities socialist in the case of China and Vietnam, marshalling of regional and global capital. become centres of consumption and neoliberal capitalist in Eastern Europe. consumerism, but also at the level of personal This bracketing of China with Eastern Europe URBAN RESTRUCTURING IN CHINA experience of urban living, as block by block can be seen, in one sense, as a brave attempt to AND SERBIA Chinese cities are being torn down and rebuilt, avoid the pitfalls of what Pow (2012) refers to as with inevitable consequences on where and ‘China exceptionalism’, the treatment of China as In this section, I examine the ‘ground rules’ of how people live in them. It is hardly surprising a distinct case, but it runs the risk of obscuring urban restructuring in China and Serbia. In doing therefore that the process, although put across major differences by bringing discrepant cases so, I draw special attention to the crucial point in and wrapped up in an entrepreneurial under the same roof (Ma, 2002). At the same common between urban areas in the two discourse, especially in the case of Shanghai time, the concept of transition has been widely countries, that urban land is still (largely) owned (Wu, 2003), is kept under close control by the criticised for being excessively teleological, with by the state, even if it is not always entirely clear state as it has engendered significant if its suggestion of an acknowledged starting point what is meant by ‘the state’ in this context, and sporadic resistance. In sum, the role of the (socialist state/city) and a recognised end point even though the Serbian Government is state is generally seen as paramount. It is (capitalist state/city) (Ferenčuhová, 2012). In pursuing land privatisation policies. developer and place maker through property- recent years, the continued usefulness of the The nature of urban change in China is led restructuring schemes. concept of post-socialism has been questioned conditioned by a number of factors that are of The picture in the cities of Central and Eastern for its tendency to universalise diverse interest and relevance in view of developments Europe differs markedly in some important experiences (Stenning and Hörschelmann, in Serbia and in the wider region. In the first respects, notably in the extent of involvement 2008; Hirt, 2013). Rather than transition or place, urban and rural lands are under different and influence of the state. The general post-socialism, path dependency has been ownership regimes, the state in the first case consensus among scholars seems to be of a preferred by some as a conceptual heuristic for and rather ill-defined rural collectives in the move towards entrepreneurial city governance the trajectories of CEE countries, underlining, second. The ambiguous state of rural land has throughout Central and Eastern Europe. as it does, the contextual nature of change led to a disorderly and problematical process Petrović (2005) writes of the high social costs (Stark, 1992). of development on the urban fringe as it has attached to this shift. The influx of global Within the considerable body of literature that often been hard to discern the exact nature of capital has helped to create a new hierarchy presents urban change in CEE countries in a the entity owning rural land (Wu and Gaubatz, around leading cities such as Warsaw, Prague comparative framework, little is heard of Belgrade 2013:196). The consequence in terms of urban and Budapest, while smaller cities have (Hirt, 2008, being a rare exception). This is a sprawl can be seen as China’s version of struggled ‘to compete’ at a number of levels. shame. The socialist-era situation in urban areas informal urbanisation (Li and Wu, 2008). In The serious problems of population decline in of former Yugoslavia including Belgrade was not urban areas too, difficulties have arisen as to provincial Serbian towns is testament to these necessarily so different from that which prevailed the nature of the state entity that owns the land. difficulties. The consequence, so it is argued, in other CEE cities, while the subsequent years Many state-owned enterprises have resisted has been the forging of new cores, semi- have produced both salient differences and local government claims on ‘their’ land. When peripheries and peripheries. Some writers have important areas of commonality that have been they have moved factories and other facilities seen the same processes at play within cities; rarely commented on. out of central and inner city areas, they have Hirt (2006) has observed these trends in Sofia. insisted on ‘owning’ and managing the

8 spatium Waley P.: Cities in transcontinental context: A comparison of mega urban projects in Shanghai and Belgrade

These overall patterns can be applied in the transport hub at Hongqiao in the city’s western project has a total area of 86 square context of Serbia and within it Belgrade. outskirts, examined in the sections below. kilometres, with the core area of Hongqiao Petrović (2005) sees three institutional Business District covering 26 square The initial impetus for the development of patterns at play in contemporary Serbian cities: kilometres. If the development goes as Shanghai came as a result of what was seen as those of pre-existing socialism, of informal planned, by the end of 2015 the construction the success of the Special Economic Zones urbanism and of market-driven forces. of the core area will be finished. The plan is for (SEZ) in the south of the country. Throughout the Planning in contemporary Serbia has been the core area to attract more than 50 1980s, Shanghai had remained reliant on characterised as ‘project-led cum market- headquarters of trade and investment manufacturing. Across the Huangpu river, Pudong based’ (Vujošević and Nedović-Budić, companies and 500 to 700 related companies was an area of rusting old factories, poor quality 2006:280), although I argue below that in the (SMHBD 2010). The job of attracting housing and fields. It was given SEZ status in context of New Belgrade it might be more companies to move to Hongqiao belongs to a 1990, with backing from the State Council in accurate to characterise planning as state-based municipally owned organisation. It is Beijing. An Administrative Commission was set but market-led, aligning it more closely with the anticipated that many of these companies, up to run Pudong, with a development situation in China. Planning in Serbia is unlike in Pudong, where international and corporation for each of the four special zones generally considered to be dominated by a diaspora Chinese capital were central, will be that were set up. In 2000, a special technocratic approach, with a focus on firms with a regional base and sphere of administration, the Pudong District Government, physical infrastructure. Perhaps reflecting this activity, within the Pearl River Delta. Hongqiao was established, with a high status directly emphasis on the entrepreneurial and the is designed to become Shanghai’s western under the Shanghai municipal government. infrastructural, Belgrade has its own Chief gateway (Waley and Jiang, 2012). Architect and City Manager. The Urban Of Pudong’s four special zones, Lujiazui was These are projects that apparently bear no Planning Institute of Belgrade is affiliated to the the nearest to the old city centre and was resemblance to developments in Belgrade. There city government, but its budget is received on designed as a centre for the global higher could after all be little more different from the a project by project basis. As elsewhere, then, order service sector, especially finance carefully planned, ostensibly egalitarian grid of planning has been relegated both in its companies. The development corporations set New Belgrade than the pell-mell urbanisation of institutional position but also in its capacity to up to undertake the construction of Pudong Pudong. And yet this is not quite the case. There shape the urban terrain. have used two development techniques, known is for a start the coincidence in the location of colourfully in Chinese as zhuchao yinfeng and Two bursts of legislation have occurred in Pudong and New Belgrade, both on the far side of yinfeng zhuchao, or fix the nest then attract the recent years, first in 2003 and then in 2009. a main river, both exploiting land that had been phoenix, and attract the phoenix then fix the The overall aim of these laws has been to bring lying fallow – or at any rate under-used. nest. The first refers to the construction of Serbia closer to EU norms, to ‘regularise’ the infrastructure and buildings prior to attracting New Belgrade is deceptive, and one could country, but also to facilitate legalisation of investing companies, while the second argue that there are two New Belgrades that illegal structures. The laws have been variously involves first obtaining interest from investors overlap like a palimpsest (Waley, 2011). criticised for their lack of professional expertise who then develop and make profits from the Modernist New Belgrade was an incomplete city and for their excessive ambition (Vujović and sale of property. In Lujiazui, the development that left large gaps, and many of these have only Petrović, 2007). Meanwhile, the process of corporation has tended to construct buildings latterly been filled. The years leading up to the legalisation of illegal structures is slow but and infrastructure and then find buyers rather onset of the economic downturn in 2009 saw a ongoing, with government issuing highly than vice versa. Elsewhere in Pudong, where surge of activity and the completion of a number ambitious targets, while the privatisation of foreign owned companies are involved, they of projects, including the Delta shopping centre urban land is equally a slow and tortuous have tended to lease land first (Wu and Barnes and Airport City. Other projects, such as Ušće process. Running throughout government 2008). Much of the actual construction, and Sava City, have been completed more policy and legislation on planning is the drive however, especially outside Lujiazui, has been recently. Still others, such as Blok 26, appear to to bring Serbia in line with practice in the unrelated to the plans of the district be awaiting an economic recovery. So on top of European Union, with accession to the EU as government and the development corporations. the orderly rectangles of the socialist era, the the holy grail. structural manifestations of urban The overall picture presented of this giant entrepreneurialism have accrued in disorderly development project, larger than any other mega MEGA URBAN PROJECTS IN fashion. Capital investments in New Belgrade urban project, is one of great success. Lujiazui, SHANGHAI AND BELGRADE have come from a variety of sources, including Pudong’s CBD, presents a glitzy assortment of local tycoons (Delta and Ušće shopping Nowhere has the process of urban restructuring skyscrapers that have come to epitomise China’s centres), Slovenian interests (Mercator), and been more pervasive than in Shanghai, whose place in the globalising world of big business. Israeli investors (Airport City) to name but some central and inner areas had been characterised Inevitably, however, the picture is a mitigated of the most prominent. The nature of these by poor housing conditions interspersed with one. Problems have been encountered as a investments – in office complexes, shopping factory compounds. Shanghai’s transformation result of over-investment and over-construction, centres, expensive residential blocks – has originated in decisions taken by senior party much of it off-plan. There is no local been drawn from the standard repertoire of and government leaders in Beijing and representative congress and no avenue for urban entrepreneurialism. Shanghai in the late 1980s, when Shanghai objections to be expressed by local residents. was considered to be in the doldrums (Marton Relative to the size of the two city’s Shanghai is currently undertaking a second, and Wu 2006). The restructuring has taken populations, New Belgrade is more extensive only slightly more modest version of Pudong. various forms, and has led to the regeneration of than Pudong and Hongqiao combined, but the This is the Hongqiao commercial and transport the city centre, the development of Pudong and availability of capital is much more limited. It now the construction of the commercial and hub in the west of the city. The Hongqiao mega

spatium 9 Waley P.: Cities in transcontinental context: A comparison of mega urban projects in Shanghai and Belgrade

is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that the However, grey (or indeed black) transactions Shanghai (2007). Wasserstrom’s work is built development process has been slower. Despite are not distinctive to this type of land up out of impressionistic and discursive the obvious contrasts and differences, the ownership regime. In a controversial appreciations of the two cities, recognising the intent behind the development strategies intervention, Haila (2007) has argued that the importance of popular epigrammatic and represented by the New Belgrade of today and ownership of land by the state in Chinese cities metaphorical narratives, such as when both by Pudong and Hongqiao in Shanghai is not so should not be seen as transitional or cities are referred to as ‘Paris of the East’ dissimilar – to stimulate the growth of exceptional in any way. Nor is there such a (2007:228). Despite the occasional conceptual prosperous CBDs through the creation of an thing as a perfect, untrammelled market for focus on ‘cities in transition’ and ‘post- appropriate environment for corporate land towards which policy should be directed; socialist’ cities, strategic comparative urban investment. In Shanghai, the tendency has what is more, the fuzziness that is seen by work has seldom been attempted for Chinese been to fix the nest to attract the phoenix, some to occur in China (or in Serbia) is not cities. Equally, as I suggested at the outset, whereas in Belgrade, the nest fixing tends to seen as such by all (Verdery, 2003). Fuzziness, Belgrade has tended to be left out of the story come second, or at best concurrently with the indeed, should not be regarded as a unique of urban change in CEE countries. task of attracting the pheonix. There is nothing feature of this system; there is after all no lack China and Serbia share a common regime of particularly imaginative about the strategies of grey areas in systems of private land ownership of urban land. In both Shanghai and followed in Shanghai and Belgrade. Nor is the ownership. A further point that Haila makes, Belgrade, we can see what I have called here a approach unusual, even if the mega size of one that might arguably be brought into state-based but market-led process of developments in Shanghai is. What is consideration in the context of Serbia but urbanisation. In both cities, mega urban projects distinctive to both Belgrade and Shanghai is cannot be properly considered here for lack of with differing histories have been used to the pursuit of a state-based but market-led space, is that the emphasis on the legalistic engineer change in urban space. Although the approach in which land remains in the hands of aspects of a land market leads to a diminished process has not always been straightforward, the state – even if Belgrade is attempting to regard for the production and distribution of especially in peripheral areas of Shanghai, the move away from this state of affairs (Nedović- housing as a social good (2007:15). development of these large expanses of urban Budić et al., 2012). New Belgrade will never resemble Pudong or land has been facilitated by their ownership on In both Belgrade and Shanghai, there is less Hongqiao in its scale. It will always comprise the part of the state. The ultimate control than clarity as to who or what the state is. this strange visual tableau of modernist blocks exercised by the state has, it could be argued, Urban development in Shanghai and other with strongly evident post-modernist fillings. But allowed for a more coordinated process of Chinese cities has been dogged by disputes in its mixture of state-based but market-led development of the urban terrain. between municipal governments and state- urbanisation, it bears important commonalities Having followed not totally dissimilar socialist owned enterprises and organisations, which lay with the two mega developments in Shanghai. paths in the past, both China and Serbia retain claim to the ownership of land that municipal Together, they remind us that there are diverse this heritage of state ownership of urban land. governments tended to assume was their own approaches to an entrepreneurial urban strategy. It is true that collective ownership remains in (Hsing, 2010). In Belgrade, land ownership and place in rural China but not in rural Serbia. It is management of land has been tossed back and CONCLUSION: MARKET FORCES ON also the case that Serbia is attempting to move forth between city and central governments, and STATE GROUND away from state ownership, but with little especially in New Belgrade, ownership of some success (Nedović-Budić et al., 2012). plots is held by large ex-Yugoslav para-statal As has already been noted, there was a brief Perhaps the time has come then to call a stop organisations. There are, crucially, no issues of period when China and Vietnam were thrown to the clumsy and largely unfulfilled attempts restitution in New Belgrade, where development into the same ‘transition’ pot as the ‘post- to restore private ownership of urban land and commenced during the Socialist period. socialist’ countries of Central and Eastern Europe; and their cities were seen to be take advantage of the benefits of state In both Shanghai and Belgrade, though the undergoing the same transitional processes. ownership, despite the mixed heritage this has mechanisms have differed, the state has Since then, most research in this area has leant in the Yugoslav context. It is to be hoped that transferred or auctioned off rights to use of the towards an emphasis on path dependency, and planning authorities in Belgrade and Shanghai land. In Belgrade the process has been this has particularly coloured comparative might perhaps come together to discuss the managed by the Belgrade Land Development urban research in CEE, where it has become possibilities that this common form of urban Public Agency. In Shanghai, the introduction of important to observe divergences in historical land ownership holds. a policy of open, public auctions was ordered paths. Yet the concept of path dependency can by the central government, but this is also be deployed comparatively, to help build References sometimes flouted. In both cities there has up an understanding of urban change in Ferenčuhová, S. (2012) Urban theory beyond the been widespread criticism of procedures. In different geographical settings. This can Shanghai, preferred buyers are often identified ‘East/West divide’? Cities and urban research reinforce the sort of strategic comparative in postsocialist Europe. In: Edensor, T., and for land use and development rights. In exercise that I am undertaking here. Jayne, M. (ed.) Urban Theory beyond the Belgrade, a market exists, or at any rate West: A World of Cities. London: Routledge, existed, for sub-leased commercial property pp. 65-74. development rights (Vujović and Petrović, This paper is short and exploratory in nature, 2007:368), but the lease paid by the primary Haila, A. (2007) The market as the new designed to generate discussion. But it is not emperor. International Journal of Urban and lease-holder is determined by the state in the the first essay in East Europe East Asia Regional Research, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 3-20. form of zone boundaries and not market comparative urbanism. The historian of conditions (Nedović-Budić et al., 2012:311). Hirt, S. (2006) Post-Socialist urban forms: Shanghai Jeffrey Wasserstrom has written a Notes from Sofia. Urban Geography, Vol. 27, paper in which he compares Budapest with

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spatium 11

SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.432(495.622) ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 12-171-7 338.124.4(495); Review paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330012T

STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING IN THE ERA OF CRISIS: CURRENT TRENDS AND EVIDENCE FROM THE METROPOLITAN AREA OF THESSALONIKI

Elisavet Thoidou1, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Department of Spatial Planning and Development Engineering, Thessaloniki, Greece

Strategic spatial planning has enjoyed widespread implementation since the 1990s, especially in urban and metropolitan areas, having its focus on promoting their competitiveness and sustainability. Nowadays, the effects of economic crisis, together with growing environmental and technological risks, trigger the vulnerability of these areas and stress the need for resilience. This paper examines the role of strategic spatial planning in promoting metropolitan resilience in the era of crisis. It is argued that this type of planning is capable of supporting the adaptation of territorial systems to crisis-induced risks, as is, for instance, the case of planning for climate change. This is further analysed in light of four of the key aspects of the new strategic spatial planning, namely its principles, content, process, and utilization of resources. The paper draws evidence from the case of Greece and examines the above- mentioned aspects of the recently prepared new Regulatory Plan for the Thessaloniki greater area. The first results of this examination show that, provided there is political will which allows for necessary adjustments, the Plan has the potential to incorporate the dimension of resilience. The elaboration and exploitation of the strategic nature of the Plan and of its sustainable development principle constitute key elements of a resilience-oriented approach. Key words: Strategic spatial planning in Greece, Thessaloniki metropolitan area, metropolitan vulnerability, metropolitan resilience, resilience planning.

has been transferred to peripheral urban and questioning which characteristics, when 1 INTRODUCTION metropolitan areas which seek to improve their incorporated into strategic planning, would Strategic spatial planning has been promoted relative position in the global terrain. As Raco best allow it to respond to current threats. This as a key planning instrument in recent years and Flint (2012: 3) have noted, the prevailing paper examines this very question, focusing on (Vasilevska and Vasić, 2009), finding a sustainability planning model has proceeded in the Thessaloniki greater area, which is one of preferential field of application in urban and tandem with the effort to enhance economic the two metropolitan areas of Greece. The metropolitan areas (Albrechts et al., 2003). growth, thus promising a ‘win–win’ agenda. paper draws evidence from the updating of the strategic planning document for the area which When it re-emerged in the mid-1990s, it However, since 2008, several areas have been is currently in progress, attempting to identify mostly responded to new challenges facing exposed to the impact of economic crisis, a the weaknesses and potentialities of this type these areas, especially challenges stemming fact which has made them vulnerable to related of planning in current circumstances. from intensified competition in the context of socio-economic risks. This is particularly true globalization, as well as the challenge of for urban and metropolitan areas in which the The rest of the paper is organized as follows: enhancing sustainable spatial development. bulk of employment and productive activities is The second section addresses some of the key Since then, a variety of strategic plans have concentrated. At the same time ‘the issues raised for urban and metropolitan areas been elaborated that focus on promoting assumptions that underpinned planning entrepreneurship, innovation, creativity, systems and city strategies during the 1990s nd sustainability, and so on, the aim being to This paper was presented at the 2 International Scientific and 2000s have been rapidly undermined’ Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL orientate spatial organization and spatial (Raco and Flint, 2012:3), as public and private PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, development towards bold visions. This model funding have been continuously reduced. This Belgrade, 22nd-25th May 2013, organised by the Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia. in turn has necessitated a new role and identity 1Aristotle University Campus, 54124 Thessaloniki, for strategic spatial planning, one capable of This paper is based on a research project which is funded Greece meeting these new challenges. It is then worth by the Research Committee of the Aristotle University of [email protected] Thessaloniki (AUTH), Greece, within the context of the action “Supporting Research Activity at the AUTH – 2012”.

12 spatium Thoidou E.: Strategic spatial planning in the era of crisis: Current trends and evidence from the Metropolitan area of Thessaloniki

with an emphasis on the notions of increased potential for dysfunction, together with 2011:6–7). The consequences become more vulnerability and resilience. In the third section their currently reduced coping capacity, creates serious when they extend to all aspects of life the role of strategic spatial planning for vulnerability within these areas and consequently in the city, such as deterioration of public metropolitan resilience is discussed. The highlights the need for resilience planning. services and infrastructure, unemployment and fourth section draws evidence from the urban poverty. The crisis also affects the public Initially, the concept of vulnerability referred Thessaloniki greater area and particularly from sector, along with spatial planning institutions. mainly to the conditions which arose from the process of updating its Regulatory Plan, technological and natural hazards, for instance As a result, cities and regions have to develop which is a strategic spatial plan. Finally, some industrial accidents or climate change. However, their resilience to various risks so as to be able conclusions are drawn with regard to the in recent years, these same dangers have to overcome the impact of economic crisis, as potentialities of strategic spatial planning for a intensified, this intensification coinciding with is the case with the impact of environmental resilience-oriented approach. the emergence of new threats due to the and technological hazards. Resilience is economic crisis. The ‘coupling of a deep defined as ‘The ability of a social or ecological URBAN/METROPOLITAN AREAS economic crisis with the perceived threat of an system to absorb disturbances while retaining AND CRISIS imminent global ecological crisis, above all the same basic structure and ways of Globalization and spatial competition have because of climate change’ characterizes the functioning, the capacity for self-organization, become increasingly influential during the past situation currently existing within cities and and the capacity to adapt to stress and change’ two decades; within this context, urban and regions (Hudson, 2010:11–12). In the context of (IPCC, 2007). Despite the fact that the above especially metropolitan areas have played an a recent study of European regions (ÖIR et al., definition originated in the field of natural important role in the development of regions and 2011:5), the notion of regional vulnerability was sciences and is used mainly in descriptions of countries. The strengthening of urban defined as ‘a function of regional exposures and the ecosystem and of combating climate competitiveness has been at the core of spatial sensitivities towards the analyzed challenges change, resilience can also be used more development policies. It represents a shift on the and the regional adaptive capacities that are generally in connection with cities and regions part of governments and local authorities available to mitigate the impact exerted by the in crisis conditions (Foutakis, 2012). In this towards economic performance and away from challenges’. So, the notion of vulnerability has sense resilience to recessions can be viewed social equality through redistribution, which had now been extended to encompass current as ‘the ability of a local socio-economic prevailed during the previous period (Thoidou socio-economic risks (CJRES, 2010), which system to recover from a shock or disruption’ and Foutakis, 2006). Thus, it contrasts with are either directly or indirectly connected to the (Martin, 2012:4). older Keynesian-type policies whose main aim economic crisis. had been ‘administrative modernization, Indirectly, the worsening of the economic STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING interterritorial equalization and the efficient situation in an area could increase its FOR RESILIENCE delivery of public services’ (Brenner, 2003:297). vulnerability, because the latter also involves a Strategic spatial planning has enjoyed At the same time, it seems that the lessening of the area’s ability to deal with widespread implementation since the 1990s competitiveness–cohesion dipole, which has potential hazards, and given the fact that this when urban and metropolitan areas all over the been the prevailing policy direction until now at ability is, to a large extent, connected to factors of world prepared and applied strategic plans urban and regional levels (Maloutas et al., socio-economic development which are being which were based on bold visions. Their goal 2008), is no longer able to address the effects of undermined. For example, the per capita GDP of a was not only to deal with spatial organization multifaceted crisis on these areas. country is considered to be one such factor, problems, but also to guide the future In recent years several urban and metropolitan because it reflects the ability of a region to face a development of these areas towards achieving areas have suffered the consequences of catastrophe and, therefore, a decrease or increase a better position within the urban network on a economic crisis (Cohen, 2011; EC, 2013). The in its vulnerability (Schmidt-Thomé, 2006). worldwide scale and attracting tertiary crisis has had multiple negative effects, which The economic crisis not only intensifies the economic activities especially in the sectors of mostly concern ‘economic life,…unemployment vulnerability of a city or a region, but it can the highest added value. New strategic spatial and underemployment,…urban poverty,… also be a direct cause of it. The crisis planning differs from the old type of strategic housing foreclosures…and financial crises of influences both public and private spaces such spatial planning in terms of its content as well local governments’ (Cohen, 2011: 11–12). It also as new residential areas, whose development as its procedures, which in turn are related to has intertwining social and environmental depends to a large extent on the financial its key principles. As Albrechts (2011:15) dimensions. The impact of the crisis has varied sector. One of the clearest examples of this notes, ‘such planning involves the critical from continent to continent, from country to was the collapse of the real estate market interpretation of structural challenges and country and from one area to another. In each area which was accompanied by the phenomenon problems and creative thinking about possible the severity of the impact of the crisis has of massive scale foreclosures covering huge solutions and how to achieve them’. depended on its particular manifestation, the areas of cities and metropolitan areas in the While any attempt to tackle the consequences prevailing pre-crisis conditions, and other area- USA, and which led to the development of of the economic crisis in a uniform manner specific factors (Clark, 2009). Urban and strategies for building resilient cities and would be unfeasible due to the differences metropolitan areas are exposed not only to the regions (Swanstrom et al., 2009). Actually, the between cities and between regions, each case impact of economic crisis, but also to natural and utility of methods used to deal with illustrates the need for mobilization of technological hazards, such as the impact of vulnerability caused by natural hazards such as planning. Recently, strategic planning has climate change (Greiving et al., 2011). earthquakes, floods and so on, can be taken become closely connected with tackling the Furthermore, the situation is aggravated by the into consideration when dealing with the risks vulnerability of cities and regions and ensuring growing complexity of these areas’ functioning resulting from the economic crisis (Cohen, their resilience (Dos Santos and Partidário, and institutional framework. This combination of

spatium 13 Thoidou E.: Strategic spatial planning in the era of crisis: Current trends and evidence from the Metropolitan area of Thessaloniki

2011), as well as with “linking different types as to counteract or reverse some of the effects of effects of the crisis are apparent throughout the of regional stresses to alternative resilience the economic crisis, for instance by securing the economy, and particularly in the employment frameworks” (Pendall et al., 2010). provision of public goods by means of a sector (EC, 2013). These effects include a minimum level of public services and public reduction in incomes, a sharp increase in Hence, it can be argued that new strategic infrastructure. It is worth noting that, in general, unemployment, the undermining of public spatial planning can be connected to ‘planning policy options that concern both urban services and infrastructure, and the social and for resilience’ as outlined above. This is, firstly, interventions and residential development are environmental effects of the crisis which are because neither of these types of planning is closely interrelated. Both are affected by the worsening in both metropolitan areas (see also substantially concerned with highly detailed or economic crisis, with the severity of the impact, Hadjimichalis, 2011). binding plans; instead, their focus is on the of course, dependent on the particular situation planning process in which the involvement of In both areas an ambitious start to strategic in each area and country (Ball, 2010). citizens plays a central role. Secondly, because spatial planning was given by the 1985 sustainable development holds a prominent The process of planning plays a decisive Regulatory Plans for Athens and Thessaloniki, position both in strategic spatial planning role in the development of metropolitan which, however, were not perceived as (Albrechts et al., 2003) and in planning for the resilience, in particular in connection with the strategic instruments at that stage. In 2003 the resilience of territorial areas (Davoudi et al., way citizens are involved in the stages of updating of the two Regulatory Plans began, 2012:323). Of course particular attention is planning. Planning for resilience is in essence and today the related studies have been needed when applying “an ecologically rooted ‘a capacity-building process whose ultimate completed. Public consultation has taken place concept to the social setting” (Davoudi et al., goal is to sustain a process of individual, and modifications have been made but the new 2012:306). organizational and social change’ (UNEP, 2006 laws have yet to come into effect. The following cited in Dos Santos and Partidário, constitutes a brief examination of the Draft Law Besides this, in crisis conditions spatial 2011:1525). It is argued that an improvement on the new Thessaloniki Regulatory Plan planning itself appears particularly vulnerable, in coping capacity is essential to build (henceforth ‘Plan’), in light of the four aspects due to the fact that its institutional framework is resilience ‘to withstand the effects of natural of strategic spatial planning suggested above. under pressure, and its funding is subject to and other hazards’ (ESPON, 2003:11). The aim of this examination is to highlight restrictions. Hence, strategic spatial planning Necessary changes can be connected to some aspects of resilience which are needs to incorporate a resilience-oriented changes in the organization of planning, for considered to be crucial for planning under approach if metropolitan resilience is to be example through more active involvement on crisis conditions. Of course, further research promoted effectively. Schematically, such an the part of the citizens. At the same time, the would be necessary for a full analysis. approach should be incorporated in at least state appears to be changing direction, moving four aspects of strategic spatial planning, these An examination of the Draft Law on the Plan towards more interventionist policies (Raco, being: principles, content, process and (Or. Thes., 2012) reveals both its strategic 2009). Arguably, active democratic funding. More specifically: nature and a preliminary projection of strategic participation in policy making could increase goals. If the key characteristics of strategic The principles pertaining to metropolitan the resilience of strategic spatial planning. spatial planning are taken into account, the resilience should underpin and guide the key The efficient utilization of available strategic role of the Plan is also evidenced in strategic objectives of each plan. In general, resources is also an issue pertaining to the the introduction of new ideas – first and these principles have similarities with those of the resilience of cities and regions which indeed foremost the sustainability principle – as well new strategic spatial planning, for instance confront the danger of cuts in public and as in linking process and outcome by means of regarding the fact that sustainability plays a key private funding. The choices made regarding the provision made for an Action Plan (Thoidou role in both. At the same time strategic objectives the distribution and use of funds are closely and Foutakis, 2012). More particularly: should take into consideration the new challenges connected to the need for a renewal of strategic with which urban areas are faced, thereby Firstly, concerning the principles of spatial planning. Given that funds are limited, it forging a closer connection with the key planning, it seems that the Plan places is all the more important that decisions principles of resilience. Resilience-oriented emphasis on the model of competitive and regarding their allocation are well documented planning principles are still being formulated sustainable spatial development. This (Kurban, 2008), and that the prioritization and several approaches can be found. Albers observation is based on the fact that the Plan process is effectively informed by spatial and Deppisch (2012) suggest the following sets the following long-term key strategic planning strategy. principles for urban and regional resilience: objectives (Or. Thes., 2012: 2): ‘diversity, redundancy, flexibility/adaptability, - Promoting development, competitiveness modularity/interdependency, mobility, and STRATEGIC SPATIAL PLANNING IN and innovation and strengthening planning foresight’. THE THESSALONIKI GREATER AREA internationalization. The two metropolitan areas of Greece play a The content of the plan specifies the plan’s - Promoting territorial and social cohesion and leading role both in the strategy of promoting principles and at the same time has to take into improvement of quality of life. consideration key vulnerability factors, which spatial competitiveness and in the country’s - Securing environmental balance and of course differ from one area to another. development in general. An example of this protection of natural and cultural resources. Evidently, there are some factors of general would be the attempt of Athens to reorientate importance which should not be the production and spatial development model Of course it should not be overlooked that the underestimated, namely those pertaining to the by focusing on the organization of the Olympic conditions for pursuing these objectives have impact of the economic crisis on metropolitan Games in the first half of the 2000s, as would changed in the current crisis circumstances. development. Particular emphasis should be Thessaloniki’s earlier strategic vision of playing More particularly, as regards the first objective, placed on the way the urban fabric develops, so an enhanced role in SE Europe. Today, the spatial competitiveness dominated the past

14 spatium Thoidou E.: Strategic spatial planning in the era of crisis: Current trends and evidence from the Metropolitan area of Thessaloniki

decade’s vision for the development of the and upgrading of public services … basis for upgrading the role of both the Thessaloniki metropolitan area (Thoidou and - Targeted management of deprived urban metropolitan level bodies and the relevant Foutakis, 2006). However, in regard to this areas and pockets of social exclusion by participatory process in strategic spatial planning. objective, it is worth examining whether a means of integrated urban regeneration However, this would require a reorganization of continuation of pre-crisis strategies or a programs. the metropolitan region and its competencies in transformative action (Raco and Street, 2012) this respect (see also Beriatos, 2012). - Giving priority to residential and economic better meets current challenges, especially development for ‘within-the-plan’ areas (the Fourthly, concerning the efficient since in the past two decades ‘The city failed to compact city principle) in tandem with a utilization of financial resources, it is face the structural problems of its economy focus on the identity of urban areas … and worth mentioning that during the last three to and to initiate a restructuring process’ the return of residents to inner-city areas. four years dramatic cuts in public expenditure, (Lambrianidis, 2012:1815). At the same time, and consequently in public investment, have the issues addressed by the second and third - Land use regulation in the peri-urban space, been in progress. This has been a result of the objective respectively, namely social cohesion control of ‘out-of-plan’ building, protection austerity policies implemented in the country and environmental balance, which in general of ecological functions and of agriculture, since 2010. For instance the Public Investment are under pressure nowadays (Davoudi et al., and preventing urban sprawl. Budget as a percentage of the country’s GDP 2009:3), are of critical importance for securing It should be acknowledged that the above was reduced from 4.9% in 2003, to 3.2% in the city’s overall resilience. Possibly, the policy options of the new Plan advocate the 2011 (Min. Fin., 2012: 98). Consequently there above three objectives could also form the increased potential of strategic spatial planning has been a drastic cut in resources available for basis of a shift towards a resilience-oriented to ameliorate metropolitan vulnerability in a the Plan’s implementation, a situation which has approach, if their content and relationship were twofold way. Firstly, selected urban demanded the prioritization of selected reconsidered, and if the emphasis were to be interventions can serve primarily as a means of programs, measures and actions, based on placed on the issues of social cohesion and addressing the problems of the areas which are specific criteria (Thoidou, 2012b). In fact, the environmental balance. suffering the most from the symptoms of crisis. Plan makes provision for its implementation by Furthermore, in conjunction with the compact Secondly, as regards the content of the means of a five-year Action Plan consisting of city principle, strategic spatial planning could Plan, we have selected the issue of urban five priority sectors. One noteworthy function of promote the containment of urban sprawl. This residential development for further discussion, the Action Plan will be to set the criteria for the would appear to be crucial, due to the fact that as it highlights some of the major facets of prioritization of the actions within each priority severe environmental and financial problems vulnerability in metropolitan areas, involving not sector. Thus, the fundamental issue of often accompany new residential urban only the dimension of economic crisis, but also prioritization of actions is transferred to the time developments, especially in peri-urban areas that of the energy and environmental crisis. of the initiation of the Action Plan. wherein ‘there are numerous conflicts, Evidently, residential development is promoted primarily related to the land use’ (Živanović by both the broad and the more specific targets Miljković et al., 2012:16). As Giannakou CONCLUDING REMARKS of the Plan, which specify its strategic (2012) notes, starting in the mid-1990s, there objectives. More particularly, the following As the economic crisis continues and its impact was a rapid growth of urban sprawl in the broad targets can be distinguished as the most on several countries intensifies the vulnerability Thessaloniki greater area. This growth was resilience-oriented (Or. Thes., 2012: 2–3): of their cities and regions, an elaboration of triggered by the residential development of specialized plans and methods capable of - Reducing social inequalities between suburban areas, a fact connected to the coping with these new challenges is becoming different districts and fighting the construction industry being stimulated by urgent. Urban and especially metropolitan areas phenomena of social exclusion that have a investment in any type of real estate. are particularly susceptible to the consequences spatial dimension. Thirdly, concerning the planning of the crisis. This is, to a large extent, due to - Promoting urban sustainability, with the aim process, in the early 2000s, in tandem with an their magnitude and complexity. As they face of improving the quality of life and the social attempt to establish metropolitan governance in new types of problems, they have to rethink and well-being of citizens. the Thessaloniki greater area, efforts were made re-orientate planning principles and content, as - Promoting a sustainable development model to initiate a participative strategic spatial well as upgrade democratic participation in the with its key axes being the reorganization and planning model (Kafkalas, 2008). These efforts planning process and utilize the resources exploitation of ‘within-the-plan’ areas and the were indicative of the acknowledgment at the available to promote their overall resilience. At prevention of urban sprawl; the non-built local (metropolitan) level of the need for a the same time, spatial planning is under environment being a critical sustainability renewed planning process. Deficiencies pressure as there are significant changes in the factor. stemmed from the fact that, ‘the planning means of its application, especially in the institutional and funding framework. Of the In turn, the broad targets are broken down into system in Greece is based on a hierarchical but spatial planning tools applicable in metropolitan specific targets among which the following are fragmented structure’ (Delladetsimas, 2012:11). areas, strategic spatial planning can, in the potentially supportive of the resilience of the Since 2010 prospects have arisen from the current situation, be considered the one most most vulnerable residential areas (ibid.): administrative reform which placed emphasis on self-elected authorities at the regional and local relevant to the need for both resilience of spatial - Planning and designing urban and residential levels. Within the context of this reform, which planning and planning for resilience. development with priorities placed on the emphasizes the second degree self-elected In the case of strategic planning for the upgrading of the urban landscape and the regional authorities, the provision made for the Thessaloniki greater area, provisions are made quality of housing, improving living so-called metropolitan regions of Athens and by the new Thessaloniki Regulatory Plan for both conditions in deprived areas, and Thessaloniki respectively could be utilized as the civil protection and protection of the implementation of social policy for housing

spatium 15 Thoidou E.: Strategic spatial planning in the era of crisis: Current trends and evidence from the Metropolitan area of Thessaloniki

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spatium 17

SPATIUM International Review UDC 502/504(497.11) ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 18-22 711.4(497.11); Original scientific paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330018R

„BLUE-GREEN“ CORRIDORS AS A TOOL FOR MITIGATION OF NATURAL HAZARDS AND RESTORATION OF URBANIZED AREAS: A CASE STUDY OF BELGRADE CITY

Ratko Ristić1, University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Dept. for Ecological Engineering in Protection of Soil and Water Resources, Belgrade, Serbia Boris Radić, University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Dept. for Ecological Engineering in Protection of Soil and Water Resources, Belgrade, Serbia Veliša Miljanović, Ministry of Transport, Authority for Determination of the Seaworthiness, Belgrade, Serbia Goran Trivan, Secretariat for Environmental Protection of Belgrade City, Belgrade, Serbia Milanko Ljujić, Public Enterprise „17 September“, Gornji Milanovac, Serbia Ljubomir Letić, University of Belgrade Faculty of Forestry, Dept. for Ecological Engineering in Protection of Soil and Water Resources, Belgrade, Serbia Radovan Savić, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Water Management, Novi Sad, Serbia

Urbanized areas constantly need new surfaces for building of commercial, residental or infrastructure facilities. Belgrade, the capital of Serbia and a big regional center, with 2,000,000 inhabitants, covers a teritorry of 3,500 km2. Decreasing of surfaces under forest vegetation, urbanisation and inadequate agricultural measures have caused intensive erosion and more frequent torrential floods. Belgrade authorities have defined a new strategy for land use and urban planning in order to decrease the risk from destructive erosion processes and torrential floods and help the establishment of new recreational areas, preservation of biodiversity and mitigation of the „heat island“effect. The strategy is based on the restoration of „blue-green“ corridors (residuals of open streams and fragments of forest vegetation). The restoration of „blue-green“ corridors is presented at the experimental watersheds of the Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams. The restoration works will be performed in the 2014–2020 period, on the basis of erosion and stream control demands, as well as environmental and social requests, including biological, soil-bioengineering activities and certain administrative measures. The forest surfaces will be increased by 1.38 km2 (18.11% of the total area). The restoration of “blue-green” corridors in the experimental watersheds will decrease the values of maximal discharges (p = 1%) by about 50%, and the volumes of direct runoff by about 40%. Erosive material production and transport will be decreased by about 44% in the Kaljavi stream watershed, and 37% in the Jelezovac stream watershed. Ten kilometers of sealed walking and cycling paths, 1.7 km of unsealed forest paths, six open gyms and seven rest areas will strengthen the potential of this area for sports and recreation. The restoration will help the protection and controlled usage of the natural and cultural values in the area, and the connection of „blue-green“ corridors at different spatial levels. The final goal is the creation of a network of “blue-green” corridors in the territory of Belgrade city, which provides both effective erosion and stream control and environmental and social services. Key words: „blue-green“ corridors, natural hazards, watershed restoration, land use, urban planning.

(Li et al., 2005; Nichols, 2009). Land-use INTRODUCTION 1 changes such as deforestation and topsoil This paper was presented at the 2nd International Scientific The development of highly urbanized areas removal, dramatically alter hydrological Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL conditions by reducing the interception and PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, requires the occupation of new spaces that are nd th infiltration–retention capacity of the soil, exposing Belgrade, 22 -25 May 2013, organised by the Institute of mainly located in riparian areas or in Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia. the remaining fragments of green spaces the soil to the impact of rain, which accelerates erosion and surface runoff (Ristić et al., 2012). The Serbian Ministry of Science supported this study The dynamic and uncontrelled urban development within project 43007 (Investigation of climate changes 1 and their influence on the environment: monitoring, Kneza Višeslava 1, 11030 Belgrade, Serbia of Belgrade have caused the vanishing of great [email protected] adaptation and mitigation; Subproject: Frequency of torrential floods and degradation of soil and water as a consequence of global changes).

18 spatium Ristić R. et al.: „Blue-green“ corridors as a tool for mitigation of natural hazards and restoration of urbanized areas: A case study of Belgrade city

green complexes and the occupation of spaces in functions: mitigation of the „heat island“ effect, 1.7 m (the Jelezovac stream), as a consequence riparian areas, and this is still an ongoing process: terrain drainage, sports and recreation, of severe thunderstorms, with the intensity of construction of the apartment and office block on restoration of autochtonous flora and fauna, precipitation of up to 6 mm/min. the edge of the Terazije plateau; a large number of aesthetic and visual effects. The consequences of land-use changes have apartment blocks on the left bank of the Sava been analysed on the basis of field investigations, River, in the area intended for flood protection and MATERIAL AND METHODS the use of aerial and satellite photo images, recreation; illegal construction on the edge of the topographic, geological and soil maps, using park forest Zvezdani Gaj; the disappearance of The concept of restoration of the “blue-green” ArcMap10. The land use classification was made forest areas near the Lisičji stream. The core of the corridors is presented at two experimental on the basis of modified CORINE methodology city area involves a few dozens of watercourses, watersheds of the Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams, (EEA, 1994). The visual impact in the studied area with fully or partly urnbanized watersheds, which just a few kilometres from the centre of Belgrade was assessed through a view shed analysis have been introduced into the sewerage system (Figure 2). The main hydrographic characteristics using the ArcMap10 software (module Spatial (the Čuburski, Kumodraški, Mokroluški, and of the experimental watersheds are presented in Analyst Tools). Particularly, the scale of the Žarkovački streams, etc.). Numerous important Table 1. The experimental watersheds influence of restoration works in accordance with city streats were built just above former stream experienced torrential floods (in 1965, 1994, the specific topography and visual exposure of beds (South boulevard, and Nemanjina streat, 2002), which endangered buildings, land and the area has been analyzed (Bell 1994; Selman etc). At the same time, some big cities in the roads, when the water levels increased from 2006; Bell and Apostol, 2008). world can show different examples that are in line 0.10–0.15 m to 1.6 m (the Kaljavi stream) and with the modern urban sensibility and ecologism. These examples are the restoration of the Cheonggyecheon stream in Seoul (Seoul Development Institute, 2003), or the locality Don Valley Brick Works in Toronto (Foster, 2005). Belgrade, the capital of Serbia and a big regional centre with a population of 2,000,000, covers a territory of 3,500 km2. The territory of Belgrade has 187 streams with watersheds that are mostly rural in the higher parts and urbanized or highly urbanized in the lower parts (Faculty of Forestry & Institute for Water Resources Management “Jaroslav Černi”, 2005). A high concentration of Figure 1. „Blue-green“ corridors concept housing, office and infrastructural facilities made Belgrade poor in green areas compared to other cities in Europe. Green areas occupy 14 m2 per capita at the city level, whereas in some parts of the city, such as Vračar, they cover only 2 m2 per capita (Urbanistic Institute of Belgrade, 2001). The authorities of Belgrade defined a strategy for erosion and torrent control based on the restoration of “blue-green” corridors. The restoration of “blue-green” corridors helps the establishment of new recreational areas, preservation of biodiversity (Saumel and Kowarik, 2010; Ramirez and Zuria, 2011) and urban adaptation to climate change (Kazmierczak and Carter, 2010). The restoration of „blue-green“ corridors is presented at the experimental watersheds of the streams Kaljavi and Jelezovac. Figure 2. Location of the experimental watersheds of Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams

The „blue-green“ corridors concept Table 1. Main hydrographic characteristics of the experimental watersheds Each watershed contains certain elements that Parameter Mark Unit Kaljavi s. Jelezovac s. can be unconnected (isolated), which gives them Magnitude A km2 1.4 6.22 a static character, or functionally connected, Perimeter P km 5.76 10.54 which gives them a dynamic character (Figure 1). Peak point Pp m.a.s.l. 249 308 Confluence point Cp m.a.s.l. 115 112 If the residuals of open streams and fragments of Mean altitude Am m.a.s.l. 191.6 184.2 vegetation (forests, meadows, shrubs) are Length of the main stream L km 2.45 4.12 connected with the green line structures that Absolute slope of stream bed Sa % 5.47 4.76 comprise paths (walking, cycling), they form Mean slope of stream bed Sm % 4.74 2.91 „blue-green“ corridors, with the following Mean slope of terrain Smt % 7.44 10.64

spatium 19 Ristić R. et al.: „Blue-green“ corridors as a tool for mitigation of natural hazards and restoration of urbanized areas: A case study of Belgrade city

The area sediment yields and the intensity of steep slopes, straight row farming down the the representative values of the coefficient of erosion processes have been estimated on the slope and uncontrolled urbanization. Land erosion Z, in current conditions (2013) and basis of the “Erosion Potential Method” (EPM) owners have (with financial support from the after the complete restoration of the “blue- (Kostadinov, 2008). The changes of hydrological authorities) the duty to apply contour farming green” corridors (2020), in the experimental conditions were estimated by the comparison of and terracing of agricultural land (orchards and watersheds (Wa , annual yields of erosive the maximal discharges under current conditions gardens) as effective measures of erosion material; Wasp , specific annual yields of erosive

(2013) and after the complete restoration of the control. In addition, 10 km of sealed walking and material; Wat , annual transport of sediment

“blue-green” corridors (2020), on the basis of cycling paths, 1.7 km of unsealed forest paths, through hydrographic network; Watsp , specific computations of maximal discharges (Qmax) using six open gyms and seven rest areas are planned. annual transport of sediment through the synthetic unit hydrograph theory and the SCS hydrographic network; Wabls , annual amount of methodology (SCS, 1979; Chang, 2003). Effects of mitigation of natural hazards bed-load sediment; Wass , annual amount of suspended sediment). The aim of this investigation was to show how the The most significant natural hazards in the planned restoration of the “blue-green” corridors, investigated area are erosion processes and The effects of hydrological changes were as well as adequate land use changes, can help torrential floods. Some characteristic outputs estimated by determining the maximal the improvement of hydrological conditions in the of the computations of sediment yields and discharges in current conditions (2013) and endangered watersheds, the provision of effective transport are presented in Table 2, along with after the complete restoration of the “blue- erosion and torrent control, and environmental and social goals.

RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION

Land use changes The land use changes in the experimental watersheds are presented in Figures 3 and 4, under current (2013) and future conditions (2020). The current area of forest surfaces will be increased from 0.21 km2 (15.0%) to 0.48 km2 (34.3%) in the Kaljavi stream Figure 3. Land use in the watershed of the Kaljavi stream; (a) (2013; 1 Discontinuous and continuous urban fabric, 0.74 2 km2; 2 Complex cultivation patterns: arable land, orchards, gardens, 0.14km2; 3 Grasslands,0.31 km2; 4 Mixed forests and watershed, and from 1.27 km (20.4%) to 2 2 2.38 km2 (38.3%) in the Jelezovac stream forest belts, 0.21km ); (b) (2020; 1 Discontinuous and continuous urban fabric, 0.79 km ; 2 Complex cultivation patterns: orchards, gardens, 0.03 km2; 3 Grasslands, 0.10 km2; 4 Mixed forests and forest belts, 0.48 km2) watershed.

The traditional agricultural production will be transformed into organic food production, with a significant reduction of agricultural surfaces from 0.14 km2 (10.0%) to 0.03 km2 (2.1%) in the Kaljavi stream watershed, and from 1.9 km2 (30.6%) to 0.48 km2 (7.7%) in the Jelezovac stream watershed. Restoration works will be performed in the 2014–2020 period, on the basis of erosion and stream control demands, as well as environmental and social requests. The following biological and soil-bioengineering activities are planned: the afforestation of degraded arable land 2 on steep slopes (1.15 km ; 1500-2000 Figure 4. Land use in the watershed of the Jelezovac stream; (a) (2013; 1 Discontinuous and continuous urban fabric, 2.49 seedlings per ha, 2- to 3-years old) with km2; 2 Complex cultivation patterns: arable land, orchards, gardens, 1.90 km2; 3 Grasslands, 0.56 km2; 4 Mixed forests and planting along the contours on the previously forest belts, 1.27 km2); (b) (2020; 1 Discontinuous and continuous urban fabric, 2.73 km2; 2 Complex cultivation patterns: 2 2 2 prepared bench terraces; re-grassing of the orchards, gardens, 0.48 km ; 3 Grasslands, 0.63 km ; 4 Mixed forests and forest belts, 2.38 km degraded meadows, 0.73 km2; the establishment of orchards on terraces, with Table 2. Characteristic outputs of computations of sediment yields and transport under current conditions (2013) and after restoration (2020) grassing between terraces (mostly apple, plum trees and currant; 0.2 km2) and gardens (cherry Parameter Current conditions (2013) After restoration (2020) 2 Kaljavi s. Jelezovac s. Kaljavi s. Jelezovac s. tomato, red peppers, basil; 0.31 km ) for 3 Wа (m ) 336.9 1730.3 187.9 1084.1 organic food production, instead of abandoned 3 -2 -1 Wаsp (m km year ) 240.6 278.2 134.2 174.3 3 plough land; the establishment of protective Wаt (m ) 71.8 427.4 40.0 267.8 3 -2 -1 forest belts along the stream beds; and Watsp (m km year ) 51.3 68.7 28.6 43.1 2 3 -1 walking and cycling paths (0.23 km ). Also, Wabls (m year ) 7.0 32.6 1.9 14.9 3 -1 some administrative measures (bans) are Wass (m year ) 64.8 394.8 38.1 252.9 Z 0.217 0.239 0.147 0.175 planned, including clear cuttings, cuttings on

20 spatium Ristić R. et al.: „Blue-green“ corridors as a tool for mitigation of natural hazards and restoration of urbanized areas: A case study of Belgrade city

green” corridors (2020). The computed values of maximal discharges (for the control profiles P1 and P2, at the Kaljavi and the Jelezovac streams, Figures 3 and 4) are presented in Figure 5, as hydrographs for probability p = 1%. The values of computed maximal discharges 3 -1 under current conditions (Q1%_Jel-2013=22.4 m ·s ; 3 -1 Q1%_Kalj-2013=7.0 m ·s ) and after the planned 3 -1 restoration works (Q1%_Jel-2020= 11.4 m ·s ; 3 -1 Q1%_Kalj-2020=3.5 m ·s ), will be significantly reduced, as well as the volumes of a direct runoff 6 3 (W1%_Jel-2013 = 0.226×10 m; W1%_Kalj-2013 = 6 3 6 3 0.071×10 m; W1%_Jel-2020=0.136×10 m; 6 3 W1%_Kalj-2020 = 0.043×10 m ).

DISCUSSION Figure 5. Computed hydrographs of maximal discharges into the Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams (under conditions before and after restoration of the “blue-green” corridors). The restoration works were planned to ensure minimal impacts of the surrounding environment built on the restoration areas (Hostetler et al., 2011), maximize connectivity between “blue-green” areas and minimize development at the watershed scale (Ives et al., 2011), taking into account ecological, recreational, natural and cultural characteristics of the local areas (Asakawa et al., 2004; Briffett et al., 2004). Biological and soil- bioengineering works, as well as the application of administrative measures, will alter and improve the hydrological conditions by increasing the interception and infiltration- retention capacity of the soil, protecting the soil from the impact of rain, decreasing erosion and surface runoff (Đeković et al., 2013). In Figure 6. Possible image of the Jelezovac stream riparian area this way, the experimental watersheds of the Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams will become less responsive to extreme events such as with high rainfall intensities. The restoration of “blue-green” corridors in the experimental watersheds of the Kaljavi and Jelezovac streams will decrease the values of maximal discharges (p=1%) by about 50%, and the volumes of direct runoff by about 40%. Erosive material production and transport will be decreased by about 44% in the Kaljavi stream watershed, and 37% in the Jelezovac stream watershed. Ten kilometres of sealed walking and cycling paths, 1.7 km of unsealed forest paths, six open gyms and seven rest areas will enrich the potential of this area for sports and recreation (Figure 6). In addition, the restoration will help the protection and controlled usage of the natural and cultural values in the area, including a very rare object of geodiversity (phonollyte rocks), the section for ornitofauna (40 bird species) observation and a neolite settlement. The Figure 7. C1 (Microscale connections; intra-watershed level); C2 (Mesoscale connections; inter-watershed level); C3 restoration of the “blue-green” corridors enables (Macroscale connections; trans-watershed level); Ks (Kaljavi stream); Js (Jelezovac stream); P1 (outlet control profile at their connection at different spatial levels the Kaljavi stream watershed); P2 (outlet control profile at the Jelezovac stream watershed). (Figure 7), including the following: at the intra

spatium 21 Ristić R. et al.: „Blue-green“ corridors as a tool for mitigation of natural hazards and restoration of urbanized areas: A case study of Belgrade city

watershed level (C1-microscale connections), European Environmental Agency (EEA) (1994), the inter-watershed level (C2-mesoscale Coordination of information on the Environment. connections) and the trans-watershed level (C3-macroscale connections). The final goal is Faculty of Forestry & Institute for Water the creation of a network of “blue-green” Resources Management “Jaroslav Černi” corridors in the territory of Belgrade city, which (2005) Plans for Announcement of Erosive provides effective erosion and stream control, Regions and Plans for Protection from and environmental and social services. Torrential Floods, Belgrade, Serbia. Hostetler, M., Allen, W., Meurk, C. (2011) CONCLUSIONS Conserving urban biodiversity? Creating green infrastructure is only the first step, Landscape The findings of this research indicate that the and Urban Planning, No. 100, pp. 369-371. restoration of „blue-green“ corridors in the city Ives, C. D., Hose, G. C., Nipperess, D. A., Taylor, of Belgrade will have significant positive M. P. (2011) Environmental and landscape effects on the following: factors influencing ant and plant diversity in

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22 spatium

SPATIUM International Review UDC 316.72:711.42(497.6) ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 23-27 316.334.56:316.7(497.6) Original scientific paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330023C

CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE – – AN ASSET FOR CITY BRANDING

Siniša Cvijić1, Environment Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund of Republika Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia & Herzegovina Jasna Guzijan, New Institute for Urbanism of Republika Srpska, Banja Luka, Bosnia & Herzegovina

Achieving wider recognition is part of the development agenda of contemporary cities, which are all confronted with the need to stand out and compete against one another. City branding reads as and plays an important role in this struggle for recognition. The identity of a city is generated over a long period, as it undergoes historical change, resulting in cultural diversity as the product of a specific environment. This paper discusses the possibility of using the cultural and historical heritage of Trebinje and its identity as an asset to create its city brand. Trebinje is a small city situated in the vicinity of Dubrovnik, a major tourist destination with a rich cultural and historical heritage and an excellent city brand. Dubrovnik may be seen as jeopardising the development of Trebinje’s authentic identity; on the other hand, the strong historical ties between the two cities can actually be used as an asset to develop Trebinje’s city brand. The material and non-material heritage which helped the formation of Trebinje’s identity, is analysed. The Mediterranean region in which it is located, its rich history, authentic architecture and different cultural influences, including the national poet Jovan Dučić, have all helped create Trebinje’s genius loci. The same factors may be used to communicate its new image. After that, the paper outlines models of the possible use of the recognised assets to brand the city and emphasise the importance of the effective presentation of these assets for creating a recognisable city image. It also proposes specific actions and interventions that may contribute to branding the city. Key words: identity, brand image, city branding, Trebinje, asset, genius loci, cultural and historical heritage.

outcome of a successfully developed strategy identity, its image remains underdeveloped. 1 INTRODUCTION under a selected motto; the subject of this An asset is a resource strongly connected with paper explores what the steps of this process The average man living in the information age an entity (place) and is the result of past should be is. In developing such a strategy all receives and sends a lot more information than events. Assets are relied on to create future recognisable assets can and should be the one living a century ago. It is based on economic benefits for entities. Historical and exploited. Among them cultural and historical such information that one decides where to live cultural heritage (material and non-material), heritage, prominent artists, and other elements or spend holidays. For any city in the identity and specific genius loci are recognised of non-material culture are of major contemporary world, it is very important to be as assets in creating a strategy for city significance. special and easily recognisable. It is a way to branding. This paper is a case study which more easily attract investors and tourists and Trebinje is a small city very close to the attempts to answer the following questions: be a better place of residence. Adriatic Littoral. It is only 30 km away from 1. Can Trebinje’s strong identity be used as an Dubrovnik. Although the two cities have quite City identity is the result of longtime processes asset for its city branding? which usually have a historical background and distinct histories, throughout time they 2. How can specific material and non-material contain elements of cultural and historical established special ties. The architecture and cultural and historical heritage be used to heritage, mentality and genius loci. On the culture of Trebinje has been significantly create the city brand of Trebinje? other hand, city image is a very important influenced by the Mediterranean. Also, oriental aspect of city presentation. It may be the influences were very strong during the Ottoman period. All these elements contributed to the This paper was presented at the 2nd International Scientific

creation of a specific genus loci and citizen Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL 1Kralja Alfonsa XIII 21, 78000 Banja Luka, mentality, both of which have helped preserve PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, Bosnia & Herzegovina Belgrade, 22nd-25th May 2013, organised by the Institute of [email protected] a very strong city identity. Despite this strong Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia.

spatium 23 Cvijić S., Guzijan J.: Cultural and historical heritage – An asset for city branding

Also, this paper examines what has been done to influences remained very strong in terms of the meets all the three criteria. The text below lists date in the branding process and if this can be city’s architecture (Guzijan and Cvijić, 2010). and expounds the most prominent assets of used as a successful branding strategy. The Trebinje. The transformation of the city began under official web site of the city boasts a slogan which Austro-Hungarian rule (1878). Military camps claims Trebinje to be a city of culture2, which has were built in the city, along with defensive the strength and clarity of a branding motto. fortresses on the surrounding hills. The city began to develop along the city walls in an HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF organised manner. Public buildings were TREBINJE grouped in the city centre with squares and Like very few places in Bosnia and Herzegovina, parks, and rural dwellings rose in the suburban Trebinje is a city with a very rich history. The area. Commercial facilities were built along the existence of habitations in the territory of important roads to Dubrovnik and Bileća. Many Trebinje goes back as far as the Roman period. of today’s parks, streets, and places were built Korać supposes that a Roman military in the 19th century (Guzijan and Cvijić, 2009). fortification once stood at the site of what is There were no significant construction projects today the Old Town. Ante Figurić presumes the in the Interbellum. After World War II, the city Figure 1. Plane-tree park location of a military camp in the area of today’s started to sprawl on vacant land. New neighbourhood of Police along the bank of the residential developments were built between River Trebišnjica. His claims about the existence the 1960s and the 1980s, but the city neither of a Roman camp are supported by the grew nor developed significantly or in assumption that the word Travunia comes from important manners. In 2012, Trebinje was the Latin word tribunus, which means a military officially granted city status. commander (Guzijan, 2009). The first written information about the city after ASSETS FOR TREBINJE BRANDING the arrival of the Slavs came in the mid-10th As mentioned above, an asset is a previously century from Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, created value which may be used through certain a Byzantine emperor and writer. According to procedures and activities for the benefit of him, there were 5 settlements in the Travunia individuals and communities. If we think of culture Figure 2. City square region, including Trebinje. During the Middle as a created legacy which may be used to attract Ages, it belonged to some Serbian noble Even though the listed elements are mentioned tourists and thus help boost local economic separately for the purpose of analysis of families. In 1186, Trebinje was conquered by growth, then categories such as cultural and the Serbian ruler Stefan Nemanja, after which it Trebinje’s assets for branding, they should be historical heritage, identity, and genius loci may considered integrally when building a was annexed to the Kingdom of Raška (Serbia), become assets to be used for city branding. remaining in it for the next two centuries. The recognisable city image of Trebinje. city cherishes the memory of Queen Helen of A successful strategy for the city branding of Anjou3, who ruled this area for over 40 years, Trebinje would have to rely on creating a link Built environment with the city’s historical identity. The identity of and remains the region’s longest continuously According to Lynch, whose views accrued based a city may be preserved only by taking account ruling sovereign (Guzijan, 2009). on empirical research, most individuals perceive of the following: the preservation of its cultural the city as a set of built objects. In particular, The Ottoman conquest of the Serbian territories heritage, the status of the artists living in the five physical elements play a role in constituting completely changed the course of Trebinje’s city, cultural animation and spiritual life, cultural people’s image of a city: paths, edges, districts, development, which became a major Turkish diffusion, and cultural and spiritual meanings nodes, and landmarks (Dinnie, 2011). border fortress and a support place for (Kalađurđević, 2011). As a matter of fact, Dubrovnik in its trade and economic activities. anything that is somehow special in a city may The natural resources of Trebinje, Mount Orijen The position of Trebinje on a major trade route, attract tourists. Related literature distinguishes and Mount Leotar, River Trebišnjica and the city which connected Dubrovnik with the hinterland, between 3 main categories of contributions, the park, are supplemented by its built environment, helped strengthen the ties between the two built environment, hallmark events, and famous comprising the Old City, the city square and the cities. The Trebinje fortress, known as Banvir, personalities (Dinnie, 2011). Visitors to a city Krš neighbourhood, which all constitute a was built in 1706 by Osman–pasha are interested in particular sites such as a recognisable image of the city’s vistas and Resulbegović. The merchant city quarters famous cathedral or a beautiful landscape. As cityscape. Also, there are many buildings in Gornja Čaršija and Krš, the first to be built of recently, the modern architecture of New Trebinje which count towards the city’s beyond the city walls originated in the Ottoman Belgrade has been recognised as an asset for immovable cultural and historical heritage. period (Guzijan and Cvijić, 2009). According city branding (Manić and Backović, 2010). Undeniably worth mentioning is the Old City, to the existent records, the city assumed an Tourists visit cities which are associated with which has for the most part been preserved in its oriental form, although Mediterranean famous personalities, e.g. painters, musicians original cultural and historical form and is and writers. The impact of hallmark events on reminiscent of the fortified towns of the 2 The original motto in Serbian reads “Trebinje – grad the local image of a city may also be Mediterranean. The town is made of stone and kulture”. substantial. Some well-known recurring events consists of a wall and towers that were once used 3 Helen of Anjou (in Serbian, Jelena Anžujska), Queen for defence; it dominates the city, a fact which consort of Serbia, wife of Stephen Uros I and mother of are the annual Cannes Film Festival, or the Kings Stephen Dragutin and Stephen Milutin. Salzburg Festival (Dinnie, 2011). Trebinje makes it functionally advantageous and should

24 spatium Cvijić S., Guzijan J.: Cultural and historical heritage – An asset for city branding

allow it to be the hub of cultural activities. beautiful views of the city. Also, there are several also related to Herzegovina, thereby to Trebinje as towers nearby built during the Austro-Hungarian well. The artist had two solo exhibitions, and the Within the Old City there are buildings that are period, which are equally important as landmarks. above-mentioned collection of her works, the also cultural goods and naturally belong in this One of them is presumed to have been designed artist’s legacy to the Museum of Herzegovina, is cultural and historical ensemble. Within its walls by Richard Neutra. irrefutable proof of her ties with Trebinje. are Osman-pasha Resulbegović’s Mosque, the Emperor’s Mosque, the Clock Tower and the There is an ample collection of artefacts which St. Vasily of Ostrog was an important figure in Museum of Herzegovina (previously the building Jovan Dučić brought from around the world. He the history of Trebinje. He was born in the of the city grammar school/gymnasium). The also brought plants and sculptures to be put in village of Mrkonjić in the carstic plain of Museum of Herzegovina is an important the city park. Among other things, he had a Popovo near Trebinje. His family house has institution of culture whose activities are monument built to honour the great poet Petar been reconstructed, along with his mother’s directed towards the collecting, preservation and Petrović Njegoš. grave, and is a pilgrimage destination for presentation of the city’s movable cultural Orthodox Christians. His name is also linked to heritage. Among its most important exhibitions Famous personalities Tvrdoš Monastery, where he lived for a while. are the Dučić Legacy, an ethnological collection, The ties between St. Vasily and Trebinje are Many cities are identified with the famous the Milena Šotra Legacy, and the Memorial very important for the growth of religious and historical people or artists who were born or Painting Exhibition “Atanasije Popović”. One cultural tourism. worked in them. Popularity and enhanced must not forget the Orthodox Christian Church, recognisability mean better chances of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the branding a city effectively. Figueras, a small Resulbegović House (demolished in the town in Spain, became internationally famous 1990s) and the Arslanagić Bridge, a major thanks to Salvador Dali, who was born, lived cultural monument relocated during the and worked there until he died. The town construction of the water power plant on the boasts a museum dedicated to the painter, River Trebišnjica (Guzijan, 2010). which is visited by hosts of tourists every year. An urban ensemble developed at the turn of the Quite a few famous people are related to 20th century in the area beyond the Old City Trebinje. The list is too long for each name to walls, which today comprises the city market, be mentioned in this paper. On this occasion, Liberty Square, an area planted with plane trees, we will only mention those whose work made the city park and streets built under Austro- an indelible mark on the city’s identity and Figure 4. Herzegovina Gračanica Church and park Hungarian administration. King Peter the whose names may be used to build its city Liberator Street, built in the fashion of European brand. The connection between Trebinje and towns with elements of Mediterranean Hallmark events Jovan Dučić is certainly the strongest one. architecture, resembles the pedestrian street of There are quite a few towns and small cities Stradun in Dubrovnik (Guzijan, 2010). Trebinje is directly affiliated with the famous across the world known for big events. One to Serbian poet Jovan Dučić, who was a native of Another special urban ensemble is the quarter be mentioned is Bayreuth, with its annual Trebinje. During his lifetime he built a Krš, whose narrow streets, staircases and stone festival during which operas composed by the successful diplomatic career and became one of houses have been unjustly neglected. A part of famous German composer Richard Wagner are the most popular Serbian poets of the 20th the quarter was demolished in the 1960s for performed. Dubrovnik is also famous for its urbanisation purposes. There are several century. He died in the United States in 1943. In Dubrovnik Summer Festival, which brings 2000, his body was reburied in the Herzegovina medieval monasteries in the vicinity of the city together artists from around the world and Gračanica Church on Crkvina Hill. Two poetry (Tvrdoš, Zavala, St. Peter and Paul’s mainly stages theatre plays, dance and music events, “Dučić Day” and the Trebinje Summer Monastery), and the Branković Tower, a fort performances. also dating back to the Middle Ages. Festival, take place in his honour. Besides Jovan Dučić, Trebinje’s recent history is marked by the The greatest cultural event held in Trebinje is The Herzegovina Gračanica Monastery has an story of the heroic death of Srđan Aleksić, killed in the previously mentioned Trebinje Summer open-air amphitheatre used by Trebinje’s citizens the latest war. A film has been made about the Festival, which is traditional and comprises a as a gathering place. The flat top of Crkvina Hill is young man’s tragic killing. Srđan Aleksić was a number of events. It ends with the “Dučić one of the city’s prominent spots, with the most member of the Trebinje Theatre “Slovo”, who on Evenings of Poetry” as the major event. Equally 28th December 2008 performed a memorial play important is the “Dučić Day”. entitled “Epilogue” showing the young man’s life. Furthermore, an art colony named Lastva Helen of Anjou, the Queen of Raška (Serbia), International Art Colony has been taking place was also mentioned above. The memory of her in Trebinje for years now. It is also part of the life is vivid in Trebinje’s identity. A statue of Trebinje Summer Festival. It was named after Helen of Anjou decorates the city walls, and the village of Lastva, located on the shore of Trebinje youth visit it and pray to the queen, who Lake Lastva, 12 km away from Trebinje. The has been sanctified, to bless them with luck in village is a magnet for anglers and lovers of love. They bring flowers, especially oleander, nature alike. It has beautiful natural and some of which are believed to have been manmade swimming pools. Lastva was first naturalised to the Trebinje area by the queen. mentioned in written records in the 11th century. Apart from Lastva, the colony takes Figure 3. Monument to Jovan Dučić at the entrance The life and work of the painter Milena Šotra is place in Jazina, another village of exceptionally to the city park

spatium 25 Cvijić S., Guzijan J.: Cultural and historical heritage – An asset for city branding

beautiful scenery. Both villages have been recognised as potential tourist destinations. More events are worth mentioning, among which the annual concert of the Tribunia City Choir, Trebinje Wine Festival (“Trebinje’s Days of Wine”), the annual exhibition of graduates of the Academy of Art, and St. Sava Festivities, which is organized by the community of the Serbian Orthodox Church and is dedicated to Serbia’s first archbishop, who ruled the Zahumlje county for a while.

A POSSIBLE BRANDING MODEL Before drawing up a possible strategy for the city branding of Trebinje, an explanation of the term “city brand” and of the idea of branding a city (place) is in order. A place brand is the totality of thoughts, feelings and expectations that people hold about a location. It is the reputation and enduring essence of a place and represents Figure 5. Panoramic view of Trebinje and the Arslanagić Bridge its distinctive promise of value, providing it with a competitive edge (Baker, 2012). be used as a temporary instrument – as goods image of a creative place and environment, as aimed at external needs, but as the internal Dučić’s town, and emphasises the metaphor of City branding should be seen as an instrument strength and a long-term potential that will be Trebinje as a “lyrical poet-city” among similar of urban marketing, which is a relatively new the recognisable symbol of an urban centre cities. The second goal is harmonising the discipline. It is not uniformly used in European (Vulić et al., 2012). Whilst the aim of this spiritual and the secular, cultural heritage and countries. It is almost unknown in some paper is not to develop a full-fledged strategy natural heritage, the Mediterranean and the developed countries. Other countries make for the city branding of Trebinje, we will see continental, the urban and the rural, the old and great efforts in using different cultural and how some specific features of Trebinje can be the new. Trebinje ought to invigorate its other occasions for promoting their cities. used purposefully in the branding process. As recognisable identity with a new young creative Communication is an essential component of this paper discusses the possibilities of using community. The third goal involves the urban marketing because action must have the cultural and historical heritage as an asset to production of clean energy, healthy food, consensus of all stakeholders (Šimunović, create a competitive brand image of Trebinje, quality life, excellent wine and a most attractive 2007). For city branding to be successful, it is the most significant assets which can be used tourist destination. Even though the goals do necessary for its stakeholder organisations to in the branding strategy are the Old City, the not constitute a brand strategy, they do contain come together in partnership. This is a formal townscape of the main street and the city elements for branding (Miovčić et al., 2008). or informal body in which the key stakeholders square, Helen of Anjou and legends connected jointly develop, create and lead on the Trebinje’s nature, recognisable cityscape, to her life, Jovan Dučić and the Trebinje implementation of the brand of the place under genius loci, and cultural and historical heritage Summer Festival, and St. Vasily of Ostrog. shared responsibilities (Dinnie, 2011). may be used as the key elements in its city Although the Trebinje Summer Festival is a branding. The process must begin with a Place (city) branding is a complex process which well-known regional cultural event, it should be comprehensive analysis of the physical, social provides a framework for studies, strategies and extended to include a series of events which and cultural potential of the city and anticipate activities. It must be based on truth and reality. should all serve the purpose of Trebinje’s possible lines of action. Urban renewal which will Although there is no universal rule for city promotion as a city of culture. take into consideration the historical and cultural branding, some common steps of the branding context of this or any other city is certainly an process may be outlined. Baker offers seven steps The Trebinje quarter Krš, rather neglected and unavoidable step in the branding process. of the destination branding process, which he derelict, could be transformed into a bohemian calls 7A’s (Assessment and Audit; Analysis and area, with restaurants offering national cuisine, It must be borne in mind that the proximity of Advantage; Alignment; Articulation; Activation; galleries and studios of Trebinje artists, and into Dubrovnik as an international culture centre will Adoption and Attitudes; and Action and the venue of minor cultural events, which could be an aggravating circumstance for branding Afterward). He emphasises that those are the be staged at the small neighbourhood plazas. Trebinje as a city of culture. This will definitely critical questions that must be answered (Baker, impact the efforts to position Trebinje as a Very little has been done to increase the 2011). Eran Ketter in his branding strategy regional centre of culture, but there is also a reputation and visibility of Trebinje as a culture recognises three stages of the branding process. possibility to connect the two cities, since the hub. The Development Strategy for Trebinje They are analysis, planning and execution. ties binding them go a long way. Programmes of 2009-2017 presents a vision of the future events and happenings should be planned as to There is a strong economic aspect to culture, development of the city that proposes three be compatible with the programme of the provided it is planned properly from the goals. The first goal is promoting Trebinje as Dubrovnik Summer Festival. In that sense, it will beginning. It may trigger the urban renewal and the most desirable small city in Southeastern be possible to increase the city’s recognisability create an image of a city, where it should not Europe. It proposes that Trebinje build an by promoting the ideas and concepts rooted in

26 spatium Cvijić S., Guzijan J.: Cultural and historical heritage – An asset for city branding

Herzegovina’s local traditions and the fame of Trebinje into a regional cultural metropolis; Stupar, A. (2009) Urbs et Orbis: (re)Charting the poet Jovan Dučić. however, the strategy behind the cultural policy the Center, (re)Positioning the Limits. regarding this city would have to put a strong SPATIUM International Review, No. 20, pp. It is crucial to involve all stakeholders in the focus on the special characteristics of 53-59. branding process. Along with the local Trebinje’s cultural domain. Trebinje-grad kulture, http://www.trebinje.rs. administration and authorities, this also means ba/?subpg=grad_kulture/, accessed 9th February, the private sector and local community, as well Although branding takes account of the interests 2013. as tourist organisations. Creating a successful of all stakeholders, especially the local Turistička organizacija opštine Trebinje, brand essentially depends on joint and community, it is not aimed at internal target http://trebinjeturizam.com/desavanja/kulturne_ coordinated activities of all stakeholders. groups but rather at external ones. The goal of manifestacije.php/, accessed 9th February, 2013. Branding cannot be the doing of one man or a branding and creating a recognisable image of closed group of experts. It must be the city is to attract new tourists and visitors to it, Šimunović, I. (2007) Urbana ekonomika. Zagreb: reconfirmed in the field, along with the results which will eventually bring those willing to Školska knjiga. of the activities. invest in the city. For branding to be successful, Volić I., Bajić, L., Radenković-Šošić, B. (2012) the conduct should change in three respects: Belgrade as European Capital of Culture- The branding process ought to create from reactive to creative; from industrial to Conceptual Conjunction, SPATIUM International conditions to recognise the value of the city’s entrepreneurial; and from bureaucratic to Review, No. 27, pp. 26-30. cultural and historical heritage, sights and project-oriented (Miovčić et al., 2008). Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, http://en. genius loci, and incorporate them in the wikipedia.org/wiki/Srdjan_Aleksic/, accessed 5th development strategy, not neglect them or let The fact that Trebinje has been officially Mar 2013. them fall into ruin. Town planning should also granted city status may lead to branding it as a take part in the city branding. The value and city of culture. Following the possible analyses elements of Trebinje’s building heritage ought and strategies discussed in this paper, we are to play an important role in the city image; hopeful that we may soon see it become a city also, new venues for cultural events should be of culture with a solid and recognisable image. placed on the map of the city. Urban renewal is only one step of a range of all-encompassing References activities demanding full coordination. The planning documents developed thus far have Baker, B. (2012) Destination Branding for Small failed to recognise this qualities and potential Cities, Portland (Oregon, USA): Creative Leap Books. of the city of Trebinje. Dinnie, K. (2011) City Branding: Theory and

CONCLUSION Cases. NewYork: Palgrave McMillan. Glas Srpske, http://www.glassrpske.com/ Trebinje has a lot of potential which is neither drustvo/panorama/Hiljade-cvjetova-za-blagoslov- th presented nor promoted adequately. Despite all ljubavi/lat/51239.html/, accessed 8 March, its worth as a city, Trebinje has always been 2013. but a stopover en route to Dubrovnik, a town Guzijan J. (2010) Urbana obnova gradova do whose tourist potential was never duly invested 30 000 u BiH-Primer Trebinja, Banja Luka, in. There has been a growing interest to master thesis (unpublished). 4 develop this potential in the last few years, Guzijan, J., Cvijić, S. (2009) Kulturno-istorijsko which has already produced some results nasleđe kao potencijal razvoja turizma na

(Guzijan and Cvijić, 2009). However, given the

primeru gradova Trebinja i Jajca. Arhitektura i

city’s resources, this is definitely not enough. urbanizam, No. 27, pp. 57-61.

Undoubtedly, Trebinje is the economic and

Guzijan J., Cvijić S. (2010) Principles of cultural centre of Eastern and Old Herzegovina. Restoratiration of Cultural-Historical Centres

As mentioned above, the slogan “Trebinje – A of Bosnia and Herzegovina Cities. 5th Regional

City of Culture” stands on the official web page Conference on Integrative Protection, of the city. A range of annual or sporadic Conference proceedings, Banja Luka, Republički events that take place in Trebinje partly justify zavod za zaštitu kulturno-istorijskog i prirodnog the slogan, but grounding the city branding nasljeđa Republike Srpske, pp. 73-83. strategy in culture as its main resource Kulturne Manifestacije, http://trebinjeturizam. commands that the city adopts a definite com/desavanja/kulturne_manifestacije.php/, cultural policy as a strategic planning accessed 9th February, 2013. document bringing together a variety of Manić, Ž., Backović V. (2010) Arhitektura stakeholders and cultural workers, in order to moderne u funkciji promocije Beograda, protect and promote the city’s cultural assets. Arhitektura i urbanizam, No. 30, pp. 46-51. Given the cultural potential of the city, which Miovčić, Z., Prohaska, J., Pavlica, M., Draganić, incorporates such elements as an ensemble of A., Krajišnik, M., Pucar, S., Janković, G. cultural and historical heritage, history, legends, famous people and cultural events, it Šipragić, M., (2009) Strategija razvoja opštine may be concluded it would be possible to turn Trebinje 2009-2017. godine, Banja Luka, Received February 2013; accepted in revised form (unpublished). May 2013

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SPATIUM International Review UDC 711.4:502.131.1(497.6); No. 30, December 2013, pp. 28-321-7 Review paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330028S

REHABILITATION OF URBAN IDENTITY OF CITIES IN THE BANJA LUKA REGION THROUGH URBAN FORM REGULATION

Dijana Simonović1, University of Banja Luka, Faculty of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Banja Luka, Republic of Srpska

This paper points to the possibility of codification of urban planning and application of physical regulation standards in urban form design to establish such instruments of guidance as will ensure the recognition, appreciation and development of local urban identity. The purpose of establishing general principles and making quality recommendations that would aim at urban form design regulation and be implemented as qualitative criteria and regulation standards is to propose a methodology for the rehabilitation of the City of Banja Luka’s identity applicable to similar cities in the region, with due adjustments to allow for contextual specificity, with the possibility of coordinated regional city development. The discontinuity in the urban development of Banja Luka and other cities in the region has jeopardised the inherent characteristics of their identities, resulting in reduced recognisability and impaired integrity. This study covers the period since the beginning of Banja Luka’s guided urban development (Austro-Hungarian administration, 1878), which should allow a review of its urban morphogenesis and an understanding of its key elements, as well as identification of the general principles and rules of urban form regulation as laid down in the local ordinance and planning legacy. Key words: urban form, identity, renewal, regulation, principles.

1 CONTEXTUALISATION OF THE INTRODUCTORY NOTES PHENOMENON OF URBAN FORM The development of the urban identity of Banja morphological, socio-economic, cultural and Luka and most cities in the region is marked by other factors on its development. This study Urban form is recognised as a point of problems identified as reduced recognisability understands identity as a whole that preserves its convergence, a meeting place and source of and impaired integrity, which seriously jeopardise major characteristics despite constant change theoretical and practical effort; it is a reflection its main elements. These problems stem from a (Majstorović, 1979), and it seeks to identify the of and a framework for scientific and discontinuity in the urban development of these key characteristics of a city’s urban identity, professional activity when drawing up a concept cities, affecting their overall development; also whose protection and preservation should be the of regulation and establishment of urban order. perceptible is the disintegration of their urban priority line of action when it comes to the Theoretical research into the urban environment form, arising from urban transformation. The renewal and advancement of that identity. The sees urban form as a heterogeneous and contemporary social and cultural contexts of these goal is to create a methodological framework for composite urban phenomenon, and its cities are plagued by the actualisation of three relevant research and application concerning contemporary investigations insist on mutually incompatible concepts: globalisation; other cities in the region, and to form a interdisciplinarity and contextualisation. In this the political, economic and cultural unification of theoretical platform for strategic investigation Bosnia and Herzegovina; and the insistence on the into the possibility of a concurrent and regional peculiarities of the Republic of Srpska. compatible regional development of these cities. This paper was presented at the 2nd International Scientific This study covers the period since the beginning Conference „REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT, SPATIAL This paper starts with the thesis that urban identity PLANNING AND STRATEGIC GOVERNANCE – RESPAG”, of Banja Luka’s statutory planning (Austro- Belgrade, 22nd-25th May 2013, organised by the Institute of is a process and must be observed as such, Hungarian administration, 1878) to date, in order taking account of the influence of natural- Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia. to identify the general principles and rules behind This paper is a result of the research carried out as part of urban form regulation as laid down in the local 1 the work on the PhD dissertation “Research into Vojvode Stepe Stepanovića 77/III, 78000 Banja Luka, town planning ordinance legacy. possibilities of renewal and improvement of urban identity Republic of Srpska of Banja Luka City through urban form regulation”, at the [email protected] University of Banja Luka, Banjaluka, Republic of Srpska.

28 spatium Simonović D.: Rehabilitation of urban identity of cities in the Banja Luka region through urban form regulation

paper contextualisation of urban form translates tissue. In this paper, the concept of urban form over time earns them the attribute of as concurrent consideration of a range of is used in an integral sense, which combines universality; others last for as long as a given spatial and temporal aspects for the purpose of the objective and symbolic aspects of this social system or cultural context; finally, the understanding its complexity. Urban form is complex phenomenon, i.e. physicalness of the longest-standing ones are those which observed from the perspective of urban urban environment and its mental and substantively reflect local or regional morphology, as inseparable from urban symbolic projections or images, which carry characteristics and meanings. Today’s high- landscape, to understand its composite nature symbolic meanings and emanate tech societies are protected by all kinds of rules, and multiple meanings. It is essential to see communicative significations. Urban order, as not truly universal but widely used in different the various aspects and levels of space as established, is embodied in urban form as local conditions; understandably, such codes, urban landscape, and to understand urban form understood above, through its physical and rules and regulations gradually become alien to as a temporal design process. functional as well as normative and cultural the local conditions in which they originated. aspects. Since the physical or material Understanding this phenomenon necessitates an In this paper urban form is observed as an area ingredients of urban form are present in its explanation of the birth of town planning norms of representation of urban identity and built structure, open spaces, the natural and and their use, from the beginnings of recognised as a domain in which possibilities to morphological characteristics of a place and urbanisation until today. This should tell us how improve urban identity may be actualised. It is inherent spatial relations, we believe urban to shape our environments to be sustainable and implied that it is precisely urban form, which is order can be established through the physical desirable – by implementing flexible codes and an integral part of urban landscape and is both regulation of urban form. By urban order we standards reflecting the authentic conditions and symbolic and objective, that makes legible the mean a system of spatial elements and their particularities of a given local and regional physical and symbolic manifestations of urban interrelations, patterns of use and meanings of social and cultural context (Ben-Joseph, 2005). identity. The issue of identification and urban form, established through a process of examination of possible physical elements of Records of statutory town planning and harmonisation with social and legal systems, representation, functional standards or symbolic development and written construction codes which guarantees the development of urban meanings of a distinct urban environment is may be found in the history of any culture or identity (evaluation, protection, conservation, thematised accordingly. The possibility of civilisation, and date back to antiquity. Worth rehabilitation and enhancement of the quality implementing principles of urban codification in mentioning are Aristotle’s principles of how to of the key inherent elements of identity). planning on the one hand, and of physical build beautiful and safe towns, Vitruvius’ regulation standards in urban form design on Understanding urban regulation as a way of recommendations on the foundation of towns the other, is indicated in order to activate organising and harmonising spatial relations and (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, 1990), and appropriate planning and design tools to managing urban development, as well as a means Byzantium’s Julian of Ascalon’s treatise of ensure the recognition, appreciation and of translating various goals, values, interests and construction and design rules. Because of their development of local or regional urban identity. needs into urban form norms, this research takes flexibility, these rules and norms developed into account town planning standards as over a long period of time and often stemmed Therefore, urban form is treated as a constituent operational instruments of regulation, and from customary law and communal ethics. of urban landscape, which ensures optimal categories of town planning codes and norms as Their emphasis on the right relation between spatiality, i.e. visual encapsulation of the various tools for unifying and striking a balance between adjacent buildings, the right of first use, spatial elements of urban landscape into an research findings, planning and construction privacy, etc., influenced the development of organic, preorganised compositional whole experiences, and the changing needs and most Mediterranean cities in the Byzantine era (Dobrović, 1998). Because urban landscape is potentials of the urban environment. (Ben-Joseph, 2005). understood as composite, something that merges urban morphology with the visual In the Middle Ages, between the 12th and 14th Legacy and challenges of Banja Luka’s character of a city; since it is analysed and century, European cities established city changing urban form regulation interpreted as man’s habitat, urban form and authorities in charge of urban development physical structure, permeated with and fused by Building codes and standards are that which (Bern, Siena, Venice, Dubrovnik). These the landscape structure, thriving with human connects the inherited values and meanings of authorities were guided by rules, regulations, activity and laden with symbolic value, the building heritage with contemporary instructions or recommendations for planning, meanings and messages – it is recognised as an practices of planning, design and production of design and construction. Respecting strict and expression of the conceptualisation of the city urban space. They may be labelled keys to the detailed rules of construction (codes), they and as an instrument of research, planning, interpretation of historical layers of meaning, or made their cities develop uniformly, creating design and preservation of the environment the DNA of our cities, as Andreas Duany does unique vistas and cityscapes, for which many (Simonović et al., 2011). in his review of the book The Code of the City of them are still well-known today. The same (2005) by Eran Ben-Joseph. Analysis of the construction rules applied between the 13th and URBAN FORM REGULATION urban development of the City of Banja Luka 19th century, eventually allowing the from the perspective of urban regulation reconstruction of street fronts in ways pertinent Urban form is an expression of spiritual, social, provides insight into the evolution of the codes to the new practices of the modern era, while historical, spatial and physical continuity. The and standards used, and into their impact on respecting the existing proportions continuity and endless succession of urban the design, creation and transformation of its (Dimitrovska-Andrews, 1994). Both in the frames, expressed as the co-existence, at urban form and urban landscape. Renaissance and later, with the application of multiple levels, of various urban forms the rules of perspective, many cities were The lifespan of codes, standards and town- originating in different time periods and social planned and their physical appearance building rules varies: some are implemented sources, confirm the existence of a lasting link designed with great precision and in detail. between human power and the changing social continuously and in different contexts, which

spatium 29 Simonović D.: Rehabilitation of urban identity of cities in the Banja Luka region through urban form regulation

The second half of the 19th century saw a preventing the spoiling of landscape and other these questions can be found in the legislation romantic revival of the ideas of ancient public and common goods of the urban as adopted and implemented by the Austro- architects and the Renaissance, those which community. These rules were observed in their Hungarian administration in Bosnia and were concerned with bringing order to city fundamental form for a long time, and their Herzegovina with the goal of bringing formal composition and image, leading to the adaptation to particular cases did not order to local construction practices. The key development of modern town planning in significantly change them; it even made them documents are the Building Order Act, or European cities based on new principles, as the ubiquitous to an extent. Also, having formed in Bauordnung2 (1880), and Building Order art of city building according to aesthetic rules. such a way, the codes resulted in consistent Regulations, respectively adopted for all Camillo Sitte combined Aristotle’s principles urban form and are visible in the foremost and regions of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The with Vitruvius’ building recommendations and permanently inherent characteristics of the effects of the adopted principles on urban form Renaissance aesthetic principles into the city’s urban identity. are interpreted relative to the statutory and fundamental principles of town design (Zite, construction plans and other related Banja Luka’s spatial development under 1967). In this period, town planning was not documents on urban transformations. Ottoman occupation resembled that of the strongly influenced by architectonic aesthetics majority of settlements in the region. New Two codebooks were used in Banja Luka, The in only Austria and Germany, but also in other habitations emerged one after another in the Building Order Regulations for Public European countries and the United States form of a chain or string of neighbourhoods; Technical Service in the Kingdoms of Croatia (Dimitrovska-Andrews, 1994). these neighbourhoods were called mahale and and Slavonia (1894)3, and The Building Order From customary law to building rules, formed Banja Luka’s recognisable longitudinal Act for the National Capital City of Sarajevo 4 laws and codes to statutory planning and layout, following the river and/or the main (1893) . Importantly, the Building Order construction thoroughfare. A new neighbourhood would Regulations included rules of design and form on vacant land downstream, right beside planning of settlements and towns. The oldest records of construction standards in the previous one, after it had reached its Municipalities and Building Departments were the form of rules or codes as applied in the optimal size. In addition to linearity, Banja Luka in charge of the regulation of town planning process of Banja Luka’s statutory planning and became polycentric in the 16th century; these and construction, and they adhered to the development are found scattered in a number two features have characterised its urban relevant legislation and plans as approved by of historical sources. They are parts of development through all its stages. the National Government. The legislation customary law, a kind of codex – a set of rules guided the building of new town quarters or pertinent to different issues of social life, which When the Austro-Hungarian administration neighbourhoods, and space for public facilities were locally observed for a long time. The began its activities of formal spatial planning such as squares and streets was acquired most important of the above rules were the and the exploitation of natural and other through municipal purchases or given away by right to a view (vista or prospect), the road resources in Bosnia and Herzegovina, many of legal owners. New streets and roads were laid right-of-way and free access to other common the rules originating in customary law had in line with adopted town plans and width goods, and the inviolability of private property. already taken deep roots in the period prior to specifications for five different road categories. The right to a view, i.e., entitlement to a view and during Ottoman occupation (along with the The length, width and height of structures were (vista), was unique as a rule originating in above-mentioned right to a view, road right-of- strictly defined by the Building Departments. customary law and communal ethics, since it way and free access to other common goods, was a standard that ensured the provision of and inviolability of private property, there were A second Building Act was adopted in Bosnia high-quality housing. In the aforementioned also strict rules concerning the use and and Herzegovina in 1931, during the time of treatise by Julian (6th-century Byzantine maintenance of common urban spaces, like the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, drawn up to be architect, native of the Palestinian coastal town marketplaces, town centres, streets, and applicable across a vast and heterogeneous of Ascalon), this rule is called the preservation especially endowment complexes or related region, parts of which previously developed in of a view. The rule stipulated the preservation facilities). Between 1880 and 1884, the Austro- distinct circumstances and according to of direct views of the sea and harbour, with Hungarian administration surveyed Bosnia and different scenarios. Its significance stems from specific guidelines in relation to three different Herzegovina, adopted and implemented the the fact it combined two types of codes, those view categories, the foreground, which Building Order Act – Bauordnung – and other relating to the development, expansion and pertained to the coast, harbour and docked useful laws, which helped implement its regulation of settlements in general, and those ships, the middle ground, and the background. strategy of statutory planning and spatial pertaining to the construction of buildings, development in the country. construction land, and buildings themselves. Based on the analysis of historical records and All towns were required to adopt a regulatory maps related to Banja Luka, it is possible to Many elements of Sitte’s city planning conclude that the most prominent element of according to aesthetic principles were included the local planning and construction code in the Manifesto of the Austrian Society of 2 Bauordnung für Sarajevo – I band Sammlung der für buh legacy concerns its impact in terms of the Engineers and Architects (1877), and the Erlassen Gesetze, Verordnungen und Norlmalweinsungen – redesign of urban form and landscape, which spatial development of Austrian cities at that Allgemeiner Theil-Politische Verwaltung, (Wien: 1878- is natural, logical and rational relative to the time was strongly influenced by aesthetic 1880, 14 May 1880), pp. 249-287 (АРСБЛ IV 71/1878- existent physical resources, in that principles. To what extent were these principles 80). 3 construction was adapted to correspond with incorporated in the building rules and Propisi za javnu tehničku službu u kraljevinah Hrvatskoj i the land morphology. This resulted in flexible regulations that came into effect in Bosnia and Slavoniji (Zagreb: Kr. Hrv.-Slav.-Dalm. zemaljska vlada; th 1892, 1894) (АРСБЛ II 1167). Herzegovina the final decades of the 19 4 rules, which meant consistently adjusting to Грађевински ред за Земаљски главни град Сарајево, concrete cases, finding solutions that relied on century, and what was their effect on the spatial Гласник закона и наредаба за БиХ, 1893. година the outcomes of previous experiences, and development of its towns? The answers to (Сарајево: Грађевна управа, No. 75, 15 August 1893), pp. 543-581 (АРСБЛ IV 16/1893).

30 spatium Simonović D.: Rehabilitation of urban identity of cities in the Banja Luka region through urban form regulation

plan, ordinance and building code, as local particularities, recognisable features of and large debated, promoted and integrated in the prescribed by the Act, thus adopting custom- specific places, and respect for the local EU and regional legislation. It is mentioned in the made building ordinance. The Banja Luka building code legacy lead to the conclusion Republic of Srpska Spatial Development and Building Code was adopted in 1936/37, but that the key elements of the identity of a place Construction Act adopted in 2011, but neither of the preparation of the Regulatory Plan was subject to these acts were effectively preserved these laws contains regulatory elements interrupted by the outbreak of World War II. The thanks to their flexible code formulation. pertaining to town planning and construction; Building Code (1931) contained town planning instead, they specify the manner of The most drastic changes to Banja Luka’s specifications concerning sanitary and development, adoption and implementation of urban landscape induced by transformations of technical standards, as well as architectural plans, and are highly normative. the social and cultural context were effected codes stipulating the design and building of during the period of intensive urbanisation and We believe that general rules and regulations streets and squares and maintenance of regional economic development in the socialist should be introduced based on urban monuments; it also had special stipulations Yugoslavia. The key change compared to the codification, i.e., that general building codes regarding historical-artistic cities. It specified time before was that building in the city was now should be introduced with the goal of bringing construction zones, i.e., land intended for city directed through town and spatial planning, as urban order at the state or entity level. They or town development and expansion, as opposed to the implementation of building should allow for sufficiently flexible defined by regulatory plans. Construction codes in line with plans. Another important implementation at the regional and local levels, zones were divided into high-density housing, factor was the nationalisation of private land, reviving the practices of treatment of space and which consisted of row or terraced buildings, which was appropriated by the state; traditional building codes as found in the medium-density housing, with semi-detached municipalities became the sole owners of related legislation of the former times. buildings, and low-density housing, with construction land and made decisions single- detached buildings and houses (§ 14). This handedly with regards to land boundaries, ways division into high-, medium- and low-density TOWARDS A REHABILITATION OF of use and terms and conditions of land use. housing corresponded to the previous division URBAN IDENTITY Spatial and urban plans of towns and cities in of building orders (rows) into closed, half- the SFRY treated land as a planning resource, In the last two decades, the development of closed and open construction. and the state used planning to control and Banja Luka and other towns and cities in the The above analysis and comparison of the direct urban development. Republic of Srpska, bearing the consequences Building Order Act (1880) and the Building Act of the socialist development and civil war, has In the period after World War II, no (1931) and of their corresponding codes and been marked by two trends, degradation of comprehensive federal law on the building of regulations reveal similarities and common natural and urban landscape and urban form cities was adopted comparable to the one from features in the two documents. Despite a fifty- disintegration, which has had a negative 1931. The 1931 Act remained in effect until year gap, both pieces of legislation included all impact on the urban identity and genuine 1949, the year of adoption of the Master Plan the modern urban standards and principles of character of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ordinance5, which basically ‘reduced building the science of town planning and construction Their rehabilitation is urgent – it will open up legislation to planning legislation’ (Krstić and (Обрадовић, 1931). The building code possibilities to reinstate the shared but Pajović, 1987). The Spatial Planning Act for adopted in the late 19th remained in effect and neglected and hidden qualities and meanings the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1974) was observed in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in our environment. was the first in a series of the town planning until 1931, with some adjustment to the new laws modified, amended and adopted in the How can this be achieved? First of all, the key circumstances. The two codebooks share period until 1986. The spatial planning and features of identity can be read in urban form certain flexibility because of the need for construction laws implemented in the 1980’s and urban landscape, observed integrally and in applicability across a vast and diverse area; were based on communal agreement and mutual interaction (their physical and symbolic accordingly, this allowed their easy adjustment communal planning : urban planning aspects combined). Their identification and to local conditions and requirements as needed. professionals practiced town and spatial valuation must be based on the recognition of Both pieces of legislation were grounded in the planning by agreement, spatial planning was the quality of urban form through both qualitative principle of functionality and paid heed to integrated into ‘societal design’, and legislation criteria (sufficiently broad to be used in a range structural aspects, visual and aesthetic aspects, was removed from the source matter of city of circumstances) and quantitative or and design and perceptual aspects (image of the building, spatial planning and environmental measurable criteria (acting as indicators). The city and image of the street; criteria concerning concerns (Krstić and Pajović, 1987). process should include laws and codebooks, the quality of the built environment, such as as tools to transpose and balance research harmony, integrity, and singularity; the principle As stipulated by The Republic of Srpska Spatial findings with the traditional building and of protection of public interests and common or Planning Act (1996), spatial planning means planning experience and shifting needs, public goods). They both strongly insisted on directed, comprehensive care for the natural and opportunities and particularities of a specific keeping as much vacant land as possible in built environment and involves measures and urban environment. areas with high-density housing, as well as on multidisciplinary activities pertaining to the architectural design in compliance with construction process, spatial and urban planning, This paper relies for its conclusions on the aesthetic principles and particularities of the site urban, architectural and building design and results of the urban-morphological study of and surroundings. Evidently, it was possible to construction. However, its authors make no Banja Luka’s urban form and the development of interpret the stipulations as formulated in the mention of principles of sustainable development, its urban identity by Симоновић, 2010. Banja two documents to meet the requirements in at a time when sustainable development was by Luka’s urban form is assessed on the numerous ways sensitive to specific contexts. This criteria of the quality of spatial characteristics, recognition of the importance and value of which all imply additional criteria for evaluating 5 Službeni list FNRJ, no. 78/49. the quality of more complex features of the built

spatium 31 Simonović D.: Rehabilitation of urban identity of cities in the Banja Luka region through urban form regulation

environment, and others. The aforementioned the adoption of a developmental, References study helped recognise the key elements of interdisciplinary and integrated approach when Banja Luka’s identity, the conspicuousness of dealing with these processes, which should Ben-Joseph, E. (2005) The Code of the City: Standards and Hidden Language of Place the natural (landscape) in its urban comprise methodological and problem-based Making; Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT environment and a balanced complementation of considerations and actions taken from various Press. elements of the physical structure and landscape, aspects, in order to activate the recognised as well as the complementary constituents of its potentials of space (physical, social, economic, Dimitrovska-Andrews, K. (1994) Oblikovalska integral and harmonious urban landscape. The key ecological, cultural); renewal of existing values merila pri urejanju mest in drugih naselij, Urbani izziv 26,27; Ljubljana: Urbanistični features of urban identity in its urban landscape and creation of new ones; and production of inštitut Slovenije, pp. 7-23. are easily observable. The character of the city is high-quality, distinctive wholes with strong determined by its relationship to the water flow identities. Thus, culture as an important resource Dobrović, N. (1998) Šta je gradski pejzaž? and topography, which has been disrupted by the of memories, images and events, purification Njegova uloga i prednost u suvremenom latest developments. Clear boundaries between and regeneration as an opportunity for urbanizmu. In: Perović, M. i Krunić, S. (eds.) Nikola Dobrović: Eseji, projekti, kritike. private and public spaces, a mark of identity reanimation of neglected areas, and, finally, Beograd: Arhitektonski fakultet Univerziteta u originating in the local tradition, are gradually national dignity and reconciliation as catalysts of Beogradu, pp. 52-53. disappearing. The evaluation and comparison of numerous global and local tensions have been the quality characteristics of urban identity have emphasised as places of urban identity (Stupar Krstić, B., Pajović, D. (1987) Zakonodavstvo shown a major discrepancy between discrete and Đukić, 2007). urbanizma, arhitekture, baštine, prostornog uređenja, čovjekove sredine, Beograd: Naučna parts of the city and the city as a whole. These processes take place by means of knjiga. Banja Luka’s multilayeredness is a special statutory planning, through the establishment Majstorović, S. (1979) U traganju za feature of its identity, which means that a of general principles and recommendations for identitetom, Beograd: Slovo ljubve – Prosveta. number of architectural and cultural codes can quality planning and urban form design, in the Обрадовић, Ј. И. (1931) Грађевински закон са be seen in its urban form. In the recent form of town planning standards. The објашњењима и упутствима за рад decades, due to extraordinary circumstances, determination of qualitative and formal urban општинских и управних власти, инжењера, this multilayeredness has degraded to form criteria must be based on the архитеката, геометара, грађевинара- fragmentation, leading to the city’s urban form identification and valuation of identity features градитеља и власника земљишта и зграда, disintegration. Research findings on urban and the development of a strategy for their Београд: Министарство грађевина landscape were used to evaluate the effects of protection and restoration. The established краљевине Југославије. various transformations of Banja Luka’s urban criteria (as quality attributes of the built Симоновић, Д. (2010) Пејзажни градови: landscape on the inherent characteristics of its environment) become standards or norms, as поређење развоја урбаног идентитета identity (Simonović et al., 2011). The study operational statutory planning instruments, Бањалуке и Граца, Бањалука: identifies the existence of problems due to determining the relation between the desirable Архитектонско-грађевински факултет large-scale transformations of natural and the possible. It is possible to identify Универзитета у Бањалуци. landscape into construction land, in turn also elements and spatial relations to be governed Simonović, D., Novaković, N., Vujičić, T. (2011) reducing its diversity and creating new urban by standards at all levels of space Towards a strategy of regeneration of urban landscape images, without a foothold in its consideration. In addition to physical landscape: Brownfields as a strategic urban identity. The conclusion is there has regulation instruments, the process is guided resource. In: Proceedings of I International been a gradual transformation of urban by means of urban codes and legislation or Conference Ecology of urban areas. Zrenjanin: landscape by means of constant intrusion of various kinds of state or public intervention Faculty of technical sciences “Mihajlo Pupin”, pp. 439-449. developments into natural landscape, followed (Симоновић, 2011). by urban sprawl to include adjacent habitations Симоновић, Д. (2011) Урбани ред: мит или The implementation of principles of urban or villages, resulting in a conurban form, реалност? In: „Архитектура и урбанизам, codification, understood as the introduction of грађевинарство, геодезија - јуче, данас, continuously spatially linked with the urban core. the category of construction rules, which would сутра“, Conference Proceedings, Бањалука: In addition to the structural, morphological and be general to the extent necessary for bringing Архитектонско-грађевински факултет functional transformation of the urban order to town planning at the state and entity Универзитета у Бањалуци, pp. 309-320. landscape, there have been peculiar socio- levels, but also flexible enough at the regional Stupar, A., ukić, A. (2007) Patchwork or cultural changes, with implications for the most Đ and local levels, would enable the creation and Matrix? Testing the Capacity of the important characteristics of the City of Banja introduction of the necessary spatial planning Contemporary City. SPATIUM International Luka’s urban identity. tools, aimed at protecting and improving the review, No. 15-16, Belgrade: Institute of features of the local or regional identities of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of CONCLUSION cities. It is possible to apply the proposed Serbia, pp. 1-9. It may be concluded from the above discussion method (allowing for adjustment to respect the Vitruvius Pollio, M. (1990) Deset knjiga o that there is a problem-based, methodological principles of contextual specificity and local arhitekturi; Sarajevo: Svjetlost. interdependence between the processes of identity) in Banja Luka and other towns and Zite, K. (1967) Umetničko oblikovanje gradova; urban identity renewal and improvement and cities in the region. Eventually, the process Beograd: Građevinska knjiga.6

would help establish a common dispersion those of urban form reintegration and urban

landscape regeneration. Hereby we recommend network that would give these cities local and

regional distinction.

Received February 2013; accepted in revised form May 2013

32 spatium

SPATIUM International Review UDC 711:35.07; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 33-391 - Review paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330033D

THE ROLE OF PUBLIC INSIGHT IN URBAN PLANNING PROCESS: INCREASING EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS

Nataša Danilović Hristić1, Urban Planning Institute of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia Nebojša Stefanović, Urban Planning Institute of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

Public interest (citizens, investors, interest groups, NGOs, media and similar) in the urban planning process and proposed planning solutions, certainly is not negligible, however, according to the opinion of the professional public, it has often been wrongly directed and conducted. The legal basis, which in rudimentary outlines prescribes the procedure of the public insight/hearing, i.e. the presentation of the planning document, does not provide sufficient input, however, also does not prevent organization of more qualitative and productive communication with the interested individuals, not only at the very finalization of plan development, but also at the initial phases of the initiative for decision making or forming the conceptual solution. In order to better comprehend the real needs of the citizens, urban planners should much earlier than the public insight i.e. presentation of already formed solutions, get in touch with citizens, interview them, organize workshops, insights and meetings on specific topics, trying to explain the planning procedures, standards and norms, as well as to present all that which is required in order to raise the quality of life in the neighborhood and provide some level of public interest and good, and thus increase the value of real estate. On the other hand, the citizens knowing their living environment the best should participate more actively in its creation, by indicating to the problems and needs, reacting to certain topics and thus assisting the professionals in shaping and committing their planning solutions. To that respect this paper provides certain recommendations, based on international experience, by implementation of which the satisfactory level of democracy (more transparency, inclusivity and effectiveness) of the procedure should be provided in Serbia as well. Key words: community planning, participation, collaboration, public insight/hearing, implementation.

basis of the urban development comprises for declining industrial or inner city areas, in PLANNING FOR COMMUNITY direct participation of the citizens within the developing strategies for sustainable INTEREST 1 local communities which in their own rights development in the light of global warming, in should enjoy a certain degree of autonomy and consideration of traffic solutions - resolving Inclusion of the Public in the Process fiscal independence, and if for some reasons congestion in historic town centre or exploring the cities function poorly and there is no new transport options, devising and testing Planning of space and its overall development is transparency, then there exists the danger that developing proposals for sites or buildings, absolutely necessary, with all demands that are also the human rights would in some way be exploring design options for historic or new sharing an idea of public interest, which only in affected (Stojkov, Janić, 1996). Some other buildings, exploring the best way of building democratic and republican culture can be important issues should be mentioned too, like major new settlements or integrating new provided (Mazza, 2010). The gap between theory raising awareness about social, political, development with old (Wates, 2008). Also, it is and practice is still great, but could be erased or economical technology and environmental possible to involve the public in the early stages at least narrowed and reconciled by positive changes, different regional integrations, etc. of preparing statutory development plans. measures of involving public and good will to Basic indicators for the evaluation of public dedicate more funding for this kind of action planning process based on democracy (Greed, 1996). The residents/stakeholders are Participation techniques principles are: the appropriate representative of opinion-interest group, with the power of vote As a clearly defined planning technique, the the public stakeholders, the transparency of on the local elections, so their attitude community planning events were pioneered over planning procedure and decision making, (positive - supportive, in favor of plan, or 40 years ago in USA, and from the mid 1980s availability of plan proposals (for example on negative – rejecting and opportunist) is very this approach was adapted to the different social internet), the publicity of the meetings, important as a lead to decision makers and the and cultural conditions and fused with planning protecting the rights and inclusion of special government (Mayerson, Banfield, 1969). The process in UK and Europe. The initiative for groups in the public. Participation of citizens is organizing events has come mostly from useful in devising new vision for future of a city 1 professional institutions and practitioners keen Palmotićeva 30, 11000 Beograd, Serbia or region, for regeneration strategies specially [email protected]

spatium 33 Danilović Hristić N., Stefanović N.: The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness

to explore more creative methods. Others, observed that using “flags” or labels on the unique mix of ingredients which respond the developers, community organizations, NGOs maps/models helps people overcome their complexity of today’s development issues: and local authorities have become willing shyness, starts open discussion without feeling open community involvement, creative working supporters as they seized the opportunity to that they need to make a speech and turns methods, dynamism, local expertise and work positively with the other parties involved traditional and limited process to participative context, fresh thinking, visual approach and saw the economic and social benefit that and orientated toward the collective problems (drawing and model making) and realism can result. An extraordinary phenomenon is the and public interest. It is unlikely that the (Wates, 2008). way that people who have experienced such average citizen will ever be interested in all the event and encouraged to be involved in decisions made at national levels as (s)he THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC developing and exploring ideas and options, would be nearer to home. PARTICIPATION IN PLANS become convinced of its value. The technique of community planning events is IMPLEMENTATION Planning for Real (PFR) was developed in the still evolving, mostly from practical experiences, Having in view that plans implementation is a late 1970s by Tony Gibson at Nottingham with a common goal to invite citizens (all those continuous process running parallel with plans University's Education for Neighborhood affected, known as “stakeholders”) to actively development and directly dependent on the Change Unit (Gibson, 1979) and has been in participate in the creation and management of types and methods of planning (Stefanović, widespread use since then, usually in their built environment and in order to enable 2011), it is also necessary that plans conjunction with Neighborhood Initiatives developers and planners to use the knowledge of implementation is rendered into corresponding Foundation, (http://www.planningforreal.org. local people to create better places. The connection with the aspect of public uk/,http://www.myplacesupport.co.uk/,http://w underlying philosophy of community planning is involvement in the planning process. One of ww.communityplanning.net/). Unlike Healey's interdisciplinary, collaborative and community- general-technical definitions of implementation and Forester's guidelines (Healey, 2007, based, and the important steps in process of whereby it is directly associated with public Forester, 1999), PFR does have a framework to participation are: information, dialogue, education, participation in the planning process, is be followed through it does not prescribe a knowledge, campaigning, deciding, managing, provided by Stewart and Underwood by their process. As such it does run the risk of owning and developing (Wates, 2008). standpoint that implementation is a process of becoming dominating (Allmendinger, 2001). Typical outcomes are identification of issues negotiations and reaching a compromise However, PFR gives opportunity to exchange and opportunities, agreed objectivities and (which may progress parallel with the plan knowledge and experience, by maps and/or achievable targets, visions for an area’s future, development), schematized as the relationship simple 3D models, so local people can put agendas for action plans, the proposals for a of action-reaction and response, which is the forward suggestions by using pictorial option particular site, suggestions for organizational interpretation of the behavioral view of planning cards, colored pins and flags (Gibson, 1998). changes (Denhardt, 2010) and local coalitions (Stewart, Underwood, 1983). Suggestions are then prioritized by the same and leadership. The community planning process and a clear picture emerges of what Traditional planning in the first generation plans events ‘work’ because the process combines a needs to be done. Although PFR has been used attempted offering the best expertly solution, for issues such as traffic, community safety, leaving implementation to the politicians, housing and environmental improvements, it government or administration, which, one must has also been used for plan strategy admit, is the result of both the young planning formulations, local plan participation and discipline and also the socio-political development briefs for specific sites (probably relationships and the system of ownership and the most well-known PFR exercise was in the decisions making (Taylor, 2004). However, the Brecon Beacons National Park, where 39 new role of planning requires also active meetings were held over a 6 month period in participation of the planners and the public in 1993 (Tewdwr-Jones, Tomas, 1995)). In terms resolving conflicts and reaching agreements of the 'ideal' set out (Healey, 1993), where will which would enable space developing and use. discussion take place, in what style, how will That is an activity which differs much from the Figure 1. PFR gives opportunity to exchange issues be sorted, etc., the PFR process falls far knowledge and experience, by maps and/or simple initial traditional role of planning as the technique short of what communicative rationalist would 3D models (Queenborough and Rushenden master for space use determining (Đorđević, 2004). In wish for (Allmendinger, 2001). The process was plan model, Swale Borough Council and PFR) accordance with that, the planners must master a already set, the venues chosen, the maps and series of new skills of collaboration and public issues decided and the discussions directed by inclusion which will enable dealing with the planners. Nevertheless, there are certain aspects controversies of the new approach, i.e. shaping which are clearly recognizable in the discussion different interests, developing negotiation skills on communicative processes, the “open (Carrell, Heavrin, 2006), mediation and similar, discussions”, the identification and “framing” of on the basis of which it would be possible to problems and issues were partly left to the perceive the planning solutions and orient plans public and the priorities put upon these. The implementation in the desired direction. interest shown by the public also backs up the general view that the people are interested if The necessity of public inclusion in the planning given an opportunity (Sewell, Coppock, 1977) process was also pointed out by Lewis and Flynn and the whole experience could be truly (1979). They state that the implementation Figure 2. Giving suggestions by using pictorial option success will depend on that to which extent the innovative and collaborative. It has been cards, colored pins and flags (Project Gallery, PFR) planning institution has managed to identify the

34 spatium Danilović Hristić N., Stefanović N.: The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness

real spatial interest of the inhabitants, companies implementation of spatial and urban planning public presence, and the citizens who have and other subjects. Providing adequate public documents (Petovar, Jokić, 2011) and the civil submitted their objections are subsequently participation in the planning process should also society is still poorly developed with weak notified on the conclusions passed, in writing. assist in plans implementation. The success of influence in planning matters (Vujošević, 2010) The public inclusion in the planning system, implementation at all planning levels will to a .The public insight, mostly is the first and only even in these regions, is not the creation of great extent depend on the ability of the opportunity when interested citizens and urban “our times” but existed even earlier in the government and planners to reconcile the planners meet each other, but at that moment it period of the socialist and self-management public and private interests in space in an is too late for establishing any decent and order and it was deemed “one of the most efficient manner. When it concerns the public productive dialog, because it takes place ex- significant forms of breaking-up of the old participation in the planning process and plans post, when almost all basic propositions and relationships in which the working man was to implementation orientation, the proposal by planning solutions have been defined. a great extent estranged from real decision Elmor (Elmor, 1980) on backward planning The Law on Planning and Construction (Official making on common needs of his and his (mapping) is quite interesting. Instead of Gazette RS, 72/2009), prescribes the family (Kramer, Kirinčić, 1981)”. At that time it conventional forward planning, where first the procedure of plan presentation and forming of was a common practice of presentation of goals are determined, and then the steps to be report with decisions passed as per all planning solutions on the premises of the taken defined in order to achieve the goals, in objections submitted (Article 50).2 After the municipality or local community, which gives the above mentioned approach first the professional verification has been completed, impression thus the results of these meetings possibility of realization of goals and planning the urban plan is forwarded for public with the citizens and their standpoints were decisions implementation is evaluated, on the presentation in duration of one month and taken as serious. However, mostly depending basis of the insight into the possibilities and during that period all interested subjects may on the topic and significance of the project, funds available by the potential implementation have the insight into the textual, graphic and sometimes it was only in declarative form, stakeholders, namely the public, and only documentation part of the plan and deliver their because decisions were already made on some thereafter the goals and planning concept objections in writing together with the other, higher level. construction is tackled (Kelly, 2009). reasoning. These objections will be considered The continuous mutual complaints are made by However, this approach has not become a at the public meeting, which is open for the professionals that the citizens, i.e. the public reality and opportunism emerged as side attendance of the citizens and where has not been educated to understand that which effect, since it lacked a general strategic procedurally it is possible to provide the is proposed, that they are guided by their narrow framework according to which one could be supplemental items to and clarification of the interests, not perceiving the wider context and governed in defining the goals and planning objections submitted, as well as to hear the the goal of planning solutions. On the other decisions (Faludi, 2003). It is exactly for that proposed reply of the professional individuals hand, citizens experience urban planners as an reason that certain European institutions who have managed the development of the echo of the past times, the exponent of the state, (European Spatial Development Perspective plan. The final conclusions will be passed at who “snatch away” for someone else to benefit (ESDP), Alpine Adriatic Working Community, the closed meeting, which is not open to from. Thus, the defender of the public interests 2002) emphasize the necessity of using the and the fighter for quality of life, the urban visionary principle which comprises provision 2 The Law on Planning and Construction (Official Gazette planner turns in the eyes of the citizens into a of common visions and concepts for territories, RS, 72/2009, 81/2009, 64/2010, 24/2011, 121/2012) scapegoat for all life's inconsistencies, injustice whereby the participation of greater number of 16.5. Public insight and hardship. This occasional hostility is persons and public insights would be Article 50. especially beneficial for politics, which, if encouraged. Some of suggested principles are: Presentation of the planning document for public insight is everything works in harmony tends to on-site observation leading to perception of carried out after the profesisonal verification has been appropriate the ideas of the profession as its changes in societal values from an outsider's completed. Presentation of the planning document for public insight is advertised in the daily local newspapers own successes, whereas, if a problem occurs, point of view, even though there is resistance and lasts for 30 days from the date of advertising. The regardless its key role in decision-making and keep trying to establish relationship full of presentation of the planning document for public insight is financing, it is ready to flatter and “support” the respect and trust, create an innovative system taken care of by the Republic Spatial Planning Agency, citizens in their requirements (regardless to provide feedback from results, with a new namely the body of the local government unit competent for whether they are justified or not) and blame it on approach to human capabilities and spatial and urban planning affairs. On the completed public insight of the planning document, the competent body, the planners for the fiascos and failures improvement activities. The process of creation namely the Planning Committee prepares the report (Danilović Hristić, 2012). Citizens should be of such visions and concepts through comprising the data on the public insight carried out, with perceived as final space users, but also as participation of citizens and transparent all objections and decisions as per each objection. The “small” investors having their own interests and engagement of personal interests could be the report from paragraph 2. of this article is delivered to the different perception of spatial characteristics and most interesting novelty in the planning planning document development holder, who, within 30 days, is obliged to act as per the decisions contained in capacity. Collaboration with the public is not process in the past ten years. paragraph 2 of this Article. only marketing of own ideas, but a significant Article 51. improvement of the final solution, investment in RELEVANCE OF THE MODELS In case that after the public insight of the draft planning future relations and mutual understanding and IN THE CONTEXT OF SERBIAN documents the competent body, namely the Planning Committee determines that the adopted objections assistance. Certainly, the question arises SOCIETY substantially alter the planning document, the decisions is whether the wishes of the citizens expressed are passed whereby the holder of document preparation is always acceptable. The quality of the In Serbia public consultation is marginalized ordered to develop a new draft or concept of the planning relationship established through urban planning both as a legal requirement, and even more so document, within the term which may not be longer than 60 process is of crucial importance, but within the during the planning, development and days from the date of decision passing. environment characterized by instability and

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changes, the formerly established and accepted building in a particular area, since this group has norms and codes are often forgotten (Levy, recognized the potential of space in the location 2012). Multidisciplinary characterizing urban value and interest of the investors. On the other planning as well as the complexity of the hand, the majority is not interested in selling problems, interests and diverse requirements in their possession for new building, but in urban environment development (Byrne, 2000), preservation of the ambient value and lifestyle of certainly make the work of a creative team neighborhood, without changing the type of interesting, but to some extent also difficult and construction, increased housing density, burdened (Landry, 2006). Achieving consensus necessary change of regulations, etc. and since might also be the most difficult step in the overall it supports plan solutions, it does not cope with

process (Ascher, 2004), and often compromise the objections. In public insight procedure the becomes the synonym for poor solution. objections of the minority are considered and Collaboration with the citizens in searching for the supposedly adopted, whereby space character is best solution should have the same or similar substantially changed and the wish of the results as the public-private partnership i.e. to majority not respected. serve the general welfare (Plummer, 2002). If the planner had the opportunity to present the The Greek word for city “polis” is at the same plan on several occasions to the citizens on the time in the core of the word politics– the process terrain familiar to them, within the municipality, of management of complex interactions between local community, on the very spot, and have a people living in a community (Benevelo, 2004). greater number of inhabitants be informed about

Politics comprises the connotations of power and all proposals of the plan, to provide their opinion wealth, their acquisition, enforcement and use, and suggestions, the community interest might but also abuse. Even in the societies boasting of a have been placed in the foreground. In that way long tradition of democracy it is not unusual for also the firmer arguments for acceptance or public goods and public spaces to become the rejection of the requests submitted would have exponents of corporate capital or pre-election been obtained. Does that mean that in the campaign (Petrović, 2009, Duque, 2001). In argumentation of the plan development and of times of transition, the advisory role of urban the Committee as well, when it concerns planners, acquired on the basis of expert acceptance or rejection certain objections, the knowledge and experience, becomes increasingly statistical data regarding how many citizens more a role of government-political apparatus lived on the territory covered by the plan should official. The fact is that urban planning is a form of also be included, the number of interested who Figures 3, 4 and 5. Neighborhood Action Plan for Park “government intervention” and that it is attended the public presentation, i.e. the Wood, Training day, with prepared model for inextricably linked to administration, but that percentage of the submitted objections, suggestions (Maidstone Council, PFR) does not give one the right to consider it as an presuming that the remaining number of citizens In parallel, by establishing communication, at instrument and cronies. Transitional practice has were in agreement with the proposed solutions? various levels and through diverse forms, the shown that policy regularly confuses and It is particularly important to educate the knowledge of various perceptions and interest is imposes its will within the field of planning, population on the requirement of planned promoted and better understanding and ranging from frequent changes of laws and settlement development, and to give them a real common judgment is achieved (Čolić, 2010). regulations according to which the profession explanation what the consequences are and what For mobilization and creation of proposals has to operate and be governed. Politics aims at the advantages of implementation of standards timely informing is necessary, a certain degree ensuring re-election itself and extending the are, particularly when it concerns satisfying the of clarification, instructions and education, and period of rule, which affects determination for needs of primary public use (traffic, accessibility, the key point is to develop the awareness and the solutions proposed and decision making infrastructure equipment and furnishing, space knowledge of the individuals on their role in the (Healey, 2007). In other words, those urban reserved for health and social protection, process. To inform and motivate the citizens is investments are favored that will be integrated in education, culture, sport and recreation, etc.) but probably the most important initial step. The the term of the mandate or will have a greater also the conditions which dictate the parameters existing practice of informing citizens and the positive effect on the electorate. of housing and commercial construction, accessibility of information are at a very low A logical question is posed, to which extent the numerous limitations in respect to the soil quality, point, not even appropriate for urban objections submitted during the public fire-fighting regulations, parking and garaging communities having a good educational presentation make the real reflection of the conditions, environment protection and similar structure and more efficient mutual wishes and needs of the majority of inhabitants (Čolić, 2013). communication modalities (Petovar, Jokić, of a certain space. If there is no former or more 2011). For that reason it is rather essential at direct contact with the citizens during planning, OPINION POLL, WORKSHOP AND what moment and in which manner the then there is no real feeling of the standpoints, PLATFORMS ORGANIZATION gatherings for ideas presentations and wishes and needs of the majority, and the exchange of opinions would be organized. possibility of conflicts and disagreement The application of the participative approach Perhaps it is best at the beginning of planning certainly increases. The example is the tendency enables timely perceiving of the values, interests document development, i.e. upon decision on of the citizens to permit greater urban and potential conflicts and inclusion of its development, in collaboration with the local parameters and realize a significant scope of stakeholders and planning activities accordingly. government to send written information to

36 spatium Danilović Hristić N., Stefanović N.: The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness

home addresses of the citizens included by the optional answers marked a, b, c… or 1, 2, 3… boundary of plan development and post This guarantees grouping of answers in certain identical information in written and electronic categories when opinion poll processing and mass media (municipal paper, internet making more concrete conclusions. Descriptive presentation, bulletin board and similar). This answers might be useful, however also diverse is actually applicable in the cases when the and difficult to compare. Processing and plans comprise smaller area or smaller number presentation of the data obtained should be clear of settlements and inhabitants (e.g. 50 ha or and if possible, i.e. as required, comparable to 15,000 inhabitants, whereby one has to have in the data obtained from competent services in view what the structure of the settlement is), order to form a clear image on subjective and whereas as regards the broader scope plans, objective perception of the matter on the terrain. for practical reason, this should be limited only Quantification has to be performed in to mass media. The information should include accordance with the basic statistical principles, brief or identical explanation, same like for and it is desirable that it be presented starting the initiative and decision making) first graphically by means of tables and various types of all textual, but also with clear and adapted of graphs, particularly since it will be used both graphic presentation of planning document in plan documentation and also while organizing scope), and it would be rather useful to meetings and workshops with the citizens. comprise also the general instruction on Public presentations of plan solutions are legally defined procedures and possibilities of desirable at the moment when all data have been citizens participation. For that reason it is compiled and the standpoint of planners has necessary to prepare a detailed brochure about been formed, but, however, before passing any all relevant information on the planned final decisions (Dunn, 1977). The first activities (Petovar, Jokić, 2011). presentation should be in the conceptual phase An opinion poll can be forwarded together with and by its form should be closer to workshop. In such information which would help the citizens the introductory part the citizens should be to express their needs and standpoints, and as informed on the actions carried out until that a result it will provide the public input to the moment, and then invite them to take part in urban planners, together with compiling all creation of the plan solution and in the manner Figures 6 and 7. Neighborhood Action Plan for Park other data necessary for plan development and with the aid of prepared means, as shown Wood, Training day, with prepared model for process, to perceive the real space condition, on the basis of the international experience with suggestions (Maidstone Council, PFR) limitations and potentials, as well as the PFR. The second contact and exchange of problems encountered by the citizens. opinion can be carried out during the draft plan development, but also in its working phase, prior The manner of opinion polling which is most to finalization. For this occasion the form of frequently proposed comprises a series of platform and open debate is convenient, at clearly formulated questions, for the answers to which first the standpoint of the authorized urban which it is required 20 minutes to the maximum, planners would be presented, as well as in and the very opinion poll can be conducted via which way the solution incorporated formerly internet, by sending polling sheets to home expressed requests and proposals of the addresses, at some well frequented public place citizens. When in this manner, and presuming to (square, market and similar) or “from door to the mutual content, the collaboration with the door”. An overall demographic picture of the direct space users has been carried out, some Figure 8. Micro-neighborhood development in population should be taken into account, as well inevitability clarified or compromise solutions Bordesley Green (PFR) as for which purpose the opinion poll is found, then the very legally prescribed public conducted, i.e. whether the subject of research turn, makes people more likely to get involved insight procedure (presentation of the plan and are general perceptions of the citizens on urban, and build shared wealth in their communities. In public meeting) acquires a completely different, as well as communal, ambient issues or the the same time, in a democratic and participative relaxed course. Naturally, one must have in view issues regarding environment protection process, the role of planners as professional that such approach comprises besides the skill associated with certain territory, or on concrete arbiters between different interests must be in conducting the debates (hearing) also the topics, initiatives and projects. The very accepted. The planning and decision making extension of plan development term as well as structure of the opinion poll should first of all process should be conducted and directed in some cost increase. comprise the questions related to the order to deserve the trust of the citizens, as interviewed person (even though it is between different groups, as to the institutional anonymous) indicating his/her age, gender, CONCLUSIONS representatives. The planners have significant level of education and similar. Then the data The urban planning and placemaking should be role in developing and building of the social related to personal views and experiences are a process, accessible to anyone, that allows capital and cohesion of the local communities, collected, as well as suggestions and peoples’ creativity to emerge. When it is open, what gives the key assumption for development perceptions. Questions have to be clear and transparent and inclusive, this process can be of the adequate and in implementation precise, with offered scale of answers, if extraordinarily effective in making people feel successful plans. This aspect is significant for possible, for example, yes and no, or possible attached to the places where they live. That, in achieving consensus, with complete

spatium 37 Danilović Hristić N., Stefanović N.: The Role of Public Insight in Urban Planning Process: Increasing Efficiency and Effectiveness

appreciation of the professional expertise, but Acknowledgements European Commission, European Spatial the creativity of amateur oppinion, too. Development Perspective (ESDP), Towards Authors are thankfull to “Planning for Real”, Balanced and Sustainable Development of the It can be important to conduct a thoughtful Innovation Works @ Rubery Owen, Booth Territory of the European Union, The Spatial public process in advance of any public insight Street, Darlaston, West Midlands WS10 8JB, Approach at European Level (1), The Territory- or hearing. Hearings often occur late in the www.planningforreal.org.uk, for permission from a New Dimension of European policy (1.1). process and may leave citizens with the copyright holder for reproducing illustrations. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/do impression that local officials do not want to coffic/official/reports/pdf/sum_en.pdf, accessed hear their ideas. 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Received May 2013; accepted in revised form October 2013

spatium 39

SPATIUM International Review UDC 72.01:316.75 ; No. 30, December 2013, pp. 40-461-7 72.01 Preliminary report - Short Communications DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330040S

IDEOLOGICAL ASSUMPTIONS IN AESTHETIC JUDGMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

Vladimir Stevanović1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Architecture, Belgrade, Serbia

The aim of this paper is consideration of presence of ideological factor in aesthetic judgment of architecture. The focus is on the aesthetic theories in which ideology is the key component that can produce aesthetic meaning on the basis of which aesthetic evaluation can be performed. With regard to this, the paper provides an insight into the relevant aesthetic approaches, which, by subject matter and methodology, can be determined as ideologically oriented. The theoretical frame established allows implementation of an interpretive and comparative analysis of two texts that through aesthetic judgment discuss Belgrade architecture, immediately before and after World War II. Through recognition of an ideological context in these two texts, this paper will point out how different aesthetic evaluations of certain morphological aspects of architecture (such as folklorism, ornamentalism, eclecticism, classicism, monumentalism and purism) do not come from inherently architectural, i.e. stylistic- formalist aspects, but how they result from ideological connotations attributed to them in a wide variety of ways. In this sense, this paper finds ideological background in established criteria of aesthetic judgment such as authenticity, homogeneity and contemporaneity. Key words: aesthetic judgment, ideology, authenticity, homogeneity, contemporaneity.

Rather, it has changed its course towards the 1 INTRODUCTION FORM AND MEANING IN subjects, becoming the question of their own When referring to aesthetics, the first things AESTHETICS AND LEVELS experience. The emphasis is placed on the most architects and architectural theorists think OF AESTHETIC RECEPTION modus of understanding the objects and on the satisfaction that appears in the process of of are the issues concerning the proper, i.e. the Understanding aesthetics from the focus of reacting to the beauty of an object. beautiful shaping of form or visage of a architecture would not appear to be building. In exposing their authorial intentions groundless, if one recalled concepts of At the turn from of the XIX century, German and motivations architects frequently explain aesthetics dating back to the mid XVIII century. idealist philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich and justify the use of certain visual elements The fact is that the founder of aesthetics, Hegel, understands aesthetics in a different utilizing aesthetic reasons. In the same German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb manner. Through a rationalist principle, Hegel manner, architectural theorists tend to use Baumgarten (Gilbert/Kun, 1969; Grlić, 1983), critiques the aesthetics that existed so far, phrases such as aesthetic standard, aesthetic defined this discipline as a science of sensible which was based on sensory abilities that requirement, aesthetic function, etc. Indicative knowledge of art and beauty, which coincides produced feelings of satisfaction and is the identification of the aesthetic property of with the denomination of aisthesis (Greek term enjoyment. For him, feelings are empty forms an architectural work with something pertaining for sense impression, for what is perceptible). of subjective affectation, which cannot satisfy to gestalt, which is visible, external and Baumgarten's theory, as a product of a modern, spiritual interests. ‘What works of art provoke material. Therefore, mainstream architectural enlightened age, in accordance with wider social, in us today, is not only a direct pleasure, but understanding of aesthetics should comprise scientific and philosophical changes, overcomes also our judgment at the same time, since we elements of architectural articulation, such as ontologising objectivism and introduces a put in function of our contemplation the global definitions of mass and dimension, gnoseological subjectivism which is prevalent content of a work of art’ (Hegel, 1971:12). position in space, order in composition and in contemporary aesthetics. Along with these Hegel changes the focus of aesthetic harmony of spatial elements, relation between changes, the ideal of beauty as the bearer of considerations from the form to the meaning of lights, textures, materials and colours. the aesthetic value of art work ceases to be a work of art. Hegel understands a work of art something that exists independently from between immediate sensuousness and ideal cognitive experience. Beauty, as an aesthetic thought, and accordingly sets foundations for a value, does not belong to metaphysical and comprehensive aesthetic analysis. 1 Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73/II, 11 000 Beograd, Serbia theological properties of objects anymore. [email protected]

40 spatium Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

If the attitude of the observer towards a work of to the analysis of the critical judgment that is their origin and application, but rather regards art and architecture becomes an important topic established by official critics within official them as an instance of culture. From the in contemporary aesthetic theory, the central institutions. Further text will offer a standpoint of proponents of autonomous place in this relation appears to be the notion of presentation of several concrete aesthetic aesthetics, heteronomous aesthetics degrade art aesthetic reception. Reception is the process of systems, which recognise directed to ideology, by its definition of having historic receiving, recipience or acceptance of a work of manifestation of ideological meaning as and social function. The general divergence art (Jaus, 1978; Petrović, 1988, 1989; aesthetic value of works of art and architecture. between autonomous and heteronomous Šuvaković, 1999). Reception begins with the The emphasis will be placed on what Petrović aesthetic concepts is the question whether art process of perception and results in a level of (1972:13) calls the ’influence of extra- could be completely reduced to a social-historic experience and a level of judgment. The theoretical interest in aesthetic thinking’. milieu or not. According to the principles of difference between these levels of reception Although the recent literature which covers the autonomous aesthetics, regarding a work of art could be analyzed as the difference between field of relations between aesthetic thinking exclusively as an expression and a result of direct and indirect reaction. According to and ideology is vast (DeMan, 1996; Duncum, current historic development runs the risk of aesthetician Sreten Petrović (1989:323), the 2008; Eagleton, 1990; Levine, 1994), the reducing a work to a simple reflection of level of experience should be related to the following overview will focus on to those economic, religious and political powers, direct contact between subject and object, while theories that temporally coincide with the texts thereby overlooking what is permanent in the the level of judgment supposes indirect and which will be subjects of a comparative work. Here, the paper will make mention of only subsequent forming of intellectual attitude. In analysis, and which, through aesthetic a few influential concepts of autonomous aesthetic judgment there is a distinction judgment, treat Belgrade architecture, aesthetics which were developed by subjective between the judgment of taste and the critical immediately before and after the World War II. idealists, phenomenologists and social judgment. The taste can be personally, culturally utopians. The well-known concept of and historically predisposed, while critical IDEOLOGICALLY BASED disinterested judgement of the artistic form of judgment tends to express a true aesthetic value AESTHETICS German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1957) of works of art. The aesthetic judgment based on places aesthetics in a domain isolated from taste is undoubtedly partial and relative, while Hegel’s concept of meaning remains in the context. Phenomenological aesthetics from the critical judgment should be neutral and should domain of metaphysics and absolute spirit, but beginning of the XX century is also oriented implicitly aspire to absolute validity. the development of his ideas in the evolution of towards the form and rejects every external aesthetics leads towards a concept of meaning, reality (Ziegenfuss, 1928:55). The radical Ideological meaning which is different from a metaphysical one. In abstraction of art from social and historical that sense, it is important to distinguish between reality is advocated by the German aesthetician According to Petrović (1989:326), critical interior and exterior meanings. Interior meanings Theodor Lipps in his theory of empathy judgment, as well as the aesthetic system as a are essences that originate in a direct (Einfühlung). Lipps (1914) negates every whole, is profoundly conditioned by time, connection between the subject and the reproduction of reality which is independent of theoretical-learning possibilities and cultural- Universe. These are the absolute truths, human consciousness. He proposes that the historic assumptions and preconceptions. ‘While considered valid by the entire humanity. Interior form of an object is the state that is created by the general aesthetic attitude is conditioned by the meanings include metaphysical and religious the subject by means of his internal activities. nature of philosophical systems, and this system categories of order, number and proportion, and In that constellation, art is alienated from social itself by general theoretical-cognitive were used, for example, by architectural problems, for the essence of art is observed as assumptions, consequently by sociological theorists Marcus Vitruvius Pollio and Leon introducing of thoughts and feelings to the condition as a general ideological perspective, Battista Alberti when they established their outside world, which itself is constructed as the taste is conditioned, by cultural-historical normative aesthetic canons. Exterior meanings inexplicable. English art critic, Herbert Read, factors as well, but more significantly by the do not refer to understanding of invariable closely ties aesthetic theory to his ideas about individual-psychological factor’ (Petrović, essence. Rather, they are a relative product that the anarchist and pacifist society. According to ibid.). In accordance with this, it is useful to depends on the factors developed within a Read (1945), in contrast to authoritarian refer to recent papers which consider the socio-cultural system. These understandings society, anarchism free of bureaucracy will problems of the effects that a cultural context further developed in the XIX and XX century, cause neither the disintegration of the has on the aesthetic experience of architecture especially during the periods which were ruled personality nor the social alienation that would (Stevanović, 2011), and show how the by positivist, Darwinist and Marxist influential suppress individual spontaneity and freedom of aesthetic value of an architectural structure paradigms in aesthetic theories. artistic creativity. Read believes that art can could be shaped by various ideological and contribute to a healthy, peaceful society, and political concepts (Mako, 2012). In both cases, German philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey (Petrović, that artistic practice, which integrates free situations are researched where the domination 1975:39) postulates art as one of the cultural creativity with lived experience, can promote of cultural, ideological, moral, pragmatic, facts and products. Dilthey derives the purpose greater self-awareness. existential, economical or humanistic of art from the category of objective spirit. meanings in aesthetic reception can appear Nevertheless, he does not do this in light of Nevertheless, in the context of established over pure perceptual qualities of the Hegelian absolute spirit pertaining to rational heteronomous aesthetic frames of the XIX architectural structure. However, the mental principle; he rather relies on the century, French critic and historian, Hippolyte problematization of possibilities of everyday dimension of social life and the spirit of time. Taine, develops an aesthetics based on aesthetic experience or judgment of taste is not Dilthey’s theory, based on the principles of consideration of art in a socio-historical of primary importance in this survey. The positivism, led to a new, heteronomous context. In Darwinist terms, when Taine claims subject of interest of this paper, in fact, relates approach to aesthetics, which does not regard that a work of art should be understood as a art and architecture isolated from conditions of

spatium 41 Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

result of a race, environment and moment, he actually a simple reflection of ideological share the same topic: the state of architecture relies on collective psychology and the identity structure, in Lukács’s case – the communist of the City of Belgrade in the period of habits, interests and beliefs, which comprise structure. In this context, Friedrich Engels’s immediately preceding and following the the system of values and world view of a socio- writings on aesthetics are relevant for a better World War II; however, this topic is viewed cultural entity. ‘To understand a work of art, an understanding of ideological influences in from different historical positions. The period artist, artistic group, one should correctly communism. As a co-founder of the Marxist discussed cannot be treated as an interrupted present oneself with the general state of mind theory, Engels develops a fundamental continuum. Moreover, it is a period which and customs of the time they belonged to’ methodological postulate proposing that the includes significant changes on the political (Taine, 1954:15). aesthetic phenomena are to be regarded as and ideological plane in the Yugoslav society. cultural activities of Homo sapiens in his slow After the end of World War II, the Yugoslav In his sociological-aesthetic analysis, progress to self-realization within the matrix of society underwent a radical change – from a Hungarian-born sociologist, Karl Mannheim socio-historical processes. The non-isolate capitalist monarchy to a communist republic. (Petrović, 1975:19-35), distinguishes three phenomena of the arts, which variously depend Along with the change in the political system, layers of meaning that exist in art as a creation on other manifestations of culture, social, foreign relations also changed. The new of culture. These are: 1) objective meaning – political, moral, religious, and scientific, communist authority at first opted for an the very work as pure visual thing; influence in turn these other spheres of activity alliance with the Soviet Union, which lasted 2) expressive meaning – what the creator (Morawski, 1970:303). Engels pleads for a only until 1948. Along with this political wanted to achieve, in terms of intention or realist art, which signifies rendering of the rupture, came another change in the domains poetics and; 3) documentary meaning – implicit dialectics of social reality, the trend or of culture, art and architecture. These changes perspective of the world containing ideology as tendency spontaneous to history. The idea of in the first place meant abandonment of a system of values, which stands in parallel art as a legislator and liberator of mankind is socialist realism – typical Soviet-communist with specifically artistic aspects of works. For regarded as directly related to the communist model in the arts (Milašinović-Marić, 2006). In Mannheim, specific qualities of artistic ideal and movement. The continual dynamic that sense, Krunić’s text appears in a specific creation are not important. Mannheim, like flux and change in aesthetics and the arts historical moment for the Federal People’s Dilthey and Taine before him, identifies work of derive chiefly from the rise and decline of the Republic of Yugoslavia, not long after the art with other cultural objectivations. always complex ideological outlooks which, in separation from the leadership and doctrine of In the context of Mannheim’s approach one the final analysis, are conditioned by the the Soviet Union, while Popović’s text belongs could consider iconography and iconology of general contradictions and evolution of class to the last days of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. German art historian, Erwin Panofsky. In the society (ibid.). In addition to the specific historical moments iconographic part of the analysis, Panofsky in which these texts appeared, the relevance Even though all presented aesthetic systems (1955) distinguishes between the primary – and importance of their authors is of particular are race-, nation-, culture- or class- natural subject matter, and secondary – interest. The intriguing social status of these determined, they are interesting from a conventional subject matter, in terms of visual two architects is the main motivation for contemporary point of view. By reading the form and its content, i.e. meaning. Natural choosing them in this discussion. According to time and society, which ideologically shaped a content comprises directly perceivable the historian of art, Aleksandar Kadijević work of art and caused its existence, these elements such as lines and colours, while (2007:33), Popović was one of the meritorious aesthetic theories offer conclusions on the conventional content connects these artistic architects of Yugoslavia between the Wars, possibilities of appearance and acceptance of motifs with the subject matter or ideas. These towards whom the new single-party certain artistic and architectural ideas in one layers are without a doubt analogue to government took an ignoring approach, which particular society. Mannheim’s objective and expressive supposed actions such as brutal physical meaning. The third layer, denominated by execution, seizure of property, imprisonment, Panofsky internal meaning or context, is the A COMPARATIVE AND persecution and encouragement to emigrate. key in consideration of ideologically oriented INTERPRETIVE ANALYSIS: After the change of the political and ideological aesthetics. Within this iconological layer, an INTRODUCING THE COMPLEXITY ambience, Popović was personally disqualified aesthetic object is regarded as an OF CONTEXT and discredited by revocation of national unconscientious, symbolic expression of the honour (Kadijević, 2007:33; 2008:79). On the author within the principles that demonstrate a Once the theoretical frame of ideological other hand, Krunić was a well-known name in position of one nation, period, class, religion aesthetics is established, it is possible to start the communist establishment of the fifties. and philosophy. applying the results obtained, through a comparative and interpretive analysis of the AUTHENTICITY, HOMOGENEITY AND From his Marxist position, Hungarian two texts mentioned earlier. These texts were aesthetician György Lukács (1979) explicitly chosen because they contain the elements that CONTEMPORANEITY AS rejects the issue of form that he treats only as can be characterized as aesthetic in a sense of IDEOLOGICAL CRITERIA OF an artistic transposition of content used to critical judgement. The first text is a short AESTHETIC JUDGEMENT express social and moral interest. Lukács review of architect Dragomir M. Popović, dated The analysis will intentionally begin in a regards art as a lower form of knowledge that 1940, published under the title of “Belgrade reverse historical order. The reason for this is should shape a particular ideological vision of Architecture of Today” (Današnja beogradska that unlike Krunić’s aesthetic observations, the world. Within this vision, the aesthetic arhitektura). The other text, considerably which show traces of explicit ideological system comes down to recognizing the level of longer, titled “Belgrade Architecture“ thinking, Popović’s ideological aspects could compliance between the structure of a work (Arhitektura Beograda) was published by be revealed only in relation to the criteria and the optimal ideology. Aesthetic value is architect Jovan Krunić in 1954. Both texts recognised in Krunić’s text.

42 spatium Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

In spite of the rupture with the leading terms, simply does not belong to the general interpretation that was brought to absurd. communist force, Yugoslav culture in 1954 state of Yugoslav mind. Architect Pavle Krat (1948:26), the author of was still unilaterally determined by one-party the Post Office reconstruction project, finished In addition to authenticity, another important authoritarian state politics. In this respect, in 1948 in purist style (Fig.2), gave a similar aesthetic criterion, which one could read from drawing a parallel between the political thought review: ‘architecture of the old Post Office Krunić’s aesthetic judgment of Belgrade and cultural elements was one of the important Building was a typical example of an architecture, is homogeneity (compactness or requirements and criteria on the basis of which unsuccessful utilization of our national heritage uniformity). The tendency towards aesthetic judgment was made within totalitarian overloaded by stylistic elements.’ The review of homogeneity can be recognised in the societies. In terms of ideological aesthetics, the architecture of Serbian-Byzantine style criticism of the Serbian-Byzantine style. This this type of reasoning is characteristic of the could be read as a clearly expressed style is formed on the basis of Serbian previously explained Engels’s and Lukács’s abandonment of pre-war Serbian individual medieval church architecture, and the most postulates. Following the same logic, Krunić hyper-national tendencies. Placing this in a representative building of it is the Post Office (1954) deems that the entire Yugoslav cultural framework of Panofsky’s national aspects of his Building 2 (Fig.1), designed by architect and artistic life and architecture lags behind internal meaning or context, one could find the Momir Korunović and built in 1928. According the economic development and political collision within ideological instrumentalisation to Krunić (1954), this building represents a thought. From this premise Krunić further on the concern of what is actually national. slip-off-the-way in Belgrade architecture develops refusal of certain styles he identified National authenticity in 1954 was supposed to between the Wars, in which classical forms in Belgrade, today known as: 1) Soviet socialist be not Serbian but Yugoslav. Purist and neutral were replaced by national ones, in an realism; 2) Serbian-Byzantine style and; 3) Belgrade Modern between the Wars. Particular attention shall be paid to these three styles, for they will be used to demonstrate their impregnation with ideological connotations in the texts of both authors. In the first place Krunić reproaches the non- existence of an authentic local architectural style. ‘While the process of artistic transposition of our reality in other arts is in rapid rise and approaches the range of political thought, in architecture we are still living in the shadow of architectural achievements of other nations. Incomprehensible is the paradox that one independent country with already developed industry, which in social and conceptual aspect represents a paragon, in the field of architecture is an epigone, an imitator of achievements of other people’ (Krunić, 1954). Accordingly, Krunić insists that the independence of a country Figure 1. Momir Korunović, Post Office Building 2, 1928. (scanned postcard, personal archive) should be particularly manifested through the specificity of its own national architectural expression. It is clear that the „other people“ of whom Krunić speaks, directly refer to the Soviet Union, towards which, in a specific historic moment, adequate position was to be taken. This is why he targets the then dominant Soviet architectural style – socialist realism. Krunić (1954) treats the Soviet architecture as a pseudo-classical reflection of the bureaucratic regime and identifies it with Hitler’s monumental architecture. The building to which special reference was made is the House of Trade Unions, designed by architect Branko Petričić, located in then called Square of Marx and Engels in Belgrade. Krunić (1954) views the eclectic and classical architectural elements on this building in a sense of a non-modern spirit that even after the liberation managed to impose itself as inertia and trace of influence of

Soviet views. Krunić further speaks of Socialist Figure 2. Pavle Krat, reconstruction of Post Office Building 2, 1948. realism as of something which, in Taine’s

spatium 43 Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

homogeneity, as a characteristic of a style that is the antipode of the individual, here represents a way for undisturbed striving towards a new Yugoslav national unity. Except the Serbian national hegemonism, in Serbian- Byzantine style, as the style of the royal dynasty of Karađorđević, also recognised was the symbol of monarchist class exploitation. On the basis of the very same criterion of homogeneity, Krunić evaluates the eclecticism of Belgrade Modern between the Wars. Belgrade “Modern” (which Krunić intentionally puts under quotation marks) manifests itself through residential architecture, which was built by the wealthy class of the society for leasing purposes. Formative characteristics of the Belgrade Modern include a number of decorative elements such as various forms of putting frames around the window apertures, accentuation of corners by semicircular terraces, Figure 3. Dimitrije Leko, Belgrade Stock Exchange Building, 1937. shallow rounded balconies, corner formations Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=406398&page=176 adapting to street radii, circular windows, formation by recessing facade planes, flag pole holders etc. Krunić ascribes this heterogeneous nature of Belgrade Modern to provincial understandings of profiteering building owners, who, exerting all efforts of their primitivistic vulgarism, yearn for colourful facade profiles and paints. In a time of profiteering and commercial construction, facade decor represented the embodiment of provincial understanding. Since the relations after the liberation and socialist organization eliminated the market economy, Krunić (1954) concludes contently that the anarchism in the evolution of Belgrade between the Wars, the soul of which was the profit, is now replaced by planned regularities of humanistic tendencies. ‘Instead of the nature of a sum of petty bourgeois vanities of individual facades of its [Belgrade] streets, nowadays it [Belgrade] tends to assume the property of unity and homogeneity, uniformity’ Figure 4. View over the pre-war eclectic Modern towards the post-war purism - “real” Modern (Krunić, 1954). Since the homogeneity of architecture was not present in pre-war times, Krunić, as opposed to the styles critiqued, society. Krunić believes purism is the real Belgrade Stock Exchange Building, although promotes purism. Affirming purism, he argues: Modern architecture, as opposed to the both buildings belong to the same family of ‘The entire decor today is reduced to its real eclectic Modern between the Wars, even modern volumetry. elements, reflected in the disposition of masses, though in morphological terms this difference surfaces, maintaining the rhythm of full and The three styles presented are recognised as is not emphasized to that extent. Accordingly, it empty and greenery garnishing’ (Krunić, 1954). inappropriate in terms of what Krunić calls is possible to compare the Belgrade Stock In this sense, he singles out a residential ’contemporaneous understanding in architecture’. Exchange Building from 1937 (Fig.3), building, designed by the architect Momčilo However, contemporaneity, set as the ultimate designed by architect Dimitrije Leko, with the Belobrk, as an example of rare purist facades of and unifying aesthetic criterion on the basis of adjacent, previously mentioned reconstructed Belgrade between the Wars. The critique of which Krunić makes his critical judgment, is Post Office Building 2. Figure 4. suggests the individuality in Belgrade’s eclectic Modern at actually in function of ideological argument. This division of modern architecture to pre-war this point can be interpreted as an instrument of is a clear instance of an appropriation of the eclecticism and post-was purism was a general public tendency, in Mannheim’s terms concept of contemporaneity which is promoted implemented violently and exclusively - the view of the world or a system of values, as rejection of everything that preceded the ideologically. It seems that the purism of the moving towards egalitarianism, collectivism current ideological setting of the new Yugoslav Post Office Building is more acceptable than and the reduction of class differences in society. Therefore, Krunić's aesthetic analysis the arc facade with the round window on the

44 spatium Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

does not in fact consider styles that are Serbian-Byzantine style which is inspired by ideological meaning in the context of pre-war aesthetically unacceptable due to their this type of architecture, while Krunić and post-war Yugoslav society. Likewise, the morphological characteristics (objective discredits the same style as national and then established aesthetic criteria such as meaning and iconological-natural content in hegemonic. After examining the attitudes taken authenticity, homogeneity and contemporaneity terms of Mannheim and Panofsky, towards authenticity and foreign influences in were used in the sense of broader ideological respectively). He actually speaks about styles these texts, it is also possible to compare the implications. Authenticity is a criterion of in relation to the ideology and the spirit of ideological substrate in relation to aesthetic judgement through which Krunić and those times. Particularly, the year 1954 is the homogeneity and heterogeneity of architectural Popović solve significant questions of foreign moment in which one should reject not only expression. Popović does not mind the politics and national identity, while the the Modern between the wars that already bore eclecticism of Belgrade’s Modern, nor does he homogeneity relates to internal national and the epithet of a pro-Western bourgeois mind that this is the style of lucrative house class questions. With the critique of the lack of decadence, and Serbian-Byzantine style as a owners, as understood by Krunić. Moreover, authenticity of socialist realism, Krunić symbol of Serbian nationalism, monarchist Popović (1940:279), once again, concludes in emphasizes foreign political relations with the dictatorship, and class exploitation, but also a conciliatory tone that wealthy people simply Soviet Union. Discarding the need for the leading architectural style of the until-then wish for their buildings to be beautiful. authenticity, Popović alludes that the Yugoslav ally – Soviet socialist realism. Purism was Accordingly, their taste is not petty-bourgeois Monarchy is ready to cooperate with other preferred, because it was the only style cleared but evolved and refined. Popović (1940:282) countries. The criterion of homogeneity, on the from all undesired historic connotations, and believes that house owners do not find charm basis of which Krunić makes judgement of the as such, it represented the analogy to striving and nobility in purist Modern, but they seek Belgrade Modern, targets internal politics with towards contemporaneity. something from the good old days. Here one the emphasis on class issues. The critique of could easily notice his opinion of the then not- heterogeneity of Serbian-Byzantine style is Interpretation of Krunić’s aesthetic analysis yet-established relation between purism and once again the argument for internal politics, allowed connection of certain formal aspects of contemporaneity. In general, Popović only this time the focus is more on the architecture with their corresponding, i.e. (1940:282) perceives certain disorder in the national, rather than on the question of class. attached ideological connotations. However, in outlook of Belgrade as a faithful picture of our Popović ignores the need for homogeneity and order to completely clarify the importance of mentality and the state of the spirit, i.e. affirms plurality, i.e. heterogeneity as an ideological assumptions in aesthetic collective psychology in Taine’s terms. affirmative exponent of the then existent state judgement, it is time to introduce a Popović’s interpretation of the fact that not a of Yugoslav mind and spirit. In 1940 comparison with Popović’s text, written 14 single style managed to establish itself in heterogeneity should have been an indication years earlier. Analyzing the pace of Belgrade Belgrade suggests there is no orchestrated of a high level of freedom, which would use construction between the two world wars, architecture. Quite to the contrary, in his architecture to convey the message of state Popović places himself in the framework of opinion, the architects enjoyed great liberty in organization based on freedom of choice. The ideological aesthetics, in the same manner as their conceptions and tendencies. For Petrović, very same criterion in 1954 represented an the aestheticians mentioned in this paper plurality of styles obviously does not have a obstacle in achieving the uniformity of style propose. This is recognisable because Popović negative connotation that can be found in used by the Communists to establish a (1940:278) asserts that Belgrade architecture Krunić’s observations. Connecting the plurality deceptive equality. In the post-war period, is an expression of the entire social, economic, of styles, national mentality and liberty into a under the banner of contemporaneity and the cultural and moral life. Unlike Krunić, Popović triangle, Popović tendentiously points to the style that was in conformity with the spirit of (ibid.) concludes with a conciliatory tone that supposed democracy of the monarchy and the time, there was in fact a search for an ’our building tradition, except for church respect of all participants in the society. architecture that would correspond to the architecture, was not sufficient for us to rely on period in which it was possible to establish a it; rather, we must learn from the abroad, neutral position in relation to the previous transplant and filter the new endeavours and, CONCLUSIONS state-economic governing models. These were through our own understanding, adapt them to The concept of ideology in this paper is the pre-war capitalist-oriented monarchy and our needs’. Here Popović, in contrast to examined as a concrete form of aesthetic the directly rejected post-war pro-Soviet Krunić’s open ideologization, represents a determinism in a sense of race, environment and communist organization. The purpose of this concealed ideological aesthetic thinking, which moment, collective psychology, identity of kind of a neutral position was the prominence can be discovered only in comparison to habits, interests and beliefs, the general state of of national and class compactness of the new Krunić’s text. If the exclusivity of Krunić in mind, a position of one nation, period, class, Yugoslav socialist society. That is why purism terms of authentic style was related to religion and philosophy, and social and moral was established as the style of the then pretensions towards autonomous national interest. In a broader sense, ideology is defined reigning ideology, as the only style that had no identity, which were implemented by the state as a system of values and views of the world of a traces of history, i.e. no connection with the government, then Popović’s assimilation of socio-cultural entity, while in a concrete analysis regimes stigmatized as hostile and unsuitable. foreign influences was directly related to the special emphasis is placed on ideological aspirations of monarchy, in which context of internal and foreign politics, as well as Previous conclusions summed up the results independence and liberty were valued in a class and national questions. of the analysis of aesthetic judgement on different ideological manner. Another concrete examples of chosen works in the significant difference is Popović’s affirmative Comparative analysis of Krunić’s and Yugoslav contexts before and after the World position towards Serbian church architecture, Popović’s texts has shown that the inherent War II. However, the topic of this paper was as an authentic expression of our building architectural elements such as folklorism, neither just the history of Belgrade tradition. In that sense, he does not mind the ornamentalism, eclecticism, classicism, architecture, nor a retrospective critical review monumentalism and purism, bear a specific

spatium 45 Stevanović V.: Ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment of architecture

of Belgrade architecture, but a consideration of Milašinović-Marić, D. (2006) Social realism ideological assumptions in aesthetic judgment. critique from the contemporary viewpoint of the architect Milorad Macura, Arhitektura i Once again there is a need to emphasize that in a broader sense the paper shows how urbanizam, No 18-19, pp. 134-139. particular ideological aspirations of society Morawski, S. (1970) The aesthetic views of establish the aesthetic values by which one Marx and Engels, Journal of Aesthetics and Art critic should judge architecture. Ideology Criticism, No 28 (3), pp. 301-314. appears to be above all other assumptions in Panofsky, E. (1955) Meaning in Visual Arts, aesthetic judgment. In this setting, a layman’s NewYork: DoubleDay Anchor Books. position is not different from the position of an Petrović, S. (1972) Estetika i ideologija: uvod u expert (architect, critic or aesthetician) if they metaestetiku, Beograd: Zodijak. both enter the limits of their own ideological Petrović, S. (1975) Estetika i sociologija: uvod u interpretations. Consequently, a personal savremenu sociologiju umetnosti, Beograd: institutional competence does not seem to be a Ideje. factor that exempts from susceptibility to Petrović, S. (1988) Socio-psihološka uslovljenost assumptions in aesthetic judgment. recepcije likovnog dela, Istra, No 5-6, Pula: Naučna biblioteka, str. 110-123.

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Nolit. teorije posle 1950, Beograd i Novi Sad: Srpska

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46 spatium

SPATIUM International Review UDC 338.48:502.131.1(497.11); No. 30, December 2013, pp. 47-53 Professional paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330047O

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN SERBIA – – ON THE WAY TO SUSTAINABILITY AND EUROPEAN INTEGRATION

Violeta Orlović-Lovren1, University of Belgrade, Faculty of Philosophy, Department for Andragogy, Belgrade, Serbia Tijana Crnčević, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia Saša Milijić, Institute of Architecture and Urban & Spatial Planning of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia

The aim of the paper is to contribute to improvement of tourism policy and practice in Serbia towards defining and implementing sustainability principles and meeting European integration requirements. It encompasses short review of international implications on Serbian tourism policy and legislation. Current policy and its sustainability are analyzed using two indicators: application of integrated (cross sector) and local community approach, with particular focus on tourism, environmental and planning documents. There is general orientation towards sustainability and involvement of local community into the planning and implementation of projects in the field. Precisely defined mechanisms for public participation and integrated approach, first of all mainstreaming of environmental issues into tourism strategic document, are preconditions for reaching country’s sustainability goals and EU integration orientation. Points that should be improved are suggested and the need for mutual cooperation and capacity development of stakeholders at all levels, including further international support, strongly advocated. Key words: Tourism policy; environment; sustainability; European integration.

people travelling abroad, owning to the policy and legislation support, as well as 1 INTRODUCTION introduction of visa–free travel throughout EU international assistance, mainly through Natural values, cultural heritage and hospitality countries for Serbian citizens (since 2010). projects and consulting that resulted in strategic documents and recommendations for of people are among major appeals recognized At the national level, there is a Department for further growth. by the strategic documents in Serbia and Tourism within the Ministry of Finance and official statements of policy makers in the field Economy of Serbia, the National Tourism of tourism. Organization of Serbia, dealing with promotion IMPLICATIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY For the Government of Serbia, tourism is one and market research of tourism, and National PRINCIPLES ON SERBIAN TOURISM of the priority areas in further socioeconomic Corporation for Tourism Development POLICY supporting implementation of the Tourism development and also important for its reform Being signatory of numerous global and EU Strategy and tourism development. At the local within the process of accession. At the same conventions and agreements, Serbia has taken level, there are municipalities and, in some time, the progress made towards EU responsibility for their implementation in cases, local tourist organizations, mainly integration during the last years provides accordance with sustainability principles funded by local authorities. The tourism important conditions and requirements for embedded in each of the documents. Starting planning and development, including human tourism development. In 2008, Serbia signed from the globally accepted Millennium capacities and infrastructure, is under way the 'Stabilization and Association Agreement' Development Goals, through the Convention on and in 2012, its candidate status was mainly at the national level. approved. Number of foreign tourists is Despite the challenges faced inside the increasing in Serbia, as well as the number of This paper is a part of research conducted through the country, as well as the crisis and global Scientific project “Sustainable Spatial Development of recession influencing tourism market in Serbia Danube Region in Serbia” (TR 36036), financed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Serbia 1Čika Ljubina 18-20, 11000 Beograd, Serbia as elsewhere since 2008, the efforts have been from 2011 to 2014. [email protected] made in developing this sector, providing the

spatium 47 Orlović-Lovren V. et al.: Tourism Development in Serbia - on the Way to Sustainability and European Integration

Biological Diversity with its Guidelines on crucial preconditions for sustainable tourism. Institutions (MFIs): Council of Europe Biodiversity and Tourism developed in 2004, Development Bank (CEB), European Bank for Useful guidelines for developing plans and Serbian policy and approach in developing Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), projects in the field of sustainable tourism can sustainable tourism is under unavoidable European Investment Bank (EIB), Nordic also be found in documents describing policy of implications of the broad set of documents, Environment Finance Corporation (NEFCO) and European donors and banks, with funds available adopted at the national level over the past few Nordic Investment Bank (NIB). It is founded on for Serbian governmental institutions, private and years. Receiving the status of EU candidate their commitment to promote and ensure non-governmental organizations initiating country, Serbia is to comply with principles and sustainable development and environmental infrastructure and development projects. Among directions developed by the EU over the past few principles, practices and standards associated the others, there is a possibility for Member States years. The European Union Strategy for with financing the projects. and all Regions to finance tourism projects Sustainable Development (EU SDS), developed through the European Regional Development For projects located in the Member States of by the European Council, adopted in 2001 and Fund, the Cohesion funds (the European Regional the EU, the European Economic Area countries, revised in 2006 and 2009 (EU SDS, 2012) is an Development Fund and the European Social the EU Acceding, Accession, Candidate and umbrella document. Specific guidelines for the Fund), the European Agricultural Fund for Rural potential Candidate Countries, the EU approach, policy development and practice towards Development, the European Fisheries Fund, the which is defined in the EC Treaty and the relevant sustainability and EU integration are suggested 7th EC Framework Program for Research, secondary legislation is the logical and mandatory by the most relevant documents for sustainable Technological Development and Demonstration reference. The projects in this region should also tourism developed recently at the European activities ( the key priority on climate change comply with any obligation and standards level, such as the Declaration on Ecotourism includes impacts on tourism) – and in the upheld in relevant Multilateral Environmental (2002), Declaration on Climate Change and ‘Leonardo da Vinci’ Program. Agreements (Multilateral agreement of Tourism (Davos Declaration), as well as the European investment banks, 2013). Agenda for a Sustainable and Competitive Since the Instrument for Pre-accession European Tourism (2007). Assistance (IPA) is one of the main funding Since one of them, the European Bank for mechanisms of the EU for the accession Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) is Some of the common messages embedded in countries, it is important to consider its present in Serbia providing funds for projects the above mentioned documents are very Strategic Coherence Framework (SCF) in different fields, including tourism, it is of important for developing the approach and document, setting Serbia’s economic, social particular interest for policy makers and strategic foundation for sustainable tourism in and environmental development goals for the implementers to understand, respect and Serbia. As it was stated ‘sustainable tourism is EU programming period of 2012-2013. It comply with the principles they incorporate positive approach intended to reduce the emphasizes the importance of the environment into its Social and Environmental Policy - tensions and frictions created by the complex in tourism development in terms of protection ranking the financing of sustainable interactions between the tourism industry, of natural values, but also in terms of development projects among the highest visitors, the environment and the communities improving the waste and water management priorities. The Bank has defined a set of specific which are host to holidaymakers...i.e. it is an and environmental services crucial for “both Performance Requirements (“PRs”) that clients approach which involves working for the long- economic development and societal well- are expected to meet, covering key areas of term viability and quality of both natural and being, and their sustainability” (SCF - Third environmental and social impacts and issues. human resources. It is not antigrowth, but it Draft, Government of Serbia, 2011). Under each of the PRs, there are objectives, acknowledges that there are limits to growth.’ scope and specific steps and activities (Bramwell & Lane, 1993:2). Therefore, taking Implementing the policy and projects in Serbia described in order to provide clear guidance for into consideration that ‘tourism will today and in the future needs a significant project holders and stakeholders. Though all the grow…main task is not to limit growth but to support, both technical and financial, to principles are important for achieving manage growth in a way that is appropriate to tourism, as well as to other fields of sustainability, a particular attention in the Policy, the tourists, the destination environment and development. Therefore, it is very important to and from the point of view of this analysis, is the host population’ (Liu, 2003:472). consider the European Principles for the given to the PR 1 and PR 10 and their mutual Environment (EPE) as an initiative of the five In achieving both competitive and sustainable interrelationship as presented in Table 1. signatory European-based Multilateral Financing tourism it is necessary to apply mechanisms and principles based on a “quadruple bottom Table 1. Mutual interrelationship between the Performance Requirements (EBRD,2013) line” – integration of three pillars of sustainability and emerging climate change Environmental and Social Appraisal and Information Disclosure and Stakeholder Engagement issue, promoted by the Davos Declaration Management (PR 1) (PR 10) (Davos Declaration – Climate Change and Tourism: Responding to Global Challenges, To identify and assess environmental and social To identify people or communities that are or could 2012). It requires integrated approach, impacts and issues, both adverse and beneficial, be affected by the project, as well as other interested collaboration and solidarity at international, associated with the project. parties. national and local levels. The development of To adopt measures to avoid, or where avoidance is To ensure that such stakeholders are appropriately not possible, minimize, mitigate, or engaged on environmental and social issues that sustainable tourist destination is interlinked offset/compensate for adverse impacts on workers, could potentially affect them through a process of with natural and social environment, as well as affected communities, and the environment. information disclosure and meaningful consultation. with wellbeing for all. Raising awareness, To identify and, where feasible, adopt opportunities To maintain a constructive relationship with education, participation, mutual policy to improve environmental and social performance. stakeholders on an ongoing basis through integration and financial support, as well as To promote improved environmental and social meaningful engagement during the project consumers’ responsibility, are some of the performance through a dynamic process of implementation. performance monitoring and evaluation.

48 spatium Orlović-Lovren V. et al.: Tourism Development in Serbia - on the Way to Sustainability and European Integration

Based on findings of the environmental and INTEGRATED APPROACH IN general orientation of the country to direct social appraisal and on the results of SERBIAN TOURISM RELATED development towards the balance between consultations with affected stakeholders, the POLICY three “pillars” of sustainable development. It is clients, it may be required to develop and also obvious in priorities set up by the implement a program for mitigation and By “integrated approach” in this paper we Document, promoting European membership performance improvement measures and consider a cross sector approach and in the first place. The importance of integrating actions that address the identified social and integration of issues and goals of other sectors the measures and goals of the policies of environmental issues, impacts and into tourism policy and legislation. Having in different sectors has been generally opportunities in the form of an Environmental mind close link between tourism and the emphasized, and in particular regarding those and Social Action Plan (ESAP). environment, first of all in terms of sustainable concerning the environmental protection and use of resources and protection of biodiversity, sustainable use of natural resources. The Other EU funding institutions, including the EIB our analysis will mainly focus on relationship Strategy identifies threats of “unsustainable” and the Commission itself, the World Bank, between environmental and tourism strategies tourism development to the protection of USAID and other donors active in Serbia, have and legislation in Serbia. natural resources, but also recognizes that adopted similar policies promoting social cor- there are solid institutional capacities for porate responsibility and/or sustainable deve- Environmental policy and legislation sustainable tourism development in Serbia. lopment principles/requirements from clients. Under the influences of European and The National Biodiversity Strategy for the Besides direct investments in business field or international trends and requirements, Serbia period of 2011-2018 (Ministry of environment budget funding, there is a potential opportunity to joined a majority of relevant conventions and and spatial planning, 2011) recognizes secure finances for sustainable tourism through multilateral agreements in the field of the necessity of integrating biodiversity into other international/European projects and by connecting environment in the second half of the 20th policies and sectors. It identifies relationships with organizations through international century, and especially in the first decade of between biodiversity and economy, expressing specialized networks, thus fostering the the 21st century, adjusting its policy and the need of biodiversity sector to provide implementation and promotion of principles of legislation to the global and in particular EU guidelines for economic valorization of sustainable tourism and mechanisms of public requirements. Following that, in 2004, Serbian biodiversity and ecosystem services participation in the field. One of such networks government adopted the set of environmental assessment for the sake of environmental, has been created within the European Charter for laws, including the systemic Law on social and economic benefits of community. Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas. Gathering Environmental Protection and three specific Social aspects are being mentioned, but not members from 36 European countries, the Charter documents: Law on Strategic Impact equally embedded. Though it recognizes stimulates strategic and action planning of Assessment (SIA), updated Law on importance of revenues coming from tourism sustainable tourism, aiming at ‘...the protection of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and to protected areas, the Strategy defines tourism the natural and cultural heritage and the the Law on Integrated Prevention and Control of and outdoor activities as direct threats to continuous improvement of tourism in the Environmental Pollution. The systemic law and biodiversity (Draft / Strategy on Sustainable protected area in terms of the environment, local SIA/EIA define that the Spatial Plan of Republic Use of Natural Resources, 2012). population and businesses, as well as visitors’ of Serbia and National Strategy for Sustainable (Europarc Federation – European Charter for The development process of the (Draft) Use of Natural Resources and Goods make the Sustainable Tourism, 2013:4). Strategy for Sustainable Use of Natural national planning basis for the sustainable use Resources and Goods has been guided by the The Charter and the Charter Network is of natural resources and protected areas, while sustainable development as the main principle. coordinated by the EUROPARC Federation. Serbia urban planning provides plans for integrated Economic and social impacts of the Strategy is involved in work of the Federation, with national environmental protection (Maksin et al., 2011). are analyzed within the separate chapter, and nature park management and governmental New set of environmental laws was adopted in related to demographic, macroeconomic and bodies as members. In 2011, the Đerdap National 2009, covering seven specific fields: nature economic trends. However, tourism has not Park was hosting the 7th Charter Network Meeting protection, waste management, packaging and been mentioned at all in the Draft (Ibid.). on “Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: packaging waste, air protection, noise Building bridges - Seeking Solutions”. protection, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation As already mentioned above, The Law on protection. Environmental Protection (RS Official Gazette Above briefly reviewed sustainability principles No 135/2004; 36/2009), as a systemic law, embedded in global and European strategies, The most relevant strategies, such as the sets up the basis for an integral environmental governmental and business/international National Biodiversity Strategy (2011) and the system in Serbia. It also promotes linkages organizations’ policies, have been considered (Draft) Strategy for Sustainable Use of Natural with other sectors, guided by the principles of in order to provide context for further analysis Resources and Goods (2011) were developed integration and sustainable development: of the strategic and legislative framework for after above mentioned laws instead prior to it. sustainable tourism in Serbia. Among the main Still, those documents, as well as the National • Integration principle state authorities, those of sustainability principles, for the sake of this Strategy on Sustainable Development (2008), the autonomous province and local self- analysis, we are going to concentrate on the provide a solid strategic basis for the governance units, shall provide the integration following: integrated (cross-sector) approach sustainable tourism development in the of environmental protection and enhancement and the local community participation. country. into all sectoral policies by implementing mutually harmonized plans and programs and The National Strategy on Sustainable by implementing regulations through permit Development of RS (Official Gazette of system, technical and other standards and Republic of Serbia, No, 57/09) is based on norms, by financing through incentives and

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other measures of environmental protection. From the perspective of cross sector approach implemented by participating UN agencies • Principle of sustainable development - the and sustainability principles, the Strategy 2006 (UNDP, UNEP, FAO, UNWTO and UNICEF) and sustainable development is a harmonized needs significant improvements. Sustainable national partners, namely the Ministry of system of technical/technological, economic development principles are not clearly present Economy and Regional Development, Ministry and social activities in the overall development, as guidelines and the foundation of the of Agriculture, Forestry and Water where the natural and acquired values of the Tourism Strategy of Serbia. Management, and Tourism Organization of Serbia). It makes the basis for development of Republic are used in a cost-efficient and One of the four goals formulated in the Strategy the Rural Tourism Master Plan of Serbia. reasonable manner, in order to preserve and is the following: “By means of tourism, and in enhance the quality of the environment for the the best interest of the tourism development, By Environmental Goals of this document, it is present and future generations. Serbia must assure the long term protection of strongly recognized and suggested that rural The Law on Nature Protection (RS Official natural and cultural resources” (The Ministry of tourism should be developed as “…catalyst to Gazette No 36/2009; 88/2010) has clear and Economy and Finance of Serbia, 2012). Natural preserve, protect and manage natural and strong focus on sustainability principles, first values and protected areas are also estimated as cultural assets in rural areas, minimizing of all on sustainable use of resources, as well an important and solid basis for tourism pressures on biodiversity and by supporting as on integrated protection. It relates to the development by public policy groups consulted the sustainable usage of biological resources sector of spatial and urban planning and, during the development of the Strategy: in Rural Tourism projects…with respect to the indirectly, to other sectors relevant for according to results of the survey on character, the value and the carrying capacity protection and use of natural resources. environmental aspects, “…clean and preserved of the existing rural landscape”. (Spanish Mdg However, it does not specify precisely enough nature and beauty of the landscape” (Ibid.) is Achievement Fund - Joint Programme the possible links to tourism sector, but rather estimated by 3 on the scale from 1-5. At the Sustainable Tourism For Rural Development, defines relationships to organized visits and same time, in the same survey, the awareness of 2010). recreation activities in and around the the local population about the importance of the By its Social Strategy, the document focuses protected areas preservation of the natural and cultural heritage on the role that Rural Tourism should play in is marked by the lowest number – 1. The above selected and briefly analyzed addressing social issues in rural Serbia such environmental documents reflect modern While natural values and protected areas are as unemployment, depopulation and the international trends and European requirements seen as important resources for tourism disempowerment of women and the youth. towards sustainability, first of all a general development, and its integrated management Among other measures, the Strategy proposes orientation to strive for a balance between as one of the preconditions for its the following: environmental, social and economic sustainability, it is not recognized as one of the • To use rural tourism as a catalyst to drive the development. Looking at promotion of integrated key elements of tourism product branding. The diversification of the rural economy; approach as criteria in our analysis, it may be expansion of protected area over the territory of concluded that the Law on Environmental Serbia may be considered as one of the • To provide training and skills development; Protection is the closest to its fulfillment, while measures of its biodiversity protection, and • To activate the participation of women, youth in other documents there is still tendency to look that is the only, indirect, link found in the and other disadvantaged groups in Rural at tourism as a potential threat to the protection Strategy between biodiversity and tourism Tourism; of natural resources and not as a potential for the development. • To revitalize rural schools. sustainable development and use. Climate change, mitigation or adaptation, as well The rural tourism economic and tourism Tourism policy and legislation as some other environmental issues of global demand goals suggested in this document are importance (energy efficiency, renewable as follows: The most relevant strategies and legislation in resources and their sustainable use) are not the field of tourism in Serbia have been mentioned in the Strategy at all. In respect to the • Increase the demand for overnights; developed and adopted over the last ten years, climate change problem, it should be also noted • Increase revenues from rural tourism activities; supported by foreign technical and financial that the current legal framework is not fully • Increase occupancy rates of rural aid. However, as it was stated, the “plan supportive (Crnčević et al., 2011). accommodation. implementation is still at the low level, and aspects of economic development in trans- The concept of sustainable tourism is generally The Strategy is clearly guided by the global border cooperation are insufficiently recognized, though not directly mentioned, development goals (Millennium Development promoted” (Dabić et al., 2009:239). neither its principles systematically mainstreamed Goals, targeting in particular goals 1,7 and 8 ), EU into the Strategy. Economic development is accession principles and general principles of The Tourism Strategy of the Republic of Serbia predominant as a goal of the Strategy, aimed first sustainable development, defining the linkage of was adopted in 2006. The Project aimed at the of all at the development of competitiveness of rural tourism with environmental, social and other Support to Implementation of the National clusters and at the provision of “accommodation segments of economic sectors. Strategy for Tourism (2010-2012), funded by supply” in “undiscovered” areas (among which EU and performed in close cooperation with national parks and nature parks). The Tourism Law of Serbia (RS Official Gazette the Department for Tourism of the Ministry of No 36/2009,88/2010,99/2011), adopted in Economy and Finance as the main beneficiary, The Strategy for Sustainable Rural Tourism 2009 with updates from 2010 and 2011, is resulted in recommendations for updating “… Development in Serbia/Main Report - The based on the following principles: Document is developed within the MDG-F the Strategy related policies in line with best 1) integrated development of tourism and EU practice” (Support to the Implementation of Joint Program (JP) Sustainable Tourism for Rural Development in Serbia, being related activities as factors ofoverall economic the National Strategy for Tourism, 2012). and social development in line with the law

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provides for the implementation of mutually − Except for the Rural Tourism Development opportunities to be informed and involved in harmonized plans and programs; Strategy of Serbia, environmental issues are decision making on issues relevant for their 2) sustainable development of tourism only partially incorporated into the segments everyday life, and to government institutions and as a harmonized system of technical, of tourism documents and regulation; project holders new, sometimes complex, technological,economic and social activities protection of natural resources and protected responsibilities. In planning, as defined by Article based on economic development,preservation area expansion is accepted and promoted, 13 of the Tourism Law, the Strategic Master Plan of natural and cultural goods, preservation and but their sustainable use and relationship is a crucial document for “drafting spatial and development of the local community. between tourism and climate change, waste urban plans at the priority tourist destinations and management, energy efficiency and other tourism areas” as these plans shall establish The planning documents which should important issues, as recommended by “conditions for the construction of tourism contribute to the integrated planning of tourism relevant global and European documents, infrastructure facilities”. However, it should be and which should be harmonized with the ares not adequately emphasized and stated that the Law on Planning and Construction Tourism Development Strategy of the Republic involved; (Official Gazette of RS No 72/09, 81/09-change, of Serbia are specified in Article 5 of the Law 64/10-US, and 24/11) does not oblige the as follows: − At the strategy level, there is focus on predominance of one sector, despite the developer of the Plan to cooperate with the local 1) Tourism Development Strategy of the efforts to promote integrated approach to the community and civil society who live in the Republic of Serbia; development. For example, the National vicinity (Petovar, Jokić, 2011:10). Also, one of the 2) Strategic Master Plan; Biodiversity Strategy establishes links with limitations for public participation in decision making in Serbia is a lack of experience and 3) Strategic Marketing Plan; goals of economic development, stressing the need to support it by providing knowledge about techniques and methods, as 4) Program for the development of tourist guidelines for economic valorization of well as insufficiently developed mechanisms products; biodiversity and ecosystem services, and its and procedures for public participation in 5) Program for the development of tourism; sustainable use; however, at the same time, decision making. 6) Program of promotional activities. tourism is defined as one of the direct threats However, it should be stated that in recent years The most direct reference to protected nature to biodiversity conservation; the Strategy for initiatives have been taken to mobilize public areas and resources is made within the Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and awareness of various programmes and actions for proclamation of a tourist area, where listed in Goods (draft) relates to many other sectors, protecting the environment and implementing the contents of feasibility study (necessary part without precisely mentioning the tourism in sustainable development strategies such as the of proclamation documentation), in case there the entire text; from the side of tourism, with Local Environmental Action Programmes (LEAP) are some natural areas/goods on the territory of the exception of (drafted) strategies and and Local Agendas (LA21) (Crnčević, 2007). For particular tourism area (Article 17). Other programs for the Sustainable Rural Tourism, these, strong support of local authorities and environmental issues are not involved in this economic sectors and related goals are population has been reported, together with that of document. predominant to other sectors, including the foreign donors. environmental sector. Despite the above presented principles, this In strategies for tourism, rural tourism and Law applies to integral (the level of tourism LOCAL COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION natural resources development, there is a sector) rather than integrated approach. general awareness of community issues and Environmental issues (links to the Involving of local community in planning, their rights to public participation. There is a environmental sector and planning) are not decision making and implementing of activities common understanding on the needs of the mainstreamed into the document. Sustainable has been largely embedded in relevant public to be informed and involved in the tourism development is mentioned only in the international documents and requirements of development. However, this is interpreted second general principle on which the Law is EU policy. In Serbia, as in many other mainly as being confined to levels of based, and therefore represents a declarative countries, this is reflected in all the documents information and consultation rather than to rather than truly cross sector orientation. regulating environmental and tourism sectors, specific instruments and mechanisms of including planning procedures. participation on an equal basis. Based on the above given analysis of both environmental and tourism-related strategic The Law on Access to Information, Public In the documents in both sectors, the focus on and legal documents, it can be concluded that Participation in Decision-Making and Access “stakeholders”, “public”, local authorities or NGO there is a general common orientation towards to Justice in Environmental Matters, adopted in (civil) sector, is much stronger than on local integrated approach. Incorporation of this, as Serbia in 2004, provides the platform for communities and specifically targeted groups. one of the main sustainability principles, varies public participation relevant in many aspects Local community issues are directly incorporated among the analyzed documents and between for tourism development. into, and elaborated in the most successful the sectors (tourism and environment): The Law on Environmental Protection, as well as manner within, the Draft National Strategy of Sustainable Use of Natural Resources and Goods − Mainstreaming of environmental issues into specific laws pertaining to the Strategic Environmental Assessment (Law on Strategic and in the Draft Sustainable Rural Tourism other sectors is strong point of Development Strategy. There is a general respect environmental strategies and regulation; it is Environmental Assessment, RS Official Gazette No 135/2004 and 88/2010) and Environmental for local culture, but not directly related to the somewhat more developed in relation to promotion of traditional knowledge in sustainable economy than to social issues in most of the Impact Assessment (Law on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), RS Official Gazette No development and use of resources, or local cases (except for the Sustainable communities sharing in economic and other Development Strategy); 135/2004, 36/2009) and those covering planning procedures, bring to Serbian society new benefits of tourism.

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There is also a general awareness of the close (2012), tourism resources need to be clearly permanent efforts in policy improvements and interrelationship between local community defined in the law in order to be protected. capacity development of all stakeholders participation, e.g. opportunities for decision Mutual cooperation in developing tourism through local, national and international making in tourism/sustainable development, management plans of protected areas and cooperation is a necessary precondition for and capacity development of all the actors. tourism and cultural sites is one of the achieving progress in practice. This is slightly better promoted in preconditions for the implementation of environmental documents (in the Law on sustainability in the practice. Such a practice References Environment Protection and in the Biodiversity needs to be founded on clearly defined Strategy) in terms of understanding that the sustainable principles in strategic and legal Bramwell, B., Lane, B. (1993) Sustainable process has to be supported by different forms documents and plans in all the sectors. Tourism: An Evolving Global Approach, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1:1, pp.1-5 of awareness raising and education of locals, in Also, the strong determination of the addition to financial mechanisms and Crnčević, T. (2007) Strategic Environmental professionals involved in tourism development incentives. It is recognized as responsibility of Assessment as an Instrument for Enhacement planning for cohesion between nature formal governmental institutions, but the of Public Participation in Planning, SPATIUM protection and tourism development should be provision of such support should be International Review, No.15/16, pp.72-76. mentioned, as well as spatial specificity of the coordinated, not only performed, by them. Crnčević, T., Marić, I., Josimović, B. (2011) country, national development policies, Strategic Environmental Assessment and applied models and concepts, while the CONCLUSIONS Climate Change in the Republic of Serbia – importance of trans-border cooperation is Support to development and adjustment The last decade brought improvements into highlighted (Krunić et al., 2010). process, SPATIUM International Review, No.26, pp.14-19. 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Received August 2013; accepted in revised form September 2013

spatium 53

SPATIUM International Review UDC 338.486.5(497.11); No. 30, December 2013, pp. 54-601- Professional paper DOI: 10.2298/SPAT1330054B

THE ROLE OF EVENT TOURISM STRATEGY OF SERBIA IN STRATEGIC PLANNING

Željko Bjeljac1, Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA, Belgrade, Serbia Marijana Pantić, Dresden University of Technology and Dresden Leibniz Graduate School - IÖR, Dresden, Germany Marko Filipović, Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA, Belgrade, Serbia

Tourist events represent not only a significant tourism potential, but also the touristic product of Serbia. There are approximately 2500 events every year, attended by several million visitors from Serbia and all around the world. Since the 1990s in the world and since the beginning of the 21st century in Serbia, the organization and development of events has become a significantly profitable activity. Certain countries developed event tourism strategies on the level of the country or on the regional level; in Serbia, the event tourism is mentioned in the national tourism development strategies and certain regional ones. This paper targets the need for development of Event Tourism Strategy on the level of Serbia. Key words: strategy, event tourism, Serbia.

industry. Events are, therefore, an essential strategic goals and priorities at the local and 1 INTRODUCTION element of the Tourism Strategy and Action national level. As a result, in March 2011, the According to Getz (1997, 2008), during the Plan of an area. group of organizers of business tourism events th of the Serbian Chamber of Commerce – the last decade of the 20 century, events have In Serbia, the importance of event tourism, as Board for Tourism, concluded that Serbia become an important tool for local well as economically prosperous type of needs an event tourism strategy. communities to gain advantage and fulfill a set tourism, started to increase only at the of economic, social and environmental beginning of the 21st century. It first appeared The methodology of constructing this paper objectives. The role and the impact of planned in strategic documents, such as the Tourism used questionnaires and interviews with events in the tourism industry are well Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia visitors and organizers of certain documented, and are of increasing importance (Horvat Consulting et al., 2005; 2006), in manifestations in Serbia, comparative analysis for the competitiveness of tourist destinations which this segment of tourism is observed as a of results obtained by field research presented on the market. Due to the increase in major global market potential, which in the ‘Strategy of tourism development in competitiveness among tourist destinations, contributes to the comeback of Serbia onto the Serbia – Events; comparative analysis of organization and development of events has international market, raising the level of certain foreign event strategies and the spatial become a significantly profitable activity. competitiveness and forming a stronger base analysis of tourist manifestations in Serbia’. Event tourism strategies have many objectives. for marketing. ‘In Serbia, there is a number of The primary objective of this paper is to They attempt to influence visitors’ perception traditional events, local events, festivals, analyze the possibility of forming the Strategy of the destination. Backman et al. (1995) celebrations and the like. In addition to the of Event Tourism in Serbia and to predict its highlight the potential of hosting large events popularity on the domestic market, some of effect on the spatial and regional development, as a means of shaping a positive image of a these events have the potential on the having in mind that Serbia is one of the destination. In some cases, event strategies are international market as well, where they have countries without this strategic document, reported to be an integral part of extending already gained a degree of popularity’(Horvat although there are numerous foreign examples tourism seasons (Baum and Hagen, 1999). Consulting et al., 2006:77). available. There are examples of worldwide event strategies (event tourism) at the national or Their ability to attract visitors, extend the visitor According to Bjeljac (2010), and Vodič kroz regional levels, such as: A National Business season, increase average spending and turističke manifestacije (2012), 1,600 to 2,500 Events Strategy for Australia 2020, National lengthen the average stay makes events an events are held in Serbia every year. Events are important tool in developing the tourism mostly similar to each other, economically and touristically unsustainable; there are no data on The paper represents the result of research on the Projects 1Đure Jakšića 9/III, 11000 Beograd, Serbia the number and structure of the visitors and the 47007 III and 47027III, financed by Ministry of Education, [email protected] events are frequently inconsistent with the Science and Tehnological Development of Republic of Serbia.

54 spatium Bjeljac Ž. et al.: The role of event tourism strategy of Serbia in strategic planning

Events Strategy for South Africa, National Events Subotica – 48 (2.0%), Bačka Palanka, Niš, (Table 1). They came to the conclusion that the Strategy for New Zealand, National Events Bečej and Sombor – 46 each (1.9%). existing presentation of tourist events and Strategy, Scotland; California Cultural Heritage products in Serbia is not adequate and do not Strategic Plan; Ontario Major Festivals and TOWARDS THE EVENT TOURISM correspond to the actual situation. Events Attraction Research Study; as well as the STRATEGY The criticism aims at an event definition by strategic plans for the development of the events Getz, given in the Tourism Development themselves, such as CARIFESTA festival, In 2011, the presidency of the Group accepted Strategy. It is unspecific and unacceptable for Guyana. In Australia, for example, there is a very the proposal to use the methodology of experts our requirements, while the definition by high level of investment in tourism marketing from the Geographical Institute ”Jovan Cvijić” Bjeljac is more appropriate (2006). This and the integration of key events into the national SASA, so as to categorize and classify tourist general definition does not distinguish between tourism organization’s domestic and events (Bjeljac, 2006, 2010). The group analyzed an event continuously going on as an international marketing strategy (Stokes, 2008). the Tourism Development Strategy (Section – Events) and compared it to event field research independent traditional event, or it being a THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF EVENT TOURISM Table 1. Comparative Analysis of Tourism Development Strategy and Event Research in the Field Tourism Development Strategy Research by G.I. “Jovan Cvijić” In the world literature, the most appropriate Tourists that attend events belong to the -The Rajac Haymaking, 2008, 352 interviewees* classification is the one given by Getz (1991, widest population, and they visit particular Origin: Belgrade (14.8%), Valjevo (13.1%), Inđija (12.2%), 1997, 2008), and was adopted by the team events during short breaks or as third 14.5% of foreigners that worked on the Tourism Development holidays. The age structure of tourists ranges 51.2% of the age group 60-69 and 70 and older. 59.6% travel Strategy, although there are several other from 18 to 55, with individuals being from more than five times a year. 18 to 25, groups from 25 to 35, and couples 1.7% came through travel agencies, definitions and classifications. In his between 45 and 55. 72.7% stayed for one day only, classification, Getz lists following events: 76.4% will spend up to 50 euros. cultural celebrations, arts/entertainment, The main motive is the specific event, in 63.6% were informed about the event by the visitors of the business/trade, displays (shows), sporting which they have taken part for several years. past Haymakings, events, family events, social events, The tourists are additionally motivated by 66.5% came because they wished to get to know the traditions educational, scientific, recreational and sites, shopping, gastronomy and nightlife. and customs of haymaking. 56.3% spent money on food and drinks political/state events. The shows, festivals, In terms of accommodation and -Shepherd-Days, Sakule (2009) 160 interviewees** manifestations, events and performances are transportation, the main motto is good value Origin: Belgrade (53.8%), Opovo (13.8) Pančevo (5.6%) just different conceptual nuances that indicate for money. Their stay lasts for three to five Age groups 60-69 (28.1%) and 20-29 (26.3%) a ‘period of a certain program with a specific days. The main source of information is the (35%) travel more than five times a year. content that is attractive for tourist visits’ Internet. 65.6% visited the event independently,

(Bjeljac, 2006:7). 88.6% stayed for one day. (32.5%) came for fun and company, Since the 1970s, a significant number of 61.9% spent money on food and drinks, scientists gave their contribution to defining 47.5% willing to spend up to 100 euros. 56.9% got the information from the previous visitors of concepts of event tourism (see Bjeljac 2006). In Shepherd days. his research of event tourism in Serbia, Bjeljac -Trumpet Festival, Guča (2010) 975 interviewees∗∗∗ (2006:8) defines tourism as a ‘public Origin: Belgrade (19%), Čačak (8.2%), Novi Sad (5.4%), performance in the form of an event or more 48.6% foreign visitors (Bosnia and Herzegovina (18.8%), events (with the same or different content), France (10.8%), Slovenia (9.3%). different categories of human achievement, that Age groups 20-29 (48.1%) and 30-39 (29.7%). stand out for their specificity and attractiveness, 28.4% travel more than five times a year, 97.4% came independently, have a tradition (permanency), achieving the 38.8% stayed for 5 and more days. goals and effects of tourism, and are organized For 61.6% entertainment was the motive for the visit, in areas that have an interest in them, with 44.9% came with friends, massive performances and public expression, 12.1% willing to spend about 200 euros: which are significant in scale, size, quality and 54.1% on entertainment; 53.6% got the information about the event from previous quantity of content, with a clear and prominent visitors. central theme and recognizable date of -Plum Days, Blace (2011) 304 interviewees∗∗∗∗ happening, which all results in profitability as Origin: Blace 19.4%; Belgrade 12.5%; Prokuplje 10.5%; part of a tourist destination’. foreign visitors 3.3%, 40.1% age group 20–29, Within Serbian tourist offer, event tourism is a 36.5% travel twice a year, type of tourism that can contribute to 14.1% motive for visit was entertainment, broadening touristic demand, particularly in 100.0% came independently, terms of natural and anthropogenic values of 16.1% willing to spend about 300 euros; tourist places or regions. The following cities 38.2% willing to spend money on food and drinks; 46.7% got the information about the event from previous and towns stand out in terms of the number of visitors events: Belgrade – 257 events (10.8%); Novi ∗ Brankov et al. (2009) Sad – 125 (5.2%), Pančevo – 102 (4.3%), ∗∗ Bjeljac and Brankov (2010) Čačak – 77 (3.2%), Kanjiža – 51 (2.2%), ∗∗∗Bjeljac et al. (2013) ∗∗∗∗ Lović et al. (2012)

spatium 55 Bjeljac Ž. et al.: The role of event tourism strategy of Serbia in strategic planning

continuous series of events that promote a independently, by personal transport, by car or maintenance, program content, number of tourism destination, such as various concerts, bus, except for the age group of 65 and over, visitors, invested funds and the motives of exhibitions, economic events, which are not who have the visits organized by the visitors (Bjeljac, 2006, 2010). Based on the necessarily linked thematically by content and associations of pensioners. The widest age complex and detailed analysis, the basic place, and are organized by the same organizer group is from 20 to 39. evaluation of this type of tourism was once a year. Not enough was done to make the undertaken (Bjeljac, 2006; Bjeljac and Positive examples of event tourism strategies definition more precise, as there are authors Brankov, 2008; Bjeljac and Ćurčić, 2010; can be used in forming the Event Tourism who gave more detailed definitions of an event. Goldblatt, 2000, Getz, 1997, 2008; Carlsen Strategy in Serbia, to be involved in the analysis et al., 2001). In addition, field research conducted by a team of the festival business model (organization of experts from the Geographical Institute structure, financial flows, stakeholders, This evaluation includes: content, origin of ”Jovan Cvijić” SASA in cooperation with the competition, business environment): an visitors and participants by rank, tradition organizers of individual events, shows different environmental scan (Social, Legal, Economic, (maintaining continuity), location, transport information (Table 1) than outlined in the Political, Technological, Meteorological, accessibility, time of the event, the number of Strategy. The Strategy does not contain a clear Demographic and Competitiveness issues) with visitors and participants, the artistic value of categorization and classification of events. It a SWOT analysis; identify and examine current the event, number of accompanying events, used, as discussed above, the classification of events and develop strategies to ensure they visitor and organizer satisfaction (Bjeljac, events by content, given by Getz (1991). The are promoted and incorporated within the 2006, 2010). This set of criteria has a grading Group believes that the appropriate overall strategy and aligned with other local scale from zero to five points. classification is the one proposed by the team and regional events where possible; develop It includes the impact of constructing capital of experts from the Geographical Institute marketing strategies, including the projects, environmental, economic, media and “Jovan Cvijić” SASA: children’s, economic, identification of target markets; accounting political influence, stakeholders relations, as religious, political, historical, ethnographic, events that are suitable for staging in larger well as evaluating cooperation with tourist entertainment, scientific-technical, sporting, cities, where accommodation and event organizations (Goldblatt, 2000; Bjeljac, 2006, artistic and touristic events, because they facilities exist, as well as in rural areas where 2010; Bjeljac and Brankov, 2008; Bjeljac and contain a more detailed subdivision of each events could highlight the specific attributes of Ćurčić, 2010). Economic impact analysis is group (Bjeljac, 2006; Vodič kroz turističke a region (National events strategy, 2009; one of the instruments that policy makers can manifestacije, 2012). Central coast festival, 2009). use to support effective decision making The Strategy was detailed on the basis of processes, by comparing the return on analyses of events worldwide, containing the THE FIRST STEPS TOWARDS THE investment into the events and their whole number of visitors, income, and jobs, but DEVELOPMENT OFEVENT TOURISM economic impact with alternative investments. omitting the example of Serbia. Only the major STRATEGY IN SERBIA (Della Lucia, 2013). All criteria were assessed events in Serbia were mentioned: EXIT (Novi before and after the event, and the grading Using the examples of the mentioned world Sad) and Trumpet Festival (Guča), and more scale is from zero to four points. strategies, the team from the Geographical than 300 local events, but without detailed Institute ”Jovan Cvijić” SASA, developed a Through these sets of criteria, events can be analyses. In the tourism clusters, as key categorization and classification, later adopted divided into three categories attractive for events, the Strategy listed (with no obvious by the Group of organizers of business tourism tourist visits: categorization criteria): EXIT (Novi Sad), events of the Serbian Chamber of Commerce – International Film Festival Palić, Vintage Days − The second category – events that are a Board for Tourism. This was undertaken in order and ‘Dužijanca’ (Subotica), summer theater significant element of the tourist offer to determine which of the traditional events have performances and horse races; film − The third category – other events where attractive tourist potential (the requirements to ceremonies and choral ceremonies (Niš), particular attention is paid to events in less become a motive for the arrival of visitors), as a Gitarijada (Zaječar), First Accordion developed regions of Serbia. first step towards a national strategy. (Sokobanja) Trumpet Festival (Guča), Tešnjar When the highest values of all geographic and Evenings (Valjevo), Carnival and Film Festival To make an event a successful tourism economic indicators of criteria are summed up, (Vrnjačka Banja), the Rajac Haymaking (Ljig), product, it is necessary to extract the the result is 116. Therefore, events that have Days of Comedy (Jagodina), conventions, fundamental elements that promote the 97 or more points belong to the first category conferences, trade shows, sporting events, product: the attractiveness and uniqueness, of tourist events, the second category gathers culture festivals, events at the Iron Gate, content, rank, tradition, quality of organization, events between 73 and 96 points, and the third ‘Golubački kotlić’. number of visitors, location, natural and category groups the events that have less than anthropogenic values of the location, as well as The Strategy predicts the arrival of large 73 points. the time and duration of the event. The more numbers of foreign tourists, while field studies events based on specific values, well planned, Based on the evaluation of tourist events, show that the largest number of visitors is from organized in an attractive location, and at a events that belong to the first and second the daily and half-daily gravity zone, where time convenient for visits, the more interesting category of tourist events are singled out. The foreigners are mostly from the former Yugoslav participants the program has, the greater the first category events are: Dragačevo Trumpet, states and the countries with the dominant value of the event as a tourism product will be. Guča (115 points), EXIT, Novi Sad (114), the Serbian diaspora. The largest number of Rajac Haymaking, Ljig (110), the International visitors is informed about the event by the All events that are of importance to tourism can Agricultural Fair, Novi Sad, Vintage Days, Vršac visitors of previous event editions and through be valorized by: origin of performance, (with 108 each), International Book Fair, the Internet. In addition, most visitors arrive durability at the same venue, the nature of Belgrade (106), Days of Beer, Zrenjanin (105)

56 spatium Bjeljac Ž. et al.: The role of event tourism strategy of Serbia in strategic planning

Vuk Karadžić Days in Tršić (104), International The SWOT analysis was used as a means for the strategic document on the development Hunting, Fishing, Sports and Tourism Fair, Novi this paper, which is the second step in the of this product; Sad (101), International Tourism Fair Belgrade strategic planning process in order to improve − Organize training of employees in culture, (100), Accordion Championship - Sokobanja the quality of this product. Based on the SWOT tourism and education on the following (98) and Dužijanca, Subotica (97 points). analysis, solutions are given to remedy topics: managing events, finding funds to deficiencies and risks, and the conclusions and The listed events, passing national boundaries finance events, promotions, effective recommendations were drafted for the and gaining affirmation in the international organization of events, preservation of local development of products based on the benefits market, positively stand out and have become values, and cultural identity of the places in and opportunities that the participants of the recognized brands whose attractiveness which the events take place...). workshop defined. During registration, increases, and the economic effects rapidly − Development of event clusters in Serbia participants have indicated the number and increase revenues from tourism. type of events they organize during the year. − Pass laws or by-laws to regulate the place and role of event tourism in Serbia and The second category includes: Vintage Days, The most common strengths were geo- relieve the organizers of unnecessary fees Sremski Karlovci (96 points); Bacon Festival, transport position, rich cultural, historical and and permits; Kačarevo (94); Serbian Assembly of Folklore natural heritage, tendency of the Serbian and Oplenac Vintage, Topola and ‘Brankovo − Create a special event tourism strategy in people towards celebrations and festivals, Kolo’, Sremski Karlovci (93); Barbecue Serbia. enthusiasm and tendency towards Festival, Leskovac (91); Folklore Festival Vršac volunteerism. The most common weaknesses (88), Harvest Festivities of the Carpathian SPATIAL ASPECTS IN CREATION OF listed the following: professional specialization Basin, Gornji Breg; BITEF, Belgrade; Pumpkin (event management, strategic planning, etc.), EVENT TOURISM STRATEGY IN Days, Kikinda (87); The Guitar Festival, Zaječar main capacities (venues), small share of SERBIA (85); the Autumn in Smederevo (83); Harvest foreign visitors, politicization in every sense, Days, Palić; Sausage Festival, Turija; The term “territorial cohesion” was used in the inadequate promotional materials and Children’s festival ‘Zmajeve dečije igre’, Novi Second Progress Report on Economic and infrastructure. The following were pinpointed as Sad (81); Joy of Europe, Belgrade (80) Cultural Social Cohesion (CEC, 2003) for the first time potentials: the increase in the number of foreign Festivities, Vrnjačka Banja; Folklore Festival in the context of European development. tourists in Serbia, creating brands out of certain ‘Prođoh Levač, prođoh Šumadiju’, Rekovac; However, the term “balanced spatial events, tourist valorization of events, education BEMUS, Belgrade (79); Marble and Sounds, development” has been used in the past, when of event organizers. External threats are: Aranđelovac; Pudar Days, Irig; Danube TID the Ministers of the European Union, inadequate attention to the eco system, abuse of regatta; Belgrade Marathon (78); Vintage Days, responsible for spatial issues, set it as a goal events and the existence of ”unregistered Aleksandrovac; Sterija’s Theatre, Novi Sad (77); in 1994, and later accepted it in the document services“ (during certain events, prices of food, Shepherd Days, Kosjerić; Slovakian Folk European Spatial Development Perspective drinks, accommodation, taxi services, etc. are Festivities, Bački Petrovac (76); Kovačica (CEC, 1999). Since then, territorial cohesion higher), low purchasing power of the population, October; Vuk’s Council, Tršić (75); Mokranjac and balanced spatial development have overproduction of similar events, loss of local Days, Negotin; Jazz Festival, Kanjiža; Night of become an integral part of a number of key cultural identity and values. Museums; International Nautical Faire, Belgrade; European documents such as the Guiding Cultural Summer, Sokobanja; Serbian Statehood Based on the results of the SWOT analysis, we Principles for Sustainable Development day, Orašac; Ljubičevo Horse Games, can conclude: (CEMAT, 2000), Territorial Agenda (EU, 2007), Požarevac (74); Nisomnia, Niš; A Great School − It is necessary to replace the enthusiasm of Lisbon Treaty (CEC, 2007), Green Paper on Lesson, Kragujevac (73 points). the employees in organizing events by Territorial Cohesion (CEC, 2008), etc. The third category gathers other traditional professionalism (professional staff with This approach starts from the fact that the events. Most of these events have a potential specialized knowledge and skills in diversity of regions is an advantage to be for tourism, but do not fully meet the criteria, management, strategic planning, preserved, thus improving balance in the first of all economically. In this category, there promotions, advertising, funding...); economic, demographic and social capacities. are 107 significant traditional events that take − Establish a data collection methodology to This is also expected to reduce the difference place in the 26 least economically developed explore the tourism market (number of between the areas used beyond the limits of municipalities in Serbia. These events are the visitors by gender, age, country of origin, sustainability on the one hand, and abandoned basis for the development of tourism, but also income from events, and grade of areas of emigration on the other. satisfaction of visitors); for other sectors of the economy in In line with the pan-European aspirations, underdeveloped regions in Serbia. − Strengthen cooperation between the public Spatial Development Strategy of the Republic and private sectors; Ministry of Economy and Regional of Serbia (RASP, 2009) and the Spatial Plan of Development (Ministry of Finance and − Establish coordination between the event the Republic of Serbia (RASP, 2010) supported Economy of the Republic of Serbia, organizers and local and national authorities the model of balanced territorial development. Department of Tourism) and the Group of as well as with other stakeholders (media Moreover, both documents are based on the organizers of business tourism events of the and other organizers of the event, the tourism principles proclaimed in the Guiding Principles Serbian Chamber of Commerce – Board for industry, transport...); (CEMAT, 2000) and the Territorial Agenda (EU, Tourism, organized a workshop in the period − Event integrating and networking (horizontal 2007), setting the promotion of territorial from December 2011 until September 2012 on and vertical integration); cohesion as an objective. Accordingly, the the following topic: ”Improving the Quality of − Adopt rules of categorization, classification spatial development of Serbia aims at reducing Tourism Product - Manifestations”. and evaluation of tourism events, as well as the significant regional differences.

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In reality, the process of socio-economic transition and transformation of management in Serbia has repeatedly failed in the use and quality of strategic thinking, which led to a neglect of the role of long-term (strategic) decisions (Vujošević, 2010). In the above mentioned transformation process, the spatial aspect in the development of sectoral and strategic papers was ignored (Maksin and Milijić, 2010). Thus, Serbia can be classified among European countries with the largest regional differences in terms of socio-economic indicators, according to the intensity of resource use, and thus the use of the entire territorial capital (Vujošević, 2010). A share of responsibility for the violation of territorial cohesion and spatial balance belongs to the limited approach to the creation of sector documents, whereas other aspects are not examined, including the spatial ones (Maksin- Mićić et al., 2009). For these reasons, the significance and role of the strategic thinking on the subject of event tourism in Serbia are clearly highlighted, including the consideration of the physical/spatial aspect. In the previous section, the evaluation of events in Serbia is presented in three categories. When their distribution is visually represented (Figure 1), it becomes obvious that events are not territorially balanced, i.e. some regions and/or their parts are leaders in comparison to Figure 1: Serbia - Distribution of events by priority (in municipalities and regions) others. The Southern and Eastern Serbia Source: elaborated by Marijana Pantić regions, territorially the most spacious, lag far behind with the number of municipalities where the first and second category events are Southern and Eastern Serbia, and that Babušnica, Pirot and Dimitrovgrad in the held, in comparison to Vojvodina, Šumadija, generally, in each region, with the exception of second; Bosilegrad, Bujanovac, Preševo, and Western Serbia. Belgrade, there are groups of municipalities Surdulica and Trgovište in the third zone), and In fact, when valorization points are added by that do not hold any first, nor the second the remaining zone covers the regions of region, Vojvodina, Šumadija and Western category events. Šumadija and Western Serbia on the one side (Despotovac, Lapovo, Paraćin, Svilajnac, Ćuprija Serbia are leaders, with 1308 and 1032 points Here, the Belgrade region is an exception and Ćićevac) and Southern and Eastern Serbia ahead of Belgrade region, which gathered 754 because the small territorial range contains a on the other (Golubac, Kučevo, Petrovac and points, and the regions of Southern and Eastern large number of municipalities, and the entire Žagubica). Broken down by regions, the territory Serbia, with 730 points. When the comparison region can be roughly considered as one of Belgrade is completely covered by events, the between regions is made, only by criterion of municipality. Thus, Figure 2 separates seven territory of Vojvodina, about 90%, Šumadija and the first category events, the differences are groups of municipalities, adjacent to each other, Western Serbia, and Southern and Eastern even more significant: Vojvodina is the best and at the same time none of them bordering Serbia around 70%. positioned, having almost twice as many points with the municipality in which the significant as Šumadija and Western Serbia (633:329), event(s) is/are held. If these groups, in terms of So, according to the number of evaluation points three times as much as Belgrade (633:206), territorial cohesion disruption, are given the (for the first category events) and the number of and even six times as much as the Southern name of critical zones, it can be concluded that critical zones, regions of Southern and Eastern and Eastern Serbia (633:99). there is one of these zones in the region of Serbia seem to be the weakest. In contrast, the Therefore, Vojvodina leads convincingly, while Vojvodina (Apatin, Bač, Kula, Odžaci and Šid region of Vojvodina is best ranked in terms of all the Southern and Eastern Serbia is the worst municipalities), two in Šumadija and Western the relevant criteria and, observed through the positioned, particularly with regard to events of Serbia (Bogatić, Koceljeva, Osečina and prism of first-class events, it noticeably stands major importance (first category events). Ljubovija in the first zone; Čajetina, Priboj, Nova out from other regions. Varoš, Sjenica, Tutin and Novi Pazar in the Therefore, the creation of Event Tourism Also, Figure 1 shows that only one second zone), three in the region of Southern Development Strategy in Serbia should be municipality, in which events held are in the and Eastern Serbia (Blace, Kuršumlija and approached with an awareness of the existing first category, belongs to the region of Prokuplje in the first zone; Bela Palanka, regional imbalances and it is vital for the

58 spatium Bjeljac Ž. et al.: The role of event tourism strategy of Serbia in strategic planning

Strategy to introduce policies that would reduce these differences. Particular attention should be paid to strengthening the critical zones of all the regions, and most of all, the regions of Southern and Eastern Serbia, and also to Belgrade region from which it would be expected to have a leading role in the organization of first class events. The advantage of current state of event tourism in Serbia is that the two most successful festivals have been held in two different regions and grounded on different topics. Guča Trumpet Festival, based on Serbia/Balkan musical heritage, promotes entertainment typical of Serbia, while Exit Festival represents a prototype of originally west European/American music and festivities. Both events together also confirm that other festivals in Serbia should not be thematically limited. Concerning the spatial aspect, beside Belgrade and Novi Sad, other big cities in Serbia – Niš and Kragujevac can be suitable for events based on world-wide trends, while other cities and towns can take over the leading role in local tradition based events. Involvement in this field, especially branding and certification of small events, would contribute to the realization of the aspirations proclaimed in the first phase report of the Serbian Tourism Strategy (Horvat Consulting et al., 2005), which states: ‘The Republic of Serbia cannot and should not count on tourism Figure 2: Serbia – distribution of critical zones Source: elaborated by Marijana Pantić in isolated oases for the guests, but, on the contrary, the system should provide interesting tourist experiences on its entire territory’ (Horvat Consulting et al., 2005, p. 6). Šumadija and Western Serbia and South and Baum Baum, T., Hagen, L. (1999) Responses to Eastern Serbia regions where the analysis has seasonality, The experiences of peripheral destinations, International journal of tourism CONCLUSION shown weaknesses in terms of the number of events and their visitors, but also to other research, Vol. 1, pp. 299–312. The results of the field research analysis of event regions covering all seven critical zones and Backman, K. S., Backman, M., Uysal, K. M. S. visitors, and the comparison of this field research Belgrade, which can be expected to fulfill the (1995) Event tourism: An examination of with the section ’Events’ of the Tourism demands of a capital city. Branding and motivations and activities, Festival Management Development Strategy of the Republic of Serbia certification of small, but already existing & Event Tourism, No. 3 (1), pp. 15–244. (2006-2015), show discrepancy between the events would certainly contribute to creation of Bjeljac, Ž. (2006) Teorijsko metodološke osnove actual situation on the field and the demands of first class events. manifestacionog turizma. Belgrade: the tourist event organizers on the one hand, and Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić” SASA. It is recommendable that municipalities in the what is presented and suggested by the Strategy same critical zone cooperate and, with a view Bjeljac, Ž. (2010) Turističke manifestacije u on the other. The foreign examples of successful Srbiji. Belgrade: Geographical Institute “Jovan to the national event tourism strategy, create strategic planning that include the spatial Cvijić” SASA. their own regional strategies. Additionally, the planning (local/regional/national) and strategic strategy should explicitly consider possibilities Bjeljac, Ž., Brankov, J. (2010) Turistička planning of one or more events already exist and of event tourism development in rural areas manifestacija „Ovčarski dani“, Hotellink, No. have an elaborate methodology – thus, these and villages because they represent socially, 13/14, pp. 654-661. examples should be applied to Serbia. The economically and demographically affected Bjeljac, Ž., Ćurčić, N. (2010) Turizmološka group of event organizers took the first steps – areas in Serbia where the strategy can valorizacija etnografskih manifestacija u Srbiji, they undertook tourist valorization and contribute to their reanimation. Etnoantropološki problemi, No. 5 (3), classification and SWOT analysis. pp. 227-242. The event tourism strategy should also References Bjeljac, Ž., Terzić, A., Brankov, J. (2013) Sabor empower manifestations in otherwise trubača u Guči - socio demografski profil i marginalized regions of Serbia and make it a A National Business Events Strategy for Australia motiv dolaska posetilaca, Zbornik Matice 2020 (2008), http//www.ttf.org.au/, accessed Srpske za društvene nauke, No 144. (in print). tool for overall socio-economic development th of the regions. This would particularly refer to 24 August 2012. Bowdin, G., Allen, J., O'Toole, W., Harris, R.,

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2

McDonnell, I. (2006), Events management, Belgrade, Ministry of commerce and tourism of Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. the Republic of Serbia (2005) Strategija turizma Brankov, J., Bjeljac, Ž., Popović, B. I. (2009) Republike Srbije – prvi fazni izveštaj, Belgrade: Haymaking on Rajac mountain tourist event- Faculty of Economics. analyses according to gender and age Horvat Consulting - Zagreb, Faculty of Economics – structure, Journal of Geographical Institute Belgrade, Ministry of commerce and tourism of “Jovan Cvijić“ SASA, No. 59 (1), pp.75-92. the Republic of Serbia (2006) Strategija California cultural heritage strategic plan (2003), turizma Republike Srbije – drugi fazni izveštaj, http// www.industry.visitcalifornia.com/, Belgrade: Faculty of Economics. accessed 26th August 2012. Lović, S., Bjeljac, Ž., Cvetković, M. (2012) Carifessta a strategic plan (2004), http// www. Tourist event „Days of Plum“ at Blace - acpcultures.eu/, accessed 28th August 2012. Demographic and geographic analysis of visitors, Journal of Geographical Institute Central coast festival and events strategy „Jovan Cvijić“ SASA, No. 62(2), pp. 81-92. (2009), http//www.centralcoast.tas.gov.au/, accessed 27th August 2012. Maksin-Mićić, M., Milijić, S., Nenković-Riznić, M. (2009) Spatial and Environmental Planning of Carlsen, J., Getz, D., Soutar, G. (2001) Event Sustainable Regional Development in Serbia, evaluation research, Event Management, SPATIUM International Review, No. 21, No. 6 (4), pp. 247–257. pp. 39-52. Council of Europe Conference of Ministers Maksin, M., Milijić, S. (2010) Strategic Planning Responsible for Spatial/Regional Planning for Sustainable Spatial, Landscape and Tourism (CEMAT) (2007) Guiding principles for Development in Serbia, SPATIUM International sustainable spatial development of the Review, No. 23, pp. 30-37. European continent. National events strategy for South Africa Della Lucia, M. (2013) Economic performance (2002), http//www.environment.gov.za/ measurement systems for event planning and accessed 24th August 2012. investment decision making, Tourism management, No. 34, pp. 91-100. National events strategy for New Zealand (2009) http// www.majorevents.govt.nz/, accessed European Commission (CEC) (1999) European 24th August 2012. spatial development perspective. Towards balanced and sustainable development of the National events strategy for Scotland to 2020 territory of the European Union. (2009), http// www.eventscotland.org/, accessed 26th August 2012. European Commission (CEC) (2003) Second progress report on economic and social Ontario major festivals and events attraction cohesion. Unity, solidarity, diversity for Europe, research study (2009), http// th its people and its territory. www.mtc.gov.on.ca/, accessed 28 August 2012. European Commission (CEC) (2007) Treaty of Lisbon. Republic Agency for Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia (RASP) (2009) Strategija European Commission (CEC) (2008) Green paper prostornog razvoja Republike Srbije, Belgrade. on territorial cohesion. Turning territorial diversity into strength. Republic Agency for Spatial Planning of the Republic of Serbia (RASP) (2010) Prostorni European Union (CEC) (2007) Territorial agenda of plan Republike Srbije. Belgrade: Official Gazette the European Union. Towards a more competitive No. 88/10. and sustainable Europe of divers regions. Stokes, R. (2008) Tourism strategy making: Getz, D. (1991) Festivals, special events, and Insights to the events tourism domain, Tourism tourism, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. management, No 29, pp. 252-262. Getz, D. (1997) Event management and Event Vodič kroz turističke manifestacije, http/kalendar/ Tourism, New York: Cognizant Communications www.manifestacije.com, Cvetković M. (ed.), Corporation. accessed 14th August 2012. Getz, D. (2008) Event tourism: Definition, Vujošević, M. (2010) Collapse of Strategic evolution, and research, Tourism Management, Thinking, Research and Governance in Serbia No. 29, pp. 403–428. and Possible Role of the Spatial Plan of the Goldblatt, J. J. (2000) A future for event Republic of Serbia in its Renewal, SPATIUM management: The analysis of major trends International Review, No. 23, pp. 22-29. impacting the emerging profession in settings

the agenda, in Allen, J., Harris, R., Jago, L. K., Veal, A. J. (eds.) Events beyond 2000: Setting the agenda, Proceedings of conference on Event evaluation, research and education. Sydney: University of Technology, pp. 1–8. Received January 2013; accepted in revised form Horvat Consulting - Zagreb, Faculty of Economics – October 2013

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