INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photo graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright m aterial had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one e^osure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. These are also available as one exposure on a standard 35mm shde or as a 17" x 23" black and white photographic print for an additional charge.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an addition^ charge. Contact UMI directly to order.
UMI University Microfilms international A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600
Order Number 9011176
An examination of the uses of music in selected licensed preschools in the state of Ohio
Golden, Kimberly Moody, Ph.D. The Ohio State University, 1989
Copyright ©1989 by Golden, Kimberly Moody. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106
Air EXAMI FAT I OB' OF THE USES OF MUSIC IF SELECTED LICEFSED
PRESCHOOLS IF THE STATE OF OHIO
DISSERTATIOF
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the
Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The
Ohio State University
By
Kimberly Moody Golden, B. A., M.M. .
*****
The Ohio State University
1989
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
P.J. Flowers yOi .. ^ s^/J rlfJ h x jL a -y» < J X 6 x o é ^ A.P. Costanza Advisor J.K. Lehr School of Music Cop3rrigh.t by-
Kimberly Moody Golden
1989 ACKHOWLEDGHEKTS
The author would like to express appreciation to the members of her dissertation committee for their support and encouragement throughout her graduate program and dissertation study. Sincere appreciation is extended to
Professors Judith K. Delzell, Jere L. Forsythe, Joanne M.
Golden, and Rebecca M. Kantoi— Martin for their assistance in the validation study. A special acknowledgment is extended to Professor Patricia J. Flowers for serving as advisor and confidante. Dr. Flowers has been an inspiration and professional role model.
Additionally, the author wishes to express love and appreciation to her husband, Alan, for his suggestions, assistance, and understanding. Also, appreciation is extended tc the author's parents-in-law for their constant support and willingness to assist in a meaningful way in the completion of this graduate program. Above all, the author commends her parents for stressing the importance of a quality education and encouraging her to pursue an advanced degree. ii VITA
March 12, 1959 ...... Born— Richmond, Virginia
1 9 7 9 ...... B. A. , The University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia
1982 ...... M. M. , Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
1982-1983 ...... General Music Specialist and Director of String Ensemble, Saint Christopher's Middle School, Richmond, Virginia
1982-1985 ...... Director of Music and Organist, Westhampton United Methodist Church, Richmond, Virginia
1984-1985 ...... Director of Education, Westhampton United Methodist Church, Richmond, Virginia
1985-1988 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1988-1989 ...... Academic Advisor, University College, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
iii TABLE OF CGSTENTS
Page ACKHOWLEDGEMEITTS...... 11
VITA ...... Ill
LIST OF TABLES ...... vl
Chapter
I. ISTSODUCTIOir...... 1
Need for the Study ...... 6 Purpose ...... 8 Statement of the Problem ...... 8 Questions ...... 9 Assunç>t Ions...... 10 Definitions...... 11 Limitations...... 16 S u m m a r y ...... 17
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ...... 18
Characteristics of Preschoolers...... 18 Early Childhood Education...... 39 General Music Education...... 59 Music Curriculum for Young Children. . . 65 The Role of the Teacher...... 101 Summary...... 110
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY...... 116
Population and Sangle...... 116 Survey Questionnaire ...... 116 Validation and Piloting of the Survey Questionnaire and Profile Form. . . . 118 Gathering of the Data...... 122 Treatment of the Data...... 123 Summary...... 125
Iv Table of Contents, Continued Page IV. PRESENTAT I OIT OF THE D A T A ...... 128
Data from the Child Day Care Center Profile F o r m ...... 129 Data from the Survey Questionnaire . . . 134 Summary...... 162
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIQMS, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 168
Summary of^ the S t u d y ...... 168 Summary of Results ...... 173 Conclusions...... 181 Discussion...... 184 Recommendations...... 189 Further Study...... 193
APPENDICES...... 195
A. Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools...... 196 B. Survey Questionnaire Validation Form .... 203 C. Survey Questionnaire/Profile Pilot Letter and Evaluation F o r m ...... 207 D. Survey Questionnaire Cover Letter...... 211 E. Child Day Care Center Profile F o r m ...... 213 F. Two-Week Reminder C a r d ...... 217 G. Survey Questionnaire Final Reminder Letter . 219 H. List of Counties with Total Number of Centers Providing Day Care Services for Preschoolers ...... 221
REFERENCES...... 224 LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Saisie Response D a t a ...... 129
2. Institutional Classification ...... 130
3. Religion As Curricular Component ...... 131
4. Institutional Identification ...... 131
5. Institutional Location ...... 132
6. Operating Schedule ...... 133
7. Frequency of Husic Involvement— Question # 2 ...... 134
8. Weekly Average Amount of Time Devoted to Music— Question # 3 ...... 135
9. Music Activities in Which Preschoolers Participate— Question # 4 ...... 136
10. Purpose for Involving Preschoolers in Music Activities— Question # 5 ...... 139
11. Philosophical Rationale for the Use of Music with Preschoolers— Question # 6 ...... 144
12. Type -of Curriculum— Question # 7 ...... 149
vi List of Tables, Continued Page 13. Individuals Conducting Music Experiences— Question # 8 ...... 150
14. Individual Responsible for Conducting Music Experiences— Question # 9 ...... 151
15. Highest Educational Background of Individual Conducting Music Experiences— Question # 1 0 ...... 152
16. Individual Responsible for Determining Fre.quency of Music Experiences— Question # 1 1 ...... 153
17. Location of Music Experiences— Question # 1 2 ...... 154
18. Available Musical Instruments— Question # 1 4 ...... 156
19. Musical Instruments Used Most Often— Question # 1 5 ...... 157
20. Available Materials and Equipment— Question # 1 6 ...... 158
21. Materials and Equipment Used Most Often— Question # 1 7 ...... 159
22. Administrative Evaluation of Preschool Program— Question # 1 8 ...... 160
23. Important Aspects in Quality Music Learning— Question # 1 9 ...... 161
vii CHAPTER I
IHTRODUCTION
In recent years, the education of young children has
become a major concern among parents, teachers, school
administrators, and politicians. Early childhood education
is not a new phenomenon; however, it is receiving increased
attention in the 1980s due to the growing demand for day
care. Likewise, day care is not a new phenomenon. In this
country, day care dates back well over a century CSuransky,
1982 >. According to Suransky:
Perhaps the strongest influence on the situation of
daycare in modern times has been the women’s
movement. (p. 46)
Suransky notes that during the last decade, the image of day care has shifted. Previously, day care was viewed as a privilege provided for the poor. Most recently, day care has been viewed as a ” necessary service both for women who have to work and for those who choose to pursue higher education” (p. 46). Programs designed for Infants and
1 2 toddlers'”are supported by the belief that optimum humau development requires supportive and enriching physical and psychological environments as early In life as possible"
(Veber, 1973, p. 265). Weber recommends educational opportunities which allow young children to learn through a variety of ways. Such opportunities should promote progressive thinking In a logical manner, cooperative behavior with a reduction of egocentric behavior. Increased self-esteem, extended motivational levels, and the opportunity to become a unique and creative Individual (p.
271). Veber advocates an holistic approach to early childhood education with an esphasls on actlon-orlented learning. Veber states,
A renewed humanism Is pressing urgently for education
embracing the totality of human potentialities. In
all Its Infinite complexity, education for the
release of the human spirit Is an lucrative. More
than ever before, we know this must begin In early
childhood (pp. 273-274).
In the area of professional child care, educational concerns rank high. According to Caldwell (1984), professional child care must assist In the development of the child physically, Intellectually, socially, and emotionally. The overall goal should be the formation of a growth-fostering environment for young children. Caldwell 3 stresses the need for input from all disciplines in the process of establishing high quality conprehensive programs.
Having served as President of the Hational Association for the Education of Young Children (HAEYC), Caldwell identifies three areas of concern related to the education of young children:
1. Ve need to build better linkages between the child care subsystem and other human service programs (i.e., pediatrics, public schools, foi— profit child care).
2. We need to identify uniquely positive experiences that could be associated with child care (i.e., for public distribution).
3. Ve need a major commitment to research on the processes and products of child care programs. (pp. 6-8)
It is the third area on which this dissertation is based.
As Caldwell notes, it is not possible to generalize about findings until many programs have been examined. Caldwell states.
If the child care system is to be accepted as an
important influence on the developmental careers of
children, it is essential that we know what goes on
in such programs (process) and what some of the
associated consequences (products) are (p. 8).
Early childhood experiences are important when considering their influence on later learning. Killer and
Bizzell (1983) reinforce this point in their research 4 findings. They note that "children's first school experience may set in motion different processes depending upon what type of program is first encountered" James (1984) suggests that nursery education designed for children from age three through five will enable a child to take the first steps into school life with confidence and a positive attitude, provided the nursery education is of a high standard and meets the needs of the child. According to James, nursery education will help to prepare a child and the child's family for the "wider world of education" (p. 335). The nursery curriculum needs to provide motivation, stimulation, continuity, and security for the child (p. 332). Through nursery education, a child may develop various skills including those that are physical, intellectual, linguistic, aesthetic, creative, emotional, and social (p. 322). Hymes (1981) notes that there are numerous preschool programs in the United States which are implemented under a variety of names and titles. Due to the multiplicity of names, he remarks that the education of children under the age of six is a "wide-open field." Hymes concludes, however, that most of these programs are not drastically different from one another. He does admit that there are 5 some administrative and organizational differences, but the differences are insignificant in so far as the teaching of children is concerned. He states, Day care children. Head Start children, nursery school children, kindergarten children are . . . children. And they have one great bond in common. They are young children. The education of all of them ought to be basically the same. Once a child is in a group the similarities should overwhelmingly outweigh the differences. The name of the group should no longer matter (p. 3). Hymes even suggests that the basic educational equipment, supplies, and materials should be the same for each program. Included with these, the school space, the adult—child ratio, the class size, the tone and spirit of the group, the methods of teaching, and the content should be the same. He does not sepeurate church-sponsored religious programs from his list of expected uniformities. He believes that sound day care programs are those which provide experiences in literature, music, art, the sciences, mathematics, and the social sciences. Although Hymes stresses standardization. 6 he does recognize the in^ortance of accommodating Individual learning differences. He defines the goal of all early childhood programs as follows: . . . to help each child learn as much as he or she can in all areas of human experiences and to do this in such a way that the youngster lives the years of three, four, and five in the richest, most satisfying, most constructive way possible (p. 4). Heed for the Study There is a need for further study to determine to what extent music is being incorporated in the preschools. Such study could lend support to the development of a curriculum guide for the preschool teacher, could provide useful information to elementary music specialists and classroom teachers who inherit children from preschool backgrounds, and could assist Ohio teacher education institutions in designing and offering useful courses, workshops, and informational services to preschool teachers. In the area of musical development, educators widely recognize that children respond to music and are capable at a very early age of doing more musically than once thought possible (Kresteff, 1963; Andrews and Delhi, 1967; Xbog, \ 1976; Vetlugina, 1981; and Choksy, 1988). Studies indicate that growth, experience, and training affect young children’s response to music. Based on these premises. 7 Alford (1971) suggests the formation of a program which provides music education experiences and training for children at the earliest possible age. Alford indicates that this will necessitate the development of more effective kindergarten and nursery school programs (p. 227). More specifically, Bayless and Ramsey (1978) provide a rationale for music in the lives of children based on seven rights to which children are entitled. The seven rights indicate that young children have a right to . . . -have a variety of musical e^»eriences that will bring pleasure and enjoyment to them throughout their lives -experience a balance of musical activities and materials that are appropriate to their age level and developmental needs -engage in musical experiences that are based on an action art, not a performing art -be guided to the fullest development of their musical potential -have the opportunity for support and/or extension of content areas through the medium of music -express themselves musically in an atmosphere of freedom and trust, where divergent and creative interpretation is encouraged -be involved in the full gamut of musical experiences, regardless of physical, social, emotional, or intellectual limitations (Bayless and Ramsey, 1978, p. vii) 8 Although educators recognize that music is & valuable part o f the young child's educational experience, it is not known to what extent young children are receiving music training at the preschool level. Since music experiences are considered valuable in early childhood education, institutions responsible for educating preschool children should accommodate music in the curriculum. Purpose The purpose of this study was to investigate and analyze the status of music in selected licensed Ohio preschools. This study provides a core of information related to music education practices at the preschool level in the state of Ohio. This information may be used for future planning in the areas of early childhood education and early childhood teacher education. Statement of the Problem Preschools are designed with educational intent; however, a balanced education must be included in the education of the child. It is known that preschool children are able to understand concepts about music if they are guided through meaningful instruction (Findlay, 1971; Greenberg, 1972; Eye, 1979; Haines and Gerber, 1984; and Peery and Peery, 1986). Aronoff (1968), like most music educators, stresses the importance of the child's direct 9 sensory involveænt. It Is through, movement and other sensory experiences that young children can understand the fundamental components of music. Aronoff concludes that cognitive and affective musical learning is facilitated in the preschooler through a variety of movement-oriented activities. Although movement activities are important in the musical growth of a young child, there are other means by which young children can participate in music-related activities. The problem is that there is limited information regarding the use of music in preschool education. This study investigated the current status of music education at the preschool level in selected licensed Ohio day care centers. Questions This study investigated and analyzed preschool music instruction in selected Ohio day care centers. Specifically, this study attempted to answer the following research questions: 1. Do preschoolers engage in music-related activities, and how often? 2. If preschoolers are involved in music activities, do the activities include singing, listening, moving, playing instruments, composing, improvising, discussing music, or dramatic experiences? 10 3. For what reasons are preschoolers Invol^eà in music experiences? Socialization reasons? Enjcysent and recreation? Physical cooordinative development? Re inf or cement of information from other Sï'^b.îsct areas? Development of listening skills? Develc%s&nt of age- appropriate music skills? Other reasons? 4. Vho conducts music experiences with the preschoolers; what are the educational backgrounds of those individuals responsible for conducting the music activities; and who determines how often such experiences will be provided? 5. Where are music activities conducted? Regular ■ classrooms or special rooms designated for music activities? 6. Which of the following materials and equipment are made available to the preschool teacher and which of the following are used most often? Records/record players; cassettes/cassette players; curriculum guides or textbooks/songbooks; musical instruments; other. 7. What are the philosophies of preschool administrators regarding the role of music in the lives of young children? Assumpt ions It is assumed that music experiences are desirable in the developmental growth of young children and that such experiences have wide-ranging value. It is assumed that the term "preschool" as used to identify a child day care program denotes some form of educational instruction. It is assumed that those preschools selected through random saz^ling are representative of the larger body of preschools found in Ohio. It is assumed that the respondents correctly interpreted the questions and that the obtained responses 11 truly reflect the programs as they exist. It is assumed that the obtained responses provide sufficient information for drawing conclusions and making recommendations. Definitions For the purpose of this study, specific terms need to be defined. The definitions listed represent those used by the Ohio Department of Human Services, the Hational Association for the Education of Young Children, and those commonly accepted by educators (Hawes and Hawes, 1982>. Other definitions are given as uniquely pertaining to this study. Day Care Center. A public or private facility providing part-time or full—day custody of preschool children by skilled or semiskilled staff members who usually also provide some teaching. Also called child care center (Hawes and Hawes, 1982). Professional Child Care. A cos^rehenslve service to children and families which functions as a subsystem of the chiIdrearing system and which supplements the care children receive from their families (Caldwell, 1984). Child Day Care. Administering to the needs of infants, toddlers, preschool children, and school children outside of school hours by persons other than their parents or guardians, custodians, or relatives by blood, marriage, or adoption for any part of the twenty-four-hour day, in a 12 place or residence other than a child's own home (Ohio Department of Hnman Services, 1986). For the purpose of this study, infants, toddlers, and school children are not included in the reported data. Child Day Care Center and Center. Any place in which child day care is provided, with or without coz^nsation, for thirteen or more children at one time; any place that is not the permanent residence of the licensee or administrator in which child day care is provided, with or without compensation, for seven to twelve children at one time; in counting children for the purposes of this rule, any children under six years of age who are related to a licensee, administrator, or employee of the center and who are on the premises of the center shall be counted (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). Part-Time Child Day Care Center and Part-Time Center. A center that provides child day care for no more than four hours per day for any child (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). Owner. Includes a person, firm, organization, institution, or agency (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). 13 Administrâtor. The person responsible for the dally operation of the center. The administrator and the owner may be the same person (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986>. Infant. A child who Is less than eighteen months of age. Toddler. A child who Is at least eighteen months of age but less than three years of age. Preschool Child. A child who Is three-years-old, or Is foui— or fIve-years-old, but Is not a school child (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986>. For the purpose of this study, kindergarteners are not Included In this classification. Young Child. A child who Is at least two years of age but no more than eight years of age. Preschool. Part-time or full-time child day care program providing services for children ages three through four or five, excluding kindergarteners. Hursery School. A school for children of preschool ages, ranging from ages three through four or five, excluding kindergarteners. 14 Kindergarten. A school-year grade in elementary schools for the instruction of five-year-olds, usually attending half-day sessions; characterized by play activities having educational and social value, with emphasis on preparation for reading and writing in grade one in the next school year (Eawes and Hawes, 1982>. School Child. A child who is enrolled in, or is eligible to be enrolled in, a grade of kindergarten or above. "Eligible to be enrolled in a grade of kindergarten or above" means the child meets local school district requirements for kindergarten entrance (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). School Child Day Care Center and School Child Center. A center that provides child day care for school children only and that does either or both of the following: op>erates only during that part of the day that Immediately precedes or follows the public school day of the school district in which the center is located; operates only when the public schools in the school district in which the center is located are not open for instruction with pupils in attendance (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). Publicly Funded. Supported wholly or partially by federal or state moneys distributed by the department of human services for child day care services (Ohio Department of Human Services, 1986). 15 Rellglo-as Activities. Worship or other religious services; religious instruction; Sunday school classes or other religious classes conducted during or prior to worship or other religious services; youth or adult fellowship activities; choir or other musical group practices or programs; meals; festivals; or meetings conducted by an organized religious group (Ohio Department of Hunan Services, 1986). Early Childhood Education. Schooling and activities related to the development of children from birth through grade three; includes nursery school, kindergarten, and grades one through three (Eawes and Hawes, 1982). Montessori Method. A system of schooling from preschool years on developed by Dr. Karia Montessori and adopted in numerous schools operated for preschool children that feature use of special Montessori physical materials for teaching letters, numbers, and other abstractions, and of independently pursued learning activities for each child under a special technique of Montessori guidance by the teacher. Montessori schools tend to be of two types: "International Montessori," which adhere rigidly to the original techniques and materials of Dr. Montessori; and "American Montessori," which apply what proponents view as the Montessori method modernized to make it broader, more effective, and up-to-date (Hawes and Hawes, 1982). 16 Music—Related Activities. Opportunities in which children make or respond to music under the direction of a teacher or other adult. Extra—Musical. A non-musical value, goal, objective, or other outcome derived from a music experience; a type of activity in which music occurs but not as the major element of subject matter (Madsen and Kuhn, 1978). Child Care. Day Care, Hursery School, and Preschool. These terms are used interchangeably throughout this study pertaining to services rendered for children ages three through four or five, excluding kindergarteners. Limitations This study includes only those preschools which are licensed in the state of Ohio and are listed in the December 30, 1987, manual of licensed child day care centers; thus, findings are generalizable only to the state of Ohio. Due to selection through random san^ling, not all Ohio preschools were surveyed. Another important variable is the response rate. It may be significant that those subjects who responded may be different in some systematic way from those who did not respond. 17 Sunmiarv Young children have a right to experience a variety of musical activities in an atmosphere conducive to expressive musical behavior. Although music is considered to be an is^ortant part of the young child's educational experience, it is not known to what extent young children are receiving music training at the preschool level. This study addressed the need to determine if music is being incorporated in the preschools and to what extent. This information may be used for future planning in the areas of early childhood education and early childhood teacher education. The problem is that there is limited information concerning the incorporation of music in the preschool curriculum. This study investigated the current status of music education at the preschool level in selected licensed Ohio day care centers. C H A P T E R II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of this chapter is to survey related literature In the areas of (a) characteristics of preschoolers; early childhood education; Cc> general music education; (d> music curriculum for young children; and (e) the preparation and role of teachers In early childhood education. It Is only through an examination of past and present educational perspectives that It Is possible to determine the musical needs of tomorrow’s young children. Characteristics of Preschoolers Montessori states, "In order to educate. It Is essential to know those who are to be educated" (cited In Halnstock, 1986, p. vll>. Although Montessori Is noted for her work with children beginning In the early 1900s, her conclusions are useful today. She notes an laproved sense of physical development In children, a decrease in Infant 1 8 19 mortality, and an increase in assisting and protecting children during the period of physical growth (Montessori, 1965). Montessori states, "Children must grow not only in the body but in the spirit” (p. 31). Like Montessori, Foster and Mattson (1939) stress the ia^ortance of knowing as much as possible about the children who are to be educated at the nursery school level. Based on the 1931 report by the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Foster and Mattson note that most of the children in nursery school are from the age of two through five years, and these are the ages for which they provide a list of characteristics. Although the age categories are based on a 1931 governmental report, nursery school age classifications have res»ined the same. TWO-YEAR-OLDS For two-year-olds, Foster and Mattson note that the basic motor coordinations such as walking, grasping, and climbing have been established. The two-year—old walks upright, but not always steadily, and may be tipped over easily. The two-year-old may experience difficulty when trying to stand on one foot or trying to shift weight from one foot to the other. The two-year-old is capable of catching a fairly large ball when it is rolled. It is during this time that hand coordination increases rapidly. The average two—yeai— old can scribble with crayons, copy a 20 vertical stroke, cut gashes lu paper with scissors, stack four or five blocks ou top of each other, iusert pegs iu a board, aud place large beads ou a striug (pp. 15-17). Iu the area of self-help, Foster and Mattsou note that the two- year-old can help iu getting dressed by finding armholes aud removing shoes. It is at this time that the child may learn to button aud unbutton. The child can wash and dry his hands but not very thoroughly. As for mental development, the two-yeai— old is considered to be alert, inquisitive, and curious. The two-year-old is starting to show interest in stories, rhymes, and pictures, and he enjoys hearing the same story repeatedly and in the same manner. Frustration is experienced greatly by the two-year-old due to the constant restrictions placed on him and his environment. The.frustration is manifested through frequent emotional upsets (pp. 17—19). THREE-YEAR-OLDS Foster and Mattson indicate that most people select the three-year—old as the "typical" nursery school child. It is at this age that the child seeks companionship. The three-year-old has better motor control than the two-year- old and can go up and down stairs without holding on to a rail, can stand on one foot, can climb with ease, and can jump from low steps or boxes. As for hand coordination, the child can handle crayons and pencils fairly well and can 21 copy a rough circle or a single cross. The three—yeai— old can build a tall block tower or a single block house, can carry a breakable object safely, can assist in the care of pets, and can wipe up liquids which have been spilled. In the area of self-help, Foster and Mattson note that the three-yaai— old can do much in the way of dressing or undressing, including buttoning and unbuttoning large buttons, putting on various clothes items, and unlacing and lacing shoes. With assistance, the child can wash and wipe his hands, comb his hair, and brush his teeth. In the area of mental development, the three—year-old has an extended vocabulary with longer sentences of a cosq>lex structure, and there is an increase in the number of used pronouns and prepositions. It is at this time that leadership qualities begin to surface and interpersonal conflict is n»re frequent (pp. 20-22). FOUR-YEAR-OLDS Foster and Mattson state that the child by age four can run, climb, and Junç> fairly well; however, skipping is difficult at this age. Hand coordination greatly Improves with the child capable of cutting along a line. The child can pile blocks into larger and more coaplex structures. The four-yeaur-old can copy a square and draw many recognizable objects. In the area of mental development, the four-year-old can generalize sometimes and has a longer 22 attention span. It is at this age that the child reduces the time spent in solitary play, although, independent activity continues. Socially, quarrels are less frequent, and there is a need for group approval. Single forms of polite expression are apparent. In the area of self-help, the four-year-old can assume responsibility for hanging up his clothes and putting away his toys. The child can dress and undress without help unless particular fastenings on clothes present problems due to their location (pp. 22-24). Foster and Mattson acknowledge the fact that children develop at different times depending upon their innate ability and the experiences they encounter. They conclude. Always in discussing development of any sort, we must remember that although children on the average pass through certain stages at certain speeds, no one child can be expected to follow the exact line for the average of the group. Meither can any one act observed in a nursery school be explained or corrected in the same way for every child. (p. 25) FIVE-YEAR-OLDS While Foster and Mattson provide a developmental guideline for children through the age of four, the Ohio Department of Education (1983) offers a developmental chart for children through the age of nine. The chart, although not as eaq>lanatory, parallels the developmental guidelines 23 established by Foster and Mattson for children ages two through four. In the area of notor and physical development, the Ohio Department of Education notes the agility of the five-year—old. It indicates that the five- yeair-old is poised and has control of his motor abilities. It is at this age that the child can dress without any assistance. In the area of personal and social development, the five-year-old has a strong sense of personal identity, a high level of curiosity, and is capable of separating truth from fantasy. Also, it is by this age, that all basic emotions are established. With respect to adaptive fine motor skills, the five-yeai— old is beginning to draw more cozg)lex pictures. In the area of language development, there is a continued development of vocabulary, and basic grammar is still being mastered. The five-yeair—old is able to link past and present events and can understand percepts of number, speed, time, and space. Overall, the child's level of comprehension increases, and the child can understand the meaning of isolated words. It is at this age that language begins to be symbolic. Primitive argument and abstraction begin but both are meager (pp. 43-44). 24 DEVELOPMEHTAL GROWTH Educa-tors and psychologists have long agreed that the developmental growth period in the life of a human being is one of the most critical times for learning (Millard, 1951; Mussen, Conger, and Kagan, 1963; Leeper, Dales, Skipper, and Witherspoon, 1974). In fact, some educators suggest that growth and lesurning are but two phases of the same process of change (Millard, 1951). Brierley (1987) reminds educators "that the years from birth to puberty are a crucial time when the ability to learn is at flood readiness" (p. 29). In response to the learning readiness of the young child, Brierley stresses the importance of providing a quality learning environment. He notes that the brain and nervous system are most impressionable to environmental effects during periods of rapid growth and development. Rapid developmental periods occur when the brain is growing in the uterus and in the years up to age ten. It is during the first five years that brain growth is most rapid (p. 31). Educators should be aware of the developmental characteristics of the children for whom they provide instruction. Although an awareness of developmental stages is helpful, it should be noted that the assigned stages represent approximations for normative growth. Foster and Mattson (1939) advise the following: 25 Whether we follow the cross-section method of most child psychologies in which the characteristics of particular age levels are grouped together or whether we follow the longitudinal method of studying individual children month after month and year after year, we come to the same conclusion that children of niursery-school age are at a stage of rapid development in all fields, and to the same practical conclusion that those who work with small children must be alert to signs of developing skills, of broadening interests, of increasing maturity, and must be quick to adopt methods and provide materials that are suited not to the stage the child reached last week but to the stage he has reached today. (p. 38) Katz (1986) highlights those aspects of development which have obvious implications for pedagogical and curriculum decisions. Generally, it is assumed that early experiences, including accomplishments and failures, have lasting ramifications. Ifareover, Katz stresses the need for reaching optimum levels in all modes of instruction with regard to developmental factors. There is a need for gauging ’’right” proportions, intensities, amounts, or frequencies of instruction. Some of the developmental factors include stimulation, expectations for achievement. 26 and time on tasks. It should he noted that the "optimum zone” varies among individuals. Katz states that the burden of determining what constitutes the optimum amount, frequency, and intensity of an influencing factor falls on the adult. MUSICAL DEVELOPMEMT In the area of musical development, there are developmental characteristics which seem to parallel those found in early human growth. It appears that young children demonstrate extraordinary responsiveness to rhythmic stimuli as coB^ared to their responsiveness to tonal stimuli. Children become aware of sounds as a constant part of their environment soon after they are born. Children quickly learn to discriminate between persons and events using related audible images (Kresteff, 1963). Burton and Hughes <1979) note that an infant may only be able to flick an eyelid, utter a cry, or thrash about, but a bodily response is promoted by some occurrence of sound. Greenberg (1979) suggests that the newborn child first responds to the sensual stimulation of sounds. After initial discriminations, the infant begins to produce sounds based on imitation of environmental sounds. Greenberg notes that around the age of three months, the visual and hearing senses become coordinated. It is at this time that the infant is perceptually aware and can give meaning to the 27 information obtained by the senses. During the first four to eight months of life, the infant begins to note cause and effect relationships which yield many experiments with sound-producing objects. From approximately seven to ten months of age, the child begins to develop the concept of object permanence. This is a critical component of the child’s mental development. The child begins to form images without having the concrete object or event present (Greenberg, pp. 21-22). Based on con^rehensive research conducted by practitioners in the field of music education, Michel (1973) reports that it is accurate to describe ’’the first six months of life as the period of ’learning to hear,’ during which overt reactions to sound stimuli arise very esurly and are perfected quickly” (p. 15). Michel explains that infants in the first hours of life respond to a third of all acoustic stimuli. It is during the first four weeks of life that an infant’s frequency of response doubles. Michel notes that an infant of two months of age will lie attentively if anyone sings or plays an instrument. And, it is at a very early age that an infant will begin to distinguish between sounds according to pitch and timbre. Flowers (1985) notes that even a very young child can recognize his mother’s voice in a crowd of people thus demonstrating a pitch or timbrel discrimination. Since musical development begins in early infancy. Matter (1982) 28 suggests that auditory experiences be provided for infants. Such experiences might include talking and singing, or introducing sound-producing objects to the baby. Sound- producing objects might include a clock, a metronome, music boxes, records, radios, bells, rattles, or any other sound- making object (p. 306). Matter maintains that infants who are given enjoyable and varied opportunities to experience sound will have a reference point for later musical deve1opment- Kresteff (1963) identifies the second year in the child’s life as a premusical stage; however, he notes that the child begins to discriminate between high and low sounds and is sensitive to loudness and softness. Kresteff suggests that it is during the second year that the child displays a liking for listening to music and a desire to imitate songs and tonal patterns. The child is aware of melodic direction but can produce only a semblance of ups and downs without correct intervalle relations. At this time, the child may assign verbalizations to what once was a free vocalization. During the third year, the child’s responses to rhythm represent a more organized form. At this time, the child physically responds more to sound and the child appears to develop the ability to perceive music emotionally. By age four, the child demonstrates musical maturity. The child may produce a tonal series that is the 29 product of a musically motivated consciousness. It is at this time that the child takes the first confident steps toward an awareness of tonal order. The tonal nucleus is based on two tones coz^rising an interval of a minor third. From the extensive use of the minor third, the child's tonal awareness advances progressively (Kresteff, pp. 4-10). Like Kresteff, Hoog (1976) notes the infant's early awareness to sound. He states that during the first year of life a child's response to music is based entirely on the quality of the sound itself. The child does not distinguish differences in pitch in melodic lines and is unable to keep pitch in babbling songs as sung to him. Like Kresteff, Hbog maintains that after the age of one, the child is more or less able to match his singing to a model. From the age of one to two years, half of the children are able to copy differences in pitch and many of the children begin to arrange what they hezur into a series of sounds. Hoog also notes the coordination of movement with singing in children between the ages two and three. Many children between these ages can sit quietly for up to five minutes or more while listening to music, ignoring other stimuli. By the end of the third year, all children are capable of imitative singing and eighty percent of the children imitate pitch, words, and rhythm. 30 Moog recognizes the lo^ortance of environmental influences on children and states that the differences in home environment begin to show their effect as children reach ages three and four. Like Hoog, HcDowell <1974) recognizes the importance of the child’s environment. McDowell states, ”... a child’s environment seems to be crucial in the development of his musical aptitude; this is especially true for the period of conception to about age ten” (p. 5). Based on his study involving rhythmic ability and four-year-old children, McDowell found that there appears to be no significant difference in the rhythmic ability of boys or girls at age four. Hoog indicates that it is at this age that children are capable of singing spontaneous songs, imitative songs, and imaginative songs. From age four to six, children begin to prefer music that presents a rich sound with a plain rhythm (duple time). The children can copy more difficult rhythms than their own singing might suggest. The preschooler typically cannot experience any sort of harmony until the end of his sixth year, or later (Hoog, 1976). Hair (1973) notes that first graders are capable of discriminating harmonic change, and based on her findings, she recomsends the use of a structured, sequential program designed specifically for first graders to provide experiences with basic harmonies. Like Hoog, Romanek (1971) explains that preschoolers can 31 discriminate changes In loudness and they can learn the concepts of pitch and duration; however, the concepts of pitch and duration are more difficult for preschool children to perceive. Simons’ survey of research studies dealing with musical concept formation In young children reveals similar findings. He notes that the order of concept learning Is essentially the same, pitch and harmony develop later than the other concepts (Simons, 1986). It Is difficult to know exactly which concepts are understood by children younger than seven— or eight—years- old. This difficulty stems from the unsuccessful atteints to design tests which Include tasks that enable children to make meaningful and understandable responses (Petzold, 1981). When discussing concepts. It Is necessary to define the term ’’concept.” Vann, Dorn, and Llddle (1962) define concept as ”a generalized Idea or understanding embodying many Images and memories which have been blended Into a meaningful whole” (p. 12). They acknowledge that no Individual ever attains complete conceptual cos^rehenslon, and that an Individual’s conceptual framework Is subject to continuous change based upon new and varied experiences and Insights. Based on their study, Vann, Dorn, and Llddle note that concept development Is partially a process of classifying Ideas. For young children, classifying Information Is a difficult task due to their limited 32 vocabularies. Vann, Dorn, and Llddle observed that young children will attes^t to see likenesses and differences, will set up classes of things, and will rule out those things which do not aake sense. Vann, Dorn, and Llddle conclude. Adults must find ways to encourage and develop the habit and ability to reason, to think, to sake Inferences, to generalize. Ve need to discover ways to answer questions and provide Information that will encourage thinking. It Is laçortant to talk with young children. Along with the growing concepts children must develop a vocabulary that enables them to express Ideas and understandings verbally. (p. 35) Andrews and Delhi <1967) conducted a study In which children’s conceptions of pitch, duration, and loudness were measured. From their study. It appears that children confuse the terms ’’high,” ”loud,” and ’’fast,” and the terms ’’low,” ’’soft,” and ’’slow.” Smith, Cooney, and McCord (1986) found that categorical usage of relative terms such as ’’high” and ”low” is confusing to the young child and It may take an extended period of time for the young child to organize and understand the relevant aspects of such terms. Andrews and Delhi conclude that In many Instances a child may understand the concept being measured but lack the 33 knowledge of appropriate label use. Romanek <1974) also found that young children are capable of cosprehendlng musical concepts. The results of her study indicate that preschool children can discriminate changes in loudness; however, the concepts of pitch and duration are more difficult for preschool children to perceive- Tonal direction is related to pitch, and Hair (1977) states that it is illogical to assume that young children can hear and label tonal direction without music training. Hair notes that such terms as "up and down” as well as "high and low" represent abstractions to the young child and little logic may be found in their use. In more recent studies. Hair (1981) notes that children experience difficulty in labeling the concepts of pitch, rhythmic changes, and timbre. She states that children, as evident in her study, do not have the vocabulary to describe the concepts of minor mode or harmony. She suggests that a new means be found to bridge the gap in terminology that is meaningful to children. Geringer (1983) found in his study on pitch-matching and pitch-discrimination abilities of preschoolers that young children lack the verbal sophistication to reveal their understanding of pitch differences. He stresses the necessity of developing a reliable and valid method of measurement for young children. Although young children 34 lack the appropriate vocabulary, Flowers (1985) notes the Importance of observing children’s nonverbal behavior. She suggests that more Instructional eophasls be given to the use of correct labels rather than a reinforcement of what Is known already by the children. Zimmerman (1971) even suggests that vocabulary tests dealing with music concepts be given to children In conjunction with music exan^les of the concepts. In a related study. Flowers (1984) found that third and fourth graders could learn music-related vocabulary quickly and apply the newly learned vocabulary to specific audible musical elements. Flowers, however, noted some decrease In the children’s attention to previously acknowledged music elements. Flowers suggests that the children were aware of the other musical elements but their Immediate attention was directed to the newly Identified musical elements. Young children are not that much different from adults who have had limited music experiences. Flowers (1988) notes that adults when describing audible music elements tend to offer fuller and more distinct descriptions than children; however, the music elements tend to be the same. Both adults and children readily Identify teu^o and dynamic changes. It Is • Interesting to note that In Flowers’ study, both children and adults related the terms ’’happy” or ”sad” more often to tes^o than to modality characteristics of the music. The 35 significance of Flowers’ study is that children and musically untrained adults need to be guided in their listening and taught the use of appropriate terminology as related to musical discriminations. Alford (1971) summarizes what is known about preschoolers and their music cheoracteristies, and what is recommended instructionally: 1. Children do respond to music and are capable at a very early age of doing more musically than educators have previously admitted. 2. Growth, experience, and training do affect young children’s response to music. 3. Some experiences, as seen in current teaching, can be presented profitably much earlier than was previously thought. Based on the music characteristics of preschoolers, Alford suggests that music educators consider formulating a program to initiate significant music education experiences and training as early as possible with every child. He notes that this will necessitate the development of more effective kindergarten and nursery school programs (p. 227). In his study of the relationship between factors in the home environment and awakened musicality at the kindergarten level, Reynolds (1960) found that kindergarteners who were considered to be ’’musically awakened” had been involved in a variety of music experiences. Reynolds states that the environmental sources of musical awakening should include the exposure to 36 attractive musical experiences in a permissive and encouraging atmosphere, and the support and understanding provided by parents who value music in the life of their child. Reynolds notes that in the absence of early music experiences, the kindergarten teacher must shoulder a tremendous responsibility for providing missed experiences. Another iaportant source of musical awakening is the manipulative instrumental experiences provided for young children. Flohr (1979/1980) explains that four-, six-, and eight-year-old children are able to freely is^rovise music, and based on children’s improvisatory abilities, he indicates that educators may want to incorporate improvisatory opportunities into the music program as a means of developing the individuality of free expression. It is also the improvisations of young children which can serve as a resource for pedagogical possibilities. Flohr notes that the characteristics of children’s improvisations change according to a child’s chronological age. Some age- related differences in musical behavior include the six- and eight-year-old’s ability to spend more time than the four- year-old on the task of exploring sound possibilities of a single instrument. The four-year-old focuses attention on the sound itself. Flohr suggests that educators consider the possibility of giving four-year-old children ample 37 opportunity to explore and experiment with a wide variety of sound sources and commence improvisâtional training with six-year-old children. Flohr acknowledges the four-year- old's ability to improvise complex rhythm patterns and because of this, he admits that encouraging and nurturing the young child's ability may enable the child to sustain his ability in later years. Like Flohr, Gilbert (1981) recommends the inclusion of manipulative instrumental experiences in the music education of young children. In her studies with children ages three through six, Gilbert found that most fundamental motor patterns emerge before a child reaches the age of five. After age five, motor music skills are "merely stabilised" (p. 24). Gilbert's findings are consistent with the views maintained by deve1opmentalists. Gilbert (1979/1980) notes that developmentalists subscribe to the belief that fundamental motor skills emerge before the age of five and are stabilized in subsequent years. Due to developmental theory, Gilbert included subjects through the age of six as to note stabilization of motor skills in musical situations. Through her Motoric Music Skills Test (MMST), Gilbert was able to assess selected mmtoric music skills in young children. Gilbert (1979/1980) specifically examined motor pattern coordination, eye-hand coordination, speed of 38 movement, range of movement, and combinations of these motoric factors. Gilbert concludes that zctor skills related to musical performance lnç>rove as chronological age Increases; gender Is related to motoric music skill development with girls achieving a higher degree of success than boys on motor pattern coordination, speed of movement, and combined motoric factors; race Is not related to motoric music skill development; and previous experience with musical Instruments Is not related to motoric music skill development (p. 129). Previous experience with musical Instruments Is not related to motoric music skill development; however, Gilbert acknowledges the Influence of the environment on motor skill acquisition and suggests using developmental trends when planning experiences which are appropriate to the enhancement of children* s motor development (p. 114). Although young children have difficulty verbalzllng what they know, the fact Is, young children can learn much In the area of music. Bruner (1963) supports the hypothesis that any subject can be taught effectively In some Intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development. Petzold (1981) maintains that It Is the preschool and middle childhood years that are the most 39 crucial in the development of children. He notes that it is during these years that attitudes toward music, interest in music, and the foundation for successful musical learning are established. Early Childhood Education In tracing the development of early childhood education, it is interesting to note the words of Suzuki (1981): Setting a child aside until elementary school age and then saying that now education begins is like taking a withered or withering sprout and suddenly giving it large amounts of fertilizer, putting it in the sunlight and flooding it with water. It is too late for the withered sprout. (p. 12) According to Forest (1927), the twentieth century has been labeled the century of the child. Forest notes that people representing more than one profession and numerous lay organizations are working in the interest of the preschool child. Kuch of this interest stems from an appreciation of the in^ortance of plasticity for learning in the eaurly years of childhood. She suggests that it is the early years which provide a golden opportunity for desirable learning. Although it was during the 1920s that Forest noted the importance of the child in education, Humphreys (1985) notes that the chiId-study movement actually began in 4 0 the late nineteenth century and flourished in the early twentieth century. It was during this period that educators and psychologists called for widespread and "scientific", observation and study of children. One of the major goals of this movement was to make the schools more child- centered. Prior to the late 1800s, children were viewed as "miniature adults, capable of dealing with adult concepts while differing from adults only in physical size and intellectual maturity" study movement gave rise to an enqphasis on observing children and noting their natural progression through developmental stages. Hymes <1981) notes that child care centers existed in Boston in 1838; in Hew York City in 1854; in Troy, Hew York in 1858; and in Philadelphia in 1863. However, the first nursery schools date back to 1922. For exaa^le, the Buggies Street Hursery School in Boston (now a part of the Eliot- Pearson Department of Child Study of Tufts University), the nursery school of Merri11-Palmer Institute in Detroit, the Harriet Johnson Hursery School of Bank Street College of Education in Hew York City, and many other nursery schools originated in 1922 or in the years immediately following (p. 6). Hymes suggests that the traditional child care center offers custodial care while the traditional nursery school provides some form of nursery education. 41 The American nursery school is one of the outcomes of an interest in pre-kindergarten education and can be traced to two main areas of interest: <1> scientific interest in early childhood stemming from new enchases in biology, physiology, psychology, and medicine; and (2) experimental efforts in the field of mental hygiene (Forest, 1927, p. 293). Forest states that nursery schools, or directed pre kindergarten groups have developed through the efforts of the following agencies: 1. The activities of departments of psychology and education in certain leading universities of the countrj". 2. The efforts of individuals, and groups other than universities, interested in research. 3. The efforts of educated parents who have experienced increasing difficulty in providing adequately for the education of their young children under existing social conditions. 4. The efforts of individuals and associations interested in ia^roving the educational status of " the day nursery. (p. 293) Forest concludes that there probably is no nursery school plan that may be singled out and described as representative of the American movement. She summarizes a nursery school as follows: 42 1. The uiirsery school has a distinctively educational aim, but a broader conception of the demands of "preschool education” than has the kindergarten. It Includes every phase of the child’s education, and emphasizes physical care. 2. It Is a relatively new Institution, but It appears to have been highly successful In England. How successful It will be here probably depends upon how quickly and Intelligently American nursery school procedure Is standardized, and how successfully It may be adapted to American needs. 3. The Institution Is progressive In character; every phase of scientific Investigation and discovery concerning the nature and needs of young children Is considered In planning the various phases of an Ideal nursery school program. 4. It serves mother and children through giving children expert care and guidance, and giving mothers example and Instruction In proper child care. (pp. 338-339) It Is Interesting to examine the child care programs In other countries. In Italy, the "asllo" Is a model for effective day care. The asllo Is a preschool situation for children aged three to six years. All children, whether or not their mothers work outside the home, are welcomed. The "nldo" Is another day care facility designed for Infants aged three months to three years who are either orphans or whose mother works. Both day care facilities are operated at public expense and a working mother, regardless of Income, Is not penalized. Unfortunately, there are not enough facilities to meet the needs of a growing population. 43 According to Moranarco (1975), if Italy can increase the nnmber of facilities, then Italy may have one of the most modern and effective child care systezs In the world (p, 80). In Czechoslovakia and East Germany, as well as in other eastern European countries, child care is provided at a minimal cost for the six-month to six-year-old children of all working mothers. According to Sailor (1980) who has conducted extensive research abroad, the majority of women work in these countries; consequently, quality child care is viewed as a basic and essential need. In these countries, the goal of child care is to provide each child equal opportunity for maximum development of individual potential. Educational goals are a distinct element in programs for children from the ages of three to six. It is interesting to note that both Czechoslovakia and East Germany have their own centrally produced curriculum which is based on currently submitted research data and teacher feedback. Allowances are made for the individual needs of the children and divergent styles in creative activities are accepted readily. In both countries, the personnel are sufficiently qualified. Those individuals who care for young children under the age of three receive training as nurses. The individuals who work with the children from ages three to six are involved in four years of pedagogical training. As 44 for the future of child care in both countries, it is speculated that more emphasis will be placed upon staff pedagogical training and research projects for infants and toddlers (Sailor, 1980). In the Netherlands, the central government provides virtually 100 percent financing of the private and public preschools. Great diversity in working methods for both the public and private schools is allowed. Sailor (1977) notes that most teachers maintain a loosely structured Froebel- type program which en^hasizes sensory and interactive learning. Children who are not enrolled in primary school attend the Dutch "kleuterschools." Children begin preschool on their fourth birthday. Teachers in these preschools receive highly specialized training- Before a prospective teacher is accepted into a training institution, the individual must have completed six years of primary and four years of general secondary education. The training course lasts for three years and students average eight hours a week at a "kleuterschool." The course of study ranges from psychology and teaching methods to oral and instrumental music. Music is a part of the "kleuterschool" curriculum. Singing, the use of rhythm instruments, and dramatic-act1on 45 songs are included in the music activities. As for the future, more reform will be conducted in nursery and primary education since there is much concern with the integration of preschools and primary schools (Sailor, 1977). DEFIiriTIOir, CRITERIA, AHD EVALUATION Early childhood education means different things to different people. The term "early childhood education” has become an umbrella term according to Law (1979). Law offers the following definition: . . . early childhood education is a place to play and to learn. It has been organized by caring adults to provide materials and guidance within a safe and reliable environment. It may be located in a home, a church basement, a public school or a town hall. It may be for infants, toddlers, preschoolers, school-age children or a combination of these. (p. 200) Early childhood education encospasses many organizational groups. Some of the groups include kindergarten, child care centers— sometimes called day care centers, day nurseries, nursery schools, private nonprofit nursery schools, private for-profit nursery schools, church-sponsored nursery schools, Xontessori schools, and other specially designed 46 nursery schools (Hymes, 1981, pp. 1-2). Hymes states, "The only nursery school we don* t have— yet— is the free public nursery school, the school any three-year—old can go to just because the youngster is three” (p. 1). Hymes notes that it is the wide array of names, sponsorship, purposes, and sources of funding which make early childhood education confusing. He rejects the term "pre” school as used in reference to nursery schools and any child care center. He maintains that they are all schools and not "prep" schools or training centers to get children ready for future schooling. Like Hymes, Butler (1973) objects to certain names or references for early childhood education. "Early stimulation" and "early schooling" are two unacceptable references acknowledged by Butler. The expression "early stimulation" refers to a type of sensory stimulation believed to assist the learning among infants and children of lower socioeconomic levels. According to Butler, the performance of poor children is due to more conqplex factors than insufficient or inadequate sensory stimulation. The expression "early schooling" is inappropriate due to its implied overea^haeis on the teaching of academic skills. Butler notes that for many children, "early schooling" is synonymous with "mis-education" (p. 22). Hymes stresses the need for schools designed for three-, four-, and five-year- olds where the children are welcomed for their own sake. 47 Hynes states, "Good schools for older age levels are tailor- made to fit the students who come. Schools can be tailor- made to fit young children, too" (p. 53). Hymes emphasizes the common goal of all groups which is "to help each child learn as much as he or she can in all areas of human experience and to do this in such a way that the youngster lives the years of three, four, and five in the richest, most satisfying, most constructive way possible" (p. 4). The question might be asked, what are the criteria for a quality early education program? Hunter (1973) proposes five elements as essential ingredients of a quality early education program. The first element is related to the participation of parents as goal-setters and as learners. Parents must assist in setting program goals and they must learn how to assist in achieving the goals. The second element is the need for balance in the design of the program. There must be ample educational opportunities for a child’s emotional growth, social growth, intellectual growth, and physical growth. The third element is the qualified leadership of a professional staff. A differentiated staff of professionals and paraprofessionals may be the key to efficient management and leadership. The fourth element is the accountability of a program through constant evaluation and monitoring. Evaluation is necessary for prograum improvement and program certification. The 48 fifth element is related to fiscal responsibility. Public support can insure that money is maximally deployed to economically and efficiently further the program goals. The foundation for fiscal responsibility in education is to spend money wisely rather than to make money or save money (Hunter, pp. 404-405). Hunter states, While quality education is never inexpensive, investment in early years should return a tremendous dividend in terms of prevention, rather than costly remediation. (p. 405) Prescott (1974) notes that society tends to equate quality in learning with adherence to licensing standards. Prescott provides this analogy, ”... one assumes that if the proper ingredients are provided the cake will turn out edible” (p. 125). Licensing standards merely set minimum requirements concerning the physical setting, the ratio of children to adults, and the numbers and kinds of persons who may enter the setting. According to Prescott, even credentialling systems fail to establish quality in education. Prescott expresses concern over society's reliance on test scores as indicators of quality in learning. Certainly all of these areas are Important; however, Prescott advocates the use of observation as a means of gauging quality in education. She recommends the observation of children and their interaction with the 49 educational environment. Of great concern are those children who may be viewed as "non-thrivers." Observation of these children provides information about the unworkable environmental features. A program’s unworkable features for ”non—thrivers” may be a source of discomfort or restriction for other children. Prescott believes that the creation of a more workable environment for ”non-thrivers” will tend to increase quality for every child in the program. As is true with most societal expenses, the expense of early childhood education needs to be justified to the general public. Law (1979) states that many aspects of early childhood education invariably focus on goals that do not lend themselves to quantitative measurement. In addition, she notes that many educational issues are based on non-specific criteria, and many of the related issues run the risks of subjectivity and poor documentation. Law recommends the involvement of responsible teachers. She concludes that a responsible teacher should maintain careful record-keeping with documentation of each child’s work and progress, as well as teacher assessments (p. 204). CUBRICÜLÜM Hursery education can be viewed as an extension of a child’s experiences at home; however, it has to be something more than child minding (James, 1984). Hursery education affords a child the opportunity to grow, play, and learn in 5 0 a secure and stimulating environment. It is in this environment that the child develops various skills: physical, Intellectual, linguistic, aesthetic, creative, emotional, and social (James, p. 322). Although the nursery school is viewed as an extension of home, many of the activities are not experienced in the child's home (p. 323). James notes that there is general agreement about the optimum all-round development of the child, but much difference of opinion regarding the means of achieving this. As for the commonly accepted curriculum, James notes that nursery school children need a stimulating environment that reinforces language and dialogue. The curriculum, like any curriculum, needs to assist in the acquisition of skills, the development of attitudes, and the growth of conceptual understanding. Each child must be accepted for what he is, and learning should be based on the child's previous experiences. In the development of attitudes, the curriculum should promote positive attitudes of self, respect for others, awareness and appreciation of the surrounding world, enjoyment, enthusiasm, curiosity, wonder, acceptance of challenge, acceptance of change, persistence and satisfaction, self-confidence, self-control, independence, cooperation, sharing, courtesy, care for living creatures and growing things, respect for authority, and the care for toys and equipment (pp. 331-332). 51 The National Association for the Education of Young Children -Experiences are provided that meet children's needs and stimulate learning in all developmental areas— physical, social, emotional, and intellectual. -Each child is viewed as a unique person with an individual pattern and timing of growth and development. The curriculum and adults’ inter action are responsive to individual differences in ability and interests. Different levels of ability, development, and learning styles are ex pected, accepted, and used to design appropriate activities. -Interactions and activities are designed to develop children’s self-esteem and positive feelings toward learning. (p. 23) The curriculum features described by James and the national Association for the Education of Young Children represent those elements associated with good nursery school programs. Parents are being guided in what to look for in a ’’good program.” For exaa^le, in a recent edition of Parents Magazine CJanuary 1988), parents are told what constitutes 52 good schooling for four-year-olds. According to Marzollo (1988), a good program is noted for the following educational practices: 1. Play is used as the method of instruction. 2. Children have interesting materials to investigate. 3. There is a sense of order and purpose in the child's activities. 4. Activities are child-centered, rather than teachei— centered. 5. The needs of the whole child are met. 6. Teachers understand their program well enough to explain it to parents. Similarly, Cecil, Gray, Thornburg, and Ispa (1985) stress the importance of a curriculum which is based on four levels— curiosity, exploration, play, and creativity. They note that a child who does not explore and actively play is identified sometimes by parents and early childhood professionals as a child at risk for developmental delays. Curiosity precedes exploration, play, and creativity. Curiosity is the need to know more about the surrounding environment. Play is marked by spontaneity and generally has a positive affect. A child's play is seIf-initiated and personal. They remind educators that play oftentimes has no final objective and due to this, a child can examine and explore all kinds of irrelevant details. The outcome of 53 play represents a spontaneous, cognitive creation. Butler (1971) notes that it is through play that children reveal their concerns, uncertainties, fears, and questions. And, it is through play that children eventually adopt realistic views concerning the world around them. Cecil, Gray, Thornburg, and Ispa define exploration as an adventure of discovery. This adventure may include smelling, observing, touching, or tasting particular materials or events. Creativity generally reflects a novel approach to an activity or problem solving. Cecil, Gray, Thornburg, and Ispa suggest that it is the early childhood professional who plays an active role in the support of children’s active exploration and play. This individual must make responsible management and curriculum choices which support the child’s ongoing learning. In addition to curiosity, exploration, play, and creativity, a curriculum should include free choices as avenues for growth. Katz (1986) notes the need that young children have to exercise choice or make selections among alternative activities. According to Katz, opportunities for choice, selection, and control over learning enhance effort and achievement. Spillane (1972) expresses concern about the type of learning that is witnessed in day care centers. He notes that too much emphasis is placed on ’’right answer” 54 learning rather than on interrogative learning. He states, "Developing the ability to ask significant questions should be a vital goal of education” (p. 71). Hankerson (1982) provides Information on how to design, modify, and utilize curriculum and Instruction to promote and support better preschool experiences. He bases his approach on Hildebrand’s goals of early childhood education. The program goals Include: (1) to help the child to grow In Independence (2) to help the child give and share as well as receive affection (3) to help the child to get along with others (4) to help the child gain self-control (5) to help the child gain a positive self-image (6) to help the child to begin to understand his/ her body and sex-role Identification (7) to help the child to begin to understand and control the physical world (8) to help the child to learn new language concepts and new vocabulary (Hildebrand, 1971; cited In Hankerson, 1982, p. 32) Hankerson recommends the Inclusion of these goals In early childhood educational programs. The last goal has significance In the area of music education. Hankerson suggests that developing meaningful vocabulary and fostering children's use of speech and language are developmental tasks suited to the achievement of the eighth goal. Thus, the curriculum needs to Include many diverse opportunities 55 for children to express ideas. Such opportunities might include show and tell, exploring books, storytelling, fingerplays, musical activities, and the media. Related instructional approaches should stress the development of auditory, visual, motor, verbal, and listening skills. These skills should be taught through modeling and the use of concrete materials (Hankerson, p. 38). TYPES AITD CLASSIFICATIONS Early childhood education is a growing phenomenon. According to Rothlein and Brett (1985), child care has become an important issue because in many families both parents work due to inflation or to maintain a higher standard of living. Many career— oriented women are continuing their careers after having children. Also, a higher divorce rate is forcing single parents to work out of financial necessity. These factors have contributed to the increased need for child care services. Child care services range from child care provided by day care centers, to child care provided in private homes (p. 281). In 1985, Rothlein and Brett noted that there were eight and one-half million children under six years of age whose mothers were in the work force, and of those children, 1.9 million were in day care centers (p. 281). More recently, in 1988, 51 percent of children younger than six years of age had mothers in the labor force, and it is predicted that by 1995 there will be 56 Just under fifteen million preschool children with mothers In the labor force. This figure represents two-thirds of the projected total population of preschool children (Sofferth, 1989). Each state Is responsible for writing, monitoring, and enforcing Its own child care laws; federal day care regulations have not been Isqplemented. Many centers use the regulations as a guideline (Rothlein and Brett, p. 282). There are many different types of child care services Including center child care which Is designed to serve six or more children. Exas^les of this type Include proprietary centers which are run by Individuals or corporations for a profit and can serve children from Infancy through childhood. Although, such centers offer little more than custodial services, there Is an Increasing es^hasls on educational activities. Church-affiliated centers which are run generally by the church and are considered non-profit organizations represent another type of child care service. There are, however, some centers housed In churches which are Intended for Individual or group profit. Most recently, employer-sponsored child care centers have emerged. These centers fall into two categories— those centers located on the premises of the employer and are operated by the employer, or those centers endorsed by an employer whereby the employer pays for services in whole or in part. Lastly, 57 an innovative concept in child care has emerged. Centers are built within the confines of a housing development and serve the needs of the families residing within that development (pp. 282-283). Rothlein and Brett note the popularity of the parent cooperative child care which is a half-day program whereby parents have the responsibility of hiring teachers and staff. Project Head Start is a federally funded project which has been in operation since 1965. Project Head Start was designed to help overcome the negative effects of poverty on the lives of children. The major goal of Project Head Start is to bring about a greater degree of social competence for disadvantaged preschool children. Social cos^tence encensasses the interrelatedness of cognitive and intellectual development, physical and mental health, nutritional needs, and any other factors related to optimal functioning (p. 283). In the area of special needs children. Preschool Exceptional Education programs provide services for handicapped preschool children. These programs are funded by the federal government and are often located in public schools (p. 284). In general, preschool programs are classified as either half-day programs or full-day programs. In her study on the effects of full- versus half-day preschool attendance, Vlietstra (1981) found through observational 5 8 analysis that there was significantly more teacher—guided task behavior as well as more peer interaction and motor activity among the full-day children than the half-day children. Rothlein and Brett note that there are many options for child care in the United States; however, there is much concern among parents and professionals regarding the quality of child care. The major concern is whether the services provide safe and enriching programs that develop the whole child, physically, emotionally, intellectually, and socially. Another concern is that there are not enough child care facilities to meet the needs of parents, especially those who have financial difficulties (p. 284). According to Rothlein and Brett, A major goal of early childhood educators in the United States is to secure enough good quality child care programs based on sound principles of child development and within the financial reach of every parent who needs these services. (p. 284) One of the most significant issues associated with child care concerns the financial feasibility. Rothlein and Brett state that child care should be within the financial reach of every parent who needs these services while Butler <1970) 59 states, "Day care should be available to parents regardless of ability to pay" (p. 60). Keyserling (1971) believes that ultimately there should be neighborhood—based day care centers, financed in whole or substantial part by public funds. This is one issue that has yet to be resolved. General Kusic Education The year 1988 represents the sesquicentennial anniversary of music education in the public schools. It was Lowell Mason who in 1838 recognized the need for music in the lives of children and was influential in achieving the educational status of music in the public schools. Prior to 1838, music was allowed and encouraged in the public schools; however, it was not until 1838 that music was included in the curriculum (Birge, 1937). Since 1838, music education has been successful in some ways and unsuccessful in other ways according to Mark (1978) who notes that music education has not always been taught musically, and for musical purposes. He attributes the unsuccessfulness to restrictive rules, regulations, and practices to which the teachers must conform in the school systas^. In order for music education to have a place of importance in the school systems, it must be supported by a rationale or philosophical justification. 60 Kenbers of the Music Educators National Conference maintain that balance is the key to an educational curriculum. According to MENC (Music Educators National Conference), music and the arts must be given an important place in the educational curriculum since they play an important role in contenporary society. MENC justifies the use of music in the following way: Music speaks through a kind of common language which transcends some of the difficulties of the spoken word in communicating deep human feelings which are common to all men. It is able to transport us into the past, into different parts of the world, and into other seasons of the year. It can help us to understand the deep feelings of those who lived in the past, of those who speak languages not commonly understood, to play, to work, and to worship with those whose lives are lived under differing circumstances. (Ernst and Gary, eds., 1965, p. 3) Heimer (1970) suggests that music education has a dual obligation to society. First, music education should develop the talents of those who are gifted musically. Second, music education should develop aesthetic sensitivity to music in all people regardless of their individual levels of musical talent. Both of these obligations are mutually supportive; thus, the neglect of one Inevitably weakens both 61 (p. 112). According to Seimer, general music education should develop the perceptual aSd reactional abilities of every child to aesthetic experiences to music. Educational strategies should be employed according to the maturationa1 level of the child. Reimer states that the purpose of music education is to help every child experience the expressiveness of sound as fully as he is capable of doing. Like Reimer, Garretson (1966) emphasizes the aesthetic and expressive values inherent in music. He suggests that it is the aesthetic values that are the primary justification for the inclusion of music education in the schools. Garretson notes that it is the schools' role to help future citizens to become intelligent consumers of music since uninformed persons are most likely to become victims of their own inexperience. Consequently, an important function of music education is to broaden "the base of musical experiences of all students, which should lead to a greater sense of understanding" (p. 3). Ifeiny music educators view aesthetic experiences as a means of fostering imagination and sensitivity (Eye and Eye, 1985; Bayless and Ramsey, 1978; and Anderson and Lawrence, 1985). In addition to aesthetic values, music serves social and personal values. Kusic can offer balance to the school day by providing such opportunities as singing, expressing feeling through body movement, playing various musical 62 instruments, active listening to music, and creating music (Ellison, 1959, p. 2). An integrated approach to music learning is advantageous because of the opportunity children have to perceive ideas which interrelate throughout their total learning environment (Anderson and Lawrence, 1985). Bayless and Ramsey (1978) maintain that a well-organized musical environment can provide a wide range of musical activities and experiences sufficient to meet the needs and interests of all children. They suggest that such an environment supports and strengthens learning in those areas outside of music that are brought into the total experience. In addition to providing integrated experiences, Bayless and Ramsey note that music helps children understand other people and their cultures, provides increased opportunities for social and emotional development, and provides a means for aesthetic growth and enrichment (p. vii). In 1969, on the twentieth anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a position paper sanctioned by the Association for Childhood Education International (AGED fully outlined a child’s right to the expressive arts. In this paper, Hixon (1969) stated that a child has a right to: -have many musical experiences— on appreciation and Interpretation levels -seek release and express himself creatively rather than be rigidly ’’trained” for technical excellence 63 -avoid participation in exploitive practices that are planned for adults* entertainment —have Joyous and free experiences suited to his interests and maturity -avoid highly organized or con^titive activities or symbols of extrinsic rewards that have no relationship to his appreciation or meaningful involvement -have musical experiences that speak to his many moods— loneliness, fears, troubles, tensions, as well as moments of happiness —know about the minds and hearts of other cultures -use music as a form of expression, particularly in the early years when he lacks verbal forms for expressing emotions and thoughts —react to music and rhythmic interpretations as expressions of selfhood, levels of feelings that struggle to be released -enjoy experiences in many kinds of music, the classical forms, the less exalted but worthy forms in which men have expressed their interpretations of the world -enjoy music as an intimate and personal possession -have music generously shared so that he may grow to know and love it and to use it for re-interpretation of his world. (p. 310) Hawn <1975/1976) notes that music experiences are of significance in the overall cognitive development of a child. First of all, music is considered a flexible •*2saLterial*’ which can serve as **a useful medium through which behavior can be changed** (p. 77). Second of all, music can aid in the structuring and clarification of an affective experience. And, according to Hawn, 64 The affective and cognitive aspects of behavior are Inseparably joined In the learning experience. (pp. 77-78> Since the middle and late 1960s, such Interest has been generated In music and the young child. Much of the ezqphasls Is placed on the satisfaction and enjoyment of the child as the child participates In music-related activities (ITye, 1979, pp. 1-2). Eye suggests that "complete mastery" Is not the goal In music activities. Bather, children learn musical skills and concepts at their maturity-Interest level. Eye states. An effective music program depends upon the teacher’s understanding of this age group and of music’s Is^ortance In giving meaning to every facet of children’s experiences. (p. 2) The Inclusion of music In the educational curriculum for the young child should represent a deliberate attes^t to Integrate music Into the curriculum while reinforcing music education goals and objectives. The next concern is related to the appropriateness of what Is to be taught and the Instructional sequencing of that material. 65 Music Currlç-glton for Young Children According to Brand and Femie (1983), The value of a favorable music curriculum for children 2 to 8 years of age cannot be overemphasized, since these years represent the optimum opportunity for influencing an individual’s musical potential. (pp. 321-322) Brand and Fernie note that music appreciation, performance skills, and music achievement can be developed at any age; however, musicality can be influenced most profoundly during the early years. It is diuring the early years that children should be exposed to a variety of music activities. Lending support to the formation of a favorable music curriculum, Greenberg (1974) found that a planned, sequential music program can be beneficial to the musical growth of a preschooler. Greenberg compared the use of a planned preschool music curriculum, the use of a planned preschool music and physical education curriculum, and the use of music incidentally in the preschool classroom. Of significance to this study are the following conclusions formed by the independent evaluations of teachers and other evaluators: 66 1. An organised approach, to music curriculum experiences in the preschool is a marked improvement over the haphazard approach which has characterised much of the music education in preschools. 2. Preschool children are able to respond to the cognitive aspects of music, and develop an increasing awareness of these elements through a planned, sequential music curriculum. 3. Any music curriculum for the preschool teacher must contain many specific day-to-day teaching hints and lesson plans, since the average teacher has a very limited background in music. Adequate teacher training in both music content and pedagogy is of paramount importance for all preschool teachers. 4. The expressive—aesthetic nature of music makes this curriculum area of prime importance to the education of the preschooler, but, at the same time, makes it more difficult than most other curriculum areas for the average preschool teacher to handle. 5. Preschool music experiences should be expanded to include music of all cultures and historical periods, songs representative of the ethnic background of the children, planned activities designed to foster cognitive growth, and close correlation with language, quantitive, and physical activities. (pp. 37—38) In explaining the focus of musical experiences at the pre-kindergarten level, Aronoff (1968) states: The challenge to early childhood education in music is well-defined: it must maintain and develop the child’s natural responses to aesthetic values. (p. 34) 67 A child's natTiral responses are manifested through a variety of experiences. Ifost early childhood textbooks and other source material recommend the inclusion of a variety of musical experiences in the nursery school curriculum. The experiences that are recommended include chanting, singing, dancing, listening to records and instruments, musical conversations, rhythmic moving, and playing musical instruments and sound—making objects. In addition, musical dramatizations, creative Integration of music and art, musical games, rhythmic interpretation through body percussion, fingerplays, creative or free movement, and any other musically-related activities are encouraged CHoustakas, 1956; King and Kerber, 1968; Ebbeck and Ebbeck, 1974; Andress, 1980; Hendrick, 1980; Shephard, 1982; and Eliason and Jenkins, 1986). Before exploring the various activities, it is is^ortant to identify the role of the nursery school in the musical development of the preschool child. According to Foster and Mattson (1939): The function of the nursery school here is to help the child listen to sounds intelligently; to help him to appreciate, enjoy, and participate in single melodies and the more delicate gradations of tone; and finally to guide him into more accurate and more pleasing reproductions of tone. (p. 203) 68 GOALS AHD OBJECTIVES Smith (1970) indicates that music should be a part of the daily preschool curriculum and that the child’s music education should be planned as carefully as any other aspect of the educational curriculum. Smith stresses the need for a structured program of music activities which is based on specific objectives. Like Smith, Eye (1979) stresses the importance of establishing goals and objectives. Eye states that a teacher must be able to differentiate between two groups of music activities. The first activity group includes listening, moving, singing, playing instruments, and creating. The second group involves activities through which certain specific objectives of musical accomplishment can be achieved. Eye indicates that the first important step in designing a music program is to identify goals. Based on the identification of each goal, the teacher can identify three or more instructional objectives. It is each of the instructional objectives that provides a related performance objective that can be measured. The performance objectives become the theme or focal point of each music lesson. It is the teacher’s responsibility to select the necessary materials and activities which will isolement the objectives of the lesson (pp. 43-44). Taylor (1974) recommends that written lesson plans be prepared for all lessons. She notes that the lesson plans provide a means 69 for thinking through what is to be taught. She even suggests that written lesson plans be shared with the parents by posting the plans in highly visible areas. An additional benefit of the written lesson plan is the information that it provides when the teacher finds it necessary to return to previously learned material. The teacher can review what has been learned and then procédé with new material. Taylor reminds the teacher that young children lesurn through repeated exposure, and to have access to previously employed strategies is beneficial. Lastly, the lesson plan outlines the various instructional strategies that can be es^loyed and gives the teacher an idea of whether sufficient time has been spent exploring the specific activities (p. 2). Teaching music to young children with specific goals and objectives is important but many educators may not know on what to base the goals and objectives. Andress (1986) stresses the importance of defining age-appropriate goals and objectives. According to Andress, the establishment of a program must evolve from an educational theory that is devised by experts from many disciplines. In establishing an educational theory, it is necessary to define the subjects to whom the theory will pertain; identify all applicable variables; identify developmental stages so appropriate instructive materials may be employed; consider 70 play theory as an appropriate educational tool for young children; and consider language development theories when emphasizing song-making. Andress highly recommends the reliance on environmental observations for establishing a theory of instruction. Andress (1985) states that research findings support her recommendation that programs be developed according to the child's developmental abilities. According to Andress, an age-appropriate music curriculum should follow the guidelines as indicated: (a) base activities on how the child thinks (often illogically, with single focus); (b) be aware of the manner in which language acquisition influences the nature of the child* s song response— from babbling, global properties of song, to more accurate pitch and rhythmic matching; (c) be aware of the child's predisposition to spontaneous song imq>rovisations and nurture these experiences as a means toward maintaining the child's creative tendencies; (d) accommodate the play styles of the child, using settings that allow for playing alone, playing beside others, and with others; (e) be concerned that we do not exploit the preschool child and that we provide experiences important and appropriate for the child, never for the ego-satisfaction of the adult; (f) know that young children are capable of interacting with and learning about mzuslcal concepts. (p. 61) Once a music curriculum has been established, the curriculum is still likely to change. Otto (1966) states that educators mrast conduct continuous evaluations of the 71 music curricTil'ua. SvalTiations are necessary for maintaining an ez^hasis on those curriculum elements which provide the greatest contribution to the growth of the child, and for determining the future direction of the program with an evaluation of the progreim's basic aims and objectives (p. 61). Of all of the goals and objectives established for music education, the primary goal or objective should be that children enjoy the experiences (Allen and Hart, 1984; and Eliason and Jenkins, 1986). Eliason and Jenkins maintain that music should be integrated into the total early childhood curriculum. They state, “Musical experiences defy time limits, exacting goals, and expectations. The time for music is any time!” (p. 356) Eliason and Jenkins provide a list of benefits that the child should acquire through the music program: 1. Success, joy, and pleasure through participation 2. Opportunities to experience music through a variety of activities, materials, instruments 3. Acquaintance with a variety of types of music 4. Awareness of contrasts in music, such as fast and slow, high and low, loud and soft 5. Responsiveness to single rhythms through locomotor movements, body movements such as clapping, or the use of rhythm instruments 6. Opportunity to sing a variety of songs 7. Ability to express the mood or feelings of a musical selection through body movements (pp. 356-357) 72 Similarly to Eliason. and Jenkins, Choksy (1988) notes the specific experiences which should comprise an early childhood music program. Choksy states that the experiences should provide children with the opportunity to discover that; 1. music can be louder or softer (principles of dynamics); 2. music can be faster or slower (principles of tempo) ; 3. the size and material of the sound source can affect the quality of the sound produced (timbre); 4. sounds can be longer or shorter (principles of rhythm); 5. there is a regularly occurring underlying beat in music; 6. some beats have a feeling of stress (accent); 7. some songs are "stepping or marching" songs (2/4, 4/4), while others are "skipping or galloping" songs (6/8); 8. there are places in the music for taking a breath (phrase); 9. in a song some phrases may be the same, otherE s3 may be different (form); 10. pitches may move higher or lower or may repeat (melody). (p. 21) In her explanation of this discovery approach, Choksy states: 73 Preschool children should not be expected to verbalize these concepts, rather they should be led to demonstrate their understanding. All concepts fundamental to the above ten areas of learning may be taught through singing and moving. All may be approached with children as "play." (p. 22) These benefits and discoveries represent those acknowledged by most teachers of young children Althouse, 1981; Hendrick, 1980; Rudolph and Cohen, 1984; and Shephard, 1982). Another important benefit that may be derived from music experiences is the child* s introduction to various ethnic groups. Hendrick (1980) notes the many opportunities that music offers for incorporating multi-ethnic materials into the nursery school day. King and Kerber (1968) stress the importance of developing cultural pluralism through music. They note that there are universal themes such as animals, lullabies, special foods, and significant holidays that can be shared through music. . They indicate that children seem to sense, the significance of a child's song from some other culture as they relate the song to their own experiences. 74 COMPREHENSIVE MUSIC INVOLVEMENT In establishing a comprehensive music program it is necessary to note some of the approaches or methods that are available. The Montessorian approach is based on the notion that children who receive music training will be calmer and will shy away from negative influences in life. Montessori recommends that teachers be in communication with their students by playing an instrument and singing. She reminds teachers not to force students to sing and to use the most primitive music instruments available. She notes that children are more sensitive to rhythm than tone; consequently, rhythm should be stressed. Through the use of simple dances, Montessori states that it is possible to educate a child’s muscular sense as it develops in relation to mtuscular memory and other sensory miemiory (Montessori, 1964, pp. 206-208). Faulmann (1980) suggests that it is Montessori’s emphasis on sensory learning and the manipulative use of materials and instruments designed specifically for the young child which make Montessori still "years ahead of miany practicing music educators" (p. 41). Some practitioners have criticized or rejected Montessori*s approach due to its overemphasis on sensory stimulation. Beyer (1968) criticizes the Montessorian approach on the basis of a perceived artificiality of its focus on ritual and mastery of a technique, rather than on delight in the 75 process and in completion of a task. Beyer suggests that Montessorian practices stifle the child's creative urges by insisting that a single method or procedure be used in the mastery of a given task. Beyer, however, accepts many of the fundamental tenets of Montessorian-based education. Some practitioners maintain that the approach is dated and not suited to the needs of all children. Lavatelli <1970) suggests that the Montessori sensory exercises may stimulate intellectual curiosity. It might be that the child gains satisfaction not in the accoscplishment of a given task, but in the intellectual curiosity which stems from how the task is accoaçlished. Lavatelli states, "One of the strengths of the Montessori program, then, may be in its power to motivate the child to learn” (p. 244). Woods <1973/1974) recognizes the appropriateness of the Montessorian approach and states the following: Perhaps the best method of utilizing a synthesis of analysis, composition and performance at the preschool level is the approach advocated by Maria Montessori. Woods adheres to the philosophical framework of the Montessorian approach with the child acquiring knowledge through seIf—discovery. 7 6 Although self-education through discovery is in5>ortant, Bruner (1963) stresses the importance of presenting material in a way that is understood by -the individual based on the individual’s mental readiness. However, Bruner warns educators to be careful of assigning an absolute level of difficulty to any particular topic. Bruner suggests that learning is based on a core of information that is deemed significant. The informational core remains constant but the pedagogical approaches differ according to the degree of mental sophistication of the individual. This educational principle is known as the "spiral curriculum.” Thomas (1970) provides guidelines for using the spiral approach in music education and identifies the educational components of the music curriculum. The music spiral includes the concepts of rhythm, pitch, dynamics, form, timbre, and harmonic figurations (texture). In this approach, there is a systematic return to each of these concepts but with an increasing level of difficulty with each successive grade level. Teachers of young children should incorporate the music spiral in their music planning. Zimmerman (1981) states that chanting, singing, expressive movement, listening, and sound exploration and discovery through creative experiences form the basis of the early music education curriculum. 77 Singing  child who Is STirrounded by singing will tend to regard singing as a natural means of expression (Shephard, 1982). The teacher should try to present a good singing model for the students, and If this Is not possible, then quality recordings should be played. Recordings with children's voices may Instill In the young child the notion that singing Is natural and can be enjoyable. For very young children, singing may be difficult. The following criteria for selecting appropriate songs may be useful: 1. Songs should have limited ranges. 2. Songs should contain repetition In music and words. 3. Songs should be short In length. 4. Songs should be topically Interesting to the group. 5. Songs should provide variety In tes^o and mood. 6. Songs should provide opportunity for active Involvement. (Sexton, 1979, p. 39) Singing Is enjoyable and even therapeutic. Harley (1984) found In her study of music and Its use with hospitalized Infants and toddlers that singing of simple songs seemed to create coapanlonshlp, a sense of security, and an increased awareness of others In the room. Harley used slsple songs for the purposes of relaxation and stimulation. 78 Similarly, Boland <1984) experienced the therapeutic benefits of music in her work with young, handicapped children. She utilized songs to teach basic skills and to capture the imaginations of her students. The students learned the days of the week, the seasons, opposite word pairs, survival skills, and directions. Boland later administered the Peabody Individual Achievement Test to determine if transfer of learning was occurring. The results were positive; "All of the children, regardless of specific learning problems, demonstrated some transference of concepts taught through song” (p. 49). The most inç>ressive results included strengthened listening skills, increased vocabulary, improved spelling, and more sophisticated comprehension. Husic is used frequently as a means of developing extra-musical skills. Kuhmerker (1969) notes that often a song can serve the function of speech or written material in the language arts program. Speech and song are similar in that they both have phrasing, rhythm and emphasis, rhyme, and repetition (p. 157). Boland (1984) noted that it was the repetition of melody and words which enabled her students to develop auditory memory. Songs are similar to prose and poetry because they have a beginning and an end, they outline a sequence of events, and they provide descriptions of cause and effect (Kuhmerker, p. 157). 79 McDonald, and Ramsey (1978) note that whatever can be said can also be snng. They suggest the use of singing conversations to encourage children to formulate thoughts into phrases and sentences. Kuhmerker states that music is the vehicle through which vocabulary and the meaning of the song are introduced. After children learn a song by rote, they will become familiar with the vocabulary and sentence structure of the text as the teacher displays a wall chart or some other printed form for analysis. It is through the visual chart that reading instruction may begin. The song is used to create a multi-sensory learning experience (p. 159). Kuhmerker warns educators of the temptation to begin reading instruction before the children are ready to hear and visualize the differences between words. The advantages of introducing beginning reading activities through music are as follows: -Reading becomes a multi-sensory experience. -There is high interest and involvement, even among children for whom English is a second language. -Husic brings variety and pleasure to the program. -Music reduces the tedium of repetition and drill. (Kuhmerker, p. 163) In a related area, Chacksfield, Binns, and Robins (1975) conpare singing to reading. They suggest that singing songs to preschool children is as important to the development of children’s love of music, as reading stories to them is to 80 their reading development. Chacksf ield, Binns, and Robins note the similarities between reading and music involvement such as the visual, auditory and motor powers which must be used in both tasks. They note that children must learn visual discrimination, left to right orientation, and visual memory (p. 115). Visual tasks are necessary in music learning, but for the young child, such tasks are de— emphasized. Songs also provide opportunities for problem solving. Hitz (1987) suggests that all teachers provide opportunities for children to solve problems. He indicates that if children are to grow cognitively, then they must encounter problems, be given opportunities to solve those problems, and be allowed to experience the consequences of their solutions. Songs may be used to help children solve movement problems. For example, children can provide alternative ways to move to a song, or children can invent movement to a song which has no movement. Words of songs can be modified as to accommodate children's original movements. Hitz states: All children have the capacity to take the ingredients of music and to make a recipe that is particularly their own, which delights and satisfies them and which can often be shared with others. (p. 15) 81 In deciding which songs to nse with young children, Jalongo and Collins (1985) suggest that an educator observe children's responses to selected activities and be aware of behavioral cues which indicate children's enjoyment. Based on observation, educators should answer the following questions: 1. How do the children naturally respond to music with their bodies? 2. Vhich parts of the song generate the most. singing? 3. When do children follow the melody best? (Jalongo and Collins, p. 17) Jalongo and Collins note that one way to assess children's reactions to group singing is to tape an entire session for later review. When the tape is played, the teacher should listen for when the children join in the singing; how long their attention is held by various songs; children's requests and comments; spontaneous changes children make to songs; the pitch range and the ease with which the melody is sung; and a balance between the teacher's voice and the children's voices (pp. 20—21). Choksy (1988) stresses the izqportance of singing and states that young children need to develop a repertoire of songs before meaningful learning about music can take place. She recommends that teachers select songs from the heritage of Horth American children's songs. Such popular songs as "Ring Around the Rosy," "Here Ve Go Round the Mulberry 82 Bush,** and **London Bridge** should be Included in the young child*s singing experience. Songs should be used for singing, moving, game playing, and listening. Songs should be representative of single duple meter (2/4) and confound duple meter (6/8). In addition to songs, rhymes and children*s poetry can be an iz^ortant source for musical learning (Choksy, 1988, pp. 20-21). A meaningful preamble to singing involves rhythmic chanting of poems or nursery rhymes. Movement One of the most iz^ortant elezients in music learning is movement. Ebbeck and Ebbeck (1974) state, **for the preschool and kindergarten child, ztusic, ziovement and drazia are first and foreziost vehicles through which a child is able to express himself, thereby establishing relationships within his environzent of people, places and objects** (p. 70). They view music, movezient and drama as communicative forms which enable children to express themselves. Based on the interrelatedness of ztusic, movement, and drama, Ebbeck and Ebbeck provide six instructional points: 1. It is essential that all music, ztovezient and drama be pleasurable experiences for young children. A young child who is unwilling to participate in these kinds of activities should not be forced to do so, nor should he be moved from where the activities are taking place. Rather, he should be allowed to work if he wishes at sozie other activity of his choice nearby or Just to look on. 83 2.  child's desire to participate in music, drama and movement and the nature of his resulting effort (i.e., its style, performance and direction) is greatly influenced by his societal background. 3. In all activities involving music, movement and drama, the development in the child of creative self-expression is more iz^ortant than the mechanical imitation of someone else's movements, mot i ons, interprétât ions. 4. Music, movement and drama assist the child to develop a sense of rhythm. Rhythm permeates all music, movement and drama. Teachers, therefore, should attezçt to highlight the rhythmic aspects of each activity. 5. Music, movement and drama all assist in developing the child’s senses and his muscular bodily coordination. Worthwhile activities in these areas aid in the development of the senses— of hearing (aural discrimination) by recognizing nuances in pitch, tempo, volume, and position, of seeing (spatial relationships) by developing Judgment as to position and of distance, and of large and small muscular coordination through purposefully moving one’s body in space. 6. Encouraging creativity— stretching the young child’s imagination to create new, personal ways of expression— is important. (pp. 71-73) Copple, Sigel, and Saunders (1979) note the importance of movement at the preschool level. They state that movement permeates human activity and can communicate events, situations, and emotions. For the child, movement represents an Important means by which impressions of the world are retrieved (pp. 74-75). In preschool education, movement in response to music or mood represents one of the strongest aspects of movement instruction (p. 76). The 84 teacher should examine the children’s spontaneous physical expression as a beginning for instruction (Rudolph and Cohen, 1984, p. 228). The teacher can refine, control, or intensify a child’s movements by providing musical direction (p. 229). Although providing direction is inportant, the teacher should not set patterns for musical expression. For example, the teacher should not fit the child’s response into the set pattern of the music; instead, the teacher should adapt the music to the child’s own rhythm. Vhen this is done, the child has many opportunities to respond to the music without the responses being dictated (Read, Gardner, and Mahler, 1987, p. 341). Andrews (1976) states that activities cannot be prescribed nor can outcomes be expected with the same certainty that a cook follows a cookbook recipe. The primary goal associated with movement activities is to help children discover their inherent creativity (p. 34). Like Andrews, Stinson (1977) states that the goal of movement activities is ”to facilitate development of a child who likes to move expressively, using movement created by the individual child” (p. 49). Stinson uses the word ”dance” to signify any type of movement done for the sake of moving and performed with awareness and concentration. In support of this word’s use, Stinson notes that babies begin to ’’dance” at the age of a few months when they bounce to music. 85 creating their own rhythm. Stinson places much enphasls on the Involvement of an adult who creatively Interacts with the child In a movement—oriented activity. The adult shows support for the child’s Ideas and responses by carefully observing the child’s movements. Stinson provides the following questions as a guide for the adult who Is observing a child’s movements: 1. Does the movement have a name (bounce, jump, shake, run, etc.>? 2. Is any body part being emphasized? 3. Is the child tense or relaxed while moving? Does the movement seem either strong and heavy or light and floating? 4. Is the movement especially fast or slow? 5. Is the movement on a low level (close to the floor) or high, or In between? 6. What direction Is It (forward, backward, sideways, changing)? 7. Does the child stay In one spot or Is a floor pattern used (circles, lines across the room, zlg zags, etc.)? 8. What Is the child’s spatial relationship to other parts of the environment (over, under, around, next to something— or someone— else)? 9. Does the movement take up a lot of space (like big aurm circles) or Is It very small (like blinking eyes)? 10. What does the shape or movement remind you of (a worm In a hurry, a sleepy elephant, a willow tree In a storm, etc.)? (pp. 50-51) 86 After the adult has observed the child’s movements carefully, the adult should tell the child specifically what was observed. After the adult has discussed the movements with the child, then the adult should respond creatively. The response should show sensitivity to what the child performed (Stinson, pp. 51-52). Stinson even suggests that adults who participate in this interactive manner may rediscover their own creative abilities. In movement activities the teacher should serve as a facilitator or catalyst. Like Stinson, Stecher (1970) encourages the teacher to be sensitive to children's responses and offer verbal acknowledgements to the children. According to Stecher, the teacher has a dual role: "a catalyst for action and a stabilizer for focusing attention on the problem to be solved” (p. 145). The teacher is a co participant at times, although, the teacher does not demonstrate or teach "how.” The teacher encourages free- exploration by posing open-ended questions. The teacher encourages continuous and varied involvement by offering comments. The comments are given as a means of increasing the child's body awareness, sense awareness, and concept understanding (p. 145). Stecher warns educators of the problem of too much verbalizing. Educators should be reminded that nonverbal involvement has its own value or merit as well (p. 153). 87 Since children learn mainly through imitation, teachers should be aware of peer influence as related to expressive movement. Flohr and Brown <1979) note that peer imitation significantly influences expressive movement of both preschool and kindergarten children. Although imitation may stifle self-expressiveness, Flohr and Brown emphasize the usefulness of imitation. They recognize that the young child’s imitative tendencies may be used effectively when the teacher wants to model for movement. Sims (1985) notes that there are age differences among young children with respect to creative or spontaneous movements. Because of such differences, it may be useful to group preschool children by age. Sims stresses the importance of knowing the characteristics and capabilities of the children when structuring movement activities. Like Sims, Schleuter and Schleuter (1985) recognize the differing physical capabilities of young children. In their study, Schleuter and Schleuter found that girls consistently received higher scores than boys on a rhythm response test. The difference in scores was noted for children in grades one through three. Schleuter and Schleuter remind teachers that boys in these grades generally do not demonstrate rhythm comprehension through stepping, clapping, and chanting as accurately as girls of similar ages. Generalizations of this kind need further examination since there is no 88 apparent explanation for such differences. Kost educators would agree that aiovessent or some t3?pe of physical responsiveness is necessary in the musical development of young children. Thomas (1975/1977) offers the following summarization of the child’s need for movement: Movement is a basic element of life. To the young child it is as basic as eating and sleeping. Through movement he expresses what he feels, and, very often, what he is thinking. Music can capitalize on that natural need for and love of movement, and music can at the same time enhance movement. Moving is one of the most natural and delightful avenues by which a child may experience music. (p. 112) Instruments and Body Percussion In addition to chanting, singing, and moving expressively, the young child needs to explore the production of sound. As Shephard (1982) so aptly states, ’’Sound is the raw material of music” (p. 5). Since sound is the agent of music, children need to experiment with the ways in which sound can be produced. Children should be taught sound production through object and instrument manipulation, body percussion, and vocal manipulation. Children should be taught to locate sounds in their everyday life (Aronoff, 1979). Mye (1979) suggests that a child’s earliest listening experiences are derived from an awareness 89 of the many sounds produced by the human body (p. 52). Fye recommends that children be led tc ezplore the sounds that can be generated from their bodies. Some of these sounds are manufactured by clapping hands, slapping thighs, rubbing palms, standing feet, pounding on the floor or table with fists, clicking tongues, or making hissing or "ssh” sounds (p. 57). As an extension of body percussion, the sounds can be translated into percussion instrument sounds. Ebbeck and Ebbeck <1974) note the importance of teaching children to express musical elements with their voices and with percussion and melodic instruments. In using instruments with preschoolers, Thomas (1975/1977) suggests that teachers classify instruments as "classroom” instruments and ”orchestral” instruments. ”Classrooaf' instruments are grouped as rhythm, melody, and harmony instruments. Rhythm instruments are those instruments that are nonpitched. The main harmony instruments include the piano and autoharp, and the principal melody instruments include song bells, step bells, resonator bells, and the piano. ”Orchestral” instruments may be of interest to the older preschool child and can be introduced through pictures and actual demonstration. Such instruments can be introduced according to the means by which they are played (bowing, blowing, and striking). Classroom instruments should be employed in the preschool and should be used as a 90 part of free exploration and experimentation. Other nses include rhythmic activities, the enhancement of singing activities, and the accompaniment or initiation of movement activities (Thomas, pp. 226-227, 244). Aronoff (1969) warns teachers of having all students use instruments at the same time. She suggests that desensitization occurs when all of the instruments are sounding at one time. Aronoff recommends the use of classroom instruments as an encouragement for discovering the distinctive tone qualities and expressive potentialities of various instruments. The use of instruments may extend the child’s conceptual understanding of pitch, duration, and dynamics. In addition to conceptual growth, the young child will experience the transference of extended arm or body movement into sound. As Aronoff notes, when children are guided through instrumental exploration and discussion, the properties of sound and silence are made clear. In addition to the use of traditional instruments, young children can use homeade instruments which they assist in making. As Kyerson (1970) notes, one of the most important factors in such a project is that the finished product enhance, not destroy, music-aaking. In addition to this factor, the teacher should consider such factors as 91 safety, suitability, size and shape, cost of materials, and availability of materials. Kyerson suggests some of the following exas^les of homeade instruments: 1. elastic with sewn-on bells 2. gloves/mittens with sewn-on bells 3. tambourines made of paper or metal pie plates attached with colorful threads hung with bottle caps or bells 4. tambourines made of small round sponges with belled ribbons sewn around them 5. Band-Aid boxes held by pipe cleaner handles containing pebbles or beans 6. coffee cans, oatmeal boxes, bleach bottles, or plastic milk bottles containing pebbles or beans 7. paper towel cylinders with covered ends containing pebbles or beans 8. maracas constructed from filled pingpong balls attached to makeup brushes or ice cream sticks, or filled plastic lemons attached to dowels 9. plastic coffee measures filled and taped together 10. plastic caps from hairspray or deoderant cans put together on a string 11. building blocks with sandpaper 12. bongo drums made of different sizes of coffee containers, or oatmeal boxes with ribbon-covered empty toilet tissue rolls 13. mallets constructed of styrofoam balls on both ends of a pencil 14. a plucked instrument made from a cardboard shoebox with a hole cut in the cover and colored elastics of different widths around it 92 15. a plucked Instrument made by turning a metal paint bucket upside down, attaching a guitar string at one end to the center of the bucket with a round screw and at the other end to a broom handle (pp. 91-92) Hyerson concludes that making instruments can meet musical needs and creative needs. Regardless of the instruments that are used in the classroom, children need a time for examining and experimenting with the instruments. Cliatt (1979) acknowledges the Inçiortance of allowing children to explore the instruments. She also encourages teachers to take the time to explore the many uses of instruments in the classroom. Cliatt provides a creative exasple of how to use the instruments to dismiss children from a group activity. In her exasple, she suggests that the teacher play a rhythmic pattern for a child who then will walk away from the group imitating the performed rhythm (p. 104). This is just one of many creative ways that instruments can be incorporated into the classroom. Listening A natural progression from exploring and producing sound is the objective listening to formalized sound. Peery and Peery (1986) note that the first four years in a child's life may be a sensitive period for developing musical taste, and that in the fifth year, musical preferences may begin to change. The change may be away from music that is 93 Infrequently heard or is "socially avoided,” to anisic which permeates the life of the child. Children are more accepting of the anisic with which they are most familiar. The anisic which may be most familiar Is that which Is heard on the radio or television. Because of the significance of the early years, Peery and Peery suggest that music experiences designed for broad exposure be Included In the preschool curriculum. Hair C1986) suggests that preschool children be exposed to and allowed to Interact with "appropriate, 'quality' anisic literature. In addition to the traditionally used nursery and children's songs" (p. 187). Hair notes that such early listening experiences might foster positive experiences and provide familiarity with music which may be used In future listening experiences. Sims <1986) suggests that the early childhood years represent an laç)ortant period In the developsaent of listening skills. Sims stresses the laçportance of the teacher In altering student attention levels. In her study, Sims found that preschool children were aiost attentive during music listening activities when the teacher displayed "high magnitude nonverbal affect," and when they were participating In hand-movement activity. Listening activities present an Instructional challenge for the teacher since sound Is not tangible and Its concepts are abstract to the young child. McMahon (1987) notes that 94 preschool-age children have difficulty verbalizing audible musical elements, while visual experiences are conducive to verbal acknowledgements. Based on McMahon"s findings, it might be advisable for teachers to provide visual stimulation for children engaged in listening experiences. Such visual stimulation can outline or diagram abstract musical occurrences. In their study on music discrimination and music selection behavior, Greer, Dorow, and Hanser (1973) found that three-year-old children were able to recognize con^ositions aurally, and Jetter (1978) found that fouz— year-olds could master the identification of clarinet timbre, "cello timbre, trombone timbre, exact melodic repetition, and half-step intervals. Both studies lend support to the belief that young children are capable of engaging in sophisticated musical learnings. Similarly, Sims (1986) reinforces the belief that young children are capable of high levels of cognitive and affective responses to music. Ebbeck and Ebbeck (1974) note that children must learn to listen just as they must learn to walk or talk (p. 78). In order for students to be aware of the expressive qualities in music, they must be involved in active listening. Pecka and Dudley (1980) suggest using an instructional approach that involves the students" eyes, hands, ears, and minds. 95 Creative Experiences The last area Is^ortant to music learning Involves creative experiences. This area Is not as easily defined as the aforementioned areas. Thomas <1975/1977) states that In some respect, all exploration and experimentation Is creative. Myers (1956) defines creative music activities as "those by which children themselves bring music Into being" (p. 139). Myers states that little children naturally tend to make up songs to convey Ideas and/or emotions. Myers concludes: Creative music activities are those In which a child considers the whole of his awareness of music, selects and rejects parts of this whole In making his own arrangement, his own pattern, with these parts. (p. 140) Pierce (1959) defines creative music experiences as those experiences Involving original student compositions. She states that the primary purpose of creating original music Is "to provide one more means of enriching children’s musical experiences, not necessarily to make composers of them all" (p. 134). McMillan (1959) recommends a broader definition for a creative eaqperlence, ” ... an experience for the child which results In some kind of personal discovery" (p. 100). IteMlllan’e definition may Include the discovery of a new ability within the child; a new Insight 96 or realized understanding; or a new realm of experience, something never before experienced (pp. 100-101). Findlay (1971) states that creative power is known to be present to some extent in every individual. Although creativity is evident in all individuals, young children need to be guided in their creative endeavors. In the area of rhythm and creative expression, Findlay states: The child must be provided with a store of well- assimilated experiences in rhythmic movement before he can be ready to combine them in new and individual patterns. (p. 54) Findlay suggests the use of dramatic play and the reenactment of real life situations as a means of eliciting creative responses. Some exas^les might include the enactment of the flight of an airplane as a means of exploring the concepts of tez^o and dynamics, or the representation of the movements, rhythms, and sounds of a modern kitchen as a means of exploring the concepts of tenqpo, rhythm, and dynamics (pp. 54, ■ 56). As all of the various definitions and examples of creative expression are considered, the key element is that the creative use of music is not a separate facet of the total music program (Smith, 1970, p. 188). Smith urges educators to include young children in a variety of creative experiences each day as they participate in the music 97 program. He notes that the young child can experience creative involvement by suggesting new words to a song, moving expressively, or providing a sis^le accos^niment on melody bells. Smith states that the preschool child who spontaneously creates a new text for a familiar tune is equally as creative as the older child who composes an original melody for voices or instruments. Smith recommends that teachers emphasize the creative product. Although creative experiences represent the efforts of the child, the teacher should provide a guideline or focal point for all experiences (Anderson and Lawrence, 1985, p. 227). Curricular Guidelines Preschoolers should be involved in a variety of music experiences ranging from singing and chanting, to creative activity. Regardless of the type of music experience, symbolic associations are not recommended for use with preschoolers. Teaching should be based almost entirely on aural-oral-kinesthetic learning (Choksy, 1988, p. 30). With respect to symbolic learning, Choksy states. 98 If children can sing well, step the beat accurately, clap rhythms, apply dynamic and tempo Judgments to their songs, and show where sounds are higher and where lower, and if, in addition, they have a repertory of some thirty songs, then the symbolic learning— the musical reading and writing— will progress rapidly in the following years from this solid foundation. (p. 30) In deciding on those activities that have the most usefulness for young children, it may be helpful to consider Cliatt’s criteria for the selection of music activities for young children (1975/1976): 1. Does the activity provide for multi-sensory perception? 2. Does the activity provide an opportunity for the child to act upon the environment? 3. Is there an outlet for language development or some other expressive form? 4. Does the activity lend itself to many uses? 5. Is the activity presented in a free environment (open and noncoercive with value placed on the uniqueness of the child)? 6. Does the activity allow for spontaneous behavior? 7. Does the activity motivate and stimulate the child as shown by the child's choice of the activity and as indicated by one's knowledge of young children's interests and characteristics? 8. Is the activity on the child's level of internalization as far as adults have been able to determine it? 99 9. Does the activity provide an opportunity for the development of musical concepts and techniques? 10. Does the activity encourage independent action on the part of the child? 11. Does the activity entail an experience from which the child might improve his self-concept? 12. In the development of the "whole child," one must consider intellectual, perceptual, language, emotional, social, and physical development. Does the activity provide an opportunity for development in more than one of these areas? (pp. 123-32) Cliatt also suggests that activities follow a general progression of difficulty: (1) from free activities to more directed ones (2) from individual activities to group activities (3) from activities that begin outside of a musical setting to more musically oriented activities (4) from nonverbal activities to activities in which more verbalization is called for (p. 134) Based on their study of the research and related theories concerning the musical development of young children, KcDonald and Ramsey (1978) offer the following guidelines for teachers to use in planning music-related experiences: 1. Husic should be included daily for infants as well as for older children. The presence of music, whether through recordings or the teacher's singing or playing, can awaken early responses to musical sound and can encourage infants to "learn to listen." 100 2. Singing should be included in the daily activities of preschool children, but expectations of achievement should be based upon knowledge of the developmental nature of this ability. Songs for classroom use should be chosen with careful consideration of tonality, range, melodic configurations, and vocal developmental stages of the children. 3. Visual, verbal, and motor cues may be effective in helping young children develop concepts of melodic interval and direction. 4. Rhythmic activities should start with exploration rather than duplication. Synchronization training is less important then opportunity to explore movement and rhythm. 5. Music listening experiences may be included as an important part of an early childhood music curriculum. Discrimination tasks, including identification of individual or families of instruments may be appropriate and may increase interest in listening to many different kinds of music. 6. Music and movement may be useful in motivating and helping children to acquire verbal concepts, oral communication, and aural discrimination skills. (pp. 26-31) Music experiences include a variety of activities with wide- ranging value. The teacher who provides music experiences should make a deliberate atteupt to use music in a systematic and reinforcing way. Bletstein (1983/1984) stresses the importance of knowing and understanding the capabilities of young children when designing music curricula. She views the role of the music educator as essential in gaining greater understanding of young children's capabilities. Bletstein emphasizes a systematic 101 approach to music curriculum planning. She states, Attention should be directed toward the establishment of an accountable system for selecting proper instructional strategies, subject content, and materials for inplementing music curricula in local preschool settings. Furthermore, positive effects to nurture musical development at an early age can only strengthen public school music programs and give each child a greater opportunity to reach his or her full musical potential. (p. 3) A conprehensive music program is necessary for meeting the needs of the young child; however, a program lacking in enjoyment can be damaging to the educational experience of the young child. Consequently, it is the responsibility of the teacher to provide enjoyable and meaningful learning exper iences. The Role of the Teacher Increasingly more nursery school teachers have a college degree in education or in a special subject area with a focus on the early years of childhood (James, 1984). According to James, "The nursery teacher is someone who has a deep concern for the nurture, care and safety of young children" (p. 329). James notes the significant Influence the teacher has on the structure and exploitation of experiences and interactions for children. She stresses the 102 Is^ortance of a teacher who can encourage and not Interfere in the child's learning. James suggests that the ultimate goal of the nursery teacher is to help each child to become increasingly independent. James concludes that the role of the nursery teacher is crucial. The nursery teacher must possess a range of skills and expertise. The teacher is primarily an educator of young children who plans work, organizes the daily program, keeps class records carefully, and develops an appropriate curriculum (James, p. 331). Eymes (1981) outlines five traits of good nursery teachers: 1. Teachers in good programs keep their goals clear. They aim to help their children learn, and to do it in such a way that the youngsters live their early years in the richest, most satisfying, and most constructive way possible. 2. Teachers in good programs are child-centered. They know what young children are like. Young children are different from older youngsters— they are not the same, siaç>ly cut down in size. These teachers' awareness of the special qualities of the very young colors everything that happens in their classrooms. 3. Teachers in good programs are society-centered. These teachers' sense of democratic values colors everything that happens in their classrooms. The way young children live and leeurn today becomes the way they will live and learn tomorrow. 4. Teachers in good programs are subject-matter- centered. They know academic content and they know sound ways of teaching it to young children. Good classrooms for the very young teach the sciences and mathematics; they teach the social 103 sciences; they teach the huiaanlties; they teach health and physical education, as all schools of general education must. These good teachers are skilled in adapting these fields of learning to young children. 5. Teachers in good programs have the tools they need to do their job. They have the right class size and the right ratio of adults to children. They have the space they need, and the equipment. These teachers have what it takes, in spirit and in material belongings, to tailor-make their classrooms to fit the children who come to them, (p. 35) Banville (1977) stresses the need for teachers to help children believe in themselves. This is^ortant task can be accomplished when teachers provide acceptance for each child; when teachers coordinate their expectations with their children’s abilities; when teachers provide positive verbal and nonverbal messages; when teachers admit their own imperfections and accept the probability that their children will be imperfect; when teachers make demands of children that are consistent with demands imposed upon themselves; and when teachers offer encouragement rather than praise as a source of motivation for children (pp. 35-36). Some educators may question the difference between praise and encouragement. Perhaps it can be said that praise elicits a superficial desire to learn, while encouragement might inspire a genuine desire to learn. Like James and Hymss, Frost and Kissinger (1976) acknowledge the important role of the nursery teacher. They state that the teacher is a constant example of the 104 attitudes es^haslzed in the classroom. If the teacher believes that learning is fun, worthwhile, and a lifelong activity, then the teacher may demonstrate this by being enthusiastic, creative, and eager to learn (p. 287). Hankerson (1982) states that a teacher in early childhood education will be successful if the following elements are present: 1. A rationale for teaching and learning 2. A purpose for the particular program 3. A coordination of goals and objectives for the growth and development of young children in the program with teaching methods and techniques 4. A system for measuring the outcomes of curriculum and instruction based on the goals of early childhood education 5. A devised system of intervention strategies (including parent and community involvement) for using teaching at the preschool level as a developmental process which sets the foundation for extended learning (p. 43) Although all of the aforementioned elements relate to the early childhood teacher in the general education setting, these elements can be related to instruction in the music setting. As for the music preparation of the teacher, a teacher's musical skills and background can either enrich or inhibit a child's experience (Ifaustakas and Berson, 1956, p. 181). Xbustakas and Berson suggest that a teacher demonstrate musical skill by spontaneously supplementing children's musical experiences. For exaa^le, when children 105 are pounding, the teacher might expand the rhythm into a structured rhythmic experience. Vhen children are chanting, the teacher might acconpany the children with an improvised instrumental part (pp. 181-182). McDonald (1979) acknowledges the fact that the musical abilities of the early childhood teacher need not be extensive. McDonald reminds the early childhood teacher that children are not critics. Children enjoy singing traditional songs and folk tunes with an adult who enjoys and appreciates music. Children also enjoy personalized musical experiences in which daily occurrences and activities are highlighted. Briefly stated, the teacher of young children should be sensitive to the musical awakenings of young children. McDonald states. We must be willing to listen to what the children are doing, observe their musical responses, learn to build musical experiences from these, and desire to bring music to children. (p. 7) In his study on the effectiveness of a preschool music curriculum with preschool Head Start children, Greenberg (1972) found that many preschool teachers recognize the value of music in the education of the young child; however, few teachers have the training to teach it. Due to this lack of training, preschool teachers seem to prefer a definite, specific guide to teaching music (p. 16). 106 In another study related to Head Start programs, Young (1975) found that the "typical" teacher could be trained in a brief period of time to initiate and sustain a successful music program at the preschool level. Sundin (1979) notes that in Sweden, music and other creative activities are an emphasized part in the two-year training of preschool teachers and in the governmental working plans for preschools; however, in general preschool practice, music usually plays an uninç>ortant and neglected role. Sundin states that preschool teachers are not supposed to be musicians after their training but they should be able to use music and other creative activities in a meaningful way. Sundin attributes the neglected role of music in the Swedish preschools to the feelings of inadequacy or inconç>etence experienced by the preschool teachers. Sundin states that the achievement of a high motivational level is not sufficient to produce the desired training effects on the teacher’s actions. Sundin notes that there is a significant difference between music students and ’’ordinary’’ students, and that ’’ordinary’’ students should be taught to find the music within their own bodies and experiment in a non threatening way with their own musical capabilities. Sundin suggests that the technical training follow and build on the early emotional experiences. Sundin states: 107 Only when adults perform iaçjortant activities for themselves will these activities give rich information to the children, so that it becomes important for them to work upon it and master it in their own play. (p. Ill) In summarizing the music role of the teacher in early childhood settings, the teacher must maintain an awareness of what is happening to the child during the child’s spontaneous musical experiences, and provide a learning environment in which caring prevails (Shelley, 1980, p. 97). The teacher should extend the child’s experiences by asking questions and guiding the child in related activities (p. 98). Shelley encourages the teacher to seek and employ new materials, ideas, and techniques which will challenge children to use more advanced levels of thinking. Shelley suggests that the teacher ”capture the teachable moment when it is obvious that children are seeking help, want to know, and need information” (p. 98). Lastly, Shelley stresses the importance of allowing the children to take the initiative in their own learning. The teacher must establish boundaries and limitations in order for children to feel secure and comfortable with their own learning. Overall, the role of the teacher is one of a facilitator, or one who 108 guides and stimulates learning. As a facilitator of music learning, the teacher should provide opportunities for students to develop: 1. sensibilities to music, through consistent interaction with the basic components of music, 2. abilities to make informed choices about music, 3. abilities to translate traditional and graphic symbols into musical sounds with accuracy and expression as group members or independently, 4. positive attitudes toward music, 5. an appreciation for their musical heritage, 6. an understanding of the relationships between music and the other arts and disciplines, 7. an appreciation for the role which music plays in understanding other peoples and cultures. (Ohio Department of Education, 1980, p. 3) The role of the nursery school teacher is to introduce the preschooler to music through a variety of experiences. The experiences should be enjoyable as well as educational. The teacher should have an understanding of the developmental capabilities of the children so that age- appropriate experiences may be offered. In an attempt to meet the unique needs of every student, the teacher should provide varied experiences emphasizing a multi-sensorial approach. Haines and Gerber stress the importance of integrating music with other classroom activities as a means of increasing its value and relevance to the child (p. 36). Fundamental to the teacher’s role is the adherence to a 109 basic philosophy. The philosophy should govern the actions of the teacher. Haines and Gerber conclude: An understanding of the young child, a basic philosophy of music for children, musical goals, a variety of music materials, and strategies for presenting those materials give the teacher the beginning for teaching young children music. Only through trial and error .and the teacher’s willingness to learn, however, will music programs grow and thrive. (p. 36) EVALUATIOH OF TEACHIHG The evaluation of teaching is a necessary task. As Thomas <1975/1977) states, ’’Evaluation of teaching has to be done on the basis of what was planned— the objectives— what we wanted to accozpllsh” (p. 455). Thomas suggests that teachers ask themselves questions such as the following: 1. Have I provided a variety of types of musical experiences, including lots of singing? 2. Have I incorporated a variety of levels of musical experiences, to meet the needs of each child developmentally? 3. Have I sought to integrate music into the activities of the entire day? 4. Have I remembered to do lots of music just for fun— not because it fits the unit or the season, etc., but just because it’s fun? 5. Have I worked to increase the use of spontaneous singing (conversation; question and answer; transition between activities, etc.>? 110 6. Have I •used anisic: a. to Introduce, reinforce, and extend intellectual skills and enhance current unit material? b. to develop muscular control? c. to stimulate and motivate social activity— cooperation, group participation, etc.? d. to release eaiotion and provide a means of seIf-expression? 7. Have the children had opportunity for free exploration and experimentation, as individuals and in small groups? 8. Have I maintained a positive attitude about my ability in music, and the is^ortance of music to every child? (pp. 455—456) Teachers at all levels should realize that ideas for instruction can be derived from students, friends, and colleagues. Such things as in-service programs, workshops, teacher centers, conferences, state organizations, college extension programs, and materials including records and books, offer innovative techniques for varying instruction (Haines and Gerber, 1984, p. 34). Summary In order to provide appropriate music instruction for preschoolers, it is inçortant to know the developmental capabilities of the preschool-age child. The two-year-old possesses basic motor coordinations and is considered to be alert, inquisitive, and curious. It is at this age that the child displays an interest in listening to music and a Ill desire to imitate songs and tonal patterns. The three-year- old has more advanced motor control and more refined hand coordination than the two-year-old. Additionally, the three-yeai— old has a more sophisticated vocabulary and may begin to display leadership qualities. Musically, the child’s responses to rhythm are more organized, and imitative singing is more polished with respect to pitch, words, and rhythm. The four-year-old displays marked improvement in hand coordination and possesses a longer attention span. At this age, the child is capable of singing spontaneous songs, imitative songs, and imaginative songs. The five-year—old has an expanded comprehension level and can understand percepts of number, speed, time, and space. ' Beginning at age four, continuing through age six, children are able to copy more difficult rhythass than their own singing might suggest. While an awareness of developmental characteristics is inçortant, educators are reminded that the assigned stages represent approximations for normative growth. In addition to the inexactness of developmental stages, the limited vocabularies of young children make it difficult to know exactly what is understood at the various age levels. It can be said however, that young children do respond to music and are capable of doing more musically than was once 112 believed possible. Consequently, music educators should provide educational experiences as early as possible with every child. Interest in the young child gave rise to the American nursery school; however, child care centers existed in the United States as early as 1838. Presently, nursery schools as well as child care centers come under the heading of "early childhood education." Early childhood education includes day care centers, kindergarten, day nurseries, and Montessori schools, as well as other institutional organizations. There is much confusion concerning the various names and identifiers. Regardless of name, a good program should provide balance with opportunities for emotional, social, intellectual, and physical growth. Instructional approaches should reinforce the development of auditory, visual, motor, verbal, and listening skills. A balanced curriculum is recommended and supported by music educators. Music and the arts should be included in the educational curriculum due to their importance in contemporary society. Additionally, music experiences assist in the overall cognitive development of the child as well as develop the child* s aesthetic understandings and expressive abilities. 113 Research Indicates that musicalIty can be influenced most significantly during the early years of development. Acknowledgment of this lends support to the formation of a planned, sequential curriculum which is reinforcing of a variety of music activities and concepts. Recommended activities include chanting, singing, dancing, listening to records and instruments, musical conversations, rhythmic moving, playing musical instruments and sound-making objects, musical dramatizations, creative integration of music and art, musical games, rhythmic interpretation through body percussion, fingerplays, creative or free movement, and any other meaningful music activity. Music should be a part of the daily preschool curriculum and it should be planned as carefully as any other educational curricular coz^onent. The inclusion of goals and objectives is fundamental to a successful music curriculum. Goals and objectives should be based on children’s developmental abilities and should be subjected to continuous evaluation. Of primary consideration in the establishment of goals and objectives is the enjoyment level associated with the experiences. There are a multitude of benefits derived from involvement in a music program; however, success, joy, and pleasure through participation are rated most highly. 114 An educationally-based music curriculum should provide children with the opportunity to discuss principles associated with dynamics, ten^o, timbre, rhythm, form, and melody. Additionally, children should be introduced to music from various ethnic groups and should be taught to appreciate cultural diversity through musically-related experiences. The primary coa^onents of a music education curriculum include singing, movement, playing instruments/body percussion, listening, and creative experiences. Singing should be introduced as a natural means of expression with the teacher presenting a good singing model. Movement is a useful vehicle through which a child can engage in self-expression. Movement is inqportant especially at the preschool level since the young child tends to be physically oriented. Also inportant to the child's learning is the opportunity to experiment with sound production using musical instruments and his own body. Listening activities involving a variety of musical styles and instruments are important to the deve1opment of musical taste and appreciation. Lastly, young children should be involved in music experiences which result in personal discovery. This type of learning need not be separate from other facets of the curriculum. 115 A con^rehensive music program is instructionally effective when the preschool teacher possesses a wide range of skills and expertise. The teacher's musical skills and background can serve to enrich or inhibit a child's experience. However, it is not necessary for the teacher to have an extensive musical background. A successful teacher should have basic music skills which allow for the use of music in a creative and meaningful way. Above all, the teacher must exhibit genuine enthusiasm and appreciation for music, and be willing to facilitate music learning in others. CHAPTER III DESIQir OF THE STUDY Population and Sample The population of this study consisted of day care centers from Ohio’s eighty—eight counties. Information was obtained only on those children classified as preschoolers (children three through five years of age). The saz^le group consisted of 880 day care centers selected randomly from a population of 2,376 part-time and full-time day care centers listed in a manual of licensed Ohio child care centers. In the selection process, a table of random numbers was employed. The sample represented 37 percent of the entire accessible preschool population in Ohio. Survey Questionnaire This study investigated and analyzed the status of music in licensed Ohio preschools. Areas of concern included the availability and frequency of music—related activities; the types of music activities; the rationale for 116 117 including music activities; the individuals responsible for providing the music experiences; the educational backgrounds of those individuals responsible for conducting music activities; the location of the conducted music activities; the types of materials and equipment ezqployed during music- related activities; and the school's viewpoint concerning the role of music in the lives of young children. To obtain information, a detailed questionnaire (Appendix A) was sent to 880 licensed child day care centers throughout the state of Ohio. The purposes of this questionnaire were as follows: 1. To obtain information regarding the status of music in preschool education throughout the state of Ohio. 2. To determine the current trends in the area of music and preschool education. 3. To provide recommendations, based on the findings of the questionnaire, to institutions responsible for programs in early childhood education. The questionnaire required a minimal amount of writing by the respondent since most of the questions were answered by selecting the appropriate responses from a list of possible choices. Fifteen of the multiple choice questions included the response category of "other" to accommodate any unanticipated responses with the respondent providing related information. The survey instrument consisted of nineteen questions and was designed for congpletion within fifteen minutes. 118 Validation and Piloting of the Siirvey Questionnaire and Profile Form To strengthen content validity, the survey questionnaire (Appendix A) was given to three professors at The Ohio State University and one professor at The University of Delaware. As experts in the field of music education and child development, these professors were asked to evaluate the survey instrument on the following factors: (1) content relevance— are the questions related to the stated purpose of the survey? (2) coverage of the survey areas— will the questions provide adequate information about each of the survey areas? (3) content clarity— are the questions clear and are the responses appropriate and wide- ranging? <4> form and design— are the questions easy to read and are the questions presented in a logical manner? (Shellahamer, 1984> The professors evaluated each of the areas by providing a rating of ”1” to ”7” with *'l” representing the lowest score and ”7” representing the highest score. Ratings were indicated on a validation form (Appendix B). The overall rating of the questionnaire ranged from 5 to 6 with the average and the median being 5.5. Lastly, the evaluators provided written comments regarding their overall perceptions of the survey 119 questionnaire. The comments were favorable with only a minimal number of recommendations given. It was recommended that two additional questions be added as to provide more Information regarding the time spent on music activities and the type of curriculum ezg>loyed by the child care center. The latter of the two suggested questions was Incorporated Into the survey; however, a question was not added regarding the time spent on a given activity. It would be helpful to know such Information, although, the focus of this study did not Include qualitative assessments. One of the primary purposes of the questionnaire was to determine the availability and frequency of music activities. Also, It was suggested that the question related to the purpose of preschooler music Involvement Include a hierarchical assessment provided by the respondent. This suggestion was Incorporated In the revised survey. Another evaluator suggested the Inclusion of a question regarding the classroom teacher's Instructional planning with respect to organizational procedure. Once again, the question might have provided Interesting, as well as useful Information, however, one of the primary purposes of the questionnaire was to Identify the individual responsible for conducting the music activities. It could not be assumed that the classroom teacher was responsible for conducting the music activities. Additionally, the survey was sent to the 120 preschool director, not the classroom teacher. A final suggestion was given with respect to the definition of "music—related activities." This suggestion proved to be useful as a definition for "music-related activities" ("opportunities in which children make or respond to music under the direction of a teacher or other adult") was indicated at the beginning of the survey for clarification purposes. Concern was expressed regarding the "musicality" of a given activity. One of the evaluators questioned the "musicality" of an activity such as singing directions to students. Again, a qualitative Judgment regarding the musicality of a given activity was not assigned. Singing activities involving "call and response," or other singing conversational techniques, were not deemed less inçjortant than those activities involving traditional singing of songs. One of the primary purposes of the questionnaire was to determine the types of music activities incorporated in the preschool programs. Based on the written recommendations, the questionnaire was prepared in Its revised form. After the questionnaire was revised, five preschool directors in the Columbus area cos^leted the profile form and survey questionnaire, and provided an appraisal of each. The preschools included two church-affiliated day care centers, one Xontessori preschool, one commercial day care 121 center, and one day care center affiliated with, a university. The participating preschool directors were asked the following: (1) to indicate the length of time that was necessary for completion of the questionnaire and profile form; (2) to identify any questions that were unclear or ambiguous; (3) to identify any answer choices that were unclear or ambiguous; (4) to indicate whether the questions and responses were arranged in an easy-to-follow sequence; (5) to provide an overall numerical rating of the survey questionnaire; (6) to offer suggestions for improving the questionnaire; and (7) to offer suggestions for improving the profile form (Appendix C>. The length of time necessary for completing the profile form and the survey questionnaire ranged from fifteen minutes to one hour, with the average being twenty- nine minutes and the median being twenty minutes. The overall ratings of the questionnaire ranged from 5 to 6.5, with the average being 5.7 and the median being 6. Some of the written comments and recommendations included concern over the identification and rank ordering of reasons for preschooler music involvement. A related concern focused on the need for distinction between "purpose," "goal,” and "philosophy." It was the opinion of one preschool director that purpose, goal, and philosophy could be defined similarly, thus making it difficult to address each 122 individually. Separate questions were included as to determine the specific reasons (purposes) for involving preschoolers in music-related activities, and to ascertain the governing rationale (philosophy) for the use of music with preschoolers. One of the preschool directors indicated that it was difficult to respond with a "yes" or "no" answer to the profile question regarding the inclusion of religion in the curriculum. The director stated that religious values were emphasized, however, religion was not taught. The same director expressed concern regarding the comparative evaluation of the preschool music program. It was indicated that the respective music program deserved an excellent rating; however, the director knew little about other music programs at the preschool level, thus making it difficult to respond. The question was included for the purpose of determining how preschool directors viewed their existing music programs. Gathering of the Data In ZTovember 1988, a copy of the questionnaire was mailed to the director of each of the selected 880 child day care centers.  cover letter (Appendix D) explaining the purpose of the study, and information regarding the completion procedures, accompanied the questionnaire. Each cooperating child day care center was requested to complete a Child Day Care Center Profile Form (Appendix B). 123 Respondents returned the conpleted profile form and survey questionnaire in the business reply envelope accos^anying each mailing. The preschool directors were asked to return the questionnaire and the Child Day Care Center Profile Form (CDCCPF) within three weeks of the date on which the materials were mailed. Two weeks after the initial mailing, reminder cards (Appendix F) were sent to those preschool directors who had not returned the completed survey and profile form. One week after the initial deadline, a second letter (Appendix G> with a copy of the profile form, survey questionnaire, and business reply envelope was sent to those directors who had not returned the questionnaire. Treatment of the Data Information provided by the Child Day Care Center Profile Form allowed for classification of the questionnaire data according to the following: 1. Population size of the area in which the preschool is located (based on the 1980 population divisions established by the U.S. Census); 2. Religious versus secular affiliation of the preschool; 3. Religion as a curricular coz^onent versus no religion in the preschool curriculum; 4. Commercial affiliation versus non-commercial affiliation of the preschool; 124 5. Private versus public funding of the preschool; and 6. Part-time versus full-time operating schedule. Individual responses, including written responses for each question were tabulated and categorized. Data from the questionnaires were recorded in appropriate tables. After compilation of all data, the investigator compared responses regarding the inclusion of music in the preschool with respect to the frequency of preschooler involvement in music-related activities; the identification and classification of music—related activities; the rationale for includng music-related activities in the curriculum; the individuals responsible for conducting the music experiences; the educational backgrounds of those individuals responsible for conducting the music experiences; the location of the music activities; the availability of instructional materials and equipment to the classroom teacher; the philosophical view regarding the use of music with preschoolers as maintained by the preschool administration; and an overall assessment of the music environment provided by the preschool director, Recommendations and projections are based upon the collected data. 125 SiiTtnnary The saBç>le group for this study consisted of 880 licensed Ohio preschools selected randomly from a total of 2,376 part-time and full-time day care centers. Only those child care centers offering services for preschoolers were included in the sample. The sample represented 37 percent of the entire accessible preschool population. A survey questionnaire was developed for the purpose of gathering data concerning the status of music in preschool education. As part of a validation study, the questionnaire was evaluated by four professors. Areas of evaluation included content relevance, coverage of the survey areas, content clarity, and form and design. Based on the evaluators* recommendations, the questionnaire was revised and distributed as part of a pilot study. Five preschools in the Columbus area participated in the pilot study by providing an appraisal of the profile form and questionnaire. The profile form provided background information which helped to describe the responding institutions and allowed for classification of the questionnaire data. The questionnaire consisted of nineteen multiple choice questions with fifteen questions including the response category of "other.” Respondents were given the 126 opportunity to provide written explanations for the fifteen questions offering this response category. The areas of concern to this study included the availability and frequency of music—related activities; the types of music activities; the rationale for including music activities; the individuals responsible for providing the music experiences; the educational backgrounds of those individuals responsible for conducting music activities; the location of the conducted music activities; the types of materials and equipment employed during music-related activities; and the philosophies of preschool administrators regarding the role of music in the lives of young children. The questionnaire was designed for completion within fifteen minutes. There were two mailings of the survey. Reminder cards were sent to those preschool directors who had not returned the completed survey and profile form within the first two weeks after the initial mailing. The data were classified according to the population size of the area in which the preschool was located, the religious versus secular affiliation of the preschool, the inclusion or no inclusion of religion in the preschool curriculum, the commercial or non-commercial affiliation of the preschool. 127 the public or private classification of the preschool, and the part-time or fnll-time operating schedule of the preschool. CHAPTER IV PRESEHTATIOH OF THE DATA The purpose of the research project was to investigate and analyze the status of music in selected licensed Ohio preschools. Specifically, the study attempted to: Cl) determine whether preschoolers were being engaged in music-related activities, and how often, (2) identify the kinds of music activities in which the preschoolers were involved, C3> identify the purposes for involving preschoolers in music experiences, (4) identify the persons who conducted the music experiences with the preschoolers, identify the educational backgrounds of those individuals responsible for conducting the music activities, and identify the individual who determined how often the experiences would be provided, (5) identify the location of where the music activities were conducted, (6) identify the materials and equipment which were made available to the preschool teacher and identify which were used most often with the preschoolers, and <7) identify the philosophies of 128 129 preschool administrators regarding the role of music in the lives of young children. This chapter is organized into two sections which present data from the following sources: (1) the Child Day Care Center Profile Form, and (2) the Survey Questionnaire with supplemental material provided by some respondents describing their practices in preschooler music involvement. Data from the Child Day Care Center Profile Form The data reported in this section were obtained from administration of a survey questionnaire to a random sample of 880 licensed preschools in the state of Ohio. Fifty- seven percent Music in Ohio Preschools (see Table 1). Table 1 Sample Response Data Frequency Percent Public Institution 69 13.8 Private Institution 363 72.6 Private Institution with Some Public Funding 52 10.4 Mo Response 16 3.2 130 Tables 2 through 6 present various data which help to describe the responding institutions (saisie). Table 2 indicates religious affiliation or non-religious affiliation of the responding institution. Table 2 Institutional Classification (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Religious-Affiliated Institution 146 29.2 Secular Institution 142 28.4 Secular Institution Housed in a Church Setting 145 29.0 When providing an institutional classification, the respondent was instructed to check all of those classifications which applied. Some of the secular institutions checked both secular institution and secular institution housed in a church setting, while some secular institutions checked only one of the secular classifications. Due to the overlap in indicated responses, the percentage does not total 100 nor does the frequency total 500. Of the religious-affiliated institutions, the United Methodist Church was the denominational affiliate most often indicated. 131 Table 3 indicates the inclusion of religion in the curriculum. Table 3 Religion As Curricular Component Frequency Percent Includes Religion 84 16.8 So Inclusion of Religion 359 71.8 Fo Response 57 11.4 Of those respondents who indicated that religion was not a curricular conç>onent, many noted that basic moral values were ençhasized; however, religion was not taught. Table 4 indicates commercial affiliation or non commercial affiliation of the responding institution. Table 4 Institutional Identification Frequency Percent Commercial Affiliation 24 4.8 5o Commercial Affiliation 451 90.2 5o Response 25 5. 0 From Table 4 it can be seen that 90.2 percent of the institutions had no commercial affiliation. This information Is not surprising since the majority of the 132 responding inst itnt ions were private <83 percent including private institutions with, some public funding). Table 5 identifies the location of the responding institution based on the population size of the area. Table 5 Institutional Location Frequency Percent Large City <250,000 or more) 88 17.6 Suburb of a Large City 89 17.8 Medium^Sized City <100,000-250,000) 40 8. 0 Small City <50,000-100,000) 52 10.4 Large Town <10,000-50,000) 97 19.4 Small Town (2,500-10,000) 68 13.6 Sural (under 2,500) 21 4.2 Ho Response 45 9.0 As can be noted in Table 5, the number of respondents from medium-sized cities represents less than 10 percent of the overall responses, and rural area respondents represent less than 5 percent of the overall responses. The majority of respondents represent large towns, large cities, and suburbs of large cities. 133 Table 6 indicates the operating schedule of the responding institutions. Table 6 Operating Schedule Frequency Percent Part-Time (no more than 4 hrs. daily) 238 47.6 Full-Time (more than 4 hrs. per day) 250 50.0 5o Response 12 2.4 Regarding the average size of the preschool class, the numbers ranged from an average of 4.5 children to 38 children with few classes averaging more than 25 students. Of those persons responsible for completing the survey and who indicated their job title, the majority were directors or administrators. Other titles included teacher, head teacher, lead teacher, owner, partner, secretary, executive secretary, program manager, co-director, assistant director, executive director, coordinator, educational coordinator, program coordinator, county coordinator, coordinator of children’s services, early childhood coordinator, music teacher, music therapist, founder, president, team leader. 134 nun, teacher’s aide, co-admlnistrator, assistant administrator, senior administrator, supervisor, and manager. Data from the Survey Questionnaire The survey questionnaire consisted of nineteen questions. The first question was asked to determine if the preschoolers engaged in music-related activities at the preschool. The first question elicited a "yes” or "no" response and read as follows: Do the preschoolers at your center engage in 3Dusic—related activities? Of the 500 responses, 498 responded affirmatively <99.6 percent). Question two was used to determine the frequency of music involvement. Indicate how often the preschoolers engage in music- related activities. Table 7 Frequency of Music Involvement— Question #2 Frequency Percent Daily 398 79.6 3 or 4 Times Per Veek 59 11.8 Twice a Week 26 5.2 Once a Veek 12 2.4 Barely 2 0.4 Sever 3 0.6 135 Table 7 presents the responses to question two and shows that, in 79.6 percent of the responding institutions, preschoolers were engaged in music-related activities on a daily basis. Question three sought to determine the amount of time devoted to music on a weekly basis. Indicate the average amount of time devoted to preschooler involvement in music-related activities on a weekly basis. Table 8 Veekly Average Amount of Time Devoted to Music— Question #3 Frequency Percent 0 to 15 Minutes 45 9. 0 15 to 30 Minutes 95 19. 0 30 to 45 Minutes 73 14.6 45 to 60 Minutes 86 17.2 1 to 2 Hours 99 19.8 2 to 3 Hours 47 9.4 3 to 5 Hours 32 6.4 Other 10 2. 0 Ho Response 13 2.6 As indicated in Table 8, the majority of preschoolers were involved in music-related activities from 15 minutes to 2 hours per week. Only 15.8 percent of the preschools indicated a weekly average of more than two hours. Ten respondents provided written responses to question three. One respondent indicated that the average amount of time was 136 nine hours which included music played during nap time. Another respondent indicated that music was used two times a day resulting in a total of 6.5 to 7 hours per week. This respondent, however, provided no description of how the music was used. Other written responses provided music scheduling information as affected by varying operational schedules of the preschools. To determine the types of music-related activities in which preschoolers participated, question four was asked. Of the following activities, circle those in which preschoolers participate. singing listening to music moving to music playing instruments composing music/inçrovising musical drama/pageants discussing music other Table 9 #4 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Singing 496 99.2 Listening to Kusic 478 95.6 Moving to Music 491 98.2 Playing Instruments 450 90.2 Composing Music/Improvising 72 14.4 Musical Drama/Pageants 168 33.6 Discussing Music 135 27.0 Other 54 10.8 137 Table 9 shows that singing, listening to music, moving to music, and playing instruments represented the most popular music involvement of the children. A wide variety of music activities was indicated by those respondents who provided written responses. Some of the activities included painting or drawing to music, fingerplays, performing visits by a local ensemble or symphony, musical games, early theory including notation, intervals, and terms, hands-on experiences using full-sized musical instruments, presentation of musical programs (holiday and graduation), dancing, exercise, rhythm sticks and rhythmic activities, Orff, Dalcroze, and Eurhythmies, pitch-matching using one octave of bells, experimentation in making up tunes, learning notation on a musical staff, music and motion classes, dramatizations to music, discussion with guest musicians, making instruments, aerobics, using music in mood setting environments, auditory discrimination, working together as a group to produce a product, language rhythms including poetry, patterned learning and transitional activities, clapping rhythmic notation consisting of quarter notes and quarter rests, resting to music, sing-a-1ongs with parents, prayers and pick-up activities, parades, lip synchronization contests, dance classes, composing lyrics, learning original songs developed by staff members, musical 138 drama using nursery rhymes, making up verses to songs, discussing the classical composers, music enrichment programs, and composing hand music (i.e., cup, clap, slide). To determine the reason or purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities, question five was asked. Of the following reasons, circle those which apply to the center's purpose for involving preschoolers in music—related activities. On the line preceding each of the circled responses, rank order the responses according to degree of importance. development of social skills enjoyment and recreation development of physical coordination reinforcement of learned material from various subject areas development of listening skills development of musical skills other 139 Table 10 Purpose for Involving Preschoolers in Music Activities— Question #5 (Rank l=Prlmary Iz^ortance; Rank 7/S=Least la^ortance) DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SKILLS Frequency Percent Rank 1 78 15.6 Rank 2 72 14.4 Rank 3 84 16.8 Rank 4 96 19.2 Rank 5 83 16.6 Rank 6 30 6.0 Rank 7 2 0.4 No Ranking 55 11. 0 ENJOYMENT AND RECREATION Frequency Percent Rank 1 290 58. 0 Rank 2 64 12.8 Rank 3 52 10.4 Rank 4 43 8.6 Rank 5 31 6.2 Rank 6 13 2.6 Rank 7 1 0.2 No Ranking 6 1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL COORDINATION Frequency Percent Rank 1 63 12.6 Rank 2 100 20. 0 Rank 3 111 22.2 Rank 4 98 19.6 Rank 5 60 12. 0 Rank 6 33 6.6 Rank 7 0 0. 0 No Ranking 35 7. 0 140 Table 10, Continued SEIBFOBCEHEFT OF LEASHED KATESIAL FSOM OTHES SUBJECT AREAS Frequency Percent Sank 1 45 9. 0 Sank 2 45 9. 0 Sank 3 56 11.2 Sank 4 61 12.2 Sank 5 81 16.2 Sank 6 79 15.8 Sank 7 4 0.8 Ho Banking 129 25.8 DEVELOPMEHT OF LISTEHIHG SKILLS Frequency Percent Bank 1 106 21.2 Sank 2 133 26.6 Sank 3 121 24.2 Sank 4 79 15.8 Sank 5 30 6. 0 Sank 6 6 1.2 Sank 7 1 0.2 Ho Banking 24 4.8 DEVELOPMEHT OF MUSICAL SKILLS Frequency Percent Sank 1 47 9.4 Sank 2 48 9.6 Sank 3 35 7.0 Sank 4 55 11. 0 Sank 5 90 18.0 Sank 6 105 21. 0 Sank 7 4 0.8 Ho Banking 116 23.2 141 Table 10, Continued OTHER Frequency ' Percent Rank 1 13 2.6 Rank 2 6 1.2 Rank 3 3 0. 6 Rank 4 2 0.4 Rank 5 2 0.4 Rank 6 2 0.4 Rank 7 8 1.6 Ho Ranking 464 92.8 COMPOSITE OF SAHK 1 Frequency Percent Development of Social Skills 78 15.6 Enjoyment and Recreation 290 58. 0 Physical Coordination 63 12.6 Reinforcement of Material 45 9. 0 Development of Listening Skills 106 21.2 Development of Musical Skills 47 9.4 Other 13 2.6 From Table 10 it can be noted that the majority of respondents (58 percent) identified enjoyment and recreation as the primary purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities. Only 9.4 percent of the respondents identified the development of musical skills as the primary reason for music involvement. There were thirty-six written responses to question five. 1. to build confidence in self-expression 2. following directions 3. development of self-esteem 4. smooth transitions 5. reinforcement of self-image 142 6. transit ions 7. to create an interest in music 8. development of communication skills; development of attending skills 9. to refine the auditory sense 10. an appreciation for good music 11. transition times between activities 12. to relax or identify change in activity 13. foster creative expression 14. expression 15. pass on cultural or "historical" music— old time songs 16. to encourage self-control, relaxation, stress release 17. language development 18. language skills 19. exposure to different types of music 20. develop language skills 21. construction of knowledge about music 22. language skills/memory and recall; emotional release and creative expression 23. relaxation and transitions 24. enrichment and child development 25. time together with other class 26. beat competency, perception and sequencing 27. independent social skills 28. transition strategies 29. aesthetics 30. development of creative self 31. meeting state guidelines 32. cognitive and seriate skills 33. religious and moral development reinforcement 34. director/music minor 35. development of communication skills through music 36. appreciation and total involvement of senses in learning Based on the written responses, the primary reasons for involving preschoolers in music-related activities included the development of self (i.e., self-confidence, self-image, self-esteem), the development of creativity and individual expression, the development of specific skills (i.e., 143 auditory skills, language skills, social skills), and the overall enhancement to the classroom environment (i.e., transitions, relaxation). Question six was asked to determine the philosophical view of the preschool administrators regarding the use of music with preschoolers. Circle the statement Cs) which most accurately represent the philosophical view of the use of music with preschoolers as practiced in your child care center. On the line preceding each of the circled statements, rank order the statements according to degree of importance. to give students an understanding of the fundamental concepts of music to promote music as a source of enjoyment and recreation to create a learning environment that will develop musical responsiveness in all students to provide pleasurable music experiences which will enhance the overall quality of the learning environment to develop in all children a genuine love and appreciation for music to foster positive feelings and attitudes toward music so that students may participate in life long music experiences without fear or apprehension to develop self-confidence through positive experiences in music other 144 T a u d i s 1 1 Phllosophlcal Rationale for the Use of Music with Presch-oolers— Question. #6 (Rank l=Primary iBçortance; Rank 7/8=Least Importance) TO GIVE STÜDEFTS ÂE UEDERSTA5DIHG OF THE FÜHDAMEHTAL COHCEPTS OF MUSIC Frequency Percent Rank 1 20 4.0 Rank 2 10 2. 0 Rank 3 18 3.6 Rank 4 14 2.8 Rank 5 27 5.4 Rank 6 37 7.4 Rank 7 99 19.8 Rank 8 1 0.2 Ho Ranking 274 54.8 TO PROMOTE MUSIC AS A SOURCE OF EHJ07MEHT AHD RSCREATIOH Frequency Percent Rank 1 199 39.8 Rank 2 105 21.0 Rank 3 82 16.4 Rank 4 35 7. 0 Rank 5 35 7.0 Rank 6 20 4.0 Rank 7 6 1.2 Rank 8 0 0. 0 Ho Ranking 18 3.6 145 Table 11, Continued TO CREATE A LEARRIHG EHVIROHMEFT THAT VILL DEVELOP ITOSICAL RESFOHSIVEHESS IH ALL STÜDEHTS Frequency Percent Rank 1 39 7.8 Rank 2 40 8. 0 Rank 3 56 11.2 Rank 4 70 14. 0 Rank 5 48 9.6 Rank 6 62 12.4 Rank 7 10 2. 0 Rank 8 0 0. 0 Ho Ranking 175 35. 0 TO PROVIDE PLEASURABLE MUSIC EXPERIEHCES VHICH VILL BHHARCE THE OVERALL QUALITY OF THE LEARHIHG EHVIROHMEHT Frequency Percent Rank 1 147 29.4 Rank 2 131 26.2 Rank 3 84 16.8 Rank 4 58 11.6 Rank 5 22 4.4 Rank 6 14 2.8 Rank 7 4 0.8 Rank 8 0 0.0 Ho Ranking 40 8. 0 146 Table 11, Continued TO DEVELOP IN ALL CHILDREN A GENUINE LOVE AND APPRECIATION FOR MUSIC Frequency Percent Rank 1 66 13.2 Rank 2 79 15.8 Rank 3 72 14.4 Rank 4 81 16.2 Rank 5 55 11. 0 Rank 6 32 6.4 Rank 7 7 1.4 Rank 8 0 0. 0 No Ranking 108 21.6 TO FOSTER POSITIVE FEELINGS AND ATTITUDES TOWARD KUSIC SO THAT STUDENTS MAY PARTICIPATE IN LIFE-LONG MUSIC EXPERIENCES WITHOUT FEAR OR APPREHENSION Frequency Percent Rank 1 58 11. 6 Rank 2 46 9.2 Rank 3 59 11.8 Rank 4 54 10.8 Rank 5 76 15.2 Rank 6 54 10.8 Rank 7 17 3.4 Rank 8 0 0. 0 No Ranking 136 27.2 147 Table 11, Continued TO DEVELOP SELF-COHFIDEHCE THROUGH POSITIVE EXPERIEHCES IH MUSIC Frequency Percent RanR 1 100 20. 0 Rank 2 60 12. 0 Rank 3 72 14.4 Rank 4 80 16. 0 Rank 5 64 12.8 Rank 6 29 5.8 Rank 7 IS 3.6 Rank 8 2 0.4 Ho Ranking 75 15. 0 OTHER Frequency Percent Rank 1 2 0.4 Rank 2 4 0.8 Rank 3 2 0.4 Rank 4 2 0.4 Rank 5 0 0. 0 Rank 6 0 0. 0 Rank 7 0 0. 0 Rank 8 3 0.6 Ho Ranking 487 97.4 COMPOSITE OF RAHK 1 Frequency Percent Understanding Fundamentals 20 4.0 Enj oyment and Recreation 199 39.8 Musical Responsiveness 39 7.8 Enhancement of Environment 147 29. 4 Love and Appreciation of Music 66 13.2 Promoting Life-long Experiences 58 11.6 Development of Self-confidence 100 20. 0 Other 2 0.4 148 From Table 11 it can, be noted that 39.8 percent of the respondents Identified the promotion of music as a source of enjoyment and recreation as the most izg)ortant use of music with preschoolers- In addition to this, 29.4 percent identified providing pleasurable music experiences which enhance the overall quality of the learning environment as most important. The development of self-confidence through positive experiences in music was rated most important by 20 percent. Fine written responses were given to question six. The written responses included the use of music as a prayer form, "cultural,” to use music therapeutically pursuing non musical goal areas and to build rapport with students, to enjoy the rich variety of Hebrew music and melodies, to learn to use the singing voice, to foster creative expression, "physical," to develop memory and use of new words, as well as language skills/memory and recall, emotional release, and creative expression. Question seven was asked for the purpose of identifying the type of curriculum employed by the child care center. Indicate the type of curriculum that is followed in your child care center. 149 Table 12 Type of Curriculum— Question #7 Frequency Percent Commercially Designed Program 18 3.6 Curriculum Written by School Personnel 120 24,0 Individually Teacher Designed Curriculum 238 47.6 Fo Formal Curriculum 28 5.6 Other 44 8.8 BTo Response 52 10.4 As indicated in Table 12, 47-6 percent of the day care centers followed an individually teacher designed curriculum. In 24 percent of the day care centers, the curriculum was written by school personnel. There were forty-four written responses to question seven. Ten respondents indicated that their center followed the combination of a commercially designed program and a teacher designed program. Five respondents indicated that their program was a combination of a curriculum written by school personnel and a curriculum designed by the individual teacher. Five preschools indicated the use of Montessorian methods or materials. Two preschools Indicated the combination of a commercially designed program and a 150 curriculum written by school personnel. The remaining written responses provided further explanation of how or why a specific curriculnm was used. Question eight was used for the purpose of identifying all of the individuals who conducted music experiences with preschoolers. Of the following individuals, identify all of those who conduct music experiences with the preschoolers: classroom teacher music teacher classroom aide parent volunteer other Table 13 Individuals Conducting Music Experiences— Question #8 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Classroom Teacher 494 98.8 Music Teacher 82 16.4 Classroom Aide 222 44.4 Parent Volunteer 84 16.8 Other 72 14.4 From Table 13 it can be noted that the classroom teacher and classroom aide were most often identified as the individuals conducting the music experiences with preschoolers. Seventy-two respondents provided written responses for question eight. The responses included assistant teachers, parents and other invited guests, 151 movement specialists including creative movement teachers, dance instructors, and tumbling teachers, music therapists, as well as music therapy students, college music students, pastors, church organists, volunteer consultants, syz^honic ensemble members and other area musicians, student teachers, preschool administrators (twenty-seven indicated the director), foster grandparents, community volunteers, and undergraduate student assistants. Question nine was asked to determine who primarily is responsible for conducting the music experiences. Vho is primarily responsible for conducting music experiences with the preschoolers? Table 14 Question #9 Frequency Percent Classroom Teacher 379 75.8 Husic Teacher 26 5.2 Classroom Aide 0 0. 0 Parent Volunteer 0 0. 0 Team of Individuals 26 5.2 Other 9 1.8 Ho Response 60 12.0 It can be noted from Table 14 that in 75.8 percent of the preschools, the classroom teacher is responsible primarily for conducting the music experiences. Of those who provided written responses, most indicated that it was a combination 152 effort of the classroom teacher and another indivldnal. The person identified in this combination effort was either the classroom aide, another classroom teacher, or the director. Six respondents indicated that it was the director who had primary responsibility for music instruction. The purpose of question ten was to determine the highest educational background of the individual who primarily is responsible for conducting the music exper iences. What is the highest educational background of the individual identified in question #9? If a team is primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences, indicate each member* s highest educational background on the line provided for "other." Table 15 Highest Educational Background of Individual Conducting Music Experiences— Question #10 Frequency Percent High School Graduate 66 13.2 Associate Arts Degree (2 year) 86 17.2 Bachelor’s Degree 239 47.8 Master’s Degree 70 14. 0 Doctoral Degree 2 0.4 Other 31 6.2 Mo Response 6 1.2 From Table 15 it can be noted that 47.8 percent of the individuals who primarily are responsible for conducting the music experiences have a bachelor’s degree as their 153 highest educational attainment. Other significant educational backgrounds include 17.2 percent with an associate arts degree and 14 percent with a master’s degree. Thirty-one respondents provided written information for question ten. Eleven of the thirty-one respondents indicated the two-year ”CDA” degree (Child Development Associate). Other written responses included information regarding the number of earned college credit or years of college study, highest degrees earned by team teachers, as well as information regarding vocational study. The purpose of question eleven was to determine who primarily is responsible for determining how often music activities are to be conducted with the preschoolers. Vho is primarily responsible for determining how often music experiences are to be conducted with the preschoolers? Table 16 Experiences— Question #11 Frequency Percent Director of the Center 132 26.4 Classroom Teacher 258 51.6 Music Teacher 5 1. 0 Classroom Aide 0 0. 0 Parent Volunteer 1 0.2 Other 29 5.8 Mo Response 75 15. 0 154 It can be noted from Table 16 that in 51.6 percent of the preschools, the classroom teacher is responsible primarily for determining how often music experiences are to be conducted with the preschoolers. Of those who provided written responses, nineteen indicated that the director and the classroom teacher are responsible. It should be noted that in many of these instances, the director and the classroom teacher are the same person. Question twelve was asked to determine where the music experiences were being conducted. Indicate where the music activities are conducted. Table 17 Location of the Music Experiences— Question #12 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Regular Classroom 456 91.2 Special Room Designated for Music 71 14.2 Gymnasium 58 11.6 Cafeteria 5 1. 0 Recreational Room 79 15.8 Other 40 8. 0 Based on the information in Table 17, it is clear that most preschool music activities are conducted in the regular classroom. Of the forty written responses, some included afternoon play area, outdoors, large muscle room, little 155 theatre, large carpeted area, stage, chiirch sanctiiary, church parlor, church choir room, chapel, walking or sitting in line, classroom other than their own, throughout the building, multi-purpose room, activities room, nursing home halls, special circle area, quiet area, lockerroom, fellowship hall, and "anywhere— anytime." The purpose of question thirteen was to determine the existence of musical instruments in the preschools. Question thirteen elicited a "yes" or "no" response and read as follows: Does your center have any musical instruments? Of the 500 responses, 481 responded affirmatively <96.2 percent), 16 responded negatively <3.2 percent), and 3 preschools provided no response <0.6 percent). Question fourteen was included to determine which musical instruments were made available to the classroom teacher. If "yes" response was given in question #13, which of the following musical instruments are made available to the classroom teacher? piano autoharp guitar assorted percussion instruments other 156 Table 18 Available Huslcal Instruments— Question #14 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Piano 296 59.2 Autoharp 119 23.8 Guitar 74 14.8 Assorted Percussion Instruments 393 78.6 Other 102 20.4 From Table 18 it can be noted that in 78-6 percent of the preschools, percussion instruments are made available to the classroom teacher, and the piano is available in 59.2 percent of the preschools. Some of the written responses included teachei— made instruments/materials, toy band instruments and other child—sized instruments. Omnichord, Orff instruments, Rhythm Band instruments, organ, African and other cultural instruments, handbells, violin, electronic keyboards (Casio listed most often), zither, saxophone, ’cello, trunpet, accordion, Montessori bells, flutes/flutaphone, tuba, trombone, ukulele, bell lyre, french horn, and child-made instruments. The purpose of question fifteen was to determine which musical instruments were used most often in music experiences. 157 Of the following musical instruments, indicate those which are used most often in music-related activities at your center: piano autoharp guitar assorted percussion instruments other Table 19 Musical Instruments Used Most Often— Question #15 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Piano 162 32.4 Autoharp 35 7.0 Guitar 39 7.8 Assorted Percussion Instruments 312 62.4 Other 54 10.8 From Table 19 it can be noted that in 62.4 percent of the preschools, assorted percussion instruments are used most often in music-related activities. In 32.4 percent of the preschools, the piano is used most often. The written responses most often given were rhythm instruments for children or other child—sized instruments, and keyboard. Eighteen respondents indicated the frequent use of the keyboard which includes organs and electronic keyboards (e.g., Casio). 158 Question sixteen asked for Identification of the materials and equipment made available to the classroom teacher. Of the following materials and equipment, circle those that are made available to the classroom teacher. records/record players cassettes/cassette players curriculum guides for music activities textbooks/songbooks other Table 20 Available Materials and Equipment— Question #16 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Records/Record Players 489 97.8 Cassettes/Cassette Players 473 94.6 Curriculum Guides for Music Activities 300 60. 0 Textbooks/Songbooks 402 80.4 Other 18 3.6 From this Information It can be seen that most classroom teachers have records/record players <97.8 percent), cassettes/cassette players <94.6 percent), and textbooks/ songbooks <80.4 percent) available to them. Ten of the written responses Included video cassettes or video cassette recorders. 159 The pxjrpose of question seventeen was to determine which materials and equipment were used most often in music exper iences. Of the following materials and equipment, indicate those which are used most often in music-related activities at your center. records/record players cassettes/cassette players curriculum guides for music activities textbooks/songbooks other Table 21 Materials and Equipment Used Most Often— Question #17 (checked all of those which applied) Frequency Percent Records/Record Players 431 86.2 Cassettes/Cassette Players 324 64.8 Curriculum Guides for Music Activities 86 17.2 Textbooks/Songbooks 164 32.8 Other 13 2.6 From Table 21 it can be noted that in 86.2 percent of the preschools, records/record players are used most often in music-related activities. In 64.8 percent of the preschools, cassettes/cassette players are used most often, and in 32.8 percent of the preschools, textbooks/songbooks are used most often. Written responses to question seventeen included songs teachers have collected personally, creative movement books, teacher-developed handbooks. 160 individiial files of songs and activities, and songs cos^osed by teachers as lesson supplements. Videos or video cassette recorders were indicated three times. Based on an administrative evaluation, question eighteen sought to determine how a preschool program might compare to other preschool programs in overall quality of music opportunities. Compared to other preschool programs, how would you evaluate the overall quality of music opportunities in your center? Table 22 Administrative Evaluation of Preschool Program— Question #18 Frequency Percent Excellent 74 14.8 Above Average 184 36.8 Average 210 42. 0 Below Average 14 2.8 Poor 2 0.4 Bo Response 16 3.2 Based on the information contained in Table 22, 78.8 percent of the preschool administrators assigned either an average (42 percent> or an above average <36.8 percent) rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. 161 The last question, question nineteen, sought to reveal the two most valued aspects of quality music learning in the preschools. What are the 2 most important aspects associated with quality learning in music at your preschool? Table 23 Important Aspects in Quality Music Learning— Question #19 Frequency Percent Materials, Equipment, and Facilities 84 16.8 Educational Background of Individual Conducting Music- Related Activities 64 12.8 Providing a Variety of Music Experiences 380 76.0 Use of Musical Instruments 46 9.2 Frequency of Preschooler Involvement 376 75.2 Other 20 4. 0 Based on the information found in Table 23, the two most inqportant aspects associated with quality learning in music are providing a variety of music experiences <76 percent) and frequency of preschooler involvement in music—related activities (75.2 percent). Fineteen written responses were indicated. 1. teacher who enjoys singing with children 2. focusing on children’s reactions to music and movement as another vehicle to help them— understanding their feelings and emotional Interferences 162 3. the love of music by teachers 4. talented personalities who head the music and movement program 5. the teacher 6. teacher interest 7. religious music 8. love of music 9. just enjoyment of singing 10. attitude of staff 11. willingness and enthusiasm of teacher 12. enthusiasm of teachers regarding musical activities 13. enthusiastic, fun teachers 14. desire of staff to assist children in a variety of pleasurable experiences 15. the personality of the caregiver heading the activity; someone who will involve the children; someone with an open, friendly, casual personality 16. attitude of music team toward music and children 17. to teach them that music is "fun" IS. teacher interest 19. use of records/tapes/songs throughout the day Of the nineteen written responses, fourteen references were made to the teacher or individuals responsible for conducting the music experiences. Summary The reported data were obtained from the administration of the survey questionnaire and profile form. Fifty-seven percent (F=500) of the total sample responded by completing and returning the sample instrument, Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools. Based on the profile form, it was found that of the responding institutions, 69 were public, 363 were private, and 52 were private with some public funding. Sixteen institutions provided no classification. 163 Regarding the religions or secular affiliation of the preschools, 146 were religious-affiliated institutions, 142 were secular institutions, and 145 were secular institutions housed in church settings. The United Methodist Church was the denominational affiliate most often indicated. An overwhelming majority of the preschools did not include religion in the curriculum; however, many respondents indicated that basic moral values were enç>hasized. Most preschools were not commercially based, as only 24 indicated some type of commercial affiliation. Distribution among the responding institutions included 177 from metropolitan areas <35.4 percent), 40 from medium-sized cities <8 percent), 52 from small cities <10.4 percent), 97 from large towns <19.4 percent), 68 from small towns <13.6 percent), and 21 from rural areas <4.2 percent). The majority of the preschools maintained a full-time Of the nineteen questions regarding the inclusion of music in the day care centers, it was found that 498 preschools <99.6 percent) engaged preschoolers in some form of music-related activity. Of that number, 398 preschools <79.6 percent) engaged the students in music—related activities on a daily basis. The average amount of time 164 devoted to weekly preschooler music involvement varied, with 45 preschools <9 percent) averaging 0 to 15 minntes, 95 preschools (19 percent) averaging 15 to 30 minutes, 73 preschools <14.6 percent) averaging 30 to 45 minutes, 86 preschools <17.2 percent) averaging 45 to 60 minutes, 99 preschools <19.8 percent) averaging 1 to 2 hours, 47 preschools <9.4 percent) averaging 2 to 3 hours, and 32 preschools <6.4 percent) averaging 3 to 5 hours. Regarding the types of music activities, 496 preschools <99.2 percent) engaged the children in singing, 478 preschools <95.6 percent) included listening to music, 491 preschools <98.2 percent) utilized movement to music, 450 preschools <90.2 percent) included playing instruments, 72 preschools <14.4 percent> involved the children in music composition or improvisation, 168 preschools <33.6 percent) engaged the children in musical drama or pageants, and 135 preschools <27 percent) involved the children in discussion of music. Singing, listening to music, moving to music, and playing instruments represented the most popular music involvement of the children. The majority of the respondents <58 percent) identified enjoyment and recreation as the primary purpose for involving preschoolers in music—related activities. Only 9.4 percent of the respondents identified the development of musical skills as the primary reason for 165 music involvement. Regarding the philosophical rationale for the inclusion of music in the preschool curriculum, 39.8 percent of the respondents identified the promotion of music as a source of enjoyment and recreation as the most important use of music with preschoolers. Four percent indicated that the primary rationale was to give an understanding of the fundamenta1 concepts of music, and 7.8 percent indicated that it was to create a learning environment that would develop musical responsiveness in all students. It was found that in 47.6 percent of the day care centers, an individually teacher designed curriculum was employed in the classroom. In 24 percent of the day care centers, the curriculum was written by school personnel. In many instances, a combination curriculum was followed. Some of the frequent combinations included a curriculum written by school personnel and one designed by the individual teacher, or a commercially designed program and a teacher designed program. Regarding the individuals who conducted music experiences with the preschoolers, the classroom teacher and classroom aide were most often identified. In 75.8 percent of the preschools, the classroom teacher was primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences. The bachelor’s degree was most often indicated as the highest educational attainment of the individual primarily 166 responsible for condncting the music experiences. In over one—half of the preschools, the classroom teacher primarily was responsible for determining how often music experiences were to be conducted with the preschoolers. Of those surveyed, 91.2 percent indicated that music activities were conducted in the regular classroom. Musical instruments existed in 96.2 percent of the preschools. Assorted percussion instruments were made available to the classroom teacher in 78.6 percent of the preschools, and in 62.4 percent of the preschools, assorted percussion instruments were used most often in music-related activities. Most classroom teachers had records/record players, cassettes/cassette players, and textbooks/songbooks available to them. In 86.2 percent of the preschools, records/record players were used most often, followed by 64.8 percent using cassettes/cassette players, and 32.8 percent using textbooks/songbooks. Vhen asked to provide a conç>arative evaluation of their preschool music program to other preschool music programs, 42 percent of the respondents assigned an average rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their center, 36.8 percent assigned an above average rating, and 14.8 percent assigned an excellent rating. Lastly, when asked to identify the two most isportant aspects associated with quality learning in music at their preschool, 76 167 percent of the respondents indicated that it was providing a variety of music experiences, and 75.2 percent indicated that it was the frequency of preschooler involvement in music-related activities. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, COMCLUSIOHS, DISCUSSIOIT, AMD RECOMMEMDATI QMS Sn-m-mary of the Study The piarpose of the research project was to investigate and analyze the status of music in selected licensed Ohio preschools. Specifically, the study was designed to: (1) determine the availability and frequency of music-related activities in the preschools, (2) identify and classify the type of musical involvement of preschoolers, (3) identify the purposes for involving preschoolers in music experiences, (4) identify the individuals responsible for conducting the music experiences, identify their educational backgrounds, and identify the individual who determines the frequency of preschooler music involvement, <5> determine the location of the conducted music activities, (6) determine the availability of instructional materials and equipment to the classroom teacher, and <7> identify the philosophies of 168 169 preschool administrators regarding the role of music in the lives of young children. The need for the study was based on the lack of available information regarding the extent to which young children are receiving music training at the preschool level. Based on research findings in early childhood education, young children have the capacity to experience and benefit from a variety of musical activities. In addition to this capacity, young children should be allowed to experience a wide range of musical activities in an atmosphere conducive to expressive musical growth. Music experiences should be offered by those preschools providing educational opportunities. This study attempted to address the problem of identifying current practices in preschool music education. A survey questionnaire was developed for the purpose of gathering data concerning the status of music in preschool education (Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools). The questionnaire consisted of nineteen multiple choice questions with fifteen questions including the response category of "other." Respondents were given the opportunity to provide written explanations for the fifteen questions offering this response category. Questions one, two, and three addressed the availability and frequency of music- related activities. Question four sought to determine the 170 type of aruslc-related activities in which preschoolers were involved. Question five addressed the purposes for involving preschoolers in music experiences. Question six was asked to determine the philosophical view of the preschool administrators regarding the use of music with preschoolers. Question seven was included for the purpose of identifying the type of curriculum employed by the preschool. Questions eight, nine, and ten were used for the purpose of identifying all of the individuals who conducted music experiences with the preschoolers, identifying the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences, and identifying the educational background of the individual having primary responsibility for leading the music activities. The purpose of question eleven was to determine who had primary responsibility for determining how often music experiences were to be conducted. Questions twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen were related to the location of music activities, the ownership of musical instruments by the preschool, the availability of musical instruments to the classroom teacher, the popular use of specific musical instruments, the availability of materials and equipment to the classroom teacher, and the popular use of specific materials and equipment. Question eighteen was included for the purpose of providing the respondents with an opportunity 171 to evaluate the overall quality of music opportunities in their preschools. The last question, question nineteen, allowed for the identification of the two most important aspects associated with quality music learning in the respective preschools. Before conducting the pilot study, the questionnaire was submitted to four professors for validation. The four evaluators judged the questionnaire on content relevance, content coverage, content clarity, form and design, and overall thoroughness (8hellahamer, 1984). Based on the recommendations given by the evaluators, the questionnaire was revised and prepared for the pilot study. Five preschools in the Columbus area completed the profile form and the questionnaire as a part of the pilot study. In addition to the completion of the profile form and questionnaire, each preschool director provided an appraisal of the profile form and questionnaire. The appraisal included an indication of time spent in completing the profile form and questionnaire, an identification of unclear or ambiguous questions, an identification of unclear or ambiguous responses, an assessment of the overall sequencing of questions and responses, a numerical rating of the questionnarie, suggestions for questionnaire improvement, 172 and suggestions for improving the profile form. After the pilot study, the profile form and questionnaire were revised for the survey mailing. The sample group for this study consisted of 880 licensed Ohio preschools selected randomly from a total of 2,376 part-time and full-time day care centers. Only those day care centers offering services for preschoolers were included in the sample. The sanple represented 37 percent of the entire accessible preschool population. Of the 880 preschools, 500 responded by completing and returning the survey instrument. The survey questionnaire, the Child Day Care Center Profile Form, a cover letter, and a business reply envelope were mailed to the preschool director of each of the preschools in the sanple. The directors were requested to conplete and return the questionnaire and profile form within three weeks. Two weeks after the initial mailing, reminder cards were sent to those preschool directors who had not responded. One week after the initial deadline, a second mailing was conducted with a new cover letter, a copy of the profile form, questionnaire, and business reply envelope enclosed. The second mailing was sent to those preschools directors who had not responded. The questionnaire and profile form were numerically coded before 173 each of the two mailings. Anonymity of the participating child care centers was maintained through the numerical coding of all surveys. Information provided by the Child Day Care Center Profile Form was reported as descriptive data reflective of the responding institutions. Frequency and percentage data from each questionnaire item were reported in tabular form for analysis purposes. Lastly, supplemental descriptive material was reported as a means of providing additional information pertinent to the study. Summary of Results Based on the information provided by the Child Day Care Center Profile Form and the survey questionnaire, the following pages present a summary of the general status of music in selected licensed preschools in the state of Ohio at this time. CHILD DAY CARE CEHTEE PROFILE FORM— APPENDIX E Demographic Data Of the responding institutions, 415 were either private institutions or private institutions with some public funding. Of the 146 religious-affiliated institutions, the United Methodist Church was the denominational affiliate most often indicated, and only 84 preschools included religion in the curriculum. The majority of the responding institutions <90.2 percent) had no commercial affiliation. 174 The maj ority of the responding institutions (54.8 percent) represented large cities, suburbs of large cities, or large towns. The operating schedules of the responding institutions were almost evenly divided with 47.6 percent operating on a part-time basis and 50 percent operating on a full-time basis. SURVEY OF MUSIC IM OHIO PRESCHOOLS— APPEBTDIX A Availability and Frequency of Music Activities Question 1: Do the preschoolers at your center engage in music-related activities? Of the surveyed preschools, 99.6 percent indicated that preschoolers were engaged in music-related activities at their center. Question 2: Indicate how often the preschoolers engage in music-related activities. The majority of the responding institutions (79.6 percent) indicated that preschoolers engaged in music-related activities on a daily basis. Question 3: Indicate the average amount of time devoted to preschooler involvement in music-related activities on a weekly basis. Only 15.8 percent of the responding institutions averaged more than two hours per week of preschooler musical involvement, and 9 percent indicated a weekly average of zero to fifteen minutes. 175 Types of Music Activities Question 4: Of the following activities, circle those in which the preschoolers participate. singing listening to music moving to music playing instruments composing music/improvising musical drama/pageants discussing music other Singing, listening to music, moving to music, and playing instruments represented the most popular music involvement of the preschoolers. Composing music or improvising represented the least popular music involvement of the preschoo1ers. Purposes of Preschooler Music Involvement Question 5: Of the following reasons, circle those which apply to the center*s purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities. On the line preceding each of the circled responses, rank order the responses according to degree of importance. development of social skills _____ enjoyment and recreation _____ development of physical coordination reinforcement of learned material from various subject areas development of listening skills development of musical skills other 176 Enjoyment and recreation was the primary purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities. The development of listening skills was a primary reason for preschooler music involvement among 21.2 percent of the respondents. The development of musical skills was given as the primary reason for preschooler music involvement by 9.4 percent of the respondents. Rationale for the Use of Music with Preschoolers Question 6: Circle the statement(s) which most accurately represent the philosophical view of the use of music with preschoolers as practiced in your child care center. On the line preceding each of the circled statements, rank order the statements according to degree of importance. to give students an understanding of the fundamental concepts of music to promote music as a source of enjoyment and recreation to create a learning environment that will develop musical responsiveness in all students to provide pleasurable music experiences which will enhance the overall quality of the learning environment to develop in all children a genuine love and appreciation for music to foster positive feelings and attitudes toward music so that students may participate in life-long music experiences without fear or apprehension to develop self-confidence through positive experiences in music other 177 The promotion of music as a source of enj oyment and recreation and providing pleasurable music experiences represented the most Important uses of music with preschoolers. The understanding of fundamental concepts in music and the creation of a learning environment conducive to musical responsiveness were indicated as the primary uses of music with preschoolers by only 11.S percent of the respondents. Type of Curriculum Question 7: Indicate the type of curriculum that is followed in your child care center. An individually teacher designed curriculum was employed by almost one-half of the responding institutions. A commercially designed program was employed by less than 4 percent of the responding institutions. Individuals Conducting Music Experiences Question 8: Of the following individuals, identify all of those who conduct music experiences with the preschoolers: classroom teacher music teacher classroom aide parent volunteer other The classroom teacher and the classroom aide were most often identified, as the individuals conducting music experiences with the preschoolers. The music teacher and the parent volunteer each were identified by less than 17 percent of the respondents, as the individuals conducting music experiences with the preschoolers. 178 Question 9: Who is primarily responsible for conducting music experiences with the preschoolers? In over 75 percent of the preschools, the classroom teacher was identified as the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences. Question 10: What is the highest educational background of the individual identified in question #9? If a team is primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences, indicate each member’s highest educational background on the line provided for ”other.” The bachelor’s degree was most often indicated as the highest educational attainment of the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences. Question 11: Who is primarily responsible for determining how often music experiences are to be conducted with the preschoolers? In over one-half of the preschools, the classroom teacher primarily was responsible for determining how often music experiences were to be conducted with the preschoolers. Location of Music Experiences Question 12: Indicate where the music activities are conducted. Most preschool music activities were conducted in the regular classroom. Music activities were conducted almost equally in recreational rooms as they were in special rooms designated for music. 179 Availability and. Use of WTislcal Instrtunents, Materials, and Equipment Question 13: Does your center have any musical instruments? The majority of the preschools (96.2 percent) possessed musical instruments. Question 14: If "yes" response was given in question #13, which of the following musical instruments are made available to the classroom teacher? piano autoharp guitar assorted percussion instruments other Assorted percussion instruments were made available to the classroom teacher by the majority of the preschools. Over one-half of the preschools made the piano available to the classroom teacher. Question 15: Of the following musical instruments, indicate those which are used most often in music- related activities at your center: piano autoharp guitar assorted percussion instruments other Assorted percussion instruments were used most often in music—related activities with the autoharp being used least often. Question 16: Of the following materials and equipment, circle those that are made available to the classroom teacher: records/record players cassettes/cassette players curriculum guides for music activities textbooks/songbooks other 180 Records/record players and cassettes/cassette players were made available to the classroom teacher by an overwhelming majority of the preschools. Textbooks/songbooks were made available to the classroom teacher by the majority of the preschools. Question 17: Of the following materials and equipment, indicate those which are used most often in music- related activities at your center: records/record players cassettes/cassette players curriculum guides for music activities textbooks/songbooks other Records/record players were used most often in music-related activities followed by cassettes/ cassette players. Comparative Evaluation Question 18: Compared to other preschool programs, how would you evaluate the overall quality of music opportunities in your center? More than one-half of the preschool administrators <51.6 percent) assigned either an above average or excellent rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. Less than 4 percent of the preschool administrators assigned either a below average or poor rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. Quality Music Learning Question 19: Vhat are the 2 most is^ortant aspects associated with quality learning in music at your preschool? 181 Providing a variety of music experiences and having frequent preschooler involvement in music experiences were identified as the two most important aspects associated with quality learning in music. The use of musical instruments was considered of least Importance in the identification of inç>ortant aspects associated with quality learning in music. Conclusions Based on the findings of this study, it appears that the use of music in preschool education is of inçortance to preschool administrators. Since an overwhelming majority of the respondents indicated that preschoolers were engaged in music-related activities on a daily basis, with the majority of preschoolers involved in music activities from fifteen minutes to two hours per week, it is apparent that music is stressed at the preschool level. Additionally, the enç>hasis on music is supported by the multiplicity of ways in which children are musically involved. The children are singing, listening to music, moving to music, playing musical instruments, and participating in musical pageants and musical drama. This finding is consistent with the responses given regarding the most valued cong)onents of quality music learning in the preschool. Vhen asked to identify the two most important aspects associated with quality learning in music at their preschool, variety of music experiences and frequency of preschooler involvement 182 In music—related activities were most often indicated. The majority of the respondents identified enj oyment and recreation as the primary purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities. This finding is consistent with the responses given regarding the philosophical rationale for the inclusion of music in the preschool curriculum. The promotion of music as a source of enjoyment and recreation and providing pleasurable music experiences as enhancement to the overall learning environment were rated most important in the use of music with preschoolers. It should be noted that in almost one-half of the responding institutions, an individually teacher designed curriculum was ençloyed with the classroom teacher and the classroom aide most often identified as the individuals conducting the music activities with the preschoolers. In the majority of the preschools, however, the classroom teacher was identified as the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences. Consistent with this information is the finding that the classroom teacher is responsible for determining how often music experiences are to be conducted with the preschoolers. Additionally, the bachelor’s degree was indicated most often as the highest educational attainment of the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences. In 183 keeping with the instructional ençhasis of the classroom teacher, most preschool ntusic activities are conducted in the regular classroom. Musical instruments existed in the majority of the preschools with assorted percussion instruments made available to the classroom teacher by the majority of the preschools. Over one-half of the preschools made the piano available to the classroom teacher. Consistent with the availability of the percussion instruments was the finding that percussion instruments were used most often in music- related activities. The majority of the preschools provided records/record players, cassettes/cassette players, and textbooks/songbooks for the classroom teacher. In keeping with the availability of these materials and equipment was the finding that records/record players were used most often in music-related activities, followed in order by cassettes/cassette players, and textbooks/songbooks. Lastly, when asked to provide a comparative evaluation of their preschool music program to other preschool music programs, more than one—half of the preschool administrators assigned either an above average or excellent rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. A relatively small 184 percentage of the administrators assigned a below average or poor rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. Discussion Based on the findings of this study, it is evident that music is stressed at the preschool level and that children are experiencing music in a variety of ways. However, it is disturbing that 9 percent of the respondents indicated a weekly average of zero to fifteen minutes of preschooler music involvement. On the encouraging side, over 15 percent indicated a weekly average of more than two hours. It is unfortunate that there are such extremes in the frequency of music involvement at the preschool level. Also, it is of concern that the music experiences frequently do not include composing music or improvising. It should be remembered that young children need enriching experiences which promote creative involvement and result in self- discovery. It is not surprising that composing music/improvising, discussing music, and musical drama/pageants were not indicated as the most popular forms of preschooler music involvement since such activities demand a higher degree of musical sophistication from the teacher. Vhen asked to identify the reasons for involving preschoolers in music activities, only 9.4 percent of the 1 8 5 respondents identified the development of musical skills as the primary reason for music involvement. This finding is not surprising since almost 60 percent of the respondents identified enjoyment and recreation as the primary purpose for involving preschoolers in music—related activities. The lack of ezphasis on musical skill development is consistent with the expressed philosophical rationale regarding the use of music with preschoolers. Only 4 percent indicated that the primary rationale was to give an understanding of the fundamental concepts of music, and only 7.8 percent indicated that it was to create a learning environment that would develop musical responsiveness in all students. These findings are important in view of the fact that research indicates that musicality can be influenced most profoundly during the early years of development. It is during the early years that initial experiences, including acconplishments and failures, have lasting ramifications. It is known that at an early age, children are receptive to musical influences and are capable of comprehending musical concepts. Of significance to this study is the finding that almost one-half of the preschools employ an individually teacher designed curriculum, and almost one-quarter of the preschools follow a curriculum written by school personnel. This illustrates the importance of educating day care 186 personnel in ntusic methods. While there is nothing wrong with adhering to a localized approach devised by teachers and other school personnel, it is hoped that such an approach is based on an informed understanding of current educational findings and sound educational principles. In view of the fact that the classroom teacher was most often identified as the individual primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences with the preschoolers, it should be remembered that a teacher’s musical skills and background can either enrich or inhibit a child* s experience. This is not to suggest that the classroom teacher needs an extensive music background with advanced music skills. With respect to the educational background of the classroom teacher, it should be noted that the teacher does not have a bachelor’s degree in all reported cases. In many instances, the classroom teacher has an associate degree or is a high school graduate. This is significant in terms of the professional preparation of the teacher, and perhaps, the overall instructional effectiveness of the teacher. Since it is the classroom teacher who is largely responsible for offering music instruction, it is only natural that the classroom teacher determine the frequency of preschooler music involvement. As expected, the classroom teacher was indicated as the individual having 187 primary responsibility for determining how often music experiences were to be conducted with the preschoolers. However, in over one-quarter of the preschools, the preschool director determined the frequency of music involvement. It should be noted that in many instances, the preschool director and the classroom teacher are one in the same person. An underlying theme in the related research is the importance of frequent music Involvement among preschoolers. Kusic should be a part of the daily preschool curriculum and it should be planned as carefully as any other educational curricular component. Reinforcing the important role of the classroom teacher is the finding that most music activities are conducted in the regular classroom. It is encouraging that musical instruments exist in an overwhelming majority of the preschools. It would be preferable to have a more varied selection of instruments available to the classroom teacher. Most of the preschools include assorted percussion instruments with one-half of the preschools including the piano. Although percussion instruments are included in most of the preschools, many respondents apparently were reluctant to check the response "assorted percussion Instruments.” This is evident by the frequent written response indicating the availability and use of rhythm instruments. Even though rhythm instruments 188 are classified as percussion instruments, it is possible that the respondents wanted to make a distinction between pitched percussive instruments and non—pitched percussive instruments. There appears to be a correlation between the frequent use of instruments and the availability of instruments. Quite naturally, the piano and assorted percussion instruments are used most often since these instruments are supplied most often. Similarly, there is a tendency to employ those materials and equipment which are most often available. It is curious that foui— fifths of the preschools include textbooks/songbooks and only one-third of the respondents indicated primary use of these materials. Likewise, three-fifths of the preschools include curriculum guides for music activities and less than one-fifth of the respondents indicated primary use of the guides. It is not known why there is limited use of textbooks/songbooks and curriculum guides; however, it might be assumed that the classroom teacher lacks the necessary understanding to successfully incorporate the materials into the music instruction. Additionally, the teacher may not deem such materials as inqjortant in the preparation or supplementation of the music lesson. In spite of the apparent weaknesses in the preschool music programs, more than one-half of the preschool administrators assigned either an above average or excellent 189 rating to the overall quality of music opportunities in their school. Some respondents, however, indicated that it was difficult to provide an evaluation since there was nothing to which they could compare their programs. Perhaps through the study of exemplary instructional models, the preschool administrator might be better able to evaluate an existing program. When asked to identify the two most important aspects associated with quality learning in music at their preschool, variety of music experiences and frequency of preschooler involvement in music—related activities were rated most highly. Materials, equipment, and facilities were valued more than the educational background of the individual conducting the music activities, and the use of musical instruments was considered to be least important. Re c OTHTw^nda t i ons Enjoyment through pleasurable music experiences is fundamental to music learning; however, music involvement should focus on the musical development of the child. Music has educational merit and should not be used for the sole purpose of recreation or entertainment. As Eeimer (1970) notes. General education in music, then, consists primarily of developing the abilities of every child to have aesthetic experiences of music, using strategies 190 appropriate to the child’s changing capacities for perception and reaction. The ”heart of the matter” in music is the expressiveness of sound, and the ”heart of the matter” in music education is to help every child experience the expressiveness of sound as fully as he is capable of doing so (p. 114). At the close of the 1980s, institutions of higher learning are debating curriculum changes in teacher education. In the development of any new curriculum, music education should be stressed and its importance recognized. Training in music should be an integral part of the teacher education program. Prospective preschool teachers should be introduced to the fundamental concepts of music. Through an understanding of the fundamental concepts, the importance and overall value of music jnay be recognized. In addition to studying the fundamenta1s of music, prospective teachers should be introduced to a variety of musical instruments, music literature and recordings, pedagogical practices, and current research findings in the area of early childhood music education. The educational preparation of the preschool teacher should Include participatory activities in which basic music competencies are developed and exhibited. Participatory activities should include planning and leading group mnisic activities through peer and field teaching experiences. The findings of this study indicate that it is 191 the classroom teacher who largely is responsible for conducting the music activities, determining the frequency of music involvement, designing and organizing the music activities, and offering instruction in the regular classroom. As Greenberg (1972) found in his study, many preschool teachers recognize the value of music in the education of the young child; however, few teachers have the training to teach it. Teachers must be sufficiently trained to conduct meaningful music experiences with young children. The preschool teacher should serve as a facilitator of music learning. As facilitator, the teacher should develop in the young child an awareness of music through repeated exposure to the basic conponents of music, the ability to make informed choices about music, the ability to translate traditional and graphic symbols into musical sounds, a positive attitude toward music, an appreciation of musical heritage, an understanding of the relationships between music and the other arts, and an appreciation for the role which music plays in understanding other peoples and cultures (Ohio Department of Education, 1980, p. 3). It is the role of the preschool teacher to introduce music to the young child. The preschool teacher should possess a wide range of skills and expertise so that this introduction might be an enjoyable and educational experience. 192 Institutions of higher learning should seek to elevate the status of early childhood education by selectively admitting those students who are committed to educating young children, who are willing to undergo a rigorous program of study, and who possess the desired strengths and abilities. Thus, the field of early childhood education will gain in reputation and attract more conqpetent individuals. The promotion of early childhood education will serve to develop more effective kindergarten and nursery school programs (Alford, 1971). Music education should not begin when a child becomes a kindergartener or enters school for the first time. Music education should begin at the earliest possible age. Suzuki (1981) reinforces this belief through his stated conditions for the development of ability. In addition to exposing a child to learning at the earliest possible age, Suzuki recognizes the importance of creating the best possible learning environment. He states that through this environment, a great deal of training should be provided by the finest teachers using the finest teaching methods. According to Suzuki, it is only when all of these conditions are working together that ability can be developed. Suzuki (1969) concludes. 193 There is no telling to what heights children can attain if we educate them properly right after birth (p. 25). Further Study The following topics represent recommended areas for further study: 1. Studies comparing the uses of music in licensed preschools throughout the country. Data from such studies could lend support to the develop ment of a national curriculum guide for the preschool teacher. The data could assist teacher education institutions throughout the country in designing and offering useful courses, workshops, and informational services to preschool teachers. Additional studies could compare American pre school music education practices with preschool music education practices in other countries. 2. A study of preschool music education in the state of Ohio based on the perception of the classroom teacher. Such study could determine the scope and quality of music preparation of the preschool classroom teacher. A study based on the perception of the classroom teacher could prove to be more representative of actual conditions in preschool music education. 3. A conparative study of preschool music education practices in private and public child care centers; a comparative study of preschool music education practices in religious-affiliated institutions and secular institutions; and a comparative study of preschool music education practices in part-time and full-time child care centers. Areas of emphasis might include the educational preparation of the classroom teacher, the frequency of preschooler involvement in music activities, and the amount of time devoted to specific music activities. Additional areas of emphasis might include the types of music 194 activities in which preschoolers participate, the philosophical rationale for using music with preschoolers, the primary purpose for incorporating music activities in the preschool program, and the type of curriculum employed by the child care center. 4. An observational study based on a music educator* s examination and evaluation of pre school music programs. Such study could provide comparative information based on the perceptions of the classroom teacher and the music educator. 5. An examination of the instructional materials and pedagogical practices in preschool music education. APPEITDICES Appendix A . Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools (SMOP) Appendix B . Survey Questionnaire Validation Form Appendix C . Survey Questionnaire/Profile Pilot Letter and Evaluation Form Appendix D . . Survey Questionnaire Cover Letter Appendix E . . Child Day Care Center Profile Form Appendix F . . Two-Veek Reminder Card Appendix G . . Survey Questionnaire Final Reminder Letter Appendix n . List of Counties with Total Mumber of Centers Providing Day Care Services for Preschoolers 195 APPEITDIX A Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools (SMOP) 196 197 SURVEY OF MUSIC IM OHIO PRESCHOOLS — Circle the letter representing the appropriate response— HOTE: Use the following definition for "mnsic-related activities” when selecting response: "music-related activities”— opportunities in which children make or respond to music under the direction of a teacher or other adult. 1- Do the preschoolers at your center engage in music- related activities? a. yes b. no 2. Indicate how often the preschoolers engage in music- related activities: a. daily b. 3 or 4 times per week c. twice a week d. once a week e. rarely f . never 3. Indicate the average amount of time devoted to preschooler involvement in music—related activities on a weekly basis: a. 0 to 15 minutes b. 15 to 30 minutes c. 30 to 45 minutes - d. 45 to 60 minutes e. 1 to 2 hours f. 2 to 3 hours g. 3 to 5 hours h. other (specify) ______198 4. Of the following activities, circle those in which the preschoolers participate. a. singing b. listening to music c. moving to music d. playing instruments e. composing music/iz^rovising f. musical drama/pageants g. discussing music h. other (specify) ______ 5. Of the following reasons, circle those which apply to the center* s purpose for involving preschoolers in music-related activities. On the line preceding each of the circled responses, rank order the responses according to degree of importance. _____ a. development of social skills _____ b. enjoyment and recreation _____ c. development of physical coordination d. reinforcement of learned material from various subject areas e. development of listening skills f. development of musical skills g. other (specify) ______ 6. Circle the statement(s) which most accurately represent the philosophical view of the use of music with preschoolers as practiced in your child care center. On the line preceding each of the circled statements, rank order the statements according to degree of importance. _____ a. to give students an understanding of the fundamental concepts of music _____ b. to promote music as a source of enj oyment and recreation _____ c. to create a learning environment that will develop musical responsiveness in all students 199 d. to provide pleasurable music experiences which, will enhance the overall quality of the learning environment e. to develop in all children a genuine love and appreciation for music f. to foster positive feelings and attitudes toward music so that students may participate in life-long music experiences without fear or apprehension g. to develop self-confidence through positive experiences in music h. other (specify) ______ 7. Indicate the type of curriculum that is followed in your child care center: a. a commercially designed program b. a curriculum written by school personnel c. individually teacher designed curriculum d. no formal curriculum e. other (specify) ______ 8. Of the following individuals, identify all of those who conduct music experiences with the preschoolers: a. classroom teacher b. music teacher c. classroom aide d. parent volunteer e. other (specify) ______ 9. Vho is primarily responsible for conducting music experiences with the preschoolers? a. classroom teacher b. music teacher c. classroom aide d. parent volunteer e. team of individuals (specify) ______f. other (specify) ______200 10. What Is the highest educational background of the individual identified in question #9? If a team is primarily responsible for conducting the music experiences, indicate each member’s highest educational background on the line provided for ”other”: a. High School Graduate b. Associate Arts Degree (2 year) c. Bachelor’s Degree . . . Ifeijor: (specify)______d. Master’s Degree .... Major: (specify)______e. Doctoral Degree (indicate type & area of specialization) ______f. other (specify) ______ 11. Who is primarily responsible for determining how often music experiences are to be conducted with the preschoolers? a. director of the center b. classroom teacher c. music teacher d. classroom aide e. parent volunteer f. other (specify) ______ 12. Indicate where the music activities are conducted: a. regular classroom b. special room designated for music c. gymnasium d. cafeteria e. recreational room f. other (specify) ______ 13. Does your center have any musical instruments? a. yes b. no 14. If ”yes” response was given in question #13, which of the following musical instruments are made available to the classroom teacher? a. piano b. autoharp c. guitar d. assorted percussion instruments e. other (specify) ______201 15. Of the following musical instruments, indicate those which are used most often in music-related activities at your center: a. piano b. autoharp c. guitar d. assorted percussion instruments e. other (specify) ______ 16. Of the following materials and equipment, circle those that are made available to the classroom teacher: a. records/record players b. cassettes/cassette players c. curriculum guides for music activities d. textbooks/songbooks e. other (specify) ______ 17. Of the following materials and equipment, indicate those which are used most often in music-related activities at your center: a. records/record players b. cassettes/cassette players c. curriculum guides for music activities d . te:ctbooks/songbooks e. other (specify) ______ 18. Conpared to other preschool programs, how would you evaluate the overall quality of music opportunities in your center? a. excellent b. above average c . average d. below average e . poor 202 19. Vha.t are the 2 most ijiç>ortant aspects associated with quality learning in music at your preschool? a. materials, equipment, and facilities b. educational background of individual conducting music—related activities c. providing a variety of music experiences d. use of musical instruments e. frequency of preschooler involvement in music- related activities f. other (specify) ______ THAHK YOU APPENDIX B Survey Questionnaire Validation Form 203 204 VALIDATION OF THE SURVEY OF HUSIC IN OHIO PRESCHOOLS The purpose of this validation procedure is to determine if the proposed questionnaire, "Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools,” addresses the stated purposes of the research study in such a way that it will yield sufficient and valid data. The purposes of the research study are: 1. To obtain information regarding the status of music in preschool education throughout the state of Ohio 2. To determine the current trends in the area of music and preschool education 3. To provide recommendations, based on the findings of the questionnaire, to institutions responsible for programs in early childhood education Considering the above purposes for the study, answer the following questions concerning the "Survey of Music in Ohio Preschools" (SMOP): A. To what extent do the questions pertain to the stated purposes and topics of the study? (content relevance) Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low High Relevance Relevance Comments: 205 Please place an ”A” by any of the questions on the questionnaire which you feel do not pertain to the purpose of the study. B. To what extent will the questions provide adequate information about the survey topics? (content coverage) Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low High Coverage Coverage Comments: Please place a ”B” by any of the questions on the questionnaire which you feel might not provide enough information to adequately cover the intended topic. C. To what extent are the questions clear and unambiguous, and the answer choices logical and thorough? (content clarity) Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low High Clarity Clarity Comments: Please place a ”C” by any question or answer choice on the questionnaire which you feel is not clear, logical, or thorough. 206 D. To what extent are the questions and responses easy to read and arranged in a logical and easy-to-follow sequence? (form and design) Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Poor Excellent Form & Form & Design Design Comments: Please comment on the overall form and design of the questionnaire, noting any areas which might not be arranged logically or which might be difficult to read. E. Please give the questionnaire a rating based on your overall reactions. Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low High Rating Rating Comments: Please comment on any aspect of the questionnaire which you feel needs revision. APPEITDIX C Survey Questionnaire/Profile Pilot Letter and Evaluation Form 207 208 September 14, 1988 Inside address Dear I am currently a doctoral candidate at The Ohio State University and am preparing to conduct a statewide survey in the field of preschool music education. Before conducting the survey I would like to have several preschool directors complete the survey/profile form and report any problems or suggestions for improvement. Your assistance in this piloting process is appreciated greatly. The actual task involves completing the survey/profile form, relating all answers to your preschool program (involving those children ages three, four, and five who are not enrolled in kindergarten), and completing the "Pilot Evaluation Form.” I will pick up your completed survey/profile form and the "Pilot Evaluation Form” on Friday, September 23, 1988 after 12;00 p.m. If you have any questions, please feel free to contact me at any time. I may be reached at 294-8295 during the day, and at 459-4525 in the evenings after 5:00 p.m. Thank you for your cooperation in this matter. Sincerely, Kiisberly K. Golden encs 209 PILOT EVALUATIOÏT FORK ITAKE OF EVALUATOR: 1. Approximately how long did it take you to conrplete the Child Day Care Center Profile Form and the survey quest i onna ire? Minutes 2. Are the questions on the questionnaire clear and unambiguous? C ) YES ( ) MO If MO, please indicate those questions which you feel are not clear: 3. Are the answer choices on the questionnaire clear and logical? ( ) YES ( > MO If MO, please indicate those answer choices which you feel are not clear and/or logical: 210 4. Are the questions and responses arranged in an easy-to- follow sequence? < ) YES ( ) NO If ITO, please comment on problem areas: 5. Please give the questionnaire an overall rating based on your reactions to reading and completing it: Circle rating: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Low High Rating Rating 6. Please comment on any aspect of the questionnaire which you feel needs revision. 7. Please comment on any aspect of the Child Day Care Center Profile Form which you feel needs revision. APPEITDIX D Survey Questionnaire Cover Letter 211 212 November 17, 1988 Dear Preschool Director, The enclosed survey questionnaire serves as the data gathering instrument for m y doctoral dissertation at The Ohio State University. The purpose of the study is to investigate and analyze the status of music in licensed Ohio preschools. This survey is being sent to 880 licensed preschools throughout the state of Ohio. The enclosed survey will take approximately fifteen to twenty minutes to complete. A high response rate is important to the validity of this study. Your participation in this survey is greatly appreciated. The information you provide will be used for future planning in the areas of early childhood education and early childhood teacher education. In order to complete this study, analyze the results, and prepare a summary report by the end of this year, I am requesting that you return your completed questionnaire by December 8, 1988. I am thanking you in advance for your professional and personal interest in contributing to this study. Sincerely, Kimberly M. Golden, Graduate Administrative Associate The Ohio State University APPEITDIX E Child Day Care Center Profile Form (CDCCPP) 213 214 Code M’a. CHILD DAY CARE CENTER PROFILE FORM Please complete this form and the attached questionnaire. Information provided on this form will be used for the sole purpose of data analysis. Anonymity of the participating child day care center will be maintained. Please complete this form and the attached questionnaire and return both before December 8, 1988. For the purpose of this study. Child Day Care Center will be defined as any licensed public or private facility providing part-time or full-day custody of preschool children. Name of Child Day Care Center: ______ City: County: This is a C ) Public Institution < ) Private Institution ( ) Private Institution with some public funding Check all of those which apply: This is a C ) Religious-Affiliated Institution ( ) Secular Institution ( ) Secular Institution housed in a church setting Indicate religious affiliation: Is religion a curricular coaçonent: ( ) YES < ) NO Is this center affiliated with a commercial chain of day care centers? ( ) YES < ) NO If "yes," please indicate commercial affiliation:______215 This center is located in an area with a population of (check one): ) Large C i t y ...... <250,000 or more) ) Suburb of a Large City ) Medium-Sized City. . . <100,000 - 250,000) ) Small Ci t y ...... < 50,000 - 100, 000) > Large To w n ...... < 10,000 - 50, 000) ) Small To w n ...... < 2,500 - 10,000) ) Rural ...... (under 2,500) Number of children enrolled in entire day care program: Number of preschoolers (ages 3 through 5 not enrolled in kindergarten) enrolled in program: ______ Average preschool class size: ______ Name of individual completing this form: Title of individual completing this form: Office Phone: ( ) The preschool program is: ( ) part-time (no more than 4 hours per day) ( ) full-time (more than 4 hours per day) If full-time, specify number of hours daily: How many preschool teachers are employed by your center? Place the appropriate number in the space according to the total number of preschool teachers for which the qua ification applies: ) Completion of the course ’’Child Care Job Training Program for Adults” ) High School Graduate ) Completion of a two-year vocational child care training program ) Completion of Associate Arts Degree (2 years) ) Bachelor’s degree with no teaching certification 216 ( ) Bachelor’s degree with certification in elementary education < ) Bachelor’s degree with certification in early childhood education ( ) Bachelor’s degree with certification in elementary and early childhood education ( ) Completion of Master’s degree < > Completion of Doctoral degree ( ) other (specify) ______APPENDIX F Two-Week Reminder Card 217 218 December 13, 1988 Dear Preschool Director, Recently, I mailed a Survey Questionnaire to you which is the data gathering instrument for my dissertation. The questionnaire pertains to the status of music in licensed Ohio preschools. If you have already completed and returned the questionnaire, please accept my grateful appreciation. If you have not yet completed the questionnaire, I am hoping that you will take a few minutes of your time and do so before December 8. Thank you for your personal and professional attention to this matter. Kimberly M. Golden, Graduate Administrative Associate The Ohio State University APPEITDIX G Survey Questionnaire Final Reminder Letter 219 220 December 13, 1988 Dear Preschool Director, The enclosed survey questionnaire serves as the data gathering instrument for ny doctoral dissertation at The Ohio State University. The purpose of the study is to investigate and analyze the status of music in licensed Ohio preschools. This survey is being sent to 880 licensed preschools throughout the state of Ohio. I am enclosing a second copy of the survey questionnaire in the event you have misplaced the first one. The survey will take approximately fifteen to twenty minutes to complete. A high response rate is important to the validity of this study. Your participation in this survey is greatly appreciated. The information you provide will be used for future planning in the areas of early childhood education and early childhood teacher education. Since my dissertation depends on receiving sufficient data from the survey, I am hoping that you will conplete the questionnaire and return it to me before December 21, 1988. I do extend m y grateful appreciation to you for your cooperation and consideration in this matter. Sincerely, Kimberly M. Golden, Graduate Administrative Associate The Ohio State University P.S. If you have already returned the questionnaire, please disregard this letter and accept m y sincere appreciation. APPEITDIX H List of Counties with Total Number of Centers Providing Day- Care Services for Preschoolers 221 222 1,1ST OF COUFTIES WITH TOTAL HUMBER OF CENTERS PROVIDING DAY CARE SERVICES FOR PRESCHOOLERS 1. Adams 2 45. Licking 19 2. Allen 33 46. Logan 6 3. Ashland 6 47. Lorain 58 4. Ashtabula 15 48. Lucas 120 5. Athens 10 49. Madison 5 6. Auglaize 10 50. Mahoning 80 7. Belmont 11 51. Marion 7 8. Brown 6 52. Medina 24 9. Butler 70 53. Meigs 2 10. Carroll 3 54. Mercer 4 11. Champaign 8 55. Miami 18 12. Clark 30 56. Monroe 2 13. Clermont 32 57. Montgomery 168 14 Clinton 8 58. Morgan 2 15. Columbiana 20 59. Morrow 3 16. Coshocton 4 60. Muskingum 15 17. Crawford 7 61. Noble 2 IS. Cuyahoga 360 62. Ottawa 9 19. Darke 7 63. Paulding 4 20. Def iance 7 64. Perry 4 21. Delaware 9 65. Pickaway 6 22. Erie 15 66. Pike 3 23. Fairfield 14 67. Portage 21 24. Fayette 4 68. Preble 8 25. Franklin 225 69. Putnam 7 26. Fulton 11 70. Richland 25 27. Gallia 5 71. Ross 10 28. Geauga 24 72. Sandusky 11 29. Greene 34 73. Scioto 9 30. Guernsey 6 74. Seneca 12 31. Hamilton 208 75. Shelby 6 32. Hancock 18 76. Stark 78 33. Hardin 7 77. Summit 111 34. Harrison 1 78. Trumbull 33 35. Henry 10 79. Tuscarawas 15 36. Highland 7 80. Union 5 37. Hocking 3 81. Van Vert 6 38. Holmes 1 82. Vinton 1 39. Huron 9 83. Warren 22 40. Jackson 8 84. Washington 14 41. Jefferson 16 85. Wayne 21 42. Knox 10 86. Williams 8 43. Lake 56 87. Wood 30 44. Lawrence 6 88. Wyandot 6 Figures based on the December 31, 1987 list of licensed child day care centers in the state of Ohio. KEFEREirCES Alford, D. (1971). Emergence and development of music responses in preschool twins and singletons: A conparative study. Journal of Research in Music Education. ^(2>. 222-227. Allen, K. and Hart, B. (1984). The early years; Arrangements for learning. Englewood Cliffs, Hew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated. Althouse, R. (1981). The young child: Learning with understanding. New York, New York: Teachers College Press. Alvarez, B. (1982). Preschool music education and research on the musical development of preschool children: 1900 to 1980 (Doctoral dissertation. The University of Michigan, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts Internat i onal, 42, 3898-A. Anderson, V. and Lawrence, J. (1985). Integrating music into the classroom. Belmont, California: Vadsworth Publishing Conpany, Incorporated. Andress, B. (1980). Music experiences in early childhood. New York, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Andress, B. (1985). The practitioner involves young children in music. In J. Boswell (Ed.), The Young Child and Music: Contemporary Principles in Child Development and Music Education Proceedings of the Music in Early Childhood Conference (pp. 53—63). Reston, Virginia: Music Educators National Conference. Andress, B. Toward an integrated developmental theory for early childhood music education. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. 1986, 86. 10-17. 224 225 Andrews, F. and Delhi, IT. <1967). Development of a technique for identifying elementary school children's musical concepts. University Park, Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University. (Cooperative Research Project xTumber 5-0233) Andrews, P. (1976). Music and notion: The rhythmic language of children. Young Children, 32(1), 32-36. Aronoff, F. (1968). Guiding cognitive and affective learning in pre-kindergarten music (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1968). Dissertation Abstracts International, 29, 622-A. Aronoff, F. (1969). Music and young children. Mew York, Mew York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporated. Aronoff, F. (1979). Music—movement experiences: Content and process part II. In M. Tolbert (Ed.), Current Issues in Music Education A Symposium: Music for the Preschool Child, 10, 19—25. Columbus, Ohio: University Press— The Ohio State University. Banville, T. (1977, September). When perfect isn't perfect. Early Years, pp. 34-36. Bayless, K. and Ramsey, M. (1978). Music: A way of life for the young child. St. Louis, Missouri: The C. V. Mosby Company. Beyer, E. (1968). Teaching young children. Mew York, Mew York: Western Publishing Company, Incorporated. Birge, E. (1937). History of public school music in the United States. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Oliver Ditson Cospany. Bletstein, B. (1984). Musical abilities of three—year— old children: A descriptive analysis of pitch discrimination, concept formation, and music preference (Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1983). Dissertation Abstracts International. 44. 3005-A. Boland, M. (1984, January). Teaching through song. Early Years, pp. 48-49. 226 Brand, M. and Fernie, D. <1983). Kusic in the early childhood curriculum. Childhood Education. ^ (5), 321-326. Brierley, J. <1987). Give me a child until he is seven: Brain studies and early childhood education. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Palmer Press, Taylor and Frances Incorporated. Bruner, J. <1963). The process of education. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Burton, L. and Hughes, W. <1979). Music play: Learning activities for young children. Menio Park, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. Butler, A. <1971). Areas of recent research in early childhood education. Childhood Education, 48 <3), 143-147. Butler, A. <1970). The child’s right to quality day care: An ACEI position paper. Childhood Education. 47 <2), 58-65. Butler, A. <1973). Early childhood education: A perspective on basics. Childhood Education, 50 <1). 21-25. Caldwell, B. <1984). What is quality child care? Young Children. 39<3), 3-8. Carter, K. <1987). The status of vocal/general music programs in Oklahoma elementary schools (Doctoral dissertation. The University of Oklahoma, 1986). Dissertation Abstracts International, 47, 3349-A. Cecil, L., Gray, M., Thornburg, G. , and Ispa, J. <1985). Curiosity-exploration-play-creativity: The early childhood mosaic. Early Child Development and Care, IG<3), 199-217. Chacksfield, K., Binns, P., and Robins, V. <1975). Music and language with young children. Oxford, England: Basil Blackwell and Mott Limited. Choksy, L. (1988). The Kodaly method: Comprehensive music education from infant to adult (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, Mew Jersey: Prentice Hall. 227 Cliatt, M. <1976). Criteria for the selection of music activities for young children (Doctoral dissertation» The University of Mississippi, 1975). Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 4241—A. Cliatt, M. <1979, October). Dust off those instruments and drum up some fun! Early Years, pp. 103-105. Copple, C., Sigel, I., and Saunders, S. <1979). Educating the young thinker: Classroom strategies for cognitive growth. Mew York, Mew York: D. Van Mostrand Conpany. Ebbeck, F. and Ebbeck, M. <1974). Mow we are four: An introduction to early childhood education. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Conpany. Eliason, C. and Jenkins, L. <1986). A practical guide to early childhood curriculum (3rd ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. Ellison, A. <1959). Music with children. Mew York, Mew York: McGraw-Hill Book Conpany, Incorporated. Ernst, K. and Gary, C., eds. <1965). Music in general education. Washington, D.C.: Music Educators Mational Conference. Faulmann, J. <1980, May). Montessori and music in early childhood. Music Educators Journal, pp. 41-43. Findlay, E. <1971). Rhythm and movement; Applications of Dalcroze eurhythmies. Evanston, Illinois: Summy- Birchard Conpany. Flohr, J. <1980). Musical improvisation behavior of young children (Doctoral .dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana-Chanpaign, 1979). Dissertation Abstracts Internationa1. 40 , 5355-A. Flohr, J. and Brown, J. (1979). The influence of peer imitation on expressive movement to music. Journal of Research in Music Education. 27(3), 143-148, Flowers, P. (1988). The effects of teaching and learning experiences, tempo, and mode on undergraduates* and children’s synphonic music preferences. Journal of Research in Music Education, 36(1), 19-34. 228 Flowers, P. (1984). Attention to elements of music and effect of instruction in vocabulary on written descriptions of music by children and undergraduates. Psychology of Music. 1^(1), 17-24. Flowers, P. (1985, April). How children communicate about music. Music Educators Journal, pp. 44-45, 51-52, 54, 57, 70, 76. Forest, I. (1927). Preschool education: A historical and critical study. Mew York, Mew York: The MacMillan Company. Foster, J. and Mattson, M. (1939). Mursery—schoo1 education. Mew York, Mew York: D. Appleton-Century Conpany, Incorporated. Fridman, R. (1973). The first cry of the newborn: Basis for the child’s future musical development. Journal of Research in Music Education. ^(3), 264-269. Frost, J. and Kissinger, J. (1976). The young child and the educative process. Mew York, Mew York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Garretson, R. (1966). Music in childhood education. Mew York, Mew York: Meredith Publishing Conpany. Geringer, J. (1983). The relationship of pitch-matching and pitch-discrimination abilities of preschool and fourth-grade students. Journal of Research in Music Education. ^(2), 93-99. Gilbert, J. (1980). The development of motoric music skills in children ages three through six (Doctoral dissertation. University of Kansas, 1979). Dissertation Abstracts International. 40, 4463-A. Gilbert, J. (1981). Motoric music skill development in young children: A longitudinal investigation. Psychology of Music. 9(1), 21-25. Greenberg, M. A preliminary report of the effectiveness of a preschool music curriculum with preschool Head Start children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. 1972, 29, 13-16. Greenberg, M. (1974). The development and evaluation of a preschool music curriculum for preschool and Head Start children. Psychology of Music. 2(1), 34-38. 229 Greenberg, M. <1979). Your children need music: A guide for parents and teachers of young children. Englewood Cliffs, Hew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated. Greer, R., Dorow, L. and Hanser, S. Music discrimination training and the music selection behavior of nursery and primary level children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 1973. 35, 30-43. Haines, B. and Gerber, L. (1984). Leading young children to music: A resource book for teachers (2nd ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. Hainstock, S. (1986). The essential Montessori. Hew York, Hew York: Hew American Library. Hair, H. (1977). Discrimination of tonal direction on verbal and nonverbal tasks by first grade children. Journal of Research in Music Education, ^(3), 197- 210. Hair, H. (1986). The effect of high versus low teacher, affect and passive versus active student activity during music listening on preschool children’s attention, piece preference, time spent listening, and piece recognition. Journal of Research in Music Education. ^(3), 173-191. Hair, H. (1973). The effect of training on the harmonic discrimination of first-grade children. Journal of Research in Music Education. 2^(1), 85-90. Hair, H. (1981). Verbal identification of music concepts. Journal of Research in Music Education. 29(1), 11-21. Hankerson, H. (1982). Intervention strategies are the key to relevant curriculum and effective instruction in early childhood education. Early Child Development and Care. 8(1), 31-43. Hawes, G. and Hawes, L. (1982). The concise dictionary of education. Hew York. Hew York: Van Hostrand Reinhold Company. 230 Hawn, C. (1976). Implications and adaptations of Piaget’s theory of play for the preschool music curriculum (Doctoral dissertation. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1975). Dissertation Abstracts International. 36. 7263-A. Hendrick, J. (1980). Total learning for the whole child; Holistic curriculum for children ages 2 to 5 . St. Louis, Missouri: The C. V. Mosby Conç>any. Hildebrand, V. (1971). Introduction to early childhood education. Mew York, Mew York: MacMillan Publishing Company, Incorporated. Hitz, R. (1987). Creative problem solving through music activities. Young Children. ^(2), 12-17. Hofferth, S. (1989). What is the demand for and supply of child care in the United States? Young Children. 44 (5), 28-33. Humphreys, J. (1985). The child-study movement and public school music education. Journal of Research in Music Education. 33(2), 79-66. Hunter, M. (1973). Public education for fouz— year-olds: ’’To be or not to be.** Childhood Education. 49 (8). 403-407. Hymes, J. . (1981). Teaching the child under six (3rd ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. Jalongo, M. and Collins, M. (1985). Singing with young children! Folk singing for nonmusicians. Young Children. ^(2), 17-22. James, C. (1984). Why nursery education? Early Child Development and Care. ^(4), 319-336. Jetter, J. (1978). An instructional model for teaching identification and naming of music phenomena to preschool children. Journal of Research in Music Education. 26(2), 97-110. Katz, L. Current perspectives on child development. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education. 1986, 86, 1-9. 231 Keyserling, M. (1971). Day care: Crisis and challenge. Childhood Education, ^(2), 58-67. King, E. and Kerher, A. (1968). The sociology of early childhood education. Hew York, Eew York: American Book Company. Kresteff, A. The growth of musical awareness in children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Kusic Education, 1963, 1-10. Kuhmerker, L. (1969). Kusic in the beginning reading program. Young Children, ^(3), 157-163. Lavatelli, C. (1970). Contrasting views of early childhood education. Childhood Education, ^(5), 239-246. Law, IT. (1979). What is early childhood education? Some definitions and issues. Childhood Education, 55(4), 200-204. Deeper, 8., Dales, R., Skipper, D., and Witherspoon, R. (1974). Good schools for young children: A guide for working with three-, foui— , and five—yeai— old children (3rd ed. ) . Hew York,. Hew York: KacMi 1 Ian Publishing Company, Incorporated. McDonald, D. (1979). Music in our lives: The early years. Washington, D.C.: Rational Association for the Education of Young Children. McDonald, D. and Ramsey, J. (1978). Awakening the artist: Music for young children. Young Children, 33(2), 26- 32. McDowell, R. (1974). The development and inç>lementation of a rhythmic ability test designed for four-year-old preschool children (Doctoral dissertation. University of Horth Carolina at Greensboro, 1974). Dissertation Abstracts Internationa1, 35, 2029-A. McMahon, O. An exploration of aesthetic awareness in pre school age children. Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, 1987, 91, 97-102. McMillan, L. (1959). Guiding children*s growth through music. Boston, Massachusetts: Ginn and Coa^any. 232 Madsen, C. and Kuhn, T. (1978). Contemporary music education. Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Incorporated. Mark, M. (1978). Contemporary music education. Few York, Few York: Schirmer Books (MacMillan Publishing Coz^any). Marley, L. (1984). The use of music with hospitalized infants and toddlers: A descriptive study. Journal of Music Therapy. ^(3), 126-132. Marzollo, J. (1988, January). How they learn best. Parents Magazine, pp. 102-106, 150-152. Matter, D. (1982). Musical development in young children. Childhood Education. ^ (5), 305-307. Mialaret, G. (1976). World survey of preschool education, Paris, France: The Unesco Press. Michel, P. (1973). The optimum development of musical abilities in the first years of life. Psychology of Music, 1(2), 14-20. Millard, C. (1951). Child growth and development in the elementary school years. Boston, Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Company. Miller, L. and Bizzell, E. (1983). Long-term effects of four preschool programs: Sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. Child Development. 54(3), 727—741. Montessori, M. (1965). Dr. Montessori's own handbook. Few York, Few York: Schocken Books, Incorporated. (Introduction by Fancy McCormick Rambusch— first published in 1914) Montessori, M. (1964). The Montessori method. Few York, Few York: Schocken Books, Incorporated. (Introduction by J. McV. Hunt) Moog, H. (1976). The musical experience of the pre-school child. London, England: Schott and Company, Limited. (Translated by Claudia Clarke) Moramarco, S. (1975). Child care in Italy. Childhood Education. 52(2), 76-80. 233 Moustakas, C. and Berson, M- (1956). The yonng child In school. Bew York, Few York: Whiteside Incorporated and William Morrow and Company. Mnssen, P., Conger, J. and Kagan, J. (1963). Child development and personality (2nd ed.). Few York, Few York: Harper and Row, Publishers. Myers, L. (1956). Teaching children music in the elementary school (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, Few Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated. Myerson, E. (1970). Listen to what I made! From musical theory to usable instrument. Young Children. 26(2), 90-92. Fational Association for the Education of Young Children. (1986). FAEYC position statement on developaentally appropriate practice in programs for 4- and 5-year- olds. Young Children. ^ < 6 > , 20-29. Fixon, A. (1969). A child’s right to the expressive arts. Childhood Education. ^(6), 299-310. Fye, R. and Fye, Y. (1985). Music in the elementary school (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, Few Jersey: Prentice- Hall, Incorporated. Fye, V. (1979). Music for young children (2nd ed.). Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Conpany Publishers. Ohio Department of Education. (1980). A guide for planning musical experiences. Columbus, Ohio: State of Ohio Department of Education. Ohio Department of Education. (1983). Ohio guidelines for the identification of children with specific learning disabilities. Columbus, Ohio: State of Ohio Department of Education. Ohio Department of Human Services. (1986). Child day care licensing law. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio Department of Human Services. Otto, R. (1966, February—March). Some considerations for music curriculum development. Music Educators Journal, pp. 61-62. 234 Pecka, V. and Dudley, L. (1980, March). Teaching aural skills at the elementary level. Music Educators Journal, pp. 79-83. Peery, J. and Peery, I. (1986). Effects of exposure to classical music on the musical preferences of preschool children. Journal of Research in Music Education, 34(1), 24-33. Petzold, R. (1981). Child development. In Documentary Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium: Rational Symposium on the Applications of Psychology to the Teaching and Learning of Music.. Rest on, Virginia: Music Educators Rational Conference. Pierce, A. (1959). Teaching music in the elementary school. Mew York, Mew York: Henry Holt and Company, Incorporated. Prescott, E. (1974). Approaches to quality in early childhood programs. Childhood Education. 50(3). 125-131. Read, K., Gardner, P., and Mahler, B. (1987). Early childhood programs: Human relationships and learning (8th ed.). Hew York, Hew York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Reimer, B. (1970). A philosophy of music education. Englewood Cliffs, Hew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated. Reynolds, G. (1960). Environmental sources of musical awakening in pre—school children (Doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois at Urbana— Champaign, 1960). Dissertation Abstracts International, 21, 1214-A. Robison, H. (1977). Exploring teaching in early childhood education. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon, Incorporated. Romanek, M. (1974). A self-instructional program for musical concept development in preschool children. Journal of Research in Music Education. 22(.2’>, 129- 135. Romanek, M. (1971). A seIf-instructional program for the development of musical concepts in preschool children (Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, 1971). Dissertation Abstracts Internat ional. 32, 2556-A. Eothlein, L. and Brett, A. (1985). Child care in the United States. Early Child Development and Care. 18(4), 281-285. Rudolph, M. and Cohen, D. (1984). Kindergarten and early schooling (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, Hew Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Incorporated. Sailor, D. (1977). Dutch preschool education: A right and not a privilege. Childhood Education, 53(5), 271- 272, 275-278. Sailor, D. (1980). The nurturing of young children in child care centers (in Czechoslovakia and East Germany). Childhood Education. 56(5), 281-284. Schleuter, S. and Schlenter, L. (1985). The relationship of grade level and sex differences to certain rhythmic responses of primary grade children. Journal of Research in Music Education. 32(1), 23-29. Sexton, A. (1979). Selection of music for preschools. In M. Tolbert (Ed.), Current Issues in Music Education A Symposium: Music for the Preschool Child. 10. 39- 47. Columbus, Ohio: Uniyersity Press— The Ohio State University. She1lahamer, B. (1984). Selection and retention criteria in undergraduate music teacher education programs: Survey, analysis, and implications (Doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University, 1984). Dissertation Abstracts International. 45, 1679-A. Shelley, S. (1980). The young child's musical culture. In M. Tolbert (Ed. ), Current Issues in Music Education A Symposium and Research Conference: Music of Young Children. 12, 93-99. Columbus, Ohio: University Press— The Ohio State University. Shephard, M. (1982). Music with mum: Fun with music for the under-5's at home and in groups. London, England: Unwin Publishers. 236 Simons, G. (1978). Early childhood musical development; A blbllography of research, abstracts 1960-1975 with Implications and recoimiRndatIons for teaching and research. Reston, Virginia; Music Educators Rational Conference. Simons, G. Early childhood musical development: A survey of selected research. Bulletin of the Council for Research In Music Education, 1986, 36-52. Sims, V. (1986). The effect of high versus low teacher affect and passive versus active student activity during music listening on preschool children's attention, piece preference, time spent listening, and piece recognition. Journal of Research In Music Education. 34(3), 173-191. Sims, V. Young children’s creative movement to music: Categories of movement, rhythmic characteristics, and reactions to changes. Contributions to Music Education. 1985, 12, 42-50. Smith, L., Cooney, R. and McCord, C. (1986). What Is "high"? The development of reference points for "high" and "low.” Child Development, 57(3), 583- 602. Smith, R. (1970). Music In the child’s education. Rew York, Rew York: The Ronald Press Conç>any. Splllane, R. (1972). Day care: A public school administrator’s view. Childhood Education, 49(2), 68-72. Stecher, M. (1970). Concept learning through movement Improvisation: The teacher’s role as catalyst. Young Children. 25(3), 143-153. Stinson, S. (1977). Movement as creative Interaction with the child. Young Children, 32(6), 49-53. Sundln, B. Music In preschool teacher training. Bulletin of the Council for Research In Music Education, 1979, 59, 107-111. Suransky, V. (1982). The erosion of childhood. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press. 237 SuzTilci, S. (1981). Ability development from age zero. Athens, Ohio: Ability Developzent Associates, Incorporated. (Translated by Mary Louise Hagata) Suzuki, S. (1969). nurtured by love: A new approach to education. Hlcksvllle, Mew York: Exposition Press, Incorporated. (Translated by Valtraud Suzuki) Swanson, B. (1969). Music In the education of children (3rd ed.). Belaont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Incorporated. Taylor, B. (1974). When I do, I learn: A guide to creative planning for teachers and parents of preschool children. Provo, Utah: Brigham Young University Press. Thomas, P. (1977). Music with the preschool child: A manual of methods and materials for music with preschoolers, babies through klndergartners, for early childhood teachers and administrators (Doctoral dissertation, Mew Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, 1975). Dissertation Abstracts International. 37, 5673-A. Thomas, R. (1970). MMCP synthesis; ' A structure for music education. Bardonla, Mew York: Media Materials. Vetluglna, M. A comprehensive approach to child's musical education and development. Bulletin of the Council for Research In Music Education, 1981, 66-67, 102— 106. Vlletstra, A. (1981). Full- versus half-day preschool attendance: Effects In young children as assessed by teacher ratings and behavioral observation^ Child Development. 52(2), 603-610. Vann, K., Dorn, M., and Llddle, E. (1962). Fostering Intellectual development In young children. Hew York, Hew York: Teachers College Press— Columbia University. Weber, E. (1973). The function of early childhood education. Young Children. 28(5), 265-274. 238 Woods, D. (1974). The development and évaluation of an independent school music curriculum stressing conç>rehensive musicianship at each level, preschool through senior high school (Doctoral dissertation, northwestern University, 1973). Dissertât ion Abstracts International, 34, 5612-A. Young, V. (1975). Efficacy of a self-help program in music for disadvantaged preschools. Journal of Research in Music Education, 23(2), 99-108. Zimmerman, M. (1981). Child development and music education. In Documentary Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium: Rational Symposium on the Applications of Psychology to the Teaching and Learning of Husic. Reston, Virginia: Music Educators Rational Conference. Zimmerman, M. (1971). Musical characteristics of children. Washington, D.C.: Music Educators Rational Conference.