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Osmanlidiplomasitari OSMANLI DİPLOMASİ TARİHİ TARİH LİSANS PROGRAMI PROF. DR. ALİ FUAT ÖRENÇ İSTANBUL ÜNİVERSİTESİ AÇIK VE UZAKTAN EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ İSTANBUL ÜNİVERSİTESİ AÇIK VE UZAKTAN EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ TARİH LİSANS PROGRAMI OSMANLI DİPLOMASİ TARİHİ PROF. DR. ALİ FUAT ÖRENÇ Yazar Notu Elinizdeki bu eser, İstanbul Üniversitesi Açık ve Uzaktan Eğitim Fakültesi’nde okutulmak için hazırlanmış bir ders notu niteliğindedir. ÖNSÖZ Diplomasinin tarihi gelişimini, uluslararası ilişkiler çerçevesinde ele almak mümkündür. Diplomasi anlayışının kurumsallaşması ise uzun zaman içerisinde gerçekleşmiştir. Tarih boyunca devletler, çıkarlarını belirlemek, korumak, bunlara ulaşmak, kendileri dışındaki devletleri belli davranışlara yöneltmek veya olası davranışlardan caydırmak için çeşitli yöntemlere başvurmuşlardır. Bu yöntemler arasında propaganda, ekonomik yaptırım, silahlı güç kullanma tehdidi ve şüphesiz diplomasi en önemli argümanlar arasında yer almıştır. Tarihteki büyük imparatorluklarından biri olan Osmanlı, 14. Yüzyılda kuruluşundan itibaren önce bölgesinin ve bir buçuk asır içerisinde de dünyanın en önemli aktörlerinden biri haline gelmiştir. Bu yükseliş sadece imparatorluğun sahip olduğu büyük siyasal, askeri ve ekonomik güçle açıklanamaz. Kuşkusuz bu başarının altında diplomasiyi kullanma becerisi de yatmaktadır. Osmanlı’nın kuruluş ve yükseliş dönemlerinde, yani klasik çağında tek taraflı (Ad Hoc) diplomasi anlayışı hâkim olmuştur. Özellikle İstanbul’un 1453’te fethi sonrasında başlayan zirve döneminde (Fatih-Yavuz-Kanuni) tek taraflı diplomasinin tavizsiz uygulandığı anlaşılmaktadır. Osmanlı’nın Avrupa karşısındaki askeri ve siyasi üstünlüğü, bu dönemlerde şartları ve içeriğini Osmanlı’nın belirlediği bir diplomasi anlayışını mümkün kılmıştır. Osmanlı’nın 17. Yüzyıldan itibaren eski gücünü koruyamaması ve bir buhran döneminin başlaması, Avrupa karşısında gerilemeye sebep olmuş ve doğal olarak diplomasi anlayışı da değişme uğramıştır. Nitekim Osmanlı diplomasi tarihinde önemli dönüm noktalarından biri olan 1606 tarihli Zitvatorok Antlaşması, böyle bir sürecin sonucu ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu antlaşma sonrasında tek taraflı diplomasiden taviz verilmeye başlandığı görülmektedir. Özellikle 1683’te yaşanan II. Viyana bozgunu sonrasında imzalanan 1699 Karlofça Antlaşması, her alandaki gerilemenin adeta tescili olmuştur. Buna rağmen Osmanlı’nın tek taraflı diplomasi anlayışını devam ettirmeye çalıştığı dikkati çekmektedir. Osmanlı’nın buhran dönemlerinde doğal olarak uluslararası ilişkilerin ve diplomasinin ağırlığı artmıştır. Biraz da şartların zorlamasıyla tek taraflı (Ad Hoc) diplomasi anlayışı terk edilmiş ve 1793’te Londra’da ilk daimi ikamet elçiliği açılmak suretiyle sürekli diplomasiye geçişin ilk adımı atılmıştır. Bu süreçte Avrupa’nın önemli başşehirlerinde daimi elçiliklerin açılması, Japon, Çin ve İran örneklerinde olduğu gibi, Osmanlı’nın Avrupa diplomasi geleneğine entegrasyon 1 gayretlerini gösterme açısından önem taşımaktadır. Sürekli diplomasiye geçiş döneminin yenilikçi Padişahı III. Selim (1789-1807), Nizam-ı Cedit reformlarını tamamlayamadan tahtını yitirdi. Böylece sürekli diplomasinin ilk aşaması kısa süre kesintiye uğradı. Modern Osmanlı diplomasisinin önemli kurumsallaşma süreci Sultan II. Mahmut (1808-1839) devrinde önemli ivme kazandı. Bu dönemde açılan Tercüme Odası sayesinde Avrupa lisanlarını bilen diplomat ve idarecilerin yetişmesi sağlandı. Daha da önemlisi 1836 yılında Osmanlı klasik hariciye teşkilatı yeni baştan şekillendirildi ve Hariciye Nezareti kurularak, bugünkü Dışişleri Bakanlığı kurumunun temelleri atılmış oldu. Türk yenileşme tarihinin önemli aşaması olan 1839 Tanzimat Fermanı sürecinde de Osmanlı diplomasi anlayışındaki köklü değişimler sürdü. Öncelikle hariciyede, Tercüme Odası’ndan yetişen yeni nesil diplomatlar istihdam edilmeye başlandı. Böylece Osmanlı dış politikasının belirlenmesinde uzun süre etkili olacak önemli bir ekolün doğması mümkün oldu. Hükümet idaresinde Mustafa Reşit, Mehmet Emin Ali ve Keçecizade Fuat paşalar gibi diplomat kökenli yöneticilerin ağırlık kazanması ise hariciyede kurumsallaşmayı hızlandırdı. Osmanlı diplomasi geleneğinde önemli kırılma dönemlerinden biri II. Abdülhamit saltanatında yaşandı (1876-1909). Sultan, devlet idaresini Babıâli’den Yıldız Sarayı’na taşıdı ve diplomasi politikalarını bu çerçevede şekillendirdi. Bu dönemde özellikle teşrifat (protokol) alanında önemli yeniliklere gidildi. Sultan Abdülhamit sonrasında Osmanlı devlet idaresi parti ve hükümet çekişmeleri ekseninde gelişti. Diplomaside kurumsallaşma devam etmekle birlikte savaşlarda alınan yenilgilerin faturası, yeni dönem diplomatların gündemine çok zorlu ve kronik sorunları getirdi. Bu sorunlar içerisinde Ermeni ve Ege meselesi gibi bazıları günümüze kadar intikal etti. Kuşkusuz Osmanlı gibi üç kıtada asırla boyu hâkimiyet kurmuş, sayısız ülke ve toplumla ilişki geliştirmiş büyük bir imparatorluğun diplomasi tarihini her yönüyle ve ayrıntılı biçimde bir ders kitabı içeriğnde ele almak, bazı konulara ana hatlarıyla değinilmesini zorunlu kılmıştır. Bu eksiklik, mümkün olduğunca özgün ve güncel kaynakların önerilmesi ile giderilmeye çalışılmıştır. Prof. Dr. Ali Fuat ÖRENÇ 2 İÇİNDEKİLER ÖNSÖZ ....................................................................................................................................... 1 KISALTMALAR ....................................................................................................................... 8 YAZAR NOTU .......................................................................................................................... 9 1. TARİHTE DİPLOMASİ KAVRAMI ve UYGULAMALARININ ORTAYA ÇIKIŞI ...... 10 Giriş .......................................................................................................................................... 15 1.1. Diplomasi Kavramının Doğuşu ......................................................................................... 16 1.2. Diplomasi-Dış Politika İlişkisi .......................................................................................... 18 1.3. Diplomasinin Tarihsel Gelişimi ........................................................................................ 20 1.3.1. Antik Çağda Diplomasi ve Kurumları ........................................................................... 20 1.3.2. Roma İmparatorluğunda Diplomasi ............................................................................... 22 1.3.3. Eski Türklerde Diplomasi .............................................................................................. 24 1.3.4. Çin ve Japon Diplomasileri ............................................................................................ 26 1.3.4.1. Çin Diplomasisi ........................................................................................................... 26 1.3.4.2. Japon Diplomasisi ....................................................................................................... 27 1.3.5. İslamiyet’in Doğuşu Sonrası Diplomasi ........................................................................ 28 1.3.6. Selçuklu Devri Diplomasisi ........................................................................................... 30 2. DİPLOMASİ TÜRLERİ VE TEORİLERİ .......................................................................... 39 Giriş .......................................................................................................................................... 44 2.1. Diplomasi Türleri .............................................................................................................. 45 2.1.1. Geçici/Tek Taraflı Diplomasi: Ad Hoc .......................................................................... 45 2.1.2. Sürekli Diplomasiye Geçiş ve Modern Diplomasinin Doğuşu ...................................... 45 2.1.3. Zirve Diplomasisi ........................................................................................................... 49 2.1.4. Çok Taraflı Diplomasi .................................................................................................... 49 2.1.5. Konferans Diplomasisi ................................................................................................... 50 2.1.6. Parlamenter Diplomasisi ................................................................................................ 51 2.2. Diplomasi Teorileri ........................................................................................................... 52 2.2.1. Niccolo Machiavelli ve Makyavelizm Teorisi ............................................................... 53 2.2.2. Francesco Guicciardini’nin Prensler ve Elçiler Teorisi ................................................. 54 2.2.3. Hugo Grotius ve Teorisi ................................................................................................. 54 2.2.4. Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu ............................................................................. 55 2.2.5. Abraham de Wicquefort ................................................................................................. 55 3 2.2.6. François de Callières ...................................................................................................... 55 2.2.7. Ernest Satow ................................................................................................................... 56 2.2.8. Harold Nicolson ............................................................................................................. 56 2.2.9. Hans J. Morgenthau ve Gerçeklilik Teorisi
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