VV king king HeritageHeritagemagazine

1/2002

DESTINATION DESTINATION VIKING VIKING NORTH SEA BALTIC SEA Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

IN THIS ISSUE

Glimpses of Viking-Age women in runic Editorial inscriptions 3–6 Here at Viking Heritage we often get the question "What was the Freyja – a goddess of love and war 7–8 role of women in the Viking Age?" This is not surprising, because Images of Women and Femininity on when studying the Vikings usually only men are seen; the strong, Gotlandic Picture Stones 9–11 wild seafarers and warriors remain at the forefront. But half of the Report from the Viking Project in Ale population, the women, are harder to catch a glimpse of, their County, Sweden 11 conditions of life are in shadow. In this first issue of the year, we Where have all the Vikings gone… are happy to present you with some very interesting articles that CCC-Paper 12–14 will discuss and shed some light in these otherwise quite hidden The woman on the wagon – Pagan corners of the Viking Age. Scandinavian burials in a Christian perspective CCC-Paper 15–18 The second theme of this issue deals with the time of transition The Gotlandic farm – a history of 2000 years CCC-Paper 19–21 when the Viking Age meets the European Middle Ages and what this meeting brings forth. This is a time of great change that also Vasalles or seniores? The old nobility and new power structures in post- includes a new view of women - and men! conquest Estonia CCC-Paper 22–24

Viking Longboat Races 2001 – World For the new year, Viking Heritage intends to go on making Championships 25 interesting magazines that will keep you updated about what is Under the Hammer 26–27 happening in the Viking world, both 1000 years ago and today! For this we need your co-operation and contributions, so always feel Curriculum Vitae 28–29 free to contact us! Ask Us 30 New book 31–32 The editorial staff here at Viking Heritage wishes you all enjoyable About the artist Lou Harrison 32 reading!

Marita E Ekman Heritage News Editor

Heritage News 33–34 E-mail: [email protected] Recipes from Valhalla 35

“Wounded I hung on a wind-swept gallows For nine long nights, Pierced by a spear, pledged to Odin, Offered, myself to myself The wisest know not from whence spring The roots of that ancient rood …

Runes you will find, and readable staves, Very strong staves, Very stout staves, Staves that Bolthor stained, Made by mighty powers, Graven by the prophetic god” From Hávamál Drawing by Lou Harrison: See page 32. (Words of “The High One”)

About the front page Runestone from Litslena parish, Sweden. “Ingegerd had the stone erected in memory of Torlak, her good

husband, and in memory of Jorund and Åbjörn. Balle cut the runes.” Photo Marit Åhlén, Runverket, The National Heritage Board. Miljömärkt med Svanen. Lic nr 341 487 http://viking.hgo.se 2 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Glimpses of Viking-Age women in runic inscriptions By Marit Åhlén

Sweden is famous for its rune stones, or Viking-Age memorials, most of them dated to the 11th century. Rune stones are not grave memorials. They were erected in remembrance of a dead relative near a road in the vicinity of the home farm, at an assembly place like a thing place or other places where many people passed.

Rune stones are something of a Swedish speciality. About 3,000 carved rune stones are known; over 2,500 of them are from Sweden. As mentioned, most rune stones were erected in the 11th century. But by then a runic alphabet had been used for writing for a long time. The oldest runic script was created in the 1st or 2nd century AD, probably inspired by Latin capitals. This oldest runic alphabet had 24 signs. As far as we know, these runes were used mainly for short inscriptions on weapons and jewellery. This alphabet, called the Proto-Nordic, was used until the 9th century. As example of such an inscription I cite the text of a fibula from the 5th century. It was found in Gotland. The inscription is a

“Åbjörn and Ingjald and Häming had the stone erected in memory of Björn, their father”. Bälinge parish. Photo Marit Åhlén, The National Heritage Board.

The Proto-Nordic, also called the Primitive Norse, runic alphabet (from about the year 0 until the 9th century). craftsman’s signature: “Merila made me”. A Viking-Age alphabet with 16 signs replaced the old Proto-Nordic one. Of course the Viking-Age runic alphabet is used for inscriptions on rune stones cut th The Viking-Age runic alphabets in the 11 century. Runes are generally perceived as letters cut into stone, but in fact most runic inscriptions were carved on wooden sticks. The term rune carving refers to Runic alphabet used in the Middle Ages (from 1100 AD). signs carved into a soft material with a

3 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 sharp knife. Hardly any wood of such an up after him, active lads after their father. age remains, and thus most such carvings They raised the stones and worked the staff are lost forever. also, the mighty one, as marks of honour. Likewise Gyrid loved her husband. So in The rune stone texts mourning she will have it mentioned. The texts of the Viking-Age rune stones Gunnar cut the stone.” Ulf’s widow Gyrid are built up according to a formula. The mourns the loss of her husband. names of those who had the monument It is unusual that feelings are shown in raised and the name of the dead person runic texts. When feelings are expressed and their family relationship form the you find not sorrow but pride. East of main part. The majority of the rune Uppsala Stenhild raised a stone in stones were erected in memory of men. memory of Vidbjörn, her husband “a Their sons, brothers or father had the traveller to Greece”. She is eager to tell that stone raised. Sometimes a wife, daughter, Vidbjörn had taken part in an expedition sister or mother took part in the to a far country. commemorative act. As example of a Another Viking from Uppland who typical 11th century rune stone I give you went east was Ragnvald. He came back as the text of a stone north of Uppsala: an esteemed man. On a boulder he had “Åbjörn and Ingjald and Häming had the an inscription cut in memory of his stone erected in memory of Björn, their mother: “Ragnvald had the runes cut in father”. But, as I just mentioned, women memory of Fastvi, his mother, Onäm’s can be among those who had the daughter. She died in Ed. God help her monument raised. soul.” But Ragnvald had been commander of a troop of the famous band of Norse Women in the inscriptions soldiers, known as Varangians. Therefore “Ingegerd had the stone erected in memory he does not stop after having of Torlak, her good husband, and in “Stenhild had this stone erected in commemorated his mother. To show off memory of Jorund and Åbjörn. Balle cut memory of Vidbjörn, a traveller to he adds one more inscription to the the runes.” The widow Ingegerd put up a Greece, her husband. God and God’s boulder: “Ragnvald let the runes be cut. He mother help his soul. Åsmund Kåre’s rune stone east of Enköping in memory was in Greece, was leader of the host.” son carved.” Photo Marit Åhlén of her husband and two more men, In the Uppsala University Park there probably their sons. Between the lines are nine rune stones gathered from the you can read that she is now left all alone. on the western shore of Lake surrounding parishes. One of these rune If they had had more children they would Vallentunasjön i Uppland. Across the lake stones was erected by a mother in have been named together with Ingegerd. on the eastern side there are two more memory of her daughter. Both of them “Ulfkel and Gye and Une, they had this rune stones in memory of Ulf erected in a were obviously widows. “Gullög had the stone raised in memory of Ulf, their good Viking-Age thing place. From the text we bridge made for the spirit of Gillög, her father. He lived in Skålhamra. May God learn that even the construction of the daughter, and whom Ulf was married to. and God’s mother help his spirit and soul; thing place is part of the commemorative Öpir cut.” The building of a bridge is grant him light and paradise.” The rune act. “Ulfkel and Arnkel and Gye, they made frequently mentioned in runic texts. stone bearing this text in which three here a thing place. There shall no mightier Sometimes it is stated that the building sons commemorate their father Ulf stands memorials be found than those Ulf’s sons set was performed for the dead person’s soul. Thus building a bridge must have been a pious deed in the 11th century. In southern Uppsala there is a rune carving in a rock. “Sigvid, Gillög’s son, raised the runes in memory of Ragnelv, his mother-in-law.” Gillög was a pretty common name. There are some 20 examples from Viking-Age rune stones in Uppland. So there is no reason to assume that the two names Gillög refers to the same person. The reason why I chose to cite this inscription is the uncommon

The bolder with two carvings in Ed’s parish. Here is the side with the inscription: “Ragnvald let the runes be cut. He was in Greece, was leader of the host.” Photo Runverket, The National Heritage Board http://viking.hgo.se 4 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

Detail of the bolder from Ed’s parish. “Ragnvald had the runes “The good yeoman Holmgöt had the stone erected in memory cut in memory of Fastvi, his mother, Onäm’s daughter. She died of Odendisa, his wife. There will not come to Hassmyra a better in Ed. God help her soul.” Photo Runverket. mistress who holds sway over the farm. Balle the Red cut these runes. To Sigmund was Odendisa a good sister.” From Fläckebo parish. Photo Runverket kinship. We know of only two rune stone carved for himself during his his wife. There will not come to Hassmyra a stones commemorating a mother-in-law. lifetime. And he announced to the world better mistress who holds sway over the that he was “the cleverest of men”. The last farm. Balle the Red cut these runes. To The rune stone of Vigmund and Åfrid sentence suffers from being worded Sigmund was Odendisa a good sister.” Another rune stone in the University Park strangely. The predicate has a plural form was brought there in the 1670s. In 1867 after the two names Vigmund and Åfrid. A peculiar chain of inheritance this stone was sent to Paris for the World But the ending, literally “to himself alive” A rune carving in a rock at Hillersjö in Exhibition together with two of the other only refers to Vigmund. The adjective southern Uppland records a peculiar rune stones in the park. When the meaning ‘alive’ has the masculine singular chain of inheritance. “Read the runes! Exhibition ended, the stones were to be form. If Åfrid, probably Vigmund’s wife, Germund took Gerlög to wife when she was transported back to Uppsala by boat from had died before the making of the a maid. Later they had a son, before Le Havre. During loading this stone monument, she should not have been Germund was drowned. Afterwards the son slipped into the water. In the 1890s the included in the memorial action. If on died. Then she had Gudrik as her husband. harbour was dredged and the rune stone the other hand she was still alive, the [A part of the inscription is destroyed.] came up. This time it was transported adjective ought to have a plural form. She Then they had children. One of them only a safely back to Uppsala. is added like a jollyboat to the ship’s girl lived. She was called Inga. Ragnfast of The stone is carved on two sides, and captain’s memorial. Snottsta took her to wife. Afterwards he the text is unusual: “Vigmund had the died and then the son. And the mother took stone carved for himself, the cleverest of Homage to a wife and sister the inheritance after her son. Inga men. God help the soul of Vigmund, the In Västmanland we find a rune stone on afterwards had Erik as her husband. Then ship’s captain. Vigmund and Åfrid had the which a housewife and sister receives her she died. Then Gerlög came into the memorial made while he was still alive.” homage. “The good yeoman Holmgöt had inheritance after Inga, her daughter. It is rare for someone to have a rune the stone erected in memory of Odendisa, Torbjörn Scald cut the runes.”

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The story continues on four other inscriptions from Snottsta, further north in Uppland. Inga had them made in memory of her husband Ragnfast. In one of these four inscriptions we read: “Inga had the runes cut for Ragnfast, her huband. He alone owned this farm in succession to Sigfast, his father. God help their souls.” In the Hillersjö inscription it is said that Inga “took the inheritance after her son”. This is confirmed in the text of one of the Snottsta inscriptions: “Inga raised staff and stones in memory of Ragnfast, her husband. She came into the inheritance after her child.” From this we learn that children inherited from their parents and parents from their children. But a husband did not inherit from his wife. Therefore it was important to state that the child lived when the parent died. Gerlög first inherited from her son, who had inherited from his father. Then Inga The rune carving in the rock at Hillersjö, The only known rune stone signed by a inherited from her son, who had Hilleshög’s parish, Uppland. (For woman called Gunnborga. Jättendal’s inherited from his father, who had translation, see the text.) parish, Hälsingland. Photo Marit Åhlén inherited the farm from his father. When Photo Runverket. Inga died she had no children alive. Therefore her mother Gerlög inherited himself and has stuck his thumb into his tradition of erecting rune stones to from her. Inga’s second husband Erik was mouth to ease the pain. When the commemorate dead relatives ended. But left without any share. dragon’s blood came on his tongue, he for several centuries runes were used for understood the birds’ warnings. Fafner’s writing. The inscriptions are cut on The runes of the Sigurd Carving brother Regin is lying with his head cut everyday tools found during excavations On a very famous rock near Eskilstuna to the left on the carving. There is also in mediaeval town centres. The last runic in Södermanland a runic inscription tells the smithy, with its bellows, hammer, text I want to cite was found in Lödöse, about building a bridge: anvil and tongs. Sigurd’s horse the predecessor to Göteborg. On a well- Grane is tied to the tree. carved weaving knife, probably a gift of a fiancé, the appeal, which can almost be A female rune interpreted as a charm for insuring master mutual love, can be read: “Are you Sometimes a rune thinking of me? I am thinking of you. Love master signed the me! I love you!” carving. In the cited The Sigurd texts we have met Carving at Ramundsberget Öpir and Balle. We near Eskilstuna, Sweden. know some 100 Viking-Age rune carvers by name. Only one of them is a woman. This female “Sigrid, Alrik’s mother, Orm’s daughter, rune master has signed a rune stone in About the author made this bridge for the soul of Holmger, Hälsingland. It was found in Jättendal Marit Åhlén, PhD in Scandinavian father of Sigröd, her husband.” However church. Parts of the inscription have been languages in Uppsala, Sweden, 1997 destroyed by fire. But fortunately the part the rock is not famous primarily because (thesis: The rune-master Öpir. A of this inscription telling about members with the name Gunnborga is still there. monograph). Since 1985 she is th of a very distinguished Viking-Age family. This rune stone was copied in the 17 employed by the National Heritage The rock is decorated with pictures century therefore the complete text is Board (Riksantikvarieämbetet) and showing some of the most dramatic known. “Åsmund and Fartegn they erected is head of the department episodes in the legend of Sigurd, the this stone in memory of Torkel their father Runverket (Runic studies) including. slayer of Fafner, the dragon. There is of Vattrång. Gunnborga the good cut (or She is well known in Scandinavia Sigurd in his pit thrusting his sword coloured) this stone.” after having demonstrated and through the dragon’s body. Another explained more than 100 runic picture shows Sigurd roasting Fafner’s Runes of love inscriptions in 78 TV-programs. heart over the smithy fire. He has burnt In the first half of the 12th century the http://viking.hgo.se 6 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Freyja – a goddess of love and war

By Britt-Mari Näsström Earth”, and an idol of this goddess was means “the Lady” and could express an carried in a wagon around seven tribes onomastic taboo of Nerthus, as some during a period of peace and quiet. Before the change of religions scholars have suggested. In the According to Tacitus when she returned mythology, written down by the learned into Christianity, the people of to her holy island, several slaves were Icelander Snorre Sturlason, in the 13th the North worshipped drowned as a sacrifice. century, Njord was described as the goddesses and gods. Perhaps we can notice some traces to father of Frey and Freyja, “the Lord” and this old goddess in “the Lady”. This may be a construction We know the names of some of them of Snorre or his contemporaries, who and even something about their Viking Age wished to present genealogies among the functions and their myths, others remain silver figurine, pagan gods after a model of the classical are buried in silence or remain as only maybe antiquity. depicting Freyja names like the earth-goddess Jord, the with her wife of Odin and the mother of Thor. It famous The Vanir, literally “the voluptuous is uncertain if this divinity ever had a necklace ones”, ruled fertility of the beast and soil cult; she was regarded rather as a Brisingamen. as well as mankind. In Adam of Bremen’s personification of Earth. From Aska, description of the temple at We also catch other glimpses of such Sweden. Uppsala from 1060, Frey is obscure divinities, like Sunna, and described as a phallic god, who Singunt, who appear in a manuscript was evoked at marriage. from Merseburg of the 9th century. According to Snorre There is no problem interpreting Sturlason, it was Freyja’s Sunna, who is the sun, but function to arouse love how do we interpret Singunt? between male and Many scholars have tried female. “She is the unsuccessfully to make her a one to evoke in love moon-goddess and she affairs”, he writes remains an anonymous and he also goddess, like Njörun, describes her fast Nauma and Ilmr. There way of living. She is another goddess called was married to a Bil who appears together certain Od, who with her brother Hjuke, is identical to representing the waning Odin, according moon. Her name means to other sources “wound, impairment”, like the short story which could hint at the of Sörle in relation between the phases of Flateyjarbók. In this the moon and menstruation. This story Freyja desired a is one speculation among the many beautiful adornment, referring to many of the goddesses in made by four dwarves and Old Norse religion. they agreed if she promised to sleep with them each a night in The place-names provide us with turn. Freyja agreed, but Loke tattled to information about forgotten divinities Odin about what happened. She had to like Njärd, whose name appears in the archaeological finds of bog-corpses. evoke a never-ending fight between two Närtuna, Nälsta and, according to some A cult wagon which seems to have mighty kings to get it back and she toponymists, in Norderön in the carried an idol was also found in Dejberg managed to do so. province of Jämtland, Sweden. This in Denmark. Some of the tribes Freyja’s lovers were many but they goddess disappeared but her male mentioned in Tacitus’ description are were of her own choosing. When Thor counterpart Njord survived as one of the also identified as place-names in the had lost his hammer and the thief, the Vanir in the myth. Probably Njärd was counties of Schleswig and Holstein in giant Trym, wanted Freyja as bride the same as the goddess Nerthus, Germany. instead, she became furious and refused mentioned in Tacitus’ account of the Still, most of the traces of the goddess to travel to the giants’ world. Thor had Germanic tribes in the first century AD. Nerthus are lost, but perhaps she to appear disguised as Freyja in order to She was evoked as terra mater, “mother survived in the goddess Freyja. Freyja get his hammer back. In another poem,

7 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 however, a giant accused her of running in heat like a she-goat at night.

These myths, or rather fragments of Tacitus myths, made Freyja a parallel to the Cornelius Tacitus (55–120 AD) was a Roman historian and chronicler. He was a Greek Aphrodite and the Roman Venus, member of the Roman senate and served as a praetor and consul. In the year of the great love-goddesses of classical 112 he became proconsul in the Roman province of Asia. antiquity. She still bears other Today Tacitus is known mostly for his great essay Germania. The work was characteristics and is connected to the completed in 98 AD and is the most used source of knowledge about culture, Netherworld in many ways, especially as religion, manners and customs among the Germanic tribes during his lifetime. He also wrote Historiae and Annales that are our foremost written sources a death-goddess. She received the knowledge about times in the early Roman Empire. warriors, who had died on the battlefield in her commodious hall Sessrumne, a parallel to Odin’s Valhalla. Her home was called Folkvang, “the battle-field”, If we interpret the text literally, on her A similar example is found in the which includes the after-life activity of journey to Valhöll, Freyja seems to ride formula “God may help his soul and the the fallen warriors. on a pig, which has been explained as an mother of God”, as a reflection of the When not at battle, Freyja usually appropriate mount for a fertility old goddess who brought the fallen drove a wagon drawn by tomcats goddess. Nevertheless, as Hilda warriors home. The people who once according to the myths. We do not hear Davidson remarked, this beast is a boar, raised these monuments were more about any ritual progress like Nerthus called Hildisvíni, “war-swine”, and not a interested by the mother than the concerning Freyja, but her brother Frey plump mother sow. Hildisvíni is thus maiden at any rate. Perhaps they recalled travelled round the people at certain connected with war and not with the Great Goddess of the North, Freyja. times of the year, according to some fertility, representing the ferocious wild notices in Flateyjarbók. Still, she seemed boar used in heraldic contexts. to have had a cult in the Old Norse Religion. In one poem one of her Freyja’s warlike aspect is evident in worshippers sacrificed cows on her altar literature, as well as her aspect as death Historical ships (hörg). Place-names like Frövi, Fröjel and goddess. This picture has not been Frölunda are also evidence of a living noticed earlier, where the scholars 2002 cult to this goddess. preferred the yearning and lecherous love Historical vessels, such as Viking-Age Freyja also receives those who suffered Goddess. Freyja is, however, a complex ships, Hanseatic crafts, historical replicas, a honourable death - women, who nature, who like many other great galleys, sailing ships and small cargo boats, committed suicide in order to protect goddesses, gives life and receives the historical sailing and motor boats and modern ships that show the latest their honour and men fallen on the dead. She is the great magician and she maritime progress, will participate in the battlefield. She has a conspicuously obvious has courage. In my opinion, Freyja reflects the ideal noble woman, a Historical Ships Sailing 2002 taking place belligerent character; we can observe it in three different places this summer. All lady, whose important duty was to incite in Hyndluljo›, where she utters: historical ships are invited to take part. “You are dull, Hyndla, and dreaming, her husband, brother and son to fight to I believe, since you say that my man is protect the honour of the family, which Stockholm, Sweden, July 18–21 among the dead warriors. It is the boar was also theirs. In a wider context, this All ships are invited to participate in a big with the golden bristle, Hildisvíni (War held the family and the clan together; historical harbour festival on Skeppsbron, Boar), which the skilful dwarves, Dáinn and as far as we know from the sources, as a part of the 750th jubilee of the City of Stockholm. All activities will be in and Nabbi, made for me”. the women were the ones who perpetually upheld feuds. keeping with the times and aimed at Freyja was a goddess with many showing the maritime history of functions and played a leading role in Stockholm both on land and water. About the author: many myths in the Old Norse religion. Britt-Mari Näsström is PhD and Mariehamn, Åland, July 22–23 She was a goddess who was worshipped The ships will then sail to Mariehamn, professor in history of religions at by both men and women and according Göteborg University. She has written where they will be a part of the big to Snorre Sturlason she was the one who monographic studies about Freyja – RockOff Carnival. the Great Goddess of the North was nearest to mankind. Many of Freyja’s (1995), Blot – tro og offer i det functions were transmitted to the Virgin Åbo/Turku, Finland, July 25–28 forkristne Norden (2001, will be Mary at the change of religions like Here the historical ships will be part of published in Swedish this year) and wedding, childbirth and prosperity of the the city festival in connection with Forum Fornskandinavisk religion - en beasts and the soil. Some ceremonies like Marinum maritime centre. grundbok (2001). Her other fields of the ritual drinking in the beginning of the Further information: interest are religions in Classical winter were dedicated as thanks to Christ www.maxnav.com Antiquity and new religions. and Santa Maria, behind which we may E-mail: [email protected] www.historicalships.com imagine the names of Frey and of Freyja.

http://viking.hgo.se 8 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Images of Women and Femininity on Gotlandic Picture Stones

By Eva-Marie Göransson What is a woman? In images produced today, gender is often The picture stones from taken for granted. We engender human figures in photos published in newspapers Gotland, especially those and magazines, on TV and in films made in the Viking Age, are without much ado. Women are women crowded with human figures. and men are men. Masculine human figures It is when our gender rules are disturbed that we react, often quite vigorously. – Is dominate on the stones, both THAT a man!? Look at his feminised way in numbers and activity. This of dressing! How awful, etc. Where images fact makes the feminine produced in the distant past are concerned, we must start at a different point, making figures that do exist our opinions on gender clear from the especially interesting. Here beginning. What is the reason for calling a the focus is on the feminine figure “a woman”? figures. They tell us slightly On the picture stones a large number of apparently human figures can be seen. quieter stories than usual, These can be divided into two large giving us a glimpse of the groups. In one group beards never occur, Viking Age with the noisy in the other they do, but not on all Vikings in the background. figures. This is the basis for my engendering the human figures on the Gotlandic picture stones (fig 2). The picture stones from Gotland The figure “woman” thus were constructed and erected between becomes possible based on the ca 400–1100 AD. In the last century assumption that men have beards of that long period, Christianity was even in the “Gotlandic Picture Stone accepted as a state-religion in most Age”, like they/you have today. The parts of Scandinavia. This can be seen picture stone woman is a non-male, in the form of the new symbol of the Fig 1. A Christian cross on a picture- technically speaking. A bit sad, but that’s cross, centrally placed on the later stones stone from Hogrän church on Gotland. how things are, and can itself be subject (fig 1). By that action, the Scandinavian After Lindqvist 1941. enough for an article. Viking Age meets the Middle Ages. There are, however, other stories told by the stones, where we can try to find transformations in people’s attitudes to themselves in the world, a kind of mental archaeology. I would like to excavate the images on the stones, looking for changing ideas about the female body and feminine gender roles related to the conversion.

Fig 2. Examples of group figures; ”women” (left) and ”men” (right). Illustration: Eva-Marie Göransson. Fig 3. Ornamentation on the border of the Bjärs III picture-stone from Hejnum parish, Gotland, 5th century AD (top), corresponding with a contemporary textile find from Snartemo, Norway (bottom). After Lindqvist 1941.

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Changing femininity Fig 4. Woman with typical S-shaped At first, figurative femininity is of no bodyline and ponytail and bun interest to the picture stone makers. Only hairdo. Tjängvide picture-stone an aggressive masculinity working in war- from Alskog parish, Gotland. associated activities is represented in the 5th Illustration Eva-Marie Göransson. and 6th centuries AD. On the other hand, borders with clear textile design corresponding to of femininity, that must have actual textile finds from the period been there outside the stones, can be seen as an abstract form of the hard working ones, the femininity framing the image (fig suffering, laughing, running 3). This, of course, assumes that ones that we are unable to see. women and only women produced textiles. Images disappear Feminine human figures begin In the latest phase, the 11th to appear in the late 8th century century, the feminine and, at the beginning, are very figures disappear stereotyped. They form a norm altogether, while the of femininity expressed in a masculine ones remain, certain bodyline – the slightly S- now embedded or shaped curve and gestures hidden in snake loops tightly held to the upper body and framed by runic (fig 4). The dress reaches to the inscriptions in place feet with train and a shorter of the former textile cloak/shawl combined with a borders. typical hairdo – ponytail or hair- Women and bun. In her hand the figure often femininity are there, holds a drinking horn stretched out but now in a new form – to a mounted man dressed as a runic inscriptions. Women warrior. have picture stones erected for The picture stones now occasionally them, and are given names and, show other forms of femininity – for sometimes, personal qualities in the instance the carriage-driver woman (fig 5). inscriptions. Here the woman figure is active, often In one stone we are told that Ailikni What a woman is standing up, on what seems to be a rather was a good wife and mother (fig 7). She Trying to interpret what the figure wild journey. was given a picture stone by her husband “woman” means in the Gotlandic picture In an example of special interest, the Liknat. In another, the man Siba tells us in stones, is foremost a question of nuances of carriage driver seems to be greeted by runes that his wife Rodiaud died young movement and rest. The feminine human another woman, stretching out a drinking leaving her small children (fig 8). body is shown as a “bloc” on tiny feet. The horn (fig 6). This is an all-feminine When the figurative images of women train of the dress, however, leads us to equivalent to the male warrior-female disappear on the picture stones, understand that the figure is moving drinking-horn server mentioned above. Christianity is accepted in society. This forwards, slowly. Hands and arms are held includes a new view of women (and men). tightly to the upper body. Trunk and legs The ideal is no longer wealth in property are covered by the dress. Fighting, running per se, but wealth in property given away (to or jumping is out of the question! Fig 5. Carriage-driver woman on the Not standing still, not walking fast. Levide church picture-stone I. In between this, the feminine norm of Illustration: Eva-Marie the picture stones is hidden. Dignified Göransson movement, prepared for meetings with others, flexibility, speaking the same language as the textile ornaments in the borders framing the stones. So a woman on the Gotlandic picture stones is a story of silent movement, a striving for something, an ideal, a dream.... This woman is a silent activity, separating the figure not only from the men Fig 6. All-female meeting motif on the on the stones, but also from the Barshalder picture-stone Norrkvie 1:16, invisible women she is not; all Grötlingbo parish. Illustration: Eva-Marie those other women, those forms Göransson. http://viking.hgo.se 10 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

Report from the Viking Project in Ale County, Sweden

The Viking Project in Ale was started and is run by the Administration of Fig 7. The Education and Culture in Ale Ardre church Municipality in response to interest in picture-stones I, II, V, VI, the Viking-Age ships, which were raised as a monument to Ailikni, a discovered in Äskekärr in 1933 and “good wife and mother” made by her 1994. The Viking Project in Ale was husband Liknat. After Lindqvist 1941. one of several Nordic projects within North Sea Viking Legacy, which also God, the Church, to the poor etc). In had picture stones erected after them, the co-operated with Viking Heritage Magazine. other images like wall paintings and textile way they are represented in the images The project is divided into three images, women’s heads bow down as an affected society as a whole. What was areas: Viking-Age Village, Nature and expression of humility. On the Gotlandic considered a good wife was bound in Culture path and Research Project. picture stones, at the other hand, feminine stone, carved in images and runes, Plans are to construct a Viking figures disappear altogether. It seems that erected for all to see. Village with a dwelling house, a cattle “the picture stone woman” was shed, craft rooms, pastureland and incompatible with the new religion. fields. The first step is to build a ship- Fig 8. The Ardre church picture-stones shaped longhouse about 16,5 m in Picture stones and people IV and VII, made by Siba for his wife length and 7 m wide. The prototype for The Gotlandic picture stones are a part of Rodiaud (bottom) and her unnamed the house was excavated at a Viking-Age society, not reflections of it. The ideas of daughter (top). Rodiaud “died leaving site in Tissø on Sjaelland, Denmark. femininity, the way women are represented her young children”. After Lindqvist Now a Nature and Culture path has on the stones, can be seen as actively 1941. been opened at the site for the working in people’s lives as ideals, interested public to follow. School perhaps unattainable norms for youth can also participate in life. educational programmes. The pathway Even if only wealthy women is around the Ranneberget hill. You can follow the information signs or accompany the guide who tells details about the history, flora and fauna of the area. About the author: Parallel with the other projects, Eva-Marie Göransson is Kristina Carlsson, the antiquarian an archaeologist, PhD, project manager, will be summarising and an artist. She is now research findings from the Viking Age following a special in the area. This part will culminate training programme for with an exhibition about the Viking professional artists at the Age in Ale Municipality, which will also University College of Arts, Crafts and Design in be shown in other North Sea Viking Stockholm. In her current Legacy countries. work she explores Ale Municipality is located in the different approaches to province of Västergötland, north of time, using old Gothenburg, Sweden. techniques, like fresco For more information about the and concrete sculpturing, project see VHM 2/2001, where the in new ways. Special project secretary, Bodil Peterson, gave a interests are spirituality briefing about the ongoing project in and gender issues. Ale County, and the project’s E-mail: homepage. [email protected] www.alevikingatid.nu

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Viking Heritage is proud to present four articles from the CCC project, an interdisciplinary international research project with its head office at Gotland University College, Visby, Sweden. CCC means: Culture Clash or Compromise? The importance of regional strategies during the Europeanization of the Baltic Rim from 1100 to 1400. Here follows an introduction of the project as well as three separate studies. Two more articles from the project will be published in VHM 2/02.

Where have all the Vikings gone…

By Nils Blomkvist Vicus in Dark Age Latin was a technical term The Viking Age – What Was It? for the coastal towns on the Channel which The historical role of the Vikings is debated were ravaged by Vikings, so we have to admit continuously. One way of reading their The 11th Century Heights that we don’t know the meaning of the word. dramatic history is by studying the silver that It is well known that the Viking Age Yet it opens up a world of pictures and was hoarded along their routes. During the 9th culminates in some great heroic and even associations: a cruel, brutal attitude towards and 10th centuries the Russian river valleys, herostratic enterprises undertaken in the first foreigners, an intensive, heroic and strongly their Baltic estuaries and the Baltic coastlands half of the 11th century – the Danish conquest emotional cult, the beautiful, well-balanced – notably the island of Gotland – were of England and the subsequent establishment ship’s architecture, the intricate animal flooded with Arabian silver! This was of a North Sea Empire, Ingvar’s fabulous ornaments on art objects, a cynical humour obviously not due to plunder in the first expedition to Kaukasus, related on more than demonstrated in the hard-boiled saga place, but to commerce. In many Viking-Age 25 mid-Swedish runestones; not to mention literature and on runestones. In Russia people graves weights and scales for weighing up the North Atlantic expeditions, departing bearing those connotations were known as quantities of silver are found, and the hoards originally from Norway, then from Iceland, Varangians, derived from a Scandinavian word contain broken jewellery, silver bars and even reaching Greenland and finally America. for ‘sworn brotherhood’. pieces of Arabian dirhems as tokens of its use These widespread contacts are as weighed (not counted) currency. characteristic of the small Viking The Viking Age was a period population, which fulfilled a when long distance trade was unique historical established for the first time between the lavish cultural centres of Islam and north- aper western Europe, using the -P shortcut over the Russian landmass. And it has actually been proven that the Viking CCC raids in the west correlate in function for a limited period of time with periods when the time, beginning around 800 AD influx of Arabian silver was low. and ending around 1050 AD. Certainly scholars will never A whetstone found on entirely agree on the nature of Gotland concludes the spirit of it Viking activities, but modern all using only six words: research has tended to ‘Ormika.Ulfair. Greece. Jerusalem. demonstrate its normality, given Iceland. Serkland’ (The land of the time and the space. In some the Saracens). The first two are sense it was a long-term men’s names. The rest is no conjuncture, which was rare in as doubt a narrative, charged with much as it allowed the Baltic extreme adventure; the shortest area to dominate over Western epic in history. Europe. In the 970s, however, Who were the Vikings? for some reason the influx of Scandinavians, no doubt. Arabian silver ceased to reach the However this is not the name of Baltic. Almost instantly, a whole a specific people or a nation in series of nations in the area the sense we know today. They were seafaring bands and their The Baltic Rim, here defined home waters were the Baltic and as the drainage basin of the the North Sea. Vik means simply Baltic Sea. bay in the Scandinavian Computer drawing: Gustaf languages, but on the other hand Svedjemo.

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Oh When the Saints… This drawing tells – in animated form – the story of the shift in mentality during the Middle Ages. The scene is the city of Visby: once a Viking-Age Vi, a cult place connected with asylum rights. According to the Guta saga this had the interesting consequence that it was lawful to erect a Christian church in the area. Hence a pioneering Gotlandic merchant called Botair of Akebeck built a church dedicated to All Saints. This proved prophetic, since Visby was to become full of churches dedicated to all kinds of saints. Instead of the churches the drawing shows their personified protectors with their respective attributes – e.g. St Olav pastoral staff, St Jacob with his mussel-shell, the Hand, together by a fairly strict interdisciplinary with his axe, St Clement Lamb and Dove of Holy Trinity etc. In the right upper scheme, pointing out problem areas to be with his anchor, St corner Woodan (Odin), Thor, Freyr & Co. are seen leaving solved (known internally as Die Nicholas with his the field. Drawing by Ingrid Blomkvist. Vergleichsmaschine - the official project languages have been English and German, using all the vernaculars of the Baltic Rim, decided that Christianity was a better religion ways of living; into a regulated society. At the plus gestures and even singing songs for than their former practices. A couple of same time, this meant a considerable shift in additional understanding). Solving the decades into the 11th century characterised by the power balance between the Baltic Rim and problems was up to each and everyone, which extravagant expansionism and then, poof… it Continental Europe. It is easy to see that from sometimes led to forming smaller working was all over. 1100 onwards the process of change had its groups within the larger context. roots in a trans-European core area, uniting Communications were organised in a network The Sudden Disappearance northern Italy with the Low Countries. seminar (using e-mail), and the publications In Scandinavian archaeology there is a But what about the Viking spirit? Was it have been channelled into a series of CCC difficult period of some 60 to 80 years, known really buried in the hard toiled earth of papers. So far, six volumes have appeared; but as the transition period. It begins around the Scandinavian small-scale homesteads, or no less than twenty more are underway. The Battle of Hastings, and comes to an end under the cloaks of Cistercian monks? In a CCC project’s main financier has been The around 1143 with the founding of Lübeck, sense, this has been the key problem of a Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation, the first German city to have direct access to rather grand multinational research project which has provided more than 14,000,000 the Baltic. In this period new times began. that has been going on for six years now at no SEK over the years. So what were the results? The Scandinavians were busy building less than ten universities and university churches of stone, imitating the ones they had colleges surrounding the Baltic. Into Citizens… seen in England, Germany and France. They The Viking-Age inhabitants of the Baltic Rim were also transforming their way of life in The CCC Project had been living in political units at a many other ways. The broad masses began Under these initials, some 20 archaeologists, predominantly regional level, call them tribes, working harder to till the earth. Overcrowded historians and human geographers of eight lands or landskap. Even in the Viking Age, villages were drained of people who were Baltic Rim nationalities have joined forces to however, some form of kingship emerges, moving into the forests, clearing land and attack the scholarly problem of particularly in Denmark, Sweden and, heavily forming new villages. A smaller group – some Europeanization. The three Cs are to be read influenced by the Varangians, in the Kievskja of which in former times would have been as Culture Clash or Compromise? And the Rus – the kingdom linking Novgorod to Kiev. chieftains and the helmsmen of ships – were scientific problem has been narrowed down In the East Baltic countries a somewhat ‘re-schooling’ themselves and learned to as: The importance of regional strategies in the different structure has been observed. It is behave like an aristocracy, binding up the Europeanization of the Baltic Rim 1100-1400 characterised by rather limited hillfort- others in ties of tenancy. Monasteries and AD. The large team was first and foremost territories, forming a more cellular structure. cathedrals, from which singing in Latin and brought together in series of conferences In most other ways the East Baltic territories even the scratching of feather-pens was heard, which has been ‘touring’ the University cities were quite similar to their Scandinavian were rising. Around many of them, towns of the Baltic, from Visby, Kurasaare, Kalmar, contemporaries, but for some reason the social were growing denser. Talsi, Klaipeda, Greifswald, Lund, Tartu, and organisation emerged more dispersed. The All in all Scandinavia and the entire Baltic back to Visby, where its main office has been tendency to form larger units remained weak. Rim was growing into a European costume. located. This made a difference when Europe The Vikings became re-schooled into ordered Intellectually, the work has been held appeared. Whereas in Scandinavia, a self-

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assured elite was already learning how to from the bewildered 12th century, we striking similarity between the administrate the Continental Catholic legacy sometimes see that the former Vikings were a Europeanization of the Baltic Rim in the 12th and was largely able to transform their bit disoriented in the brave new world around and 13th century, and the events merely 10 or countries into centralised European states; the them. 12 years ago, when the Soviet empire East Baltic peoples were much more The fashionable new way of preserving collapsed and a very quick advance into the unprepared for the demands, economic as well foodstuff by putting it in salt – hitherto Baltic was made by the NATO and the EU. as ideological, that were directed towards unknown in the Baltic area – thus induced the The movement was the same, but the tempo them from the continent. We even hear of the leaders of a Danish sea expedition to separate was remarkably quicker. I am pointing this Curonians and the Osilians having their own their fallen comrades into two groups: out because the political change around 1990 Viking periods, in the late 12th century – thus Ordinary men who were to be buried on the was indeed crucial to the CCC project. Half giving Swedes and Danes some of their own spot, and aristocrats who were to be conserved of its staff has grown up east of the Iron medicine. In the end the lack of interest in the in salt and brought home to be honourably curtain, and had received their first scholarly East Baltic for taking up Christianity was buried as Christian men. training under the auspices of the Soviet judged intolerable by the church authorities. Visitors to the harbour of Visby must also system. It would be telling a lie, if I claimed From around 1200 AD, crusades were have been astonished. It was of course a vi – a that the integration of two research cultures directed towards these coasts. Hence two Holy place protected by the deities of Valhall; hasn’t had its problems. On the other hand, westernised states, one called Livonia and the but in the 12th century around 15 Catholic its most important result will probably be the other Prussia were founded. The way this was Saints – Peter, John, Michael, Mary, durable network of personal relations which carried out made them into a sort of rehearsal Clemens, has been built across the former barrier. We for the European worldwide expansion will always learn. some centuries later.

Into a New Era… At the moment the members of the CCC project are busy putting The shortest epic ever? The their respective results together, a whetstone from Timans, necessary first step before Gotland. Photo Raymond synthesising the results of the Hejdström. entire project. The transactions of our final conference will be published in the renowned series Acta Visbyensia, as its number XII. Some of the articles published in Nicholas, this and the next issue of Viking Gertrude, Olav, George etc, Literature published in the Heritage Magazine are shortened most of them brave martyrs from the versions of its content. Mediterranean basin – had taken over the CCC-project However, people keep asking for simple guard. Each one of these was in command of sentences, telling where the Vikings went. In his own stately church tower that rose towards Visby Symposium papers Visby, a working group which is discussing the sky in a hitherto unseen way. In fact the Culture Clash or Compromise? The how to find a straightforward, popular whole town was rebuilt from wood to Europeanisation of the Baltic Sea Area presentation of these problems has been limestone. 1100-1400 AD. Acta Visbyensia XI. 1998. Ed. Nils Blomkvist. ISBN 91-630-7439-7 formed. This has led to the preparation of an Or why not consider the infuriated exhibition to be held in the Gotlands Fornsal, Semigallians, a Baltic people living on the CCC-papers the distinguished museum in Visby, in the south bank of the river Daugava (not far from summer and autumn of 2003. 1. Europeans or Not? Local Level today’s Riga), who saw that the Germans had Strategies on the Baltic Rim 1100-1400 AD. The preliminary answer is in all simplicity brought Gotlandic bricklayers to make a that the Vikings went into other business CCC papers 1: Visby – Kalmar 1999. Eds. tower on the little island of Holme in the Nils Blomkvist & Sven-Olof Lindquist. activities. Some became herring fishermen, middle of the river, and got hold of ropes to ISBN 91-973653-0-0 salters and tradesmen, others became building pull it into the river… They didn’t know, the 2. Ridanäs, Vikingahamnen i Fröjel. Visby masters and bricklayers, again others priests chronicler says laughingly, that the stones 1999. CCC papers: 2. By Dan Carlsson. and missionaries. A new society was built up were mortared together by cement! This is ISBN 91-973304-1-8 from the ground. When we read the texts why the working title of the exhibition 3. Rural Cemeteries of Southern Estonia underway is – “the Pope, the Salt and the 1225-1800. CCC papers: 3. Visby – Tartu Bricklayer: aspects of changing times”. 1999. By Heiki Valk. ISBN 9985-4-0073-9 About the author 4. Gård, hamn och kyrka. En vikingatida kyrkogård i Fröjel. CCC papers: 4. Visby Nils Blomkvist, PhD in Medieval When Will They Ever Learn? 2000. By Dan Carlsson. History and associate professor with a My attempt to let this article paraphrase a ISBN 91-973653-1-9 long experience from his service at well-known folk song, extremely popular 5. Lübeck Style? Novgorod Style? Baltic the Swedish Heritage Board and now some 30 years ago, calls for a sens morale. The Rim Central Places as Arenas for Cultural at Gotland University College. From its end of the Viking era was the transformation Encounters and Urbanisation 1100-1400 start he has been the project leader from a locally and regionally bound society AD. CCC papers: 5. Riga 2001. Ed. Muntis for the CCC-project. He is also one of into a world dominated by larger Auns. ISBN 9984-675-37-8 the senior staff members at Gotland organisations. My observation is rather that 6. At the Crossroads of Space and Time. Center for Baltic Studies, Gotland the Vikings were quick learners. They Graves, changing society and ideology on University College. understood that times were changing. That’s Saaremaa (Ösel), 9th –13th centuries AD. E-mail: [email protected] why they disappeared. CCC papers: 6. Tallinn 2002. By Marika Another observation to be made is the Mägi. ISBN 9985-4-0228-6 http://viking.hgo.se 14 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 The woman on the wagon Pagan Scandinavian burials in a Christian perspective By Jörn Staecker

In recent decades research has focused intensively on the Christanization of Scandinavia. The point of departure has mainly been the change in religion, i.e. the issue of which forces in society triggered the changes, which missionary elements generated the process of Christanization and finally what happened to pagan elements of cult after the conversion.

We realize today that it was not only the nobility that backed up the process of Christanization, but that German and English CCC-Paper missionaries were probably much more Fig 2. Sex-determination of 10th century wagon-graves. female grave, male grave, confrontational than earlier believed, and no sex-determination. that the question of continuity of cult still needs to be assessed. But there is one question in particular which remains to be example the Swedish term “storman” new mission was launched in 936. This solved, the issue of who had the principal (nobleman) implies a male person. But mission was the starting point of a new role in a conversion. the supernumerary role of women is far wave of Christianisation, ending with the As Eva-Marie Göransson has recently from certain. conversion of the Danish and shortly pointed out, research on Scandinavia’s Between the late ninth and early tenth afterwards of the Swedish kings. Christanization quite often describes the centuries we have no record of a mission Is it possible to trace Christianity in actors as males or as genderless and the silence could give us the this early phase of the tenth century? individuals. This is linked to the impression that the first attempts of the There are only a few items of Christian discussion about social status, where for ninth century failed. According to written symbolism known from this period. sources, mainly the ecclesiastical history of Objects like crosses and crucifixes are not Fig 1. Reconstruction of a 10th century Hamburg-Bremen by Adam of Bremen, a common before late tenth century. burial with carriage-body from Thumby- Instead it must be stressed that the sudden Bienebek. introduction of single Thor's hammers gives us a hint of the confrontation between the new and old faiths. The author has already intensively discussed these objects, but there is another object, which might give us – in spite of its pagan character – a glimpse of the early phase of Christianisation, namely the wagon-grave.

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The wagon grave – purely pagan? Carriage-bodies are given a special role in tenth century grave burials, that is the upper part of the wagon that could be removed from the lower chassis. The wagon with detachable body was already known from the early ninth century Oseberg ship-burial in Norway, where it was part of the furnishing of a chamber containing two women. A similar type of wagon- body was first observed in tenth-century burials in the 1970s (fig 1.). Iron-fittings which could be connected with a wooden wagon have since made it possible to identify a lot of wagon-graves among old excavations. Even graves with snaffle-pairs were counted in this group. The importance of gender and the social position of the dead were quite Fig 3. soon pointed out by different researchers. The Levide It could be observed that the majority of church rune stone the graves belonged to women from the (Go 77). upper classes. Of fifty burials, thirty-four were female, six male and ten non- Brynhild went to Hel in a carriage. Ships to emphasise their own rank. Graves with determinable (fig 2.). and carts were the main attributes of the wagons are in this case an expression of a During the 1970’s the role of society Vanir, the divinities of fertility and death. transition period but not necessarily of was under discussion. Roesdahl & The goddess Freyja had a wagon drawn by religious affiliation. Several graves, like Nordquist wrote concerning the Fyrkat cats and the goddess Nerthus, mentioned Thumby-Bienebek, Jelling, Hørning and grave IV: “You do not get the impression by Tacitus, was placed in a wagon drawn Oldenburg in the Slavonic territory, that this is a noble, Nordic woman. She by cows. indicate a direct connection with seems to have travelled, perhaps she is a There is still another question to be Christianity by the furnishing (cross foreigner who has bought some fine goods adressed: Why do the wagon-graves begin pendant), or the topography (inside the at different places on her way to Fyrkat during the most intensive phase of church or on the churchyard). In this and uses these items like a tourist in her Christanization? context, it is necessary to mention the own way. Another possibility is that some One possibility is that they had no Gotlandic picture stones which feature of the objects are gifts, and one is struck religious significance. Another possibility wagons. It is argued here that the stones by the idea that she could have been a is that the pagan attributes could equally in general may not be regarded as part of lady belonging to the camp followers”. be interpreted in a Christian way and that pagan custom. It is important to stress But with the magnificent Oseberg burial parties of Christian dead were not that the inscription on these picture burial in mind, where not only a complete forced to sacrifice their status symbols. It stones gives us no hint of that. On the wagon but even textiles illustrating the use has also been argued that the burials must contrary, of four preserved stones with a of wagons were discovered, it became be regarded as “a reaction of the upper wagon-motive, the Levide church (Go 77) quite clear that these women were not class society on the meeting with a faith, stone tells us “... son, like his father … on exotic elements in society or even which transferred new and strange one. That was … God (help) the souls of this prostitutes, but instead members of the values”. The leading stratum was afraid of couple” (fig 3.). highest stratum of the local community. being reduced to a lower social level by The Gotlandic picture stones from The interpretation of the wagon as a being buried without gravegoods. But this Levide, Ekeby, Alskog and Grötlingbo medium of transport and as an expression view seems to be rather too simplistic. must be further differentiated into two of vassalage changed slightly to an Proximity of the burials to the church and groups: in some the wagon dominates the interpretation as a carriage to the other position inside the church were of highest scene while in others it is only part of the world, comparable with the ship. The importance. The “pagan revival” is the scene. These different iconographical image of wagons on four Gotlandic wrong expression for a phenomenon, concepts of using the wagon centre stage picture stones has been added to the which could be defined as a or as part of the narrative may even be of group of real objects. “Prunkgräbersitte”. importance in relation to religion. The In recent research the wagons are The meeting between a socially first could be connected with the regarded as representations of pagan stratified culture and an exotic culture of Christian belief while the second refers to mythology, like the story that the heroine high standing encouraged society’s leaders tradition. http://viking.hgo.se 16 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

At the same time it is obvious that the could only look forward to the black pit The wife could be married in a kind of carriage-body burials are widely spread in of Hel”. “contract-marriage” without necessarily medieval Denmark, with usually only a There are even other factors like the having intensive contact with her single such burial at each cemetery. equality of the sexes before God, the value husband. In this case strong economic or Exceptions can only be found at two of the individual, irrespective of fertility, political interests of the families may be cemeteries. It has been suggested that we the belonging to a house, her position in the reason for marriage. The concubine should not distinguish between richer and society. Even a change in attitude towards could have children with her lover, but poorer furnished carriage graves but rather children, where infanticide was forbidden, the children belonged to the father. interpret the female individuals as “leader might have been one of the reasons. Both contract-marriages and the of the cult in a pagan religious context”. These arguments sound quite concubine relationship were heavily If this is the case, the female graves convincing, but there is one problem: attacked by the church, where the ideal of should be looked upon as part of a usually there is no more than one grave a monogamous marriage with children transition-period phenomenon, where the with a cross or crucifix pendant existing in was fulfilled by either marrying the women had a special function in the each cemetery and if we bear in mind the concubine or by begetting children with pagan cult and where their task could “classical pagan” gravegoods like Thor's the wife. have been to prepare society for the hammer and the wagon, favoured at the A special status among the single change of religion. same time, it seems that the reason might women was given to widows and sybils. This thesis might be supported by the be another, or at least a more complicated Living circumstances for widows did not fact that some of the burials are furnished one. necessarily mean a turn for the worse. with Thor’s hammer or cross pendants. In What do we know about the position Inheritance of land was widespread and this context the wagon can not only be of the woman in the Viking Age? Is she a the basis for pious generosity to women in regarded as a part of pagan mythology, free, proud and independent individual or a Christian society. Finally there is the but even as a part of Christian Viking-age an oppressed and powerless one? sybil. She was asked for help in special iconography, where Christ’s journey into Christianity is mainly transferred by males occasions, to give a forecast for the season, Jerusalem might not necessarily have been like bishops, missionaries and priests. But to foretell the future and to tell men other made on a donkey but perhaps on a what was the situation in pagan religion? things they wanted to know. Unlike the wagon drawn by horses. Could women have a position in cult mythical volva, the human sybil did not The use of the wagon by women also religion which allowed them the have direct access to the desired seems to be of high importance during possibility of being among those who had information but had to engage in a magic the eleventh century. A large number of control over the pagan cult and its ritual involving seidr. women are mentioned on the rune stones transfer? Returning to the archaeological record as erectors of bridges. The practical need As pointed out by E.-M. Göransson we it would be useful to discuss knowledge of for building better communication can make a distinction between different which group these commemorated “high- systems for the wagon is connected here types of women in Norse mythology. status” women belonged to. The position with a meritorious act and in the eyes of There is the virgin (mö), the wife, the of the warrior-wife has been pointed out the builder probably even regarded with widow, the concubine (frilla), the slave concerning the wagon-graves without the Christian idea of Christ as pontifex, and the sybil or cunning-woman (völva). solving the riddle that there is a gap in i.e. the conception that the bridge builder will have a place in heaven (fig 4.).

The role of women in a conversion period As the short survey has demonstrated, burials containing wagon-bodies are far from easy solutions. What is the reason for the fact that the wagons occur in both a pagan and Christian context, exclusively spread among women? According to Anne-Sofie Gräslund men had a higher mobility and while travelling they would more easily make contact with Christianity. Women on the other hand were tied to their home. If a mission was stationed at the trading place, “one could expect that the new belief would bear fruit among women”. Birgit Sawyer has pointed especially to the social and religious factors which might have attracted women to Christianity. “The belief in paradise may have filled a gap, especially for women Fig 4. The distribution of wagon-burials (a), picture stones with the image of a wagon who were excluded from Valhall and who (b) and rune stones mentioning women as bridge-builders (c).

17 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 time between the male (early 10th century) and female (middle 10th century) graves. Other positions in society like the old woman, the concubine and the sybil have never been discussed. There is only the material from 2000 Scandinavian rune stone inscriptions that has been thoroughly investigated by Birgit Sawyer. She has focused especially on widows and their social status. This group of individuals makes it possible for us to understand the vital interest in pious actions like bridge building in eleventh century Scandinavia, which would explain the necessity of wagon-graves. But the regular distribution of both pagan and Christian attributes in Viking- age cemeteries, which is quite striking with the exception of three places, could have another reason. We cannot exclude that women had a close contact with religion (not only in the sense of sibyls) making it possible for them to integrate Fig 5. Sawyer’s different zones of inheritance in Scandinavia. a) Situation most Christian elements and thoughts at an restrictive to women, b) Situation a little less restrictive, c) Women more generously early stage in Scandinavian society. The treated. role of a priestess cannot be determined, we know too little about pagan religion. But the archaeological record suggests Öland a high proportion of female disappeared after the Christianization of that special cult functions were not erectors could be observed due to the fact Scandinavia even if they had played a carried out by just anybody but assigned that many of the stones were jointly major part in its success? to certain persons. Since there are still commissioned by men and women (fig hundreds of graves hidden in the ground 5.). In these areas women did not hide The article is part of the contribution ”The and the symbolic role of artefacts is open behind their male relatives. They could Cross goes North: Christian symbols and to many interpretations, this thesis may own and dispose of property and did not Scandinavian women” in Martin Carver turn out to be wide of the mark. But still have to submit to distant male relatives. (ed.), The Age of Conversion in Northern it is time to turn from defining social It was these widowed and single Europe 500-1000 AD. York, forthcoming. trends which are too general and women who took on the role of men. In investigate the role of smaller other words: perhaps widows and single communities and the individual. women had a stronger interest in Further reading The distribution of the different items symbolizing their Christian faith, Gräslund, A.-S. 1996. Kristnandet ur ett with concentrations and blank areas especially in areas where their status was kvinnoperspektiv. In: B. Nilsson (ed.), makes it even clearer that regional regarded as lower (with the exception of Kristnandet i Sverige. Gamla källor och differences must have played an important Gotland). nya perspektiv. Projekt Sveriges role in Viking-Age society. Concerning At the same time the large number of kristnande. Publikationer 5. Uppsala, pp. 313-334. the erection of rune stones, B. Sawyer has graves in early medieval Denmark with a stated that in areas like Denmark, wagon or a Thor’s hammer present us Göransson, E.-M. Y. 1999. Bilder av kvinnor Norway, Småland and Gotland only a with a problem. If we regard the wagon as och kvinnlighet. Genus och kroppsspråk small number were commissioned by a materialization of a phenomenon that is under övergången till kristendomen. Stockholm Studies in Archaeology 18. women to commemorate men. later documented by the raising of bridge- Stockholm. In Uppland, Södermanland and on builder rune stones, the problem could be solved in a chronological way. Tenth Roesdahl, E. & Nordquist, J. 1971. De døde century rune stones in early medieval fra Fyrkat. Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark, About the author Denmark are quite different from pp. 15-32. Jörn Staecker, Associate professor in eleventh century rune stones in Uppland Sawyer, B. 2000. The Viking-Age Rune- Medieval Archaeology, Lund in their inscriptions and images. Stones. Custom and Commemoration in University; PhD. at Kiel University, The status of a widow or a single Early Medieval Scandinavia. Oxford. Germany; Reader in Medieval woman could have been the same in Staecker, J. 1999. Rex regum et dominus Archaeology 1994-1999; Senior Denmark, but it was expressed in burials dominorum. Die wikingerzeitlichen Kreuz- researcher in European Archaeology rather than on rune stones. Or could it be und Kruzifixanhänger als Ausdruck der 2000-2002. that these women with wagons and pagan Mission in Altdänemark und Schweden. E-mail: [email protected] symbols belonged to a different group in Lund Studies in Medieval Archaeology 23. society, like the sybils? A group which Stockholm. http://viking.hgo.se 18 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 The Gotlandic farm – a history of 2000 years By Dan Carlsson On the island of Gotland, situated in the middle of the Baltic Sea, the traditional form of settlement during Viking Age was the single farm. There are no traces of villages or hamlets as far back as the 1st century AD. Investigations carried out during the last twenty years has clearly shown that there is an extensive continuation in the One of the grave fields belonging to the Fjäle farm. It can be dated to around settlement pattern, meaning 550–800 AD and consists of 65 buried persons, 40 adults and 25 children. The excavation clearly reveals a social structure among the people there, in that the farm that the farms we see today people were buried in the graves, and another group of persons lay outside the actually have their roots as far graves. Photo Dan Carlsson back as the time around the birth of Christ. it is possible to follow the Fjäle farm’s is not explainable. We can, however, history for a period of 1200 years. The confirm that the farmhouse was burnt Though, in most cases it is rather difficult farm was established around AD 100 and down. It seems to have been done on to follow this long line of settlement continued to be in use until about 1360. purpose, since relatively few larger artefacts history, from prehistoric time to our days, During the pre-Christian era the farm were found during excavation. The era was depending most of all of the last centuries inhabitants were buried in three grave- a time of turmoil on Gotland, not least in huge changes of landscape and settlement. fields, located south of the buildings. connection with the Danish King Valdemar In some rare cases, where the farm has been However certain individuals are buried Atterdag’s conquest of Gotland in 1361 abandoned early, we do have a unique along the roads that connect Fjäle with the and it is not entirely unlikely that the farm’s chance to investigate a farm in more detail. rest of the community. The area of abandonment can be related to that. One of these examples, and the best- cultivated fields increased known one at present, is the deserted farm continuously An example of historical settlement of Fjäle in the parish of Ala in eastern through The results from the investigations in Fjäle Gotland. Extensive archaeological and the give a clear indication that the farm should cultural geographic investigations over a aper be regarded as a normal farm during that number of years have produced a -P time period, both by the size of the fields comprehensive material that provides an and the kinds of artefacts found on the excellent illustration of an Iron Age – farm. Area-wise the farm can be thought to medieval farm in rural Gotland. CCCyears, from at the have had about 50 ha of land (fields and The farm is situated in the southern part beginning covering an area of about 1.5 ha, meadows), which is relatively large of Ala parish, quite isolated from the rest of increasing to about 10 ha at the end of the compared to other farms on Gotland the settlement. Thanks to its isolated farm’s history. around 1700. The field area is reckoned to situation, the area has not been subjected to During the 12th century a smaller farm 10 ha, which lies in the upper scale in building, cultivation or road building was separated from the main farm and set comparison with other existing farms in the during latter times. Traces of the farm have, up in the northern end of the property. neighbourhood during the 17th century. in other words, been preserved until our This separation has many parallels with Even in the oldest part of the farm, that time and the area is now a well-kept other farms on Gotland, and can be seen as is the Iron-age house, it is possible to meadow. Archaeological and scientific the expansion that occurred during that discern that the farm and the people living investigations have examined the buildings time. there had a certain status. In both an Iron- as well as the graves and development of In the mid-14th century Fjäle is age house, and the fields belonging to the the countryside. abandoned, both the main farm and the oldest era, we have found Roman silver small northern farm. The coins found in coins (denarius). In total six Roman denarii Fjäle – a 1200-year old farm the younger farmhouse indicate that this were found during excavations, of which Through the archaeological investigations happens about 1360. Why it is abandoned one came from a child’s grave in one of the

19 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 grave-fields south of the buildings. Besides the coins there were also several pieces of very rare glass, seldom seen in Sweden. One of them was a piece of red- violet glass, which is only found in a very few examples in Scandinavia, and there were also four pieces of a glass horn from the 1st century, the only one of its kind on Gotland. Finds from the grave-fields show that even during the late Iron Age the farm cannot be regarded as a poor fringe farm, but rather as belonging to the category of well-to-do farms. During investigations of the 13th century medieval manor-house remains of a tall, narrow glass of the type originating from the Rhine-area and a relatively large The most recent manor at Fjäle, a 7 x 10 metre house. Coins date it to about 1250 to amount of stoneware pottery imported 1360 AD. The house consists of one big room with a smaller room at the entrance on from the southern Baltic area were found. the gable. In the corner of the bigger room is the combined fireplace and stove. There All in all these signs would seem to was a lime stone slab on top of the fireplace as a mantelpiece. indicate that the farm should be regarded as Photo Dan Carlsson quite a normal farm for the Viking Age - Middle Ages. The only exception from a normal farm is that Fjäle would be reliable figures, but by combining a the situation. Here I would like to point abandoned for reasons we cannot number of different sources it should be out three possible sources that can be used. determine today. possible to arrive at an approximate One angle of approach is the graves, to estimation of the likely population on the the extent they exist. Another is to calculate People at the farm farm during the Middle Ages. the number of houses at a given time, Calculating the number of people on a The written sources from early Middle which should give a picture of how many farm during Viking Age – early Middle Ages indicate that a normal farmer could households there were on the farm. A third Ages on Gotland involves certain be expected to have a number of thralls on possibility is to calculate the arable acreage difficulties, especially since we lack written his farm. Naturally we cannot calculate available at a certain time, and by sources from that time. We are forced, in exactly how many there might have been, estimating the probable yields making a other words, to use different kinds of but it may be supposed that the freed rough estimate of how many people could substitute sources to make an estimate. thralls, when they became free, be supported by that area. This assumes, of Here we are dealing with two kinds of corresponded to the hired farmhands and course, that the main part of the food sources. On one hand we attempt to maids. From later sources one gets the supply came from their own farm, which is calculate backward from more recent impression that it was usual for each farm not always so certain on Gotland during a sources, mostly the oldest land registry to have one or two farmhands and one or period when trade and commerce were at a books and census registers. On the other, it two maids. premium. is a matter of trying to calculate the This gives us a certain lead in possible number of people from the field interpreting a possible social grouping of The Graves material. It should be observed that it is the people on a Gotlandic farm during the The prehistoric graves at Fjäle are naturally impossible to arrive at completely early Middle Ages. What becomes clearly concentrated in three grave fields located apparent is that we can see two groups, south of the settlement, as well as a number possibly three: the landowners (farmers), of graves spread along the roads connecting landless (harvest hands, crofters) and Fjäle with the rest of the community. thralls. This division of three is clearly Attributing these spread-out graves to Fjäle evident in the Gutalagen (the Gotlandic is probably quite certain considering that Law, written down around AD 1220). In the closest settlement, prehistoric as well as the law there is an additional grouping of historic, lies several kilometres away. people that cuts more crosswise. The law One of the grave fields at Fjäle has been makes a clear distinction between completely investigated, making it possible Gotlanders and non-Gotlanders, i.e. people to conduct an osteological analysis and coming from outside Gotland, including estimate the size of the underlying the Swedish mainland. population. Dating the grave field stretches What traces can we find of possible from about 550 AD to 800 AD. The social stratification at Fjäle and how should investigation has shown that the grave field we interpret the situation during the early contains a total of 65 persons, 40 adults A beautiful and well-preserved signet Middle Ages? To begin with it must be and 25 children. The number of persons ring from the 13th century manor, stated that we have no direct physical traces alive at the same time has been estimated to decorated with the face of a man, of people, since they are in all likelihood 10–16 persons, including 3–5 children. It maybe the face of Christ. buried in the graveyard at Ala church. But is likely that the number of children was Photo Roland Hejdström. indirectly we can create a certain picture of somewhat low. These numbers would http://viking.hgo.se 20 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 suggest that here we are dealing with 2 The third house has not been currents that came that way. In other words households, if we assume that the investigated. It lies in the western edge of we can conclude that the farm was as active population then, as in the Middle Ages, the settlement site, quite near the edge of in the European trends taking place in the was built up based on the family. The the cliff. The construction is reminiscent of Baltic region as the townsmen of Visby investigation of the graves indicates a clear the large farmhouse that was studied, were. social grouping as well, in so far as one can although not just as big. We don’t know In Fjäle there are several phenomena suspect a division between the farm people how old the building is, but considering its that clearly indicate a level of prosperity on and another group of persons. Those I call construction, I feel that it is probably about the farm and the question arises of how this farm people are buried in clearly shaped prosperity could be achieved, or in other graves, usually man and woman in the words, what products people could sell to same grave. Consistently the man has his accumulate the luxury we can perceive on weapons with him, and the woman wears a Of the more fascinating the farm. It seems convenient to assume traditional set of jewellery for the era. objects from the Iron-Age that these were agricultural and forestry Nearly all the graves contain dogs. In house in Fjäle are four products, since it is difficult to imagine several of the graves there are also one or fragments of a glass anything else. However it is more difficult several infants. drinking horn. These to point out exactly which wares they Besides these graves there are also a kind of might be. Possibly there are some answers number of individuals who are buried on drinking in the land registry book from 1653. It lists the edge of the more traditional graves. As horns are all the things that people earned money a rule these persons have no objects with very rare in a from. In Ala and the neighbouring parishes them, with the occasional exception of a Scandinavian people made money in the same way as in simple knife, a comb or a few beads. This context, and the Garde Ting according to the land gives a strong impression that we are the pieces registry book, i.e. “from tar, beams and the dealing with a group of people who could found at Fjäle sale of other material”. In Halla ting, which be called thralls or slaves. It is interesting to reveal that this first was very similar to Ala in terms of the note that the graves scattered along the known example landscape, “people earned an income from roads that we investigated also contained from Gotland was of the sale of grain, tar, beams and other individuals lacking objects, with a few very high quality. timber”. exceptions. The glass horn had If we transfer this to Fjäle farm and its probably been If we summarise the early Viking period isolated location in a well-forested area it is manufactured in grave material it can be stated that we are likely that the farm’s profits were from the the Rhine area. dealing with an obvious social stratification sale of forest products, but also from grain Drawing Elsebet on the farm in the form of two classes, the Morville. considering the extent of the farm’s arable landowners – farmers on one hand, and the land. These sales must certainly have thralls or slaves on the other. The yielded an economic profit that could be osteological investigation of the grave field spent on imported luxury articles. In this also indicates that the population of this way a picture appears of a farm and time probably corresponds to two the same age as the its inhabitants who despite their households. forenamed farmhouse. This means isolated location were influenced that we obviously have two farmhouses in to a high degree by European trends The Dwelling Houses use simultaneously. The centrally situated in the Baltic area and who were actively On the farmyard there are three dwelling farmhouse was clearly the Fjäle farmer’s involved in the currents of the time. houses whose construction (stone dwelling house. But what was the use of foundation and fireplace) would indicate a the other one? I can see two possibilities, medieval dating. Two of these houses have either it is a case of sharing the farm, which been investigated. In one case it is a would mean that there were two farmers on question of a relatively small building that the place, or the other building was meant can be dated by find objects to the 12th or for the domestic servants or thralls. early 13th centuries. It was presumably the If we add up the results of the analysis of predecessor to the later larger dwelling the dwelling houses it seems a reasonable house that is the building that can be interpretation that there was two farm About the author designated as the main farmhouse. This was households on the farmyard during the Dan Carlsson is associate professor at 7 x 10 meters and contained rich finds. In Middle Ages plus a smaller habitation to Gotland University College and project total there were 1200 objects registered the north where the workers (thralls, leader for Viking Heritage as well as inside or in connection to the building. servants, crofters) lived. for the excavations of the Viking-Age This building contained both imported harbour and trading place at Fröjel, pottery and a glass container. Over the The Fjäle Farm – a summary Gotland. He has contributed two fireplace there was also a well-carved The farm was probably made up of two monographs and several articles to mantelpiece in hard limestone decorated households during the Viking Age – the CCC-project. He is one of the with a flower pattern. The building also Middle Ages with an additional number of senior staff members at the Gotland Center for Baltic Studies, Gotland had a central position in the farmyard and thralls or domestic servants. Furthermore University. gives a strong impression of being a rather the find material shows clearly that the rich building. It can be dated to about people on the farm were in direct contact Email: [email protected] 1250-1360 AD. with Visby as well as with the international

21 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Vasalles or seniores? The old nobility and new power structures in post-conquest Estonia

Prehistoric districts of Estonia

By Heiki Valk society has been egalitarian. The seniores as communal centres for defence purposes and meliores have been regarded as and under collective ownership, but more representatives and war leaders, not as as power centres connected with the social Estonia was conquered and nobility with hereditary power. elite – seniores and meliores. Christianised by German and In the 1990s new views of prehistoric The usage of hillforts gives evidence of Danish crusaders in society appeared. Now, on the basis of new power consolidation in post-Viking theoretical approaches and the re- Estonia. In the 11th century several small 1208–1227. The conquest also interpretation of hillforts and stone graves, hillforts from the Viking Age were meant the end of Iron Age and it is regarded as deserted. The process of power the beginning of the Middle consolidation can be clearly observed in Ages. What happened to the the surroundings of Viljandi, the main centre and most important prehistoric fort old native nobility after the Paper of Sakala district. Thus, in the mid-12th conquest? - century the hillfort of Naanu a distance of 10 km from it was abandoned. Somewhat largelyCCC non-egalitarian. As the number of later, but still before the German conquest, Nobility in late prehistoric Estonia stone graves is not large enough to account the hillfort of Sinialliku, 7 km from Written data about the nobility of for the whole population, they are regarded Viljandi was also deserted. Evidently, the prehistoric Estonia is limited to that found as grave monuments of the nobility and/or leaders of these local centres were the losers in the chronicle of Henry of Livonia who “higher middle class” rather than the in the struggle for power. mentions the leaders of Estonians as common people. Evidently, the latter The stratification of prehistoric society meliores and seniores. The traditional followed some other burial tradition. Also is also reflected in recent finds from treatment of the Estonian prehistoric hillforts are no longer interpreted so much Viljandi. There, 130 m from the hillfort, http://viking.hgo.se 22 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 on a small hill with steep slopes, an castles of Agelinde and Kullamaa– in fact, every year from the 11th until the first half intensive inhabitation layer was found. The prehistoric Estonian hillforts. As a result of of the 14th century. At the same time the relative height of ca. 30 m and impressive the peace treaty of Stensby in 1238 (2 years blacksmiths also used the tiny hillfort of views over the lake and the surroundings before the Order of Swordbrothers was Paatsa in the vicinity. Probably, iron enable interpretation of the place as the defeated in the battle of Saule by the production was forbidden on the island site of a fortified manor of a local Lithuanians), Harjumaa and Virumaa were after the fall of the uprising of 1343/45. nobleman. The manor, founded in the 2nd delivered to Denmark and Järvamaa to the half of the 12th century, was destroyed by new, Livonian branch of the Teutonic Southern Estonia fire in course of the conquest, most likely Order. From southern Estonia there is almost no in 1211. German crossbow bolts evince In spite of the power changes, at least data about the preservation of Estonians’ this dating. From the cultural layer two 10% of the vassals of northern Estonia can autonomy and the involvement of the old pendants, representing different ideologies be identified by their names as Estonians nobility in the vassal system. The land – a cross and a wolf fang – were found in 1241. The old nobility preserved its surrendered – Sakala in 1223, Ugandi in close to each other. position also in Läänemaa. In the same 1224 – after suppressing the uprising year the elders of Läänemaa are mentioned which began with the killing or The conquest and the nobility as witnesses to the peace treaty between imprisonment of all the Germans. From 1208–1227 in the course of fierce Saaremaa and the Order. In Ugandi, the core area for the fights, Estonia was gradually forced, The preservation of local autonomy in bishopric of Tartu, the bishop divided the district by district, to surrender to German North and West Estonia in the 13th land between 4 magnate vassals who and Danish crusaders and accept century is evinced also by archaeological probably enfeoffed it in turn to their Christianity. When the conquered land data which indicates the continuous use of subordinates of German origin. In the was divided between the Danish king, the some prehistoric hillforts: Varbola in Order lands, due to the structure of the Order of the Swordbrothers and the Harjumaa, Purtse and probably also Pada military organisation, vassals were not bishoprics of Tartu and Ösel–Wiek, in Virumaa. The leading role of the local needed. The lands were governed from medieval models of society and nobility is reflected by the lack of castles which were later joined by Order corresponding power structures were also constructional innovations of “European” manors as economic centres. introduced. character; the fortifications are still of loose Enough reason for mistrusting the Although a large part of the old nobility limestone slabs, without the use of bricks South Estonian nobility had caused the was killed in the battles, some of it still or mortar. treacherous murders of the Germans in survived. What was its role in the new 1223. Differently from the South society? There were probably great regional Saaremaa Estonians, however, the people of Virumaa differences, depending on the conditions After the conquest especially large and Järvamaa had sent their priests intact of subjection – hardest for South Estonian autonomy was preserved in Saaremaa to the Danes in Tallinn. lands of Sakala and Ugandi which were (Ösel) where new authorities were accepted There is still one exception in southern subdued after total military defeat in 1223 without any major fights on the island. Estonia where archaeology indicates the and 1224 –, the landlord and the reliability The autonomy of the island and the preserved political autonomy of the natives of the local nobility, i.e. on its behaviour positions of the native nobility are and the local nobility’s involvement in the during the conquest period. expressed in the treaties concluded vassal system. The excavations of Silvia between the island and the Livonian Order Laul in Siksali in the most southeasterly Continental Northern and Western in 1241 and 1255 which also mentions the corner of the country have shown the Estonia names of 8 local leaders. The traditional preservation of pre-Christian burial In continental northern and western treatment of Saaremaa’s history has been, customs even into the 15th century. Estonia sharp contradictions existed that until the big uprising of 1343/45, the Thus, men were buried with a spear and between the Germans and the Danes egalitarian model of society persisted. an axe and the opposite orientation of during the conquest period. To relieve the Marika Mägi’s recent investigations different sexes – a custom of non-Christian situation, a buffer state directly based on the study of Late Iron Age origin – was also observed until that time. subordinated to the Pope, was created in cemeteries have shown that the society was The special status of a man buried in the th the lands under dispute – Läänemaa, already stratified in late prehistoric times. 13 century is evinced by a sword with Järvamaa and Virumaa. On the basis of close connections between Latin inscriptions. As its hilt was made of In 1225 the Pope’s legate Wilhelm of early medieval manors and Iron Age bone, the sword was probably not a real Modena sent all the Germans out of settlement units, she has also suggested weapon but a gift of symbolic value given Virumaa and appointed “elders and judges continuity from Iron Age nobility to early by the Order authorities to the leader of into all parishes” from the local nobility. medieval vassals. the border community. Probably, the vassals of the Pope were Judging by archaeological data, it is The special status of Siksali region is mostly of Estonian origin. Written sources possible to suppose post-conquest use of also shown by attempts to build a hillfort th speak of the Estonians’ support for and the hillforts of Kärla Lihulinn and Pöide. as late as the end of the 13 or the first th attachment to papal power. In the uprising of 1261 the Osilians half of the 14 century. Evidently, the The Church state even existed twice – defended themselves in a fort in Kaarma. unusual autonomy of the area was a result 1225–1227 and 1230–1233 – but in both Saaremaa’s autonomy is also expressed of its peripheral location at the Russian cases was destroyed by the Order. In 1233 in the development of local iron border. one hundred of the Pope’s vassals were production. Jüri Peets’ research has killed in Tallinn. The Order conquered the revealed a central iron-smelting site at Tuiu Different course of cultural processes lands and destroyed the Church state where several tons of iron were produced Regional differences in the status of the

23 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 local nobility in new power structures are also evinced by the different course of cultural processes. By the end of the 13th century burial customs and fashions in North and West Estonia had taken on a rather “medieval” character, finds disappear from the graves and also ornament types based on Iron Age traditions, largely vanish. The acceptance of cultural innovations was evidently caused by the presence of native noblemen in the new power structures: through its authority the nobility also mediated new ideas among common people. In South Estonia, on the contrary, in the 13th century no signs of “Europeanisation” of the burial customs and fashions exist, except for those immediately connected with the conquest and Christianisation. The lack of innovations can be explained by the fact that after the conquest the local old elite was not included as vassals in the new power structures. Having lost its status in the new society, the South Estonian Estonia after 1238. nobility remained in opposition and also did not act as mediator of “European” native origin were nothing but vassals with What about the part of the native cultural innovations. all corresponding rights and duties – nobility who was not involved in the new although with a strange language and power structures? Parallel to the birth of Two status groups habits and maybe somewhat mistrusted. manors as new administrative and After the conquest the local nobility was From the popular viewpoint, the economic units, the old elite or their divided into two clearly defined subgroups: authority of the native local landlords, in descendants ceased to be personally those involved in the vassal system and terms of preserving ethnocultural identity, responsible for fulfilling the collective those excluded from it. In spite of their could still be based on prehistoric duties: respective control functions were different status, the two status-groups still traditions. In such conditions, the vassals transferred to the manors. had much in common. who had preserved some of their former Probably, in the new context some of The real government of the land by new rights were probably regarded as “ours”. the former native noblemen were given a authorities was probably based on the old The attitudes and respect towards the new status as manor officials with coercing administration system, at least during the vassals of native identity, however, could and overseeing functions but most melted first post-conquest decades but perhaps depend greatly on the stage of taxation for in among common peasants. In some also longer. Throughout the country it was “private”, i.e. their own purposes. cases, however, oral tradition about how probably just the old nobility – no matter some Estonian peasant families were whether vassals or not – who were The fate of the native nobility descended from the old nobility lasted responsible in their former areas of power What was the historical fate of the native until the 19th and 20th centuries. for fulfilling the duties accepted with the noblemen in the new society? As a result of subjection treaties, as well as new marriages with members of other, non- About the author obligations: collecting taxes, organising the indigenous vassal families, as well as Heiki Valk is the head of Archaeology military service and finding people for effected by the linguistic and cultural building castles, roads and churches. Center of the University of Tartu, demands of the “status environment”, the Estonia. His research period stretches However, different social status involved Estonian vassals gradually lost their from the final Post-Viking Iron Age different rights. Those who became vassals ethnocultural identity and became until Early Modern times. The main were enfeoffed with lands and received the Germanised. field of interests concerns cultural right to a share of the taxation revenues. Probably it was the large uprising of processes and the history of mentality The share of the other group, on the other 1343/45 that put an end to the Estonians’ and religion, as reflected in the hand, remained limited with personal control over the strongholds and gave a archaeological record. For opening the responsibility for fulfilling collective powerful impetus to the fall of vassals with meaning of material remains also folkloric and ethnological parallels are obligations. native identity. The vassals who being used. Heiki Valk was a member What was the social status of the participated in the uprising were killed or of the CCC project. His PhD thesis Estonian nobility involved in the feudal lost their status. The others who remained Rural Cemeteries of Southern Estonia structures? Undoubtedly, it must have neutral, due to the general changes in 1225-1800 AD is published within the differed greatly, depending on the atmosphere and sharply awakened mistrust series CCC-papers. viewpoint. of the natives, probably soon lost their E-mail: [email protected] For the foreign landlords the vassals of ethnocultural identity. http://viking.hgo.se 24 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Viking Longboat Races 2001 World Championships

On Saturday 11th August, the Viking Longboat Races 2001 World Championships were held at Peel in the Isle of Man. Despite poor weather conditions, the Scottish Life International sponsored event was great entertainment for both competitors and spectators. A strong breeze assisted the teams in rowing the longboats down Peel Harbour to the buoy, but caused difficulties when rowing back. Teams competed in mens, womens or mixed team categories with ten rowers per boat. Each boat was also supplied with an experienced coxswain to steer the boat and shout encouragement when needed. Thirty-six teams participated in the mixed race which was won by “Northern Young Farmers Mixed” with Nearly there! “Manannan’s Marauders” finish the race in a respectable 9th position. a time of 3 minutes 30.56 seconds. Of Photos: Manx National Heritage

the eleven ladies teams competing, “Central and Southern Young Farmers” won the women’s race with a time of 4 minutes 11.9 seconds. Sixteen teams battled in the men’s race which was won by “Oar Inspired by Sweeney” in a time of 3 minutes 25.25 seconds. The races first started in 1963 but have been World Championships since 1994. Teams from all over the world have competed in the Championships including Alaska. Next year’s races will be on 13th July 2002 and any teams interested in competing should book their places well in advance. Further details will be available on www.peelvikinglongboat.com from early Spring and the event will be listed on www.gov.im/tourism/Events

Sue Palmer, Manx National Heritage

The Manx National Heritage team “Manannan’s Marauders” arrive at Peel.

25 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Under the Hammer Part 1

By Michael Cunningham lightning flashes – accompany the community and the very environment process. Such axes or adzes were used in in which they found themselves. Mjöllnir: an enduring symbol the felling of trees and again here an association may have been drawn What of Mjöllnir’s construction? of honour and one which between the effect of a lightning strike According to Snorri, clouds of blood in commands recognition among against a tree and the tool which would, Brokk’s eyes determined the forged the folk of northern Europe through human effort, produce a form of Mjöllnir, yet it was a form that and beyond. Its great wielder, similar result, that of the felling of a would crush and shatter. Loki’s wager fiórr (Thor), continues to tree. spawned the hammer and when: receive admiration and respect It may also be of interest to note that excavations at Talheim, Germany, “...he gave Thor the hammer and said he as his vigour thunders would be able to strike as through the pages of heavily as he liked, whatever the history, but how far target, and the hammer would back does the legacy not fail, and if he threw it at of the hammer/axe something, it would never miss, travel? and never fly so far that it would not find its way back to his hand, and if he liked, it was In Post-glacial south so small that it could be kept Scandinavia, for instance, inside his shirt. But there was the inhabitants were this defect that the end of the confronted by an handle was rather short. Their environment dominated by decision was that the hammer forest trees and this was the best out of all the heightened the need for the precious things and provided the axe, being further exasperated greatest defence against frost- by the later transition from giants...” (Faulkes 1987). birch and pine to tougher and often thicker deciduous trees. fiórr was certainly revered The material used for the as literary and archaeological construction of such tools accounts attest to the fact that included flint, stone, antler temples were built to him in and bone – with flint Sweden, Norway, Iceland and providing the hardest and Ireland, the two most well sharpest objects. known being Uppsala and During flint working a Rock carvings, Bronze Age, from Bohuslän, Sweden. Throndheim. core would be struck with a Another famous and well- hammerstone thereby producing flakes exposed a Neolithic mass grave in furnished temple stood in Dublin on or larger fragments which could then be which thirty-five skulls had been the river Liffey’s north bank and close further worked into objects such as an fractured by shoe-last axes used as to a forest sacred to fiórr. The temple axe or arrowheads (this method of maces (the tool was also a very practical survived until 994 AD when it was production is known as “knapping” and weapon). despoiled by minions of an Irish king. is still practised today, although mainly Another factor of such tools/ Within such temples images of fiórr by ethnoarchaeologists). When the weapons, I feel, is that they should not could be found in various sizes and hammerstone struck the core sparks necessarily be interpreted as merely postures with Mjöllnir ever present. would also be an inevitable outcome. extensions of men’s limbs but rather a At Throndheim it has been alluded I would suggest that this may then projection of their mind. The to that there was an image of Öku-fiórr be viewed in association with the recognition of a need for subsequent which was constructed in such a working of a blacksmith as he uses his construction and method of the use of manner that when the chariot was hammer to construct tools and weapons such tools/weapons would determine pulled, by means of an attached cord, it upon an anvil, again sparks – tiny the user’s life and that of his produced the noise of thunder as it was

26 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 rolled forward. Certainly in the ritual and several forms, such as the strokes, nor anyone who could survive environment this may be viewed as a perforated mattock-head, made from them. Shields, helmets, everything he defining part of the ritual whereby the the base of stag antler. A progressive drove at with his oak cudgel were crushed image of Öku-fiórr became animated stage saw a new form constructed from on impact, nor were bodily size or muscle through the medium of sound, that of a section midway up the antler and any protection. Consequently victory thunder. perforated through the stump of the would have gone to the gods, had not A further indication of the trez tine, which in turn formed a useful Høther, whose line of men had bent employment of noise in a ritual context socket for the handle. inwards, flown forward and rendered the may be found in Saxo as he recounts There are also a significant number club useless by lopping off the handle” when Magnus Nilsson entered fiórr's of finds of ornamented deer antler such (Davidson & Fisher 1996) temple in Sweden in 1125 AD and as at Skalstrup and Kalundborg, removed a number of models of Zealand, which display In fiórr's confrontation with Hrungir Mjöllnir: anthropomorphic designs accompanied the giant carried a whetstone which, by geometric motifs such as chevrons when shattered by Mjöllnir, a fragment “He took care to bring home certain and barbed lines. Here, I suggest, such of the whetstone lodged in fiórr's head hammers of unusual weight, which they artefacts may be seen to have been despite, as Snorri relates, the distracted call Jupiter's, used by the island men in embraced on a personal and/or ritual attempt of the seeress, Groa, to remove their antique faith. For the men of old, it. The whetstone was commonly used desiring to comprehend the causes of as a sharpener for edged weapons but if thunder and lightning by means of the struck with a lithic or metallic object it similitude of things, took hammers great would emit sparks assisting in the and many of bronze, with which they cultivation of fire. Hammer amulet, believed the crashing of the sky might be The association of the whetstone made, thinking that great and violent Viking Age, from Scania, Sweden. with fiórr may be indicative of this noises might very well be imitated by the process, a human replication of smith's toil, as it were. But Magnus, in his lightning and its effect upon contact zeal for Christian teaching and dislike to with a combustible material. A paganism, determined to spoil the temple malleable image of fiórr may have had a of its equipment and Jupiter of his tokens fragment of whetstone placed into it in the place of his sanctity. And even now along with a striker to symbolise the the Swedes consider him guilty of sacrilege kindling elements of fire available to and a robber of spoil belonging to the man and, in a fashion, their greater gods” (Davidson & Fisher 1996). context. Their primary function thereby form within the God. being refined and enriched by A whetstone sceptre topped with a The Saami shaman are also known to ornamentation which added a greater young male stag was amongst the have used hammers to strike their definition to the object in question. drums in religious ceremonies, thereby seventh century royal treasures of the heathen kings of East Anglia recovered heightening the ritual environment The exploits involving órr and fi from the ship burial at Sutton Hoo, through which a trance state may be Mjöllnir are well documented in the Suffolk. The presence of such may have entered into. Decisions were reached by lore and familiar to many, therefore I served as a physical reminder of the consulting the shamans’ drums. The do not wish to recount such in length royal lines perceived connection with sound of the drum told the shaman in respect of this subject. Suffice it to the Gods in the distant past. where food could be located and say Mjöllnir was used by fiórr as a allowed him to see into the past and the weapon, often thrown, the stunting of future. the handle may have contributed To be continued in next issue. The likeness of some Saami hammers towards balance and control during were, in the past, compared to that of flight. Mjöllnir by early scholars though of late We have previously seen Snorri’s this has been questioned in that the account of the happenings by which About the author Saami hammers where primarily Mjöllnir was formed; Saxo also relates a Michael Cunningham is an constructed from reindeer antler and version, herein Mjöllnir is described as a archaeologist living and working in that the inherent shape of the antler was club: Ireland. His main interest is naturally hammer-shaped. Yet I would prehistoric Scandinavia. He is not hasten to discount the earlier presently studying the Viking Age “...Thor shattered all their shield-defences and its subsequent impact on North premise as the antlers may have been with the terrific swings of his club, calling Western Europe. chosen due to their resultant shape and on his enemies to attack him as much as E-mail: [email protected] they too were ritual implements. his comrades to support him. There was The antler also provided a useful tool no armour, which could stand up to his http://viking.hgo.se 27 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

Viking Heritage proudly presents a short story written by Curriculum Vitae José Fernando Blanco a Viking enthusiast from Spain

It is so kind of you to listen to my story. I hope meat totally regenerated on his bones. was a moment when Odin assumed he had I won’t waste too much of your time. I’ll have But when I was about to cook the boar, I gathered enough soldiers to defend Asgardr. to use some names that you may find difficult discovered I was missing some information. Then he stopped recruiting and endeavoured to pronounce, but don’t worry, there won’t be Thus, when a valkyrie entered the kitchen a to deter human interest in his banquet. This no many. moment later, I took the chance to ask her: doubt explains why those frightful Northern To help locate my story, let me start by “How many people must I feed with this nations, who ravaged Europe in the past, now saying that humans (such as you and, at least boar?” live in peace, and why their heroes no longer for the time being, also me) live here, in what “Don’t bother about that,” she answered. are fierce fighters, but rather tennis players, pop I’ll call middle land or Midgardr. The gods and “Just prepare the meat and cut it in big singers or race car drivers. their kin inhabit Asgardr, while the evil portions. We’ll come to fetch the plates when ... creatures are in Utgardr. You might understand they're ready and inform you when no more After this interlude, I will go on with my story. it better if I called them Earth, Heaven and are needed.” On my second day in Valhöll I had enough Hell, respectively; but to tell the truth, they Obediently, I went on with my task. time to explore the vast storeroom; thus I was aren’t exactly the same. Although the supreme god had put in me the able to improve my recipe. I didn't find it There is a great hall in Asgardr called Valhöll knowledge of a first-class chef, I really lacked necessary to strive for exquisiteness: after all, I (the House of the Dead). This is the venue of the time to do my best that day. Therefore, my was preparing army food. Consequently, I the banquet of the supreme god, Odin. That first recipe in Valhöll was, let me say, rather simply added some spice and, thinking of the name, at least, won’t sound unknown to you. simple: wild boar roasted in his own juices, and aesthetics, a little parsley to embellish the The guests of this banquet are the einherjar, that’s all. dishes. warriors from Midgardr that have died in When the meat was ready I started to cut it But then came the third day, and the fourth, battle. The valkyries pick them up from the as I had been told. From its size I estimated I and each of those days I added a little change battleground and take them to Valhöll, where, would get some fifty big portions, but when a to the recipe I had used in the previous meal. so to speak, they are resurrected. They spend valkyrie came in and told me it was enough, I After all, embellishments were my only their days there fighting, and their nights eating had prepared no less than a thousand dishes. weapons to fight the daily routine. The and drinking. They drink mostly wine and ... diversity in my storeroom helped me play this beer, and some of them also hydromel, a Before I go on with the story, I think it’s time game for centuries, without ever having to beverage for women which the valkyries call to tell you a few things about every day life in repeat a formula. Believe it or not, I still nectar of the gods. Their food is the meat of a Valhöll. The House has five hundred and forty remember each and every one of my recipes, as wild boar prepared for them daily by gates, through which the einherjar walk out well as the exact order in which they were Andhrimnir, Odin’s cook. each and every morning. As I have already said, created. All the above is documented in thousands of they spend their whole day fighting each other. Those banalities helped me make my books. You can even find it on the Internet. When the sun dies, their injuries (even the existence somewhat more endurable. My rude Later I will give you the address of a Web site I mortal ones) heal instantly, and they reenter the guests never commented on the changes I have prepared myself. There you will easily be House, bellowing hair-raising hymns of war. introduced in the menu, probably because they able to expand this information with other They sit on benches around the table, swallow never even noticed them. Nor did the valkyries, interesting data, such as, for example, how the up their boar, and drink their fill. Then they who restricted themselves to coming into the world was created, some of Odin’s surnames, sleep a deep, sound slumber on those very same kitchen, picking up the dishes, taking them to and the different kinds of beings living in benches until the sun rises again, when they the tables, and coming back to the kitchen, Asgardr. walk back to the battlefield. over and over and over until Odin and all the What you won’t find, neither there nor Daily fights are not meant to be only a einherjar had been served. anywhere else, are the recipes that Andhrimnir pastime, they are also an exercise to maintain And thus, as I have stated, the centuries employs to cook the boar he serves daily to the the physical prowess of the einherjar, who, came to pass, each one resembling the former, einherjar; but I do know those recipes. when Ragnarök (something like your until, that is, one year ago, more or less. Because I am Andhrimnir. Appocalypse) arrives, will have to face the evil ...... forces coming from Utgardr to invade the gods’ Not surprisingly, a time arrived when it became Odin, a great expert in magic, created the premises. I have the feeling that you don’t take more and more difficult to find a new House of the Dead to host his einherjar. To this part too seriously, so I will spare you the combination of ingredients to cook my boar feed them he formed a kitchen with an details. (always observing the laws of gastronomy). abundant storeroom. On the fire he placed a You might feel that the warriors’ lives are a Finally, one morning I had to face the gigantic boiling-kettle, and in the kettle a little dull. If so, just imagine mine, alone all inevitable: the possibilities afforded by my suitably huge boar, ready to kill and cook. A day in my kitchen: first, kill and cook the boar; storeroom were completely exhausted. moment later I appeared. next cut it in thousands of pieces and serve it Surely, nothing prevented me from I immediately put my hands to work, as if I on the plates; and finally, completely repeating any of my previous recipes. The had been there all my life. Killing the boar was exhausted, lie on the kitchen floor; and do it einherjar wouldn’t have noticed, and at any rate easier than could have been expected, provided day after day, and century after century. they wouldn’t have cared at all. But I did care. I that the poor animal lacked any survival At the beginning, the number of believed that would mean surrendering to the instinct; he probably had the intuition that he commensals increased every day, whilst the routine I had so long fought. would come back to life next morning, his valkyries kept bringing new warriors; but there There was only an alternative: I needed to

http://viking.hgo.se 28 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

change the main element. In other words, I had despisingly and asked: Throughout all these months I have gotten to do without the boar. Logistically that was “Who are you and why have you come to accustomed to a really good life, but I am not a problem, since the storeroom had huge Utgardr?” afraid the end of this strange dream is near. reserves of all kinds of meats and fish. But I introduced myself as Odin’s cook and The wicked god, in short, made a modern would the einherjar like that? And, moreover, added that the valkyries had brought me by man out of me, which allowed me to get to how would the irascible Odin react? force. know, among other things, the Internet. Finally, my determination to innovate was “And why has my dearest brother punished Thanks to that I discovered some aspects of life stronger than all my fears. For the first time, you?” Now his voice sounded a little more in Valhöll that, despite happening near my the boar stayed alive; his place was taken by a interested. kitchen, I completely ignored. This is how I few thousand partridges. I started filling the I claimed my ignorance and related the could at last find out what happened with my dishes and held my breath, listening to any partridges’ incident. When I finished speaking, partridges. sound coming from the dining room. Loki broke into a spine-shivering laugh. About that and other things related to my The valkyries, consumed by their routine, “Ha ha ha! You really got that one-eyed story you can find information in my above didn't notice the change. Regarding the pretentious fool with your partridges! You mentioned personal Web site; I recommend einherjar, surely their ability to taste had deserve to be rewarded rather than punished, that you visit it before Loki erases every trace of completely atrophied, since I could hear them but I am too old to change my ways. Besides, my stay in Midgardr: sing and belch like any day before. these trolls want to see something. But before http://www.geocities.com/ But while I was serving the last partridges I that I’ll give you a chance.” andhrimnir_valholl heard dreadful screams of pain coming from At that moment Sigyn had to empty the the main hall. No Odin’s warrior could utter glass and Loki howled again. Then he went on: Loki chose this beautiful country as my those hurls, not even if he were submitted to “You’ll go to Midgardr. You’ll adopt the purgatory. He most likely did so to hinder my the torment of the blood’s eagle (which appearance of a human being and go to the objectives, since nobody among you believes description I’ll spare you to avoid that you faint inns where meals are served to the peasants. For that the beings I am talking about really exist. right here). a whole year you’ll visit as many inns as you At least I must admit you all are extremely What had happened? Who was proffering can and talk to their owners. You'll tell them polite with strangers. In the months I’ve been such shrieking hurls? While I was asking myself your story from the beginning, including the around visiting restaurants, all the people I these questions, Odin himself entered my partridges incident and your meeting with me. have talked to have kindly listened to my story kitchen like a hurricane and stared at me with While you're amongst the humans, I’ll halt until the very end. the hideous look of his only eye. time in Valhöll.” True, nobody has ever believed me, and ... I was surprised that someone who could do they all have dismissed me with a nice smile. Next thing I remember is being tugged mid air that had let himself fall into such a humiliating But I really don’t need your belief. The only by two valkyries riding horses, in the midst of a condition; but I withheld expressing my doubts condition that Loki stated to avoid my torture terrible storm. They let me fall on a swampy about it. After yet another forced interruption, was that some of you give me a job. forest, black as death, filthy and fetid. Loki went on: And that is my story. I am Andhrimnir, I quickly understood I was in Utgardr. Odin “You’ll ask every host for a job as a cook. Odin's cook. Nobody in this world has more had condemned me (for a reason I couldn't Should any of them accept, you’ll work for him experience than I. As I said, you needn't work out then, except that it was no doubt for one year, after which you’ll return to your believe me if you don't want to. But... will you related to my partridge dinner), perhaps until kitchen in Asgardr. Odin will not remember hire me? the end of time, to be the victim of all the evil what happened. You’ll work there the same as creatures inhabiting that land. before; but let me advise you to restrain © for the original in Spanish, José Fernando Before I could get up, a group of rambling yourself and cook only your boar in the Blanco, 2000 trolls fell upon me. Those monsters find an future.” © for the translation into English, Rick Himes endless delight in cruelty; the view of a possible After a new stop, Loki finished dictating my & José Fernando Blanco, 2002 victim wildly excites them. When they saw me, fate: they started a bitter discussion about the most “Should no innkeeper hire you in one year, suitable torture. At last one of them said: you'll come back to this cave to serve as the “Let’s take him to Loki. He will decide.” troll’s pastime. When they’re finished with you, About the author The other trolls surely thought that was a I’m afraid my brother will have to find another José Fernando Blanco (Spain, 1961) is an good idea. Loki, Odin’s brother by oath, is sly, cook. And now go out! Everybody!” amateur writer. His story in Spanish envious and elaborately cruel. He devised the While the trolls pulled me out, he added in about Odin’s cook won first prize in the death of the handsome Baldr, son of the laughs: “Cocina y Leyenda” literary contest in supreme god and whose kindness he could not “When you’re in Midgardr, try to find out 2000. His friend and co-worker Rick stand. For his crime he was punished for what made the great Odin so angry with you!” Himes (Exton, Pennsylvania) provided invaluable help with the English version. eternity; thus, when I was taken before him, he ... José Fernando welcomes whatever was admittedly not at his best. One moment later I found myself as the person information he can get to help him write He was inside a cave, tied to a rock. Above now before your eyes. If Odin gave me his projected novel about the Vikings’ his head, a snake ejected a nasty-looking sophisticated culinary knowledge (which I raid in Seville in the year 844. poison. A woman (his abnegated wife Sigyn) conserve), Loki, too, didn’t fall short. He E-mail: [email protected] snatched it up in a glass, but every time her provided me with a smart elegant look, glass filled up she had to retire and empty it. correctly spoken Spanish (with a little Then the corrosive fluid fell on Loki, causing Norwegian accent), a graduate degree in him to burst into unearthly yells of pain. In enginerering, a totally legal past, and a credit For some Valhalla-recipes, see padge 35. one of his moments of relief, he looked at me card that affords me the best hotels.

29 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

Ask Us Viking Heritage answers your questions. Editor: Mia Göranson Send your questions to [email protected]

Dear Sir/Madam, accompanying equipment became prevalent shirt” as berserks dressed in hides and skins. I am looking for information on Viking throughout Scandinavia. It has also been interpreted as “bare-sark” as burial rites. I would be very pleased if you In recent years many graves have been in “bare of shirt” due to the berserkers habit could help me. excavated in the Viking-Age harbour of of going into battle without armour. Fröjel on the island of Gotland, Sweden. In Swedish “bärsärk”, “särk” means Anthony, UK Visit Fröjel’s website at http://frojel.hgo.se “shift” or “nightshirt”. Dear Anthony, You can also check out Viking Heritage’s • • • For much of the Viking Age the database at http://viking.hgo.se Scandinavian people retained their You may find the information in the Hello, traditional religious beliefs. They “excavations” and “sites” categories interesting! I’m interested in Norse medicine – do you worshipped pagan gods and buried their have any information? dead according to pagan rituals and the • • • Thanks! Wayne objects that were interred with the dead, for Hello, what we assume were religious purposes, are How many Thor’s hammer amulets have been today an invaluable source of information Dear Wayne, found – and where? about the way they lived. The art of healing was primarily a woman’s Thanks! The Vikings practised two types of job. Skilful women assisted at childbirths burial, inhumation and cremation. The Tina, New York and sometimes female doctors joined the corpse seems to have been buried or burnt men at battlefields to bandage wounds and in everyday clothes. Personal possessions Dear Tina, take care of the diseased. The Saga tells us and utensils used in life were also provided There are about 120 single Thor’s hammer that after the battle at Stiklestad in 1030, in the grave. amulets known to archaeologists and about where Olaf the Holy King was killed, the Sometimes the corpse was buried inside 100 of these were found in the injured gathered in a granary where a a boat or wagon. This leads to the Scandinavian countries Sweden, Denmark, woman gave them milk and bandaged their assumption that some form of Norway and Iceland (most of them were wounds. She gave the men a special transportation was believed necessary to found in Sweden and Norway). The others decoction of herbs so by smelling them she carry the deceased to the next world - burial were discovered in Viking-influenced could determine whether their bowels were with horses may suggest the same thing. regions such as England, Ireland, Russia injured. She also tried to pull out an However, it seems clear that burial with a and Poland. arrowhead from the chest of a mortally boat or wagon was reserved for wealthy Most of the Thor’s hammers found are wounded warrior with a pair of tongs. individuals, and may merely have been the made of cast silver or wrought iron but People with special knowledge knew means of emphasising the high standing there are also examples made of amber, about medicinal herbs and one of the herbs and importance of the deceased person. lead, bronze and even gold. No hammer is used for pain relief was henbane. Seeds Archaeological records suggest that identical to the others – they have all been from henbane have been found in many different religious rituals took place. In made individually. graves from the Viking Age. central Sweden, for instance, the burnt On average the Thor’s hammers found However the female doctors could do remains were usually carefully separated are about 3 cm long and 2 cm wide, their more than give medicine and clean from the ash and charcoal of the funeral weight depending on what material they are wounds. They also had special knowledge pyre and placed in a pottery vessel which made of. about the connection between the mind was deposited in a pit dug into the earth. In Most of the hammers that the and illness and used both magical and parts of Finland the cremated remains were archaeologists have found in Scandinavia sacred means in the art of healing to invoke scattered on the ground instead. The were part of hoards but some have also help from the Gods. The connection remains, whether buried or scattered, were been discovered in graves. The majority of between practical and magic cures can be then covered by a mound of earth or simply these Thor’s hammers were found in female found in old verses from the Viking Age. marked by stones arranged in a number of graves. These verses were used to establish contact different ways according to locality, again between the helper and female divinities indicating divergent religious practises. • • • who had power over life and death. By the end of the tenth century the Hi, Christianity deprived the women of the custom of burial with rich grave goods had What does the word “berserk” mean? art of healing and left it to men. By and by died out in Denmark and was becoming the old pagan knowledge of healing was less common elsewhere, no doubt as a Hello, lost. result of the final triumph of Christianity As you probably know the word berserk is This site also has information on medicine: over the pagan religion. From then onward used for someone who is violent and runs the practice of inhumation in East-West http://www.regia-na.org/history/articles/ amok. The word has been interpreted in daily_living/text/health_and_medicine.htm orientated graves and without different ways. One way is as “bearskin

30 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Destination New book! Viking Western Viking Route

A new guidebook, Destination Viking – Western Viking Route, has been published by the North Sea Viking Legacy in association with Viking Heritage. The book is edited by Marita E Ekman with the maps prepared by Dan Carlsson. Destination Viking – Western Viking Route is the final result of the North Sea Viking Legacy project, an Interreg IIC North Sea region project, involving 20 partners from five countries and a number of associated partners. Many of the sites presented in this book have been recently developed and opened to the public as a direct result of the project. in 19 regions around the North Sea, Destination Viking – Western Viking Route is meant to be used all connected with the Vikings and the Viking together with the earlier Follow the Vikings, Highlights of the Viking Age. It presents an amazing journey in both time and space as the World guidebook published by the Council of Europe Cultural Routes remains of these sites bear testimony to conditions of life during the in 1996. This means that attractions described well in Follow the Viking Age. The thrill of the Vikings is still to be experienced, 1000 Vikings are not repeated in the Western Viking Route unless major years after the Viking Age! developments or alterations have taken place. (Note: When becoming The book can be ordered from Viking Heritage, Gotland University a subscriber of VHM you receive a free copy of Follow the Vikings.) College, SE-621 67 Visby, Sweden Destination Viking – Western Viking Route comprises 184 pages and is richly illustrated in full colour. It takes you on a tour to many sites E-mail: [email protected]

Theft of the Sun and Other New Norse Myths

Norse gods and goddesses, giants and trolls, loose ends with altogether new stories. They elves and dwarves and – of course- dragons are like a combination of a serious study of abound in the pages of this book, a Norse mythology and a creative imagination. collection of twelve short stories. The stories are like timeless messages The author has been performing as a directed to thoughtful people of all storyteller of Norse myths for many years ages, just like the original myths in the U.S. and has spent may have spoken to the people of several years studying Norse the Viking Age. They include mythology. He found that he New messages like trying to see the sometimes missed something book! other person’s point of view as in between the myths, well as choosing responsible something that wasn’t told, and decision-making. this void gnawed at his imagination. For Dag Rossman’s book The Nine Worlds: A example, the original Eddas often left him Dictionary of Norse Mythology, was published wondering what happened next. He felt early last year (reviewed in VHM 3/02). Written by Douglas “Dag” Rossman compelled to tie up these loose ends by He has also released five storytelling Published by Skandisk, Inc. writing a series of entirely original stories with collections on audiocassette, the most recent 6667 West Old Shakopee Road, Suite 109 roots in the old myths. The result is collected being Wizard Ways: Four Original Myths in the Bloomington, Minnesota 55438-2622, USA in this book. Norse Tradition, also available from the same ISBN 1-57534-015-1 The stories offer new perspectives on some publisher. of the traditional myths as well as tying up

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New book! Jakten

Written by på Odin Thor Heyerdahl and Per Lillieström På sporet av vår fortid Published by J.M. Stenersens Forlag AS, Oslo, Norway (In search of Odin) ISBN 82-7201-316-9

In VHM 4/01 the article called Old gods are still alive the year 60 BC. Odin settled in Sweden and gained such presented last year’s excavations in the Russian city of Azov, great respect that he later came to be regarded as a god by written by two of the participating archaeologists, Gunilla the Vikings. Wickman-Nydolf and Nils-Gustaf Nydolf. These The authors mean that the Snorre’s text describes an excavations, that will continue this coming summer, are actual historic process and that Odin was a real person. initiated and funded by Thor Heyerdahl, the man who Through the archaeological examinations in Azov they became world-famous when he crossed the Atlantic on the maintain they have found proof of Snorre’s statements. balsa raft, Kon-Tiki, in 1947. As is the case in most of Thor Heyerdahl’s projects, this Thor Heyerdahl, together with Per Lillieström, has now one is also controversial. But even at this old age (he was written a book about the whole project where they discuss born in 1914) he doesn’t give up. In this new book he in a dialogue form the background to the expedition and continues his lifelong research in how people have moved their reasons for and the results of the excavations last over long distances in the past and to make visible the summer in Azov. cultural contacts in prehistoric times. The basis of the Azov project is a text by Snorre Here at Viking Heritage we hope to be able to follow the Sturlasson written in the 13th century. There he tells about a continuation of these interesting excavations in Azov with chieftain called Odin who lived in Azov with his people articles in coming issues of this magazine. until the Roman army made them flee northwards around At present the book is only available in Norwegian.

About the artist Lou Harrison Viking Festival in Poland Viking Heritage Magazine has the privilege to present a piece of artwork by Lou Harrison of Thunderheart Studios. He The 8th Viking festival/market in Wolin-Jomsborg, Poland, will be has illustrated the quotation on page 2 from “Hávamál – Words of held July 12 –14, 2002. the High One”. We thank him for his contribution. Last year about 350 Viking re-enactors from Denmark, Sweden, Germany, England, Russia, Holland, USA and Latvia, the Czech Lou Harrison is a professional artist and illustrator (born in Republic and Poland took part and about 30,000 tourists visited the Medellin, Colombia, 1964). He studied in USA, but now lives in festival. Denmark where he does advertising and book cover illustrations. Four Viking (Gogstad, Oseberg) and Slavic (Orunia II, Lou has his own business under the name of Thunderheart Chabrowsk) ships and two music groups contributed to the Studios and works in pencil and ink, watercolours and oils. He historical atmosphere. The Viking re-enactor and craftsman Erik den formerly freelanced for Marvel and DC Comics in New York City. Rode made the biggest rune stone (12 tons) in Europe so far. The He will now continue to work for Marvel Comics to draw the Swedish Minister of Agriculture and Polish Ministers also visited the adventures of the super-hero “The Mighty Thor”. Lou has also a Festival. great interest in the Viking period and is a member of a Viking re- enactment group in Denmark. Interested? Please contact: Blazej Stanislawski Thunderheart Studios “Slavic & Viking Centre Wolin-Jomsborg-Vineta” Society Lou Harrison E-mail: [email protected] Slengeriksvej 7, 5500 Middelfart, Denmark Tel. +48 91 32 61 885 ☎ +45 6441 3140 Fax +48 91 32 60 741 [email protected]

32 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Heritage News

surface was made up of a transparent New Exhibition bluish textile and, with the help of some lights, the feeling of being underwater was almost perfect. Treasures of the Baltic On the seabed lay some shipwrecks, for instance an old Russian submarine, a Danish Viking ship and a wheat clipper Underwater Archaeology from the 18th century. A funny detail was all the garbage, like old rusty bicycles and beer cans, which you can actually find In December 2001 a new The film shown in a small room was down on the bottom of the sea. exhibition opened at The about15 minutes long. The sound quality There were also the black outlines of was poor, which made it difficult to three divers in actual size with big diving National Maritime Museum in concentrate on what was said. The Stockholm. The exhibition suits on. Small monitors placed right in picture quality of the film was even worse front of their eyes showed how a diver continues throughout 2002 because the camera was shaking all the experiences the world under the sea. This and has underwater time. That was a pity because the was quite suggestive and created a archaeology as its theme. presentation about underwater mystical atmosphere. archaeology and ecology was very interesting. You could learn a lot from it, It is a presentation of marine archaeology The “Treasures of the Baltic” from the nine countries around the Baltic exhibition is interesting and well worth Sea (Finland, Russia, Estonia, Latvia, visiting. There are other activities Lithuania, Germany, Denmark, Poland connected to the exhibition too; just ask and Sweden). It is arranged by The the museum. National Maritime Museum and Maybe the best way is to pay the Södertörn University College in exhibition more than one visit. This cooperation with marine archaeologists at requires that the museum thinks about universities and museums around the offering to sell tickets that allow two or Baltic Sea. The intention is that the three visits on the same ticket. Almost exhibition will, at a later stage, travel every exhibition is too large to visit just around to all the nine countries. once. Altogether this exhibition gives the The showroom contains three different visitor a glimpse of the hidden landscape areas, one with a screen exhibition, one under the sea. And if you have the time with a film and one with an underwater and energy you can learn much about landscape (a seabed). In the screen underwater archaeology methods, diving exhibition room all nine countries present techniques and also some reading about their underwater archaeology such as underwater remains from different time sunken ships, defence works, Stone-Age periods. There is also a detailed book on settlements and remains of harbours. This the theme that costs 150 Swedish crowns. part of the exhibition is crammed with The screens from the nine countries facts about diving techniques, were informative but not much fun or environment and protective legislation Photo: The National Maritime Museum, easy to understand. The film could have pertaining to cultural remains under Sweden. been done much more professionally. If I water. had to choose one of the rooms as my I must say that it was rather difficult to but the annoying sound and shaking favourite, the seabed room would be the get a clear view from all the countries; camera made it rather difficult. one. It gave me the feeling of being under there is quite a lot of information in these the surface and was relaxing after all the presentations. The screens were all the The third room gave the visitors the information in the other parts. It gave me same size. There were more pictures than opportunity to experience the world time to reflect upon the rest of the text, which I think is good. If you wished under the surface. I actually took a walk exhibition. you could get more information on a free on the seabed! This underwater landscape printout from each country. There were was built up in a dark room full of Tove Eriksson some showcases with artefacts, but I atmosphere. Archaeologist, Fröjel Discovery missed smaller texts with information The floor was covered with pebbles Programme/Gotland University College about the artefacts. and stones so it looked like a seabed. The http://viking.hgo.se 33 Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02 Heritage News Opportunities to participate in an excavation!

Opportunities to participate in the 2002 very interesting findings. It looks like we have excavation of the Viking Age harbour and located some of the jetties and there is a trading place at Fröjel on the island of possibility that we might have an indication Gotland, Sweden. This summer marks the of the remains of a Viking ship. fifth season of excavations and surveying in The excavations at Fröjel are run by the “Fröjel Discovery Programme” project . Gotland University College in cooperation The aim of this year’s excavation is to with Residential College for Adult Education investigate the harbour and its jetties as well (Folk High School) at Hemse. The field as the settlement area. In the autumn of 2001 school will take place in two different forms. we investigated the harbour area using geophysical methods, such as ground The first field course is open to anybody resistance measurements, and made some interested in joining an archaeological

A silver ring found in the in the settlement area during the excavations in the summer of 2000. The finder is Viking Market on Åland archaeologist Michael Wall. July 26-27, 2002 Photo Dan Carlsson. excavation. This course is reserved for Swedish-speaking people only, and will take This year’s Viking market on the island place June 26th to July 12th. It’s run by the of Åland will take place on the historical Residential College for Adult Education in ground of the village of Kvarnbo in Hemse. Final date for applications is the 1st Saltviken. The market is being arranged of May. for the third time and has been visited For more information about the first by around 3,000 persons per year. It has course please contact the school at: become one of the most popular family [email protected] events of the summer. Telephone + 46 (0) 498 20 36 50. See also Over the years, the modern-day www.gotland.fhsk.se Vikings in Saltvik have created a The second field course is run as a field marketplace with attributes in keeping school with the possibility of receiving with the times. A runestone has been credits. It will take place July 16th to August erected and a longhouse built of peat for children and music, theatre, song and 11th. This is a four-week course open to walls and a reed roof. An impressive an auction sale of thralls. If you need archaeology and anthropology students as Viking, four meters tall and carved in help to get a job done you will be able to well as experienced amateurs from all over wood, welcomes visitors. make a bid on an able workman. the world. The course is run by Gotland University. An application form to join the This year three Viking groups from On both days, the Riddarhyttan Sweden – Storholmen, “The ancient excavation is available and will be sent to Viking group will present theatrical everyone registering an interest to participate. archaeologists” from Kungsö and performances, the Austr Vega medieval Final date for payment is May 15th. Riddarhyttan – will live and act during group will perform a play with a lot of For more information concerning the the market days. Among them are some song and music and the Finish Viking second course please visit our homepage at leather dressers, potters and blacksmiths group, “Tsakku”, with three ladies taking http://frojel.hgo.se. who will show Viking-Age handicrafts. part, will play happy Viking music and If you have questions about the excavation Besides these, there will be a large songs. and methods contact associate professor Dan number of salesmen in period clothing Carlsson: [email protected]. selling souveniers, homebaked bread and For more information, contact If you have further questions concerning handicrafts all in the spirit of the Viking Ålands Turistförbund, Johanna Enberg, the application form contact project assistant Age. Storagatan 8, 22100 Mariehamn Carina Dahlström: The programme for the market days Tel: 018-24259, fax:018-24265 [email protected] will include axe throwing, horse riding E-mail: [email protected]

34 http://viking.hgo.se Viking Heritage Magazine 1/02

RecipesRecipes fromfrom ValhallaValhalla

For a Valhalla party you have to serve some dishes made with wild boar or pork. Here we have chosen some from the book Vikingars gästabud (The Viking Feast) by Michaël Fant, Roger Lundgren and Thore Isaksson, reviewed in VHM 5/98. Without doubt, these dishes could have been served in Valhalla by Andhrimnir, Odin’s cook! (Read the short story on page 28-29!) Photo: Lennart Hansson

Roast of wild boar with Sieve and measure the pan gravy. If Applebacon blueberry sauce needed, add bouillon to make 5 For 4 persons For 4 persons decilitres. Add the cream and bring it all to a boil. Stir the wheat flour in 400 grams fresh or slightly salted A good full 1 kg joint of wild boar cold water and whisk it into the gravy. bacon in slices butter Let it all simmer for 3–5 minutes. 1 teaspoon butter 2 small onions Season with ginger, salt and pepper. 2 onions 2 carrots Carve the roast in slices. Serve with 1-2 apples a piece of green ginger honey-glazed root vegetables. 1 tablespoon pork dripping or 2 tablespoons honey butter salt and pepper Honey-glazed root vegetables white or black pepper 2 decilitres bouillon For 4 persons 2–3 cloves Brown the meat on all sides in a frying pan and then put the joint in a 1 turnip Peel and slice the onions. Core the casserole. Peel the onions and carrots. 2-3 carrots apples and cut them in slices. Fry the Add the onions, carrots, ginger, honey 1 slice cabbage bacon on medium heat. Turn them 2- and bouillon to the casserole. 1 leek 3 times, the longer the frying time the Let the meat roast covered on low butter crispier the bacon. Fry the slices of heat. The estimated cooking time is honey onion and apples in the dripping on around 1 hour; the inner temperature salt and pepper quite low heat until browned and soft. of the roast should be 75 degrees Put the onion and apple-slices in layers Centigrade. Peel the root vegetables and cut them with the bacon in the frying pan and into pieces. Boil together in slightly let heat thoroughly. Season with Blueberry sauce salted water about 5 minutes and pepper and cloves. 5 decilitres pan gravy drain. Fry the root vegetables in butter Serve with new baked bread. 1 decilitre cream until soft. Fry the leek with them at 3 tablespoons flour the end. Add some honey and stir the 1 decilitre blueberries dish carefully. Season with salt and 1 tablespoon grated green onion pepper. salt and pepper

http://viking.hgo.se 35 VIKING HERITAGE A network for Viking-related Knowledge

VIKING HERITAGE MAGAZINE The objectives of the network are: The ultimate forum for all interested in Vikings and the Viking Age! - To develop and maintain the European Institute of Cultural Routes project. Become a subscriber today! Subscription fee 2002, four issues - To co-operate with schools, universities etc. in Sweden: 200 SEK the field of education and training in the study of Denmark, Finland, Norway and the Baltic countries: the Vikings. 210 SEK Other countries: 250 SEK - To collect information of present Viking history activities, and to distribute information about As a new subscriber you will as a special gift Vikings and their history. receive the guidebook Follow the Vikings. Highlights of the Viking World. The book contains Viking Heritage acts as a monitoring and advisory 50 of the most important destinations in different body on all issues relating to an enhanced countries, selected by an international group of understanding of the Viking history. archaeologists and is richly illustrated in full colour. In promoting these aims, VIKING HERITAGE provides Subscription conditions an information service with VIKING HERITAGE For order outside Scandinavia we can only accept SERVER & DATABASE (http://viking.hgo.se) and payment in advance by credit card (VISA, VIKING HERITAGE MAGAZINE. Mastercard, Eurocard). For orders within Scandinavia the orders can be sent with mail order or payment in advance by credit card.

Information e-mail: [email protected] Tel: + 46 498 29 98 28, + 46 498 29 98 30

Viking Heritage magazine

Publisher and Editor-in chief: Dan Carlsson, [email protected] Editor: Marita E Ekman, [email protected] Editorial staff: Alexander Andreeff, Mia Göranson, Olle Hoffman, Therese Lindström Subscriptions: Maj-Britt Andersson, [email protected] Language and translation check where others are not mentioned: Luella Godman, [email protected] Layout and printed by Godrings Tryckeri, Visby, Sweden 2002. ISSN 1403-7319

Postal address: Viking Heritage, Gotland University, Cramérgatan 3, S-621 67 Visby. Sweden. Phone: +46 498 29 98 30, Fax: +46 498 29 98 92 E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://viking.hgo.se Webmaster: Olle Hoffman, [email protected] Website Gotland University: http://www.hgo.se