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Williamchoquettemphilthesis200 University of St Andrews Full metadata for this thesis is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by original copyright Viking Seafaring William H. Choquette October 21, 2001 M.Phil Maritime Studies To Babette 3 (i) I,William Choquette, hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 40,000 words in length, has been written by me, that it is the record of work carried out by me and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. date 24 i^/o 1 signature of candidate (ii) I was admitted as a research student in September, 1998 and as a candidate for the degree of M.Phil. in July 1999; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out at the University of St. Andrews between 1999 and 2000. date 21 /iO /0| signature of candidate. (iii) I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of M.Phil in the University of St. Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. date signature of supervisor signature of supervisor A Unrestricted In submitting this thesis to the University of St. Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the title and abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker. date 21 /to / c, 1 signature of candidate. 4 Table of Contents Declaration 3 Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 6 Introduction 8 Methodology 11 Chapter 1 Ship Development and Ship Types 1 .OVikingShipDevclopmcnt 15 1.1 Ship Types of the Vikings 21 Chapter 2 Viking Naval Organization 2.0 Introduction 27 2.1 TheLia 29 2.2 The Leidangr 30 Chapter 3 Warship and Merchant Shiphandiing 3.1 Naval Warfare 33 3.2 Propulsion 39 3.3 Rowing 39 3.4 Sailing/Theory of Sail 42 3.5 Fore and Aft Sail vs. Square sail 43 3.6 Rigging 43 3.7 Hafvilla 47 3.8 Harbor and Landing 47 3.9 Heavy Weather 47 3.10 Sigla til brots 48 3.11 Planning 49 3.12 Merchant Crew Shiphandiing Tasks 50 3.13 Life Aboard Ship 54 Chapter 4 Viking Captains and Crews 4.0 Introduction 59 4.1 Merchant Crews 60 4.2 Warship Crews 63 4.3 Viking Captains 66 Conclusions 73 Bibliography 79 5 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisors Dr. Robert Prescott and Dr. Barbara Crawford for their patience. Many people and institutions have helped me with this project but I would particularly like to mention Babette Piitz, Madeleine Devaney, Bill Choquette Sr., Dr. Colin Martin, Glenn Darrington, the ADU, the Maritime Studies Department, and the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde Denmark. 6 Abstract This dissertation is an analysis of aspects of Viking seafaring. Topics covered include: ship developement, ship types, naval organization, shiphandling, captains, and crews. Assertions are based upon literary evidence, ship finds, and other sources. The evidence for the developement of Scandinavian ships is found in the archaeological record. This process began long before the Viking age1 and is a product of need, experience, and conditions faced by shipbuilders and seafarers in Scandinavia. Archaeological and literary evidence sited in this disseration suggests that there were a diversity of Viking ship types. Furthermore, distinctions between merchant and warships existed at the beginning of the Viking age.2 The Vikings' renown is based not only on the quality of their ships but also upon their organizational abilities and shiphandling skills. Evidence shows that Vikings were organized for naval warfare and raiding initially under the Lid concept which was replaced by the Leidangr ship levy system. During their diverse and numerous voyages Viking seafarers used a myriad of shiphandling techniques. For example, propulsion by sail and oar as well as the low draught allowed Viking ships to sail almost anywhere. Organization was just as important as shiphandling skill for a safe journey.Viking merchant ships and warships were commanded by captains who had responsibility for decision making and steering their ships. These captains had a diversity of leadership styles that resulted in varied levels of success or failure. Literary evidence points to organizational differences between merchant and warships. Organization on merchant ships was less formal than on warships. The fact that shipboard tasks were shared among crewmembers on merchant vessels and not on warships supports this idea. In summary Viking seafaring represented the best use of available manpower and ships for trading, raiding, settlement, and warfare. The risk of shipwreck was everpresent and at times the cost of Viking seafaring was high in loss of life and in the destruction of ships. Viking seafaring was often perilous but the wide extent of Viking voyages and the wealth found in Viking hoards suggest that these ventures were worth the risks. 1 Lund 1993 693 2 Andersen 1993 653 7 *Please note that some page numbers for articles are missing because I was unable to check these books for financial reasons at the time of printing. 8 Introduction The earliest efforts to understand Viking seafaring began with ship archaeology from burial mounds in Norway and Denmark. These include the: Gokstad, Oseberg, Tune, and Ladby ships. Underwater archaeology in Roskilde, Denmark has provided the Skuldelev wrecks. These excavated vessels showed that the Gokstad, long thought to be the Viking ship, was not the only Viking ship type, thus proving diversity of Viking ships. It is worth considering that there are wide gaps in the archaeological record which do not clearly show how all of the various ship types evolved. For example, most of the early Viking ship finds like the Gokstad (9th century A.D.) are from Norway and most of the late Viking ship finds are from Denmark, consequently one has to be careful about conclusions drawn from these ship finds. A new find could radically change our understanding of Viking seafaring but until this happens conclusions must be drawn from the available evidence. Building replica Viking ships is one way that has been used to answer questions about Viking seafaring that cannot be answered from the archaeological evidence. Lack of evidence has forced researchers to experiment with hypothetical designs for missing components of Viking ships. For example, few of the ship finds have surviving rigging so various types of rigs have been tested on replicas of varying quality. Many replicas have been built some of the best examples include Captain Andersen's 1893 Norwegian replica of the Gokstad ship and the Danish Saga Siglar replica of the Skuldelev 1, an ocean going trading ship from Roskilde. Some examples of warships include the Danish Roar Edge, a replica of a small warship, a copy of the Ladby ship, and the Raven, a 2/3 scale replica of the Gokstad ship. A replica of the Skuldelev 2, a large warship, is currently under construction at the Viking Ship Museum and will be one of the first full sized replicas of a Viking longship. Scholars such as Alan Binns caution that when seeking evidence about the performance of Viking ships the results of replica voyages must be used carefully because the ships often have modern safety devices, speculative rigging designs, navigation equipment, superior materials, exceptional sailors, and have been sailed in ideal conditions. Therefore, the speed and seaworthiness of Viking ships 9 may have been exaggerated and any results from replica experiments must be used # -3 cautiously. 3 Binns 1993 in Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia 578-580 10 The following study answers practical questions of Viking seafaring. Therefore, the following main questions will be looked at: 1.1 How did the ships of the Vikings develop? 1.2 What types of ships did the Vikings use for trade and for warfare? 2.1 What do the organizational concepts of Lid and Leidang mean? 2.2 How do these concepts apply to naval warfare and raiding? 3.1 How did the Vikings operate their ships? 3.2 What shiphandling techniques did they use? 4.1 What were the crew structures on Viking merchant and warships? 4.2 What were some of the characteristics of Viking age captains and how did they make decisions? 11 Methodology Problems concerning shiphandling skills, naval organization, and the captains and crews of Viking ships will be investigated. These questions are answered by integrating the existing archaeological and historical information concerning Viking ships with knowledge of the practical methods of manning, organizing, and handling Viking ships for trade and warfare. The available scholarship that deals with Viking ship seafaring is based upon Viking ship finds from Scandinavia and Northwest Europe which has shown how Viking ships were built, how their hulls were shaped, and provides some examples of the origin of and the diversity of Viking ship types. Integrating this information with answers to questions of how the Vikings organized and handled their ships will give a more complete picture of Viking seafaring than has yet existed. This study will use: ship finds, Viking ship replica projects, along with literary and historical materials, runic inscriptions, sagas of the Icelanders, Medieval Scandinavian laws, ship graffiti, and contemporary scholarship. The archaeological evidence provides hints about the different types of ships and their development. There are existing studies of hulls, rigging, oars, and other components of Viking ships that are brought together here for the first time.
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