The Struggle for Democratic Environmental Governance Around
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The struggle for democratic environmental governance around energy projects in post-communist countries: the role of civil society groups and multilateral development banks by Alda Kokallaj A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Political Science Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2014 Alda Kokallaj Abstract This dissertation focuses on the struggle for democratic environmental governance around energy projects in post-communist countries. What do conflicts over environmental implications of these projects and inclusiveness reveal about the prospects for democratic environmental governance in this region? This work is centred on two case studies, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and the Vlora Industrial and Energy Park. These are large energy projects supported by the governments of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Albania, and by powerful international players such as oil businesses, multilateral development banks (MDBs), the European Union and the United States. Analysis of these cases is based on interviews with representatives of these actors and civil society groups, narratives by investigative journalists, as well as the relevant academic literature. I argue that the environmental governance of energy projects in the post-communist context is conditioned by the interplay of actors with divergent visions about what constitutes progressive development. Those actors initiating energy projects are shown to generally have the upper hand in defining environmental governance outcomes which align with their material interests. However, the cases also reveal that the interaction between civil society and MDBs creates opportunities for society at large, and for non-government organizations who seek to represent them, to have a greater say in governance outcomes – even to the point of stopping some elements of proposed projects. To unpack the interplay of forces, this dissertation employs an integrated frame drawing on the theories of Gramsci, Polanyi, and Keck and Sikkink. The neo-Gramscian notion of hegemony (including ‘common sense’ and ‘material capabilities’, ‘institutional ii arrangements’ and justificatory ‘discourses’ that underpin it) helps to understand the power configurations that hinder democratic dialogue. Polanyi’s concepts of society- nature relations, Keck and Sikkink's boomerang model of politics, and Gramsci's notion of civil society as a site of consent and contestation, together help discern the ways in which resistance to energy projects can serve as a starting ground for democratizing environmental governance. iii Acknowledgements It is my firm belief that no major accomplishment in life can be achieved alone. My experience in doctoral studies confirmed this belief. A work of such magnitude could not have been accomplished without the help received from many other individuals. In this regard I have been lucky to have the right people around me to provide me with support. I first and foremost thank my thesis supervisor professor, Peter Andrée. An enthusiastic researcher and a gifted teacher, he saw the worthiness of my initial ideas for this thesis, and with rigour and patience helped me to develop them as this work progressed. His professionalism, guidance and enthusiasm for research combined with his sunny disposition gave me encouragement and allowed me enough latitude to make this an idiosyncratic work. I was privileged to have professor Robert Paehlke and professor James Maedowcroft as external reviewers of my thesis. I am thankful to other members of my thesis committee, professor Randall Germain and professor Jeff Sahadeo who provided valuable advice and inspiring discussions. The final product has benefited greatly from the resulting synergy. I am equally grateful to other professors for providing me with intellectual stimulation, critique and ultimate support. For this I specifically thank prof. Ozay Mehmet, prof. Piotr Dutkiewicz, prof. Brian Schmidt, prof. Arian Novruzi, prof. Osman Yilmaz, prof. Hannes Lacher and prof. Erol Kaymak. The people who were interviewed for this thesis are worthy of my applause. I would like to especially thank the participants for their positive attitudes throughout the interview process and for being willing to share their experiences with me. I am especially grateful to the Georgian families living along the pipeline route for inviting me to their homes and for sharing with me their stories. The collaboration of all participants from Washington DC, London UK, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Albania made the interview process an eye- opening and invaluable experience that made me see the contrasts and the nuances between different worlds and helped me reflect on my theoretical constructs. I was fortunate to receive a travel/research grant provided by funding from the European Commission and Carleton University's Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, administered by the Center for European Studies at Carleton University, and funding from my thesis supervisor. Both of these greatly facilitated the conduct of the field work for this study. I have met many wonderful and brilliant people throughout this journey, and I am especially grateful to the members of my cohort, and the members of Critical Social Research Collaborative, for the intellectual exchanges and for sharing research experiences. I also thank numerous friends for their support throughout this work, who listened to me talk about my research and thesis writing. Special thanks go to Ellie Kerr, Karen Mehmet, Sharon Kerr, Peggy and George Chiha for their immense support and for iv providing me with a home away from home, for all the years that I was pursuing my doctoral studies. Along all these years they shared with me their love, care, honesty and trust. I am thankful to Shano and Nusret Bejkosalaj for their encouragement and continuous care. I am thankful to my all-time friend Eriola Pema for the countless conversations about this research and for reading and commenting from the very early drafts of this work to the recent ones, to my close friend Dr. Kerim Kollu for his exceptional insights and for the long conversations about environmental politics, to Kelly Pritchard, Erol Ozbakir, Ahmed Khalid, Ying Ling Lin, Odette Brown and Besa Selimaj for their friendship and caring attitudes throughout these years. I am thankful to Myles Hulme for his feedback on parts of this work and for teaching me that sometimes the most important thing you have to rely on when your world falls apart is your own strength, tenacity and faith. Finally, I am thankful to my family for their limitless support throughout my journey of pursuing post-secondary education from North Cyprus to Canada: my father and first teacher who imparted to me his thirst for education and who nurtured my curiosity for asking questions and for always trusting in me, my mother for her constant succour for getting this work completed and for her unconditional and inspirational love, my brother for his encouragement and for offering me a positive viewpoint every time I stumbled. It is to my father Bako, my mother Qafile and my brother Arber that I dedicate this thesis. v Table of Contents Abstract.................................................................................................................................i Acknowledgements............................................................................................................iii List of Tables....................................................................................................................viii List of Illustrations..............................................................................................................ix List of Abbreviations............................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Introduction........................................................................................................1 1.1 Theory and research questions.................................................................................4 1.1.1 Definitions.........................................................................................................6 1.1.1.1 Civil society and state................................................................................6 1.1.1.2 Environment .............................................................................................7 1.1.1.3 Post-communist transitions......................................................................10 1.2 Case studies and the development of an integrated frame based on Gramsci- Polanyi-Boomerang model of politics...........................................................................11 1.3 Methodology...........................................................................................................15 1.4 Chapter breakdown.................................................................................................21 Chapter 2: A critical assessment of post-communist transformation: MDBs' involvement and the prospect for sustainable development ...............................................................27 2.1 Overview of post-communist transition approaches...............................................30 2.1.1 Mainstream definition of post-communist 'transition'.....................................31 2.1.2 A critical understanding of post-communist period ........................................35