Grijalva et al. Parasites & Vectors 2011, 4:20 http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/4/1/20 RESEARCH Open Access Limitations of selective deltamethrin application for triatomine control in central coastal Ecuador Mario J Grijalva1,2*, Anita G Villacís2, Sofía Ocaña-Mayorga2, César A Yumiseva2, Esteban G Baus2 Abstract Background: This year-long study evaluated the effectiveness of a strategy involving selective deltamethrin spraying and community education for control of Chagas disease vectors in domestic units located in rural communities of coastal Ecuador. Results: Surveys for triatomines revealed peridomestic infestation with Rhodnius ecuadoriensis and Panstrongylus howardi, with infestation indices remaining high during the study (13%, 17%, and 10%, at initial, 6-month, and 12-month visits, respectively), which indicates a limitation of this strategy for triatomine population control. Infestation was found 6 and 12 months after spraying with deltamethrin. In addition, a large number of previously vector-free domestic units also were found infested at the 6- and 12-month surveys, which indicates new infestations by sylvatic triatomines. The predominance of young nymphs and adults suggests new infestation events, likely from sylvatic foci. In addition, infection with Trypanosoma cruzi was found in 65%, 21% and 29% at initial, 6-month and 12-month visits, respectively. All parasites isolated (n = 20) were identified as TcI. Conclusion: New vector control strategies need to be devised and evaluated for reduction of T. cruzi transmission in this region. Background colonization by this species in the domestic and perido- Chagas disease in Ecuador affects approximately 230,000 mestic habitats. However, R. ecuadoriensis also is fre- people, and 6.2 million people are at risk of infection by quently found in domestic and peridomestic habitats in El Trypanosoma cruzi, its causative agent [1]. In the absence Oro province, where palm trees are less abundant, and in of satisfactory therapy or vaccines against Chagas disease, Loja province and northern Perú, where palm trees are control of the disease relies primarily on interrupting trans- completely absent [2,9,10]. Recent morphological studies mission by eliminating domestic populations of triato- have found no differences between sylvatic and domestic/ mines. Triatomines Rhodnius ecuadoriensis and peridomestic populations of R. ecuadoriensis in the central Panstrongylus howardi are important vectors of Chagas dis- coastal region [11], which suggests a constant flow of indi- ease in the Manabí province, located on the central coast of viduals between these habitats. Ecuador, and there is evidence of host (vectors and reser- P. howardi is considered an endemic species of Ecua- voirs) infected with T. cruzi, circulating in the area [2-6]. dor, although its distribution seems to be limited to the R. ecuadoriensis is widely distributed in Ecuador’s central coastal region [2,12]. The high adaptability of P. howardi and southern coast [7], its southern Andean region, and in to different microhabitats within the peridomicile, fre- northern Perú [3]. In the coastal region, R. ecuadoriensis is quent reports of intradomiciliary invasion and high usually found in association with Phytelephas aequatorialis, infection with T. cruzi indicate that this species is an an endemic palm species, [5,8] and in nests of squirrel important secondary vector [6]. (Sciurus stramineus) and bird (Campylorhynchus fasciatus) Elements used in housing construction in the Manabí [6]. In this region, there are frequent invasions and province can influence the likelihood of triatomine infes- tation. For example, sometimes, roofs are constructed * Correspondence: [email protected] with leaves of P. aequatorialis, a common environment 1Tropical Disease Institute, Biomedical Sciences Department, College of for triatomines to colonize. However, in recent years, the Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University. Athens, Ohio, USA use of zinc plates as roofing material has become Full list of author information is available at the end of the article © 2011 Grijalva et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Grijalva et al. Parasites & Vectors 2011, 4:20 Page 2 of 10 http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/4/1/20 common [13]. This material does not provide an environ- visit. However, it was not possible to re-examine all 187 ment in which triatomines can become established. Also, due to the following reasons: (1) the head of household houses are elevated by wooden stilts, and walls and floors declined to continue participation in the study, (2) the are made of guadúa cane (Guadua angustifolia). head of the household was absent at the time of follow- Although bare cane features large gaps that allow passage up visits, or (3) the DUs became uninhabited between by insects and does not offer hiding places for the bugs, study visits. The coverage of entomological examination when cane is covered with paper or other materials, it was 81.3%, 63.3% and 84.9% at the initial visit, 6 months, may become a suitable hiding place for triatomines. and 12 months, respectively. Only 109 DUs were exam- TheperidomesticareaintheManabíprovincealso ined all three times. offers triatomines plenty of potential microhabitats and All communities had similar house construction, peri- opportunities for colonization by synanthropic animals. domicile characteristics and economic activities. Most For example, the peridomicile is characterized by an houses had a closed roof (84%), bare cane walls (70%), abundance of P. aequatorialis, which is cultivated for its and wood board floor (66%) (Table 1). Houses tended to nuts used in the manufacture of handcrafts and buttons be small (≤2 bedrooms), and although most had electri- that constitute an important source of income for the city, 11% of houses did not have any form of latrine or rural population. Other palms, such as coconut and public sewer system. Indoor storage of firewood and African palms (Elaeis guineensis) are also commonly agricultural products was infrequent, and 55% of houses found near houses [14]. In addition, chicken coops, gui- reported insecticide application by the Malaria Control nea pig pens, agricultural and household waste, the Program within the 12 months prior to our initial visit. thorny “piñuela” plant Aechmea magdalenae and other Detailed information about prior insecticide application plants used as natural fences, piles of construction mate- was not available. Peridomestic characteristics, including rials, and accumulations of palm fronds provide good livestock farmed, are summarized in Table 2. In this refuges for triatomines. Finally, the definition of perido- mestic habitat becomes blurred because of the frequent Table 1 Construction materials and other characteristics close proximity of brush and jungle to the house. of 230 houses located in four rural communities of the Insecticides are one of the main tools used for control Manabí province, Ecuador of vector-borne diseases [15]. Synthetic pyrethroids such House characteristics (%) as deltamethrin, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and lambdacy- Roof halothrin are commonly used for Chagas disease control Cement/Asbestos/Zinc 84 [16,17]. The aim of the Chagas Control Programs is to Tile 2 eliminate domestic colonies of triatomines. Indeed, appli- Other, including palm 14 cation of deltamethrin only to houses found infested by Type of Walls triatomines (known as “selective application” as opposed Cement/brick 21 to “community-wide application”) for the control of Cha- No paneled cane 70 gas disease in the southern Andean region of Ecuador Paneled cane* 9 has shown a notable reduction of household infestation Other 2 (from 12.5% to 3.8%), especially by R. ecuadoriensis and Type of Floor Triatoma carrioni (Grijalva MJ, unpublished data), as Cement/Tile/Wood parket 16 well as a reduction in operational costs. Wood boards 66 Despite the success of insecticide-based strategies to Cane, other 30 control domestic triatomine infestations, the effective- Dirt 5 ness of these interventions is hampered in areas where Size sylvatic triatomine populations occur and readily invade Bedrooms < = 2 63 treated houses when residual insecticide activity declines Services [18,19]. Here we report findings of a study designed to Electricity 93 evaluate the effectiveness of selective deltamethrin No latrine 11 spraying and community education in rural commu- Piped water 5 nities of the Ecuadorian central coast. Cooking fuel Natural gas 86 Results Firewood/Coal 66 Domiciliary units Intradomicile storage A total of 230 DUs was examined at least once in the Firewood 6 four surveyed communities in the Manabí province, Agricultural products 4 Ecuador. Of these, 187 were examined during the first aCane walls are sometimes covered with paper or other materials. Grijalva et al. Parasites & Vectors 2011, 4:20 Page 3 of 10 http://www.parasitesandvectors.com/content/4/1/20 Table 2 Peridomestic materials, livestock, and vegetation nests within piñuelas. Of the 16 DUs from which triato- of 230 domestic units located in four rural communities mines were recovered, three contained both species of of the Manabí province, Ecuador triatomine but in different microhabitats. The overall Item Frequency Average