Physical Properties and Processes in the Agricultural Alluvial Calcareous Soils

Preface

The objective of this workshop was to provide a forum to facilitate the opportunity for interaction between specialists working in different fields of soil science, but who share a common interest in group soil biological and soil physical methods applied to biophysical attributes in soil quality. This goal was achieved by means of lectures, technical presentations, and field, greenhouse and laboratory studies on different parts of soil quality subject. The multidisciplinary character of the workshop allowed an effective exchange of ideas between different topics in soil quality having a symmetry background. The workshop consisted of three micro courses of two hours each and some plenary talks of 30 minutes, as well as a small number of short communications. In addition to the contributions of the participants, other specialists in the field that could not attend the meeting. The main motivation for the three courses was to provide a short and updated introduction to current research topics, as well as to provide an overview for the non-specialists. We briefly describe the principal results of these lectures. Finally, on behalf of the Organizing Committee, we would like to express our gratitude to the participants and assistants in the EURASIAN SOIL workshop 2013 for their presence and contributions, as well as to the members of the Coordinators for their help and outstanding efforts, with special mention to Evgeny Shein from the Moscow State University. We hope that you found the workshop interesting and fun. We also hope that in the years to come, EURASIAN SOIL Congress 2014 will become a platform for dialogue and interaction on new concepts and “The Soul of Soils and Civilization”. After all, our goal is to help you, the researchers, distribute your latest achievements to a broader audience.

Dr.Rıdvan Kızılkaya Dr.Coşkun Gülser Coordinator Coordinator

CONTENTS page Cover Preface Dependence of aggregates water stability from the contents of hydrophilic and hydrophobic components 1 in the organic matter of chernozems Evgeny Milanovskiy, Alexandr M. Rusanov, Evgeny Shein

Regularities of Cu, Pb and Zn adsorption by chernozems of the South of Russia 6 David L. Pinsky, Tatiana M. Minkina

Transformation of upper part soil profile of sod-podzolic light loamy soils under the conditions of long- 16 term soil improvement (Unpresented) Nikolay S. Matyuk, Mikhail A. Mazirov, Daria M. Kascheeva, Valery D. Polin, Valeria A. Arefieva

Dynamics of soil cover state and degradation processes intensity in natural soil zones of the Altai Region 25 Gennady Morkovkin, Yekaterina Litvinenko, Nina Maksimova

Probabilistic models of spatial fluctuations of edaphic properties in native soils in steppe zone of Western 30 Siberia Irina Mikheeva

Pedotransfer capacity of nickel and platinum nanoparticles in Albeluvisols Haplic in the South-East of the 39 Western Siberia (Unpresented) Sergei Kulizhsky, Sergei Loyko, Artyom Lim

The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences in 46 independence years (1991-2011) Maharram P.Babayev, Sultan M.Huseynova, R. I. Mirzezade

Management of Geospatial Information for the Growth of Various Sectors in Azerbaijan (Unpresented) 50 Garib Sh. Mamedov

Environmental Monitoring of arid woodland soils or tertiary plateaus in Azerbaijan 53 Ali M. Jafarov, Cesaret A. Shabanov, Tatyana A. Kholina

The Chemical Composition of Some Soils and Its Significance for Vegetation of the Agsu District of 56 Azerbaijan (Unpresented) Tubukhanım Gasımzade

Complex indicator of the quality of various soils 60 Amin H. Babayev, Vugar A. Babayev

Properties of soils and rocks of rehahabilitated lands of Kuznetsk Basin Area (Unpresented) 66 Vladimir Androkhanov

The manifestation of the land degradation in the Irkutsk region at conditions of the anthropogenesis and 70 measures on prevention of the further progress of negative processes Natalia I. Granina

Physical properties and processes in the agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic) 75 of Konya province (Çumra area) Ahmet Sami Erol, Evgeny Shein, Fatih Er, Fariz Mikayilsoy

Concept of Soil Quality 83 Coşkun Gülser , Rıdvan Kızılkaya

Dependence of aggregates water stability from the contents of hydrophilic and hydrophobic components in the organic matter of chernozems Evgeny Milanovskiy a, Alexandr M. Rusanov b, Evgeny Shein a,*

a Lomosonov Moscow State University, Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow, Russia b Orenburg State University, Faculty of Chemistry and Biology, Orenburg, Russia

Abstract

Soil humus substances are considered as a multicomponent system of amphiphilic (exhibiting both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties) substances. Hydrophilic components of humus substances ensure the eluvial and eluvial—illuvial differentiation of the soil profile; hydrophobic components are responsible for the accumulative type of humus profile and the water stability of soil aggregates. Possible mechanisms for the formation of hydrophobic-hydrophilic properties of humus substances and its role in stable aggregates formation are discussed. The suitability of mathematical equations has been considered for the description of the decomposition dynamics of the soil aggregates in time, the selection of the best model, and the statistical analysis of the parameters of the corresponding models. The quantitative analysis of the interrelations between the parameters characterizing the water stability and the characteristics of the soil organic matter has revealed a unimodal relationship between the parameter responsible for the water stability of the aggregates and the content of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic components for the studied typical chenozem (Voronic Chernozems Pachic, WRB, 2006 or Haplic Chernozems, FAO, 1988) (Orenburg oblast). The optimal relation between hydrophobic and hydrophilic components for high aggregates water stability of typucal chernozem is about 60% of hydrophilic and 40% of hydrophobic components in the composition of soil organic matter. Keywords: soil organic matter, amphyphilic properties, soil structure, water stable aggregates, chernozem, mathematical models, quantitative estimation, comparative analysis, soil properties

Introduction The results of studies of performed up to now allow humus substances to be considered as a multicomponent system. The strategy of studying such objects involves simplification by the partition of components and their separate study. This approach implies the examination of the initial multicomponent system as a mixture of some discrete states, the number of which is determined and limited by the available experimental data. The crucial problem is the choice of the discriminative criterion. Since the middle of the last century, the separation of humus substances has been based on their solubility in acids and alkalis. Although this property is never realized in natural conditions, the solubility index is accepted in soil science as a genetic characteristic of humus and soils in the whole. In spite of the wide use of the acid-alkali separation of humus substances into components, this characteristic cannot reveal the formation mechanisms of the soil humus profile and explain the reasons behind differences among the humus components in soils of different genesis.

* Corresponding author. Lomosonov Moscow State University, Faculty of Soil Science, Leninskie Gory, Moscow, 119991 Russia Tel.: +7(495)9393965 Fax: +7(495)9393684 E-mail address: [email protected]

The uncertain, conditional, and limited character of data on humus composition is more and more often noted in the course of their interpretation (Shein and Karpachevskii, 2007; Milanovskiy, 2009). Although the participation of humus substances in soil structurization is logically evident, the physicochemical nature of this process is far from clear. Analysis of an additional property of humus substances, which qualitatively differs in composition and genesis from the characteristic used and is somehow manifested in natural conditions, is apparently necessary. The capacity of humus substances to enter into hydrophobic interactions can serve as a more natural property of humus substances and criterion for their fractionation. The presence of humus components differing in capacity for hydrophobic interactions is confirmed by the results of salting out (Shein and Karpachevskii, 2007; Milanovskiy, 2009) and the fractionation of humus substances by hydrophobic interaction chromatography (HIC) (Milanovskiy, 2009). Really, the majority, if not the totality, of soil-forming processes proceed with the participation of water. The nature of interaction between a substance and water depends on the hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties of the former. All organic substances that are sources of humus substances (through humification or other processes) are of biological origin. Most biological macromolecules are amphiphilic compounds; i.e., they are capable of exhibiting both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties (Shein and Karpachevskii, 2007; Milanovskiy, 2009). Their amphiphility is explained by the presence of both hydrophilic (polar) groups and hydrophobic (nonpolar) zones in their structure. The ratio between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic fragments in a molecule determines its solubility, spatial organization, and diversity of functional properties. Apparently, the more pronounced the hydrophilic properties of humus substances, the more mobile these substances in the soil profile and the more active they are as agents of acid hydrolysis of minerals. Hydrophobic humus substances, on the contrary, are immobilized on the site of their formation and are responsible for the accumulative characteristics of the profile. This circumstance apparently determines the significance and role of amphiphility in the formation of the humus soil profile. Apparently, amphiphility largely determines differences in the elemental composition and physicochemical properties of humus acid preparations from soils of different genesis. Mineral soil components are hydrophilic; therefore, organic matter is responsible for the formation of more hydrophobic surfaces in the soil. The degree of surface hydrophobicity of organo-mineral particles determines their capacity for interacting due to hydrophobic binding and formation of water-stable aggregates or their susceptibility to peptization due to the formation of hydrogen bonds. We suppose that hydrophobic humus substances determine the formation of structural bonds and are responsible for the formation and stability (water resistance) of soil structure. The formation of aggregates due to the hydrophobic interaction between elementary soil particles covered by humus substances is related to the formation of the energetically more favorable surface of the aggregates formed (in an aqueous environment). Strong interactions among water molecules are disturbed during the "dissolution" of the substance in water. In the case of ionogenic (hydrophilic) compounds, these disturbances are balanced by the replacement of the water-water interaction by the ion-water interaction. The dissolution of nonpolar (hydrophobic) substances does not involve such a balancing, and no dissolution of substances in water takes place. The association of hydrophobic particles upon the least disturbance of interaction between water molecules is energetically more profitable in this case (Milanovskiy, 2009). On the whole, hydrophobic binding can be determined as an interaction between particles that is stronger than their interaction with water and which cannot be due to covalent or hydrogen bonds, electrostatic attraction, or charge transfer. On this basis, the degree of hydrophobicity of humus substances will determine the water stability of soil structure and probably its general resistance to external impacts. The confirmation of this statement was the first task of this work. Finally, the explanation of reasons and conditions for the formation of humus substances with different amphiphilic properties is of great importance. To find the reasons and explain the mechanisms of the interrelation between the soil mineral particles and soil organic matter with the use of mathematical models was the fourth task of this work. Thus, the aim of this work was the theoretical and experimental substantiation of the analysis of functional role of amphiphilic properties of humus substances (manifested in both hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions) during the soil-forming processes. The objectives of the work were to reveal the interrelation between the amphilitic properties of humus substances and (1) investigation of water stability of aggregated of typical chernozem in different kinds of

Figure 1. Total amount of degraded aggregates (у) as a function of time (t) for the 3 to 5_mm aggregates of an ordinary chernozem under forest. The approximation equation y = (44.0153)(1 – exp(–(2.80306)t)), R = 0.969, and F =0.61248 at a significance level of <0.01.

Method of hydrophobic fractioning was used to separate hydrophobic and hydrophilic components of SOM. SOM was isolated from mineral soil horizons by the solution 0.1M Na4P2O7+0.1N NaOH solution at the soil : solution ratio 1:10. The extract of humus substances was purified from mineral impurities by centrifugation (8000 rpm; 15 min) and filtration through a 0.45-µm membrane filter. Hydrophobic interaction chromatography was operated on Octyl_Sepharose CL-4b (Pharmacia). SOM preparations dissolved (5 mg/ml) in 0.05 M TRI-HCl buffer with pH 8.0 and humus substances directly extracted from soils were fractioned. The sample volume was 0.5 ml; the rate of filtration was 1 ml/min; eluate was monitored at 280 nm; a 1 x 10 cm column was used. The gradient elution was supplemented with the elution of the last fraction with a 0.1 N NaOH + 5 mM EDTA solution. The first two fractions (fractions 1 and 2) eluted from the column in the presence of ammonium sulfate had predominantly hydrophilic properties (we shall name them hydrophilic fractions), and the following fractions (fractions 3, 4, 5 and 6) were hydrophobic. Results and Discussion The obtained approximation parameters can be qualitatively and quantitatively interpreted. In the example with the approximation of the water stability of the aggregates, the numerical values of the parameters n1

Milanovskiy, E., Rusanov, A.M., Shein, E., 2013. Dependence of aggregates water stability from the contents of hydrophilic and hydrophobic components in the organic matter of chernozems. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 1-5 and n2 for a specific object were also obtained. The parameter n1 reflects the total amount of degraded aggregates for the time tending to infinity. For example, the analysis of 50 aggregates by the Andrianov method gave the dynamics of the aggregate degradation, i.e., the total amount of degraded aggregates as a function of time. Then, the approximation with the equation y = n1(1 – exp(–n2t)) determined n1 = 45, which signified that 45 aggregates in our set were water unstable and 5 aggregates were stable in the infinitely long experiment. Thus, (50 – n1) is the indicator of the water stability for a set of 50 aggregates. The parameter n2 is the rate of degradation. For example, the same 50 aggregates could degrade within 10 min or within 10 h. Obviously, the larger n2, the more rapidly the aggregates decompose. Thus, n2 reflects the degradation rate of the aggregates. From the values given in Fig. 2, it can be seen that n1 = 44 and n2 = 2.8. These values indicate that 6 aggregates were long_term stable and the degradation rate was also relatively high. Thus, the object can be characterized and different objects can be compared in this way. This is the qualitative analysis of the approximation parameters. The quantitative analysis is also possible, in which the characteristics of the analyzed objects can be statistically compared on the basis of the obtained approximation parameters for different objects at the use of the same equation for the description of the experimental data. Obviously, it is necessary to first analyze whether the approximation parameters themselves are reliable, which is automatically done in almost all statistical software packages. Given the approximation parameters and their statistics (in particular, the average standard errors Sb), the studied objects can be use in soil properties assessment. The presented example with chernozems aggregates destruction shows that the use of the approximation parameters of the soil characteristics allows one to perform an additional analysis of the studied phenomena, to statistically assess the effect of any factor, and to advance supplementary hypotheses for the occurring processes (Pachepsky, 1992). Given the quantitative parameters of a soil characteristic, its relationship with conventional properties can be found. For example, one can attempt to reveal and analyze the relationships of the parameters of the water stability (n1 and n2) of the aggregates with such conventional properties as the contents of the organic substances and the hydrophobic and hydrophilic components in the soil organic matter, which are probably responsible for the formation of water_stable bonds. Given 30 to 60 data for the parameters n1, and n2, as well as data on the content of he hydrophobic–hydrophilic fractions. Note that the hydrophobic– hydrophilic fractions are usually combined into the group of (fractions 1–3 in hydrophobic chromatography) and hydrophobic fractions (fractions 4 and 5) (Milanovskiy, 2009). Thus, the relationship between the content of the hydrophilic components and the parameter reflecting the instability of the aggregates in water (n1) is nonlinear with a maximum at the specific content of the hydrophilic components (Figure 2).

Figure 3. Parameter n1 reflecting the water stability of the aggregates as a function of the content of hydrophilic components in the soil organic matter for the aggregates of an ordinary chernozem.

An analogous relationship is also typical for the content of the hydrophobic components of the soil organic matter. This implies that the soil organic matter of the chernozems forms water_stable aggregates at specific proportions of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic components, which determines the specific formation mechanism of the water stable bonds. Conclusion (1) The quantitative estimation of the soil characteristics and distributions, their comparative analysis, and their use in physically based forecasting simulation models require the mathematical description of the soil characteristics (the dependences of the property on the affecting factor) and the property distributions (the size distribution of the particles: the grainsize, micro_, and macroaggregate compositions, etc.). The assessment and comparative analysis are based on the approximation parameters of the specific data using the selected mathematical model, which can be statistically described and compared. (2) The exponential equations y = n1(1 – exp(–n2t)) (where у is the total amount of aggregates degraded by the moment t) are best suitable for describing the degradation of the aggregates under the effect of water (in the analysis of the amount of degraded aggregates in time by the Andrianov method). (3) The quantitative analysis of the relationships of the parameters characterizing the wedging resistance of the aggregates as a function of the water content and the aggregate degradation in still water (the water stability) with the conventional soil properties and the characteristics of the soil organic matter showed that an optimal dependence (with one maximum) of the parameter responsible for the water stability of the aggregates with the contents of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic components exists for the studied typical chernozem (Orenburg oblast). Achknowledgement This work was supported in part by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project no. 10−04−00993a, 11−04−01241a, 11−04−97090 and 12−04−00350-а) References Milanovskiy, E. Yu., 2009. Humic Substances as Natural Hydrophobic–Hydrophilic Compounds. GEOS, Moscow, Russia. [in Russian]. Pachepsky, Ya. A., 1992. Mathematical Models of Processes in Reclaimed Soils. Izd. Mosk. Gos. Univ., Moscow, Russia. [in Russian]. Shein, E.V., Rusanov, A.M., Khaidapova, D.D., Nikolaeva, E.I. 2007. Parametric assessment of soil physical functions. Bulletin of the Moscow University Series 17, Soil Science 2, 47–52. Shein, E.V., Sakunkonchak, T.S., Milanovskii, E.V., Khaidapova, D.D. Mazirov, M.A., Khokhlov, N.F. 2009. Physical properties of soddy podzolic soils in a long term agronomic experiment. Bulletin of the Moscow University Series 17, Soil Science 4, 51–57. Shein, E.V., Karpachevskii, L.O., 2007. Theory and Methods of Soil Physics. Grif i K, Moscow, Russia. [in Russian].

Regularities of Cu, Pb and Zn adsorption by chernozems of the South of Russia David L. Pinsky a, Tatiana M. Minkina *,b a Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems of Soil Science, Moscow oblast, 142290, Russia b Southern Federal University, Faculty of Soil Biology, Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia

Abstract

The parameters of Cu2+, Pb2+ and Zn2+ adsorption by chernozems of the south of Russia and their particle-size fractions were studied. The adsorption capacity of chernozems for Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ depending on the particle-size distribution decreased in the following sequence: clay loamy ordinary chernozem ~ clay loamy southern chernozem > loamy southern chernozem > loamy sandy southern chernozem. According to the parameters of the adsorption by the different particle-size fractions (Cmax and k), the heavy metal cations form a sequence analogous to that obtained for the entire soils: Cu2+ ≥ Pb2+ > Zn2+. The parameters of the heavy metal adsorption by similar particle-size fractions separated from different soils decreased in the following order: clay loamy chernozem > loamy chernozem > loamy sandy chernozem. The ratio between the content of exchangeable cations displaced from the soil adsorbing complex (SAC) into the solution and the content of adsorbed HMs decreased with the increasing concentration of adsorbed HMs. These values could be higher (for Cu2+ and Pb2+), equal, or lower than 1 (for Zn2+) and depend on the properties of HMs. At the first case, this was due to the dissolution of readily soluble salts at low HM concentrations in the SAC. In the latter case, this was related to the adsorption of associated forms HMs and the formation of new phases localized on the surface of soil particles at high HM concentrations in the SAC. Keywords: adsorption, exchangeable cations, particle-size fractions, heavy metals

Introduction Ion-exchange adsorption phenomena are important in the immobilization of heavy metals (HMs) by soils. Numerous works are devoted to the study of this problem. However, the interaction features of different particle-size soil fractions and their role in the immobilization of HMs studied insufficiently. Therefore, the assessment of the effect of the particle-size distribution on the adsorption properties of soils is a vital task. In spite of the somewhat arbitrary nature of the methods for the analysis of the soil particle-size distribution and the boundaries of the particle-size fractions, they at large reflect the existing differences in the composition and properties of their particles. In the study of the soil’s dispersion, attention is focused on the content of clay (as sum of silt <1 μm and dust 1-10 μm) and sand, because these data are used for the classification of soils according to their particle-size distribution. The sand fraction includes the particles from 10 to 1000 μm. It mainly consists of quartz and small amounts of amphiboles and feldspars. These components play the role of a mechanical diluter for the substances mainly concentrated in the fractions <10 μm (Kryshchenko et al., 2008). The mineral components of the sand fraction are relatively inactive. Perelomov, Pinskii (2003) found that the changes in the physicochemical properties of soils at the addition of 50 % washed sand under soil contamination with zinc

* Corresponding author. Southern Federal University, Faculty of Soil Biology, Rostov-on-Don, pr. Stachki 194/1, 344090, Russia Tel.: +79185531632 E-mail address: [email protected]

The content of humus was determined by the Tyurin method modified by Simakov, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by the Bobko–Askinazi method, the available phosphorus and exchangeable potassium were determined by the Machigin method, the pH was determined by potentiometry, and the carbonates were determined by the Kudrin method (Sokolov, 1975). The exchangeable cations were determined by the Shaimukhametov method (Shaimukhametov, 1993). The analysis of the particle-size distribution and the separation of the silt and clay were performed by the pipette method after the pyrophosphate treatment of the samples (Vadyunina and Korchagina, 1986). To study the ion-exchange adsorption of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ cations, the soil in the natural ionic form was disaggregated using a pestle with a rubber head and sieved through a 1-mm sieve. The soil samples were treated with solutions of Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ nitrates. The concentrations of the initial solutions varied in the range from 0.05 to 1 mM/l. The soil:solution ratio was 1:10. The suspensions were shaken for 1 h, left to stand to 24 h, and filtered. The contents of HMs in the filtrates were determined by atomic absorption spectroscopy. The contents of adsorbed HM cations were calculated from the difference between the metal concentrations in the initial and equilibrium solutions. Each point of the experimental isotherms was found in triplicate. The isotherms had a form described by the following Langmuir equation:

Cads. = Cmax.kC/(1 + kC), (1) where: Cads. is the content of the adsorbed cations; Cmax. is the maximum adsorption of the HM, mM/100 g of soil; k is the constant of the affinity; and C is the HM concentration in the equilibrium solution, mM/l. The approximation of the experimental isotherms by the Langmuir equation was performed using the SigmaPlot 2001 statistics package at a confidence probability of 0.95. Results The isotherms of the HM adsorption by the ordinary chernozem and southern chernozems are shown in Fig. 1; the parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by the soils studied are given in Table 2.

Figure 1. Isotherm adsorption of Cu, Pb and Zn by clay loamy ordinary chernozem (A) and southern chernozems: clay loamy calcareous (B), loamy (C) and sandy (D).

Table 2. Parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by chernozems with different particle-size distributions Adsorption parameters Cu2+ Pb2+ Zn2+ Clay loamy ordinary chernozem Cmax., mM/kg 13.3 ± 1.30 14.55 ± 0.60 14.55 ± 0.60 k, l/mM 93.72 ± 20.69 40.89 ± 4.87 3.28 ± 0.21 R2 0.94 0.93 0.99 Clay loamy southern chernozem Cmax., mM/kg 23.66 ± 3.54 21.15 ± 5.90 13.48 ± 0.48 k, l/mM 58.25 ± 13.20 47.13 ± 17.11 4.09 ± 0.35 R2 0.99 0.96 0.99 Loamy southern chernozem Cmax., mM/kg 20.59 ± 9.16 16.57 ± 5.39 12.55 ± 0.59 k, l/mM 54.54 ± 21.92 34.80 ± 12.73 3.95 ± 0.25 R2 0.99 0.88 0.98 Loamy sandy southern chernozem Cmax., mM/kg 19.01 ± 1.02 14.65 ± 1.19 11.05 ± 0.93 k, l/mM 25.90 ± 2.36 21.83 ± 3.44 2.63 ± 0.34

R2 0.95 0.97 0.99

The general shapes of the isotherms of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by the silt and clay from the southern chernozem were analogous to those of the HM adsorption by the entire soil: the adsorption was of limited character and followed the Langmuir equation (Fig. 2, 3). Copper and lead were more intensively adsorbed by the particle-size fractions than the zinc.

Figure 2. Isotherms of Cu2+ (1), Pb2+ (2), and Zn2+ (3) adsorption by clay (A) and silt (B) fraction of the clay loamy southern chernozem.

Figure 3. Isotherms adsorption of Pb2+ by soils (1), silt (2) and clay (3) of southern chernozems: clay loam (A), loam (B), and sandy (C).

In the particle-size fractions separated from the soils, the concentrations of Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2 decreased with the decreasing particle size. The values of k and Cmax. characterizing the adsorption of HMs by the southern chernozem and its particle-size fractions formed the following sequence: silt > clay > entire soil (Tables 3, 4). A similar sequence was observed for the particle-size fractions of the ordinary chernozem (Minkina et al., 2009).

Table 3. Parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by a clay loamy southern chernozem and its particle-size fractions Adsorption parameters Cu2+ Pb2+ Zn2+ Silt Cmax., mM/kg 28,45±0,46 25,20±0,59 17,90±0,47 k, l/mM 80,20±20,29 65,90±16,14 18,65±3,00 R2 0.99 0.99 0.99 Clay Cmax., mM/kg 22,15±1,22 20,40±2,15 12,50±1,96 k, l/mM 58,20±14,54 49,26±13,35 12,07±3,12

R2 0.92 0.98 0.98 Soil Cmax., mM/kg 17,58±3,03 14,54±2,97 8,99±1,90 k, l/mM 38,80±12,33 30,45±11,96 4,94±0,63 R2 0.95 0.96 0.94

Table 4. The coefficients of the binary correlation between parameters of the Cu, Pb, and Zn adsorption and the particle- size fraction and humus content in chernozem soils of the south of Russia Silt Clay Humus in soil Humus in clay Metal Сmax. k Сmax. k Сmax. k Сmax. k Cu 0,99 0,91 0,99 0,89 0,96 0,64 - 0,88 - 0,99 Pb 0,98 0,99 0,98 0,99 0,97 0,84 - 0,86 - 0,96 Zn 0,99 0,90 0,98 0,88 0,87 0,62 - 0,99 - 0,99

To assess the role of humus in the adsorption of HM cations by the soils and their particle-size fractions, the correlation coefficients (R) between the content of the adsorbed Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+; and contents of clay and silt in the soils; and the humus under contamination of HM were calculated (Table 5).

Table 5. The coefficients of the correlation (R) between parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by the soils; the particle-size distribution; and the humus content in the soils

Parameter R (Cmax.) R (k) Silt 0,98-0,99 0,90-0,99 Clay 0,98-0,99 0,88-0,99 Soils 0,83-0,97 0,62-0,89 Soil humus 0,83-0,97 0,62-0,89

Сhernozem with a natural content of exchangeable cations was used in the experiments; therefore, the assessment of their participation in the sorption processes has of significant interest. The balance between of adsorbed HM cations (Cads.) and displaced into solution Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, and H+ are given in Table 6.

Table 6. The balance of heavy metals adsorbed cations by ordinary chernozem and displaced exchangeable cations

Adsorbed HM, Displaced cations, meq/kg ∑disp. cat. ads. HM meq/kg Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ H+ ∑disp. cat. Cu(NO3)2 1.00 2.4 0.2 0.04 0.007 0.001 2.65 2.65 1.58 2.4 1.40 0.17 0.012 0.001 3.98 2.52 1.98 3.4 1.60 0.38 0,013 0.001 5.40 2.73 5.94 7.8 3.20 0.46 0.013 0.002 11.48 1.93 9.90 11.0 4.20 0.72 0.016 0.002 15.94 1,61 15.82 15.6 5.00 1.4 0.08 0.007 22.09 1,40 19.38 17.4 6.00 1.5 0.24 0.009 25.15 1,30 Pb(NO3)2 0.98 2.0 0.36 0.18 0.06 0.001 2.06 2.1 1.58 2.4 0.5 0.17 0.08 0.002 3.15 1.99 1.96 2.4 0.4 0.25 0.15 0.002 3.2 1.63 5.9 6.2 1.8 0.6 0.30 0.003 8.9 1.51 9.8 9.8 3.4 1.0 0.45 0.004 14.65 1.5 15.6 14.0 5.0 1.8 0.96 0.005 21.77 1.34 19.32 15.0 5.8 2.0 1.10 0.006 23.91 1.24

Zn(NO3)2 0.86 1.8 0.6 0.03 0.008 0.001 2.44 2.83 1.3 2.0 0.6 0.12 0.001 0.001 2.72 2.09 1.6 2.0 1.0 0.19 0.014 0.001 3.21 2.0 4.8 4.4 1.8 0.29 0.015 0.001 6.51 1.36 7.8 6.8 2.2 0.33 0.015 0.002 9.35 1.2 11.8 7.4 2.6 0.48 0.06 0.003 10.54 0.89 14.2 10.0 2.6 0.50 0.08 0.003 13.18 0.93 Discussion The analysis of the obtained data showed for the southern chernozems that a tendency toward a decrease in the maximum adsorption Cmax. and the metal adsorption constants k was observed when going from the clay loamy to loamy sandy soils (Fig. 1). The tendency was more pronounced for the adsorption of Cu2+ and Pb2+ ions. The decrease in Cmax. at the change of the particle-size distribution in similar soils is related to the known relationship between the specific surface and the adsorption capacity of the soils. For the southern chernozems, it varied in the following sequence: clay loamy > loamy > loamy sandy. The tendencies toward regular changes in the parameters of the ion-exchange adsorption of the HM cations by the soils with different particle-size distributions can be due to the actual differences in the chemistry and mineralogy of the corresponding fractions of the studied soils and the ability of HMs to specifically interact with specific groups of exchangeable sites. In particular, the values of Cmax. and k calculated from the isotherm of the Cu2+ adsorption by the clay loamy ordinary chernozem were found to be significantly lower than the corresponding values for the clay loamy southern chernozem, which could be related to the differences in the composition of the fine fractions manifested at the soil subtype level and the features of the Cu2+’s interaction with the active sites on the surface of the soil particles. Wong et al. (2007) studied the sorption of zinc by soils differing in acidity and particle-size. By the ability to sorb zinc cations, they formed the following sequence: calcareous clay soil > calcareous sandy soil > acid sandy laterite soil. This sequence indicated an important role of the particle-size distribution and the soil solution’s pH during the sorption of metals. The important role of organic matter in metal adsorption was noted in the works of Karpukhin and Sychev (2005) and Minkina et al. (2006, 2012). Data obtained by Plyaskina and Ladonin (2005) indicated that more than 50% of the copper and zinc in all particle-size fractions of a leached chernozem was bound to organic matter, and the remaining portion was strongly bound to the mineral soil components, including iron minerals. For zinc, the interaction with organic matter was less typical (Putilina et al., 2009). At the same time, a significant part of the surface of chernozem particles is covered with humus films. They have a complex effect on the adsorption capacity of the soil particles. They can hamper the contact of HM ions with reactive sites located on the surfaces of mineral soil components and in their medium and small pores and hydrophobize some surface areas, which resulted in a decrease in the exchange capacity of soils (Pinskii, Kurochkina, 2006). At the same time, new reactive sites can appear due to the functional groups of adsorbed organic molecules. The reliable decrease in the value of k with the decreasing content of the fine fractions in soils cannot be explained only by the change in the specific surface of the soil particles. The constants characterize the energy of the cations interaction with the active sites on the surfaces and are mainly related to the qualitative composition of soil particles. Thus, the change in the adsorption constants with the variation in the particle-size distribution clearly indicates a difference in the qualitative composition of the fine fractions of the soils studied. Moreover, the k values depend more on the content of the fine fractions than the Cmax. values. When the studied soils are ranked according to the HM adsorption parameters, the following sequence is observed for the adsorption constants: clay loamy southern chernozem > loamy southern chernozem > loamy sandy southern chernozem. The values of Cmax. for the adsorption of copper and lead little vary with the changes in the soils’ particle-size distribution. However, the tendency toward a decrease in this parameter with decreasing contents of clay and silt is clearly traced. Thus, in this case too, the extensive

Pinsky, D.L., Minkina, T.M., 2013. Regularities of Cu, Pb and Zn adsorption by chernozems of the South of Russia. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 6- 15 adsorption parameter – the maximum adsorption – is less sensitive to changes in the particle-size distribution than the intensive parameter of the process – the constant of the adsorption equilibrium. The clay, which includes silt and fine fractions (1-10 μm) is the main carrier of the soil’s adsorption properties; therefore, given the quantitative and qualitative compositions of the soil, the further behavior of the HMs can be predicted. Therefore, the direct study of the HM adsorption by the separate soil particle-size fractions has a significant interest. The separation of the particle-size fractions by the pipette method after the pyrophosphate treatment of the samples disturbs the natural composition of the exchangeable cations; therefore, the samples should be converted into the same state. For this purpose, the soil and its particle-size fractions were converted into the monoionic Ca form. The original soil sieved through a 1-mm sieve and the separated particle-size fractions were converted into the monoionic Ca forms by tenfold treatment with a 0.25 M Ca(NO3)2 solution. Then, the soil was washed from excess salt with distilled water, air-dried, and homogenized. Samples of the soils and fractions were treated with tenfold volumes of solutions containing different amounts of HM nitrates with the addition of calcium nitrate to maintain a constant ionic strength of 0.01 mol/l. The further procedures were similar to those described above for the study of the HM adsorption by soils. The works of some authors (Scheinos et al., 2002, Titova et al., 1996) carried out with different soil types showed that the saturation of the fine fractions by HMs decreased in the following sequence: silt > fine dust (1-5 μm) > medium dust (5-10 μm). The dust fraction contained 14.6% Cu2+, 16.6% Pb2+, and 12.6% Zn2+ on the average for all the soils (Zyrin and Chebotareva, 1989). On the average for all the soils but the krasnozem, the concentrations of Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ in the clay fractions were found to be 52, 38, and 162 mg/kg, respectively. Higher contents of HMs in these fractions were reported by Titova et al. (1996). It was noted that the dust and clay of the soils accumulated 25–65% of the Cu2+, 35–95% of the Pb2+, and 53–89% of the Zn2+. The maximum concentration of Cu2+ was found in the dust fractions lower than 1.8 g/cm3 in density; that of Pb2+ was most frequently observed in the clay. The differences in the parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by the studied soils and their particle-size fractions are determined not only by the specific surfaces of the adsorbents but also by their composition and properties. The data obtained by Kryshchenko and Kuznetsov (2003) showed that the clay fractions of the southern chernozem contain four groups of clay minerals: kaolinite, chlorite, mica, and smectite. In the dust fraction of the soils, the content of hydromicas increases by 10–19% compared to the clay fraction, and that of smectites decreases. The content of humus in the dust fraction increases by the same factor. The content of clay minerals in the clay and dust fractions is higher than that in the entire soil. On the other hand, the higher of secondary minerals content in the fraction, lead to the higher its adsorption capacity. The role of organic matter in the adsorption of HMs by the soils and the particle-size fractions is ambiguous. The soil organic matter has a high exchange capacity. However, in the soils and especially in the fine fractions, it is usually bound to the mineral soil components. Highly condensed humus blocks the medium and fine pores, which significantly reduces the adsorption capacity. Organic molecules are strongly adsorbed at these positions because of their high activity (Kaiser and Guggenberger, 2003). Kurochkina et al. (2002) showed that carboxyl-containing organic molecules are most strongly adsorbed on positively charged surface sites, primarily on the apices and edges of crystals and various surface defects, including medium and fine pore throats. The analysis of the results (Table 6) showed that the content of exchangeable cations released into solution at the HMs adsorption by the soil decreased in the following series: Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Na+ > K+ > H+. In capacity of the HM cations to displace exchangeable cations from the soil adsorbing complex into the solution, they can be arranged in the following series: Cu2+ > Pb2+ > Zn2+. This series completely corresponded to the adsorption constants of the individual cations from nitrate solutions (Table 2). Thus, the displacement of the exchangeable cations from SAC into solution due to adsorption of HM cations was directly related to the relative affinity of each of them to the soil studied. When the sorption of HMs increased, the ratio of the sum displaced exchangeable cations to the adsorbed metals (Σdisp. cat./Cads.) decreased (Table 6). During adsorption of copper and lead from nitrate solutions, these ratios were higher than 1 in the entire concentration range. During adsorption of zinc, the ratio of the

Especially low values of the Σdispl.cat./Cads. (ratio <1) were typical for zinc adsorption. In this case, the mechanism of the zinc interaction with the exchangeable cations differed from those for copper and lead. Zinc was the least associated in the solutions in the specified pH range and occurred almost completely as free cations. The Zn2+ cations had a lower relative affinity for the chernozem compared to the Cu2+ and Pb2+ cations; therefore, they displaced smaller amounts of exchangeable cations and especially Ca2+ and Mg2+ into the solution. The presence of specific adsorption positions with relatively high affinities for zinc in the SAC favored the adsorption of extra amounts of this element and the acidification of the solution. However, the precipitation of difficultly soluble zinc compounds on the surface was also of importance (Minkina et. al., 2008). Roberts et al. (2003) showed that the surface precipitation of zinc occurs at its concentrations lower than the corresponding solubility products. This can be related to the local pH microheterogeneity due to the cluster matrix structure of the soil particles' surface (Pinskii and Kurochkina, 2006, 2012). It results from the partial protonation of the surface of the soil’s clay minerals, which leads in the formation of positively charged cluster matrix structures. In the close vicinity of this surface, an excess of ОН– ions is formed in the solution volume, which results in high local pH values and radically changes the character of the physicochemical processes between the soil surface and the contacting solution.

The formation of willemite (Zn2SiO4), kerolite (Si4(Mg2.25Zn0.75)O10), hemimorphite (Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2), and zinc sulfide on the surface of the soil particles under waterlogging conditions was proved by EXAFS spectroscopy (Martinez et al., 2006). The localization of these minerals was possible near the surface areas with high pH values. Borda and Sparks (2007) referred to such behavior of HMs as clustering. It accompanies the sorption–desorption of HMs by soils. An important role in the formation of localized insoluble surface compounds is played by the kinetics of the processes. The adsorption is a relatively rapid process, and the formation of new surface phases is a significantly slower process. It involves not only the adsorption of HMs on the corresponding surface areas but also the transformation of the adsorbed ions, which is slowed down by the interaction with the surface and requires additional energy consumption. Thus, there are many possibilities for the seeming nonequivalence of the HM exchange with exchangeable cations from the SAC, including the precipitation of insoluble compounds localized on the surface of the soil particles. However, these processes should be behind the adsorption processes. In this case, they can be identified from the thorough study of the process’s kinetics. The result obtained is of methodological importance. It indicates the presence of areas with high specific adsorbing capacities for a specific HM (in accordance with its properties) on the surface of the soil particles,

According to the values of the adsorption parameters (Cmax. and k) for the different particle-size fractions, the HM cations formed a sequence analogous to that obtained for the entire soils: Cu2+ ≥ Pb2+ > Zn2+. The parameters of the HM adsorption by the same particle-size fractions isolated from the different soils decreased in the following sequence: clay loamy chernozem > loamy chernozem > loamy sandy chernozem. This was related to the qualitative differences in the mineralogy and chemistry of the separated fractions and the significant effect of their composition and properties on the parameters of the HM adsorption. The analysis of the changes in the parameters of the Cu2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+ adsorption by the studied soils and their particle-size fractions showed that the extensive adsorption characteristic – the maximum adsorption (Cmax.) – is a less sensitive parameter characterizing the adsorption capacity of the soils than the intensive characteristic of the process – the adsorption equilibrium constant (k).

The comparative assessment of the adsorbed HMs (Cads.) and exchangeable cations displaced into the solution indicated the absence of balance between these values. At low contents of HMs in the SAC, the transition of the over-equivalent amounts of exchangeable cations into the solution took place due to the dissolution of soluble Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, and K+ salts and the Ca2+ and Mg2+ carbonates present. At high contents of the adsorbed HMs, the sum of the exchangeable cations displaced into the solution became smaller than the adsorption of HMs, and the Σdispl. cat./Cads. ratio became lower than 1. This was due to the effect of different factors: the association of HMs with the solution components; the presence of sites specific for HM cations, the sorption on which was not typical for exchangeable cations; and the formation of different new phases localized on the surface of the soil particles. Acknowledgments This study was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, project nos. 13-04-00034 and by the Ministry of Science and Education of the Russian Federation, project no. 5.5349.2011, 14.А18.21.0641, GK 116.740.11.0528. References Borda, M.J., Sparks, D.L., 2007. Kinetics and mechanisms of sorption - desorption in soils: A Multiscale Assessment. In: A. Violante, P.M. Huang, G.M. Gadd (eds.), Biophysico-Chemical Processes of Heavy Metals and Metalloids in Soils Environments. Willey & Sons. pp. 97–124. Kaiser, K., Guggenberger, G., 2003. Mineral surface and soil organic matter. European Journal of Soil Science 54, 219– 236. Karpukhin, A.I., Sychev, V.G., 2005. Complex compounds of soil organic substances and metal ions. VNIIA, Moscow. 186 p. (in Russian). Kryshchenko, V.S., Golozubov, O.M., Kolesov, V.V., Rybyanets, T.V., 2008. Data bases on the composition and properties of soils. RSEI, Rostov-on-Don. 145 p. (in Russian). Kryshchenko, V.S., Kuznetsov, R.V., 2003. Clay Minerals in Soils of the Lower Don and Northern Caucasus. Izvestia Vuzov. Severo-Kavkazskii Region. Estestvennie Nauki 3, 86–92. Kurochkina, G.N., Pinskii, D.L., 2012. Development of a Mineralogical Matrix at the Adsorption of Polyelectrolytes on Soil Minerals and Soils. Eurasian Soil Science 45 (11), 1057-1067. Kurochkina, G.N. Pinskii, D.L., 2002. Mechanism of Adsorption of High Molecular Surfactants on Synthetic Analogues of Soil Aluminosilicates. Eurasian Soil Science 35 (10), 1046–1057.

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Transformation of upper part soil profile of sod-podzolic light loamy soils under the conditions of long-term soil improvement (To centerary of the long-term field experiment at Russian State Agrarian University-Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy) Nikolay S. Matyuk, Mikhail A. Mazirov *, Daria M. Kascheeva, Valery D. Polin, Valeria A. Arefieva

Russian State Agrarian University-Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, (RSAU-MTAA), Moscow, Russia

Abstract

Arable sod-podzolic soils have the definite characteristics inherited from the virgin soils and obtained during the modern process of soil genesis under the influence of mankind activity. In arable soils hydrothermal conditions, biological turnover of nutrients change significantly that connected with their taking out with the yield and the compensation with mineral and organic fertilizers. The period of agricultural treatment of the soils indicates the total influence of the intensification factors and causes the changes in characteristics, regimes and fertility not only of arable layer, but lower layers of the upper part of soil profile (0-100 cm). Keywords: soil profile, long-term experiment, humus, total nitrogen, mobile phosphorus, exchangeable potassium

Introduction In 2012 the Long-term field experiment at Russian State Agrarian University-MTAA known abroad as “Moscow Stationary” has the 100-year period of its establishing. As to the number and importance of the conducted researches this field experiment is included into the list of the unique experiments with the world value for the agronomical science. The first scientific and agronomical experiments on researching the fertilizers established in England soon after the publishing in 1840 “The Minimum Law of Libikh”, or the limiting factor related to the plants nutrients. In the second part of the XIX century “the wave of the field experimenting covered” the other countries in Europe and in the North America. In Russia, where a manure and, partly, ashes, were the main fertilizers of the dominating three-field crops rotation, the main purpose of such experiments was, along with the studying of mineral plant nutrition, the promotion of the new technologies in agriculture demonstration of the advantages of some types of fertilizers and crop rotations. The founders of the scientific agronomy in Russia – A.T. Bolotov, A.N. Engel’gardt, I.A. Stebut, K.A. Timiryazev, N.I. Vavilov, A.G. Doyarenko and other prominent scientists considered the field experiment as the main method for the research of the factors of plants life and the soil fertility. During the 100-year period the scientists of the various specialties from Timiryazev Academy, other institutions and research organization, both Russian and foreign, conducted researches at this Long-term field experiment.

* Corresponding author. Russian State Agrarian University-Moscow Timiryazev Agricultural Academy, (RSAU-MTAA), 127550 Moscow, Russia Tel.: + 7 499 976 16 42 Fax: + 7 499 976 29 10 E-mail address: [email protected]

The value of the results of the scientific researches is proportional to the duration of the field experiment and increases in process of approach of the experimental plot to the ecophytocenosis balance. In a long-term field experiment there is the partial compensation of the effects deviations of actions and interactions of studied and not-studied, but controlled factors that balances the basic background for all experimental variants. Under the conditions of long-term field experiment the effects of the actions, interactions and after- effects of agrotechnical treatments on the basis of the variety of the environmental factors are accumulated in the time period that advocate to solve the agricultural and environmental problems of definite soil and climatic zone. The long-term field experiments allow monitoring the humus content, nutrients content and circulation, including the microelements content, the dynamic of the soil pollution with heavy metals, toxins and the means harmful for the biosphere and the humankind. There is the possibility on the basis of the pedo – and agronomical background of the long-term field experiments to evaluate and predict the possible negative consequences of the implementation of these means. The effect of many biological and technological factors on the soil fertility and plant efficiency becomes evident only after tens years. Therefore, the long-term field experiments are irreplaceable for education purposes as a demonstrational materials and “live educational facilities”. The listed advantages of the long-term field experiments allow coming to the conclusion to preserve them as “the field laboratories”. The long-term field experiments have to be in free access for the scientists all around the world (Christensen Bеnt and Trentemoller, 1995; Dospekhov et al., 1976, 1980; Kiryushin, 1978; Puponin, 1984). Material and Methods Agrotechnical basis, conditions and methodology of the long-term field experiment Experimental plot of 1,5 hectares was the part of the 12th field in farm crop rotation at Timiryazev Academy. In the period of 1894-1901 on this field with the double-sided north-west slope of 1° the following crops were cultivated: winter rye with undersowed clover and timothy grass – grasses – grasses – oat with undersowed grasses – grasses – grasses – oat with undersowed grasses – grasses – grasses. The yield of grasses as a hay within this period didn’t exceed 10-12 quintal ha-1. In 1902 the field was under the black steam. In the period of 1903-1911 there was the following crops rotation: rye – potatoes – oat with undersowed grasses – grasses – grasses – oat – black steam – winter rye with undersowed perennial grasses – grasses of the 1st year. During the 18-year period before establishing the field experiment the manure fertilizing in doze of 36 t ha-1 was implemented only in 1909 that caused the double increase of grasses yield. Therefore, the plots of the field experiment were splited on the grass turf ground. Soil – sod-podzolic, long arable, acid, overflowed (Podsollivisol on FAO classification). Soil profile structure – double part: the upper part up to the depth of 40-50 cm is sandy, large-scale dusty loam; the lower part up to the depth of 3 m – light and medium loam with the sandy layers. The carbonate tracks (HCl light bowling) are indicated in the 3rd meter (Table 1).

Table 1. Average characteristics of arable soil layer fertility, 1972 Characteristics Value Physical sand (particles > 0,05 mm),% 46 Density of solid phase, g cm-3 2,65 Soil density, g cm-3 1,53 Maximum hyhgoscopics (mg), % 1,25 Field humidity, % 19,2 pH 5,2 Humus carbon (C), % 1,03 N (general content),% 0,079 C/N 13 -1 P2O5 (mobile), mg 100 g soil 23,5 -1 K2O (exchangeable), mg 100 g soil 13,3 Content of exchange bases, meq 100 g-1 soil 9,7

Scheme of the Long-term field experiment As the basis for the scheme the approbated analogue of the Long-term field experiment in Goettingen (Germany) established by Dreksler to research the effect of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium separate and combined implementation on crops fertility was taken. In 1912 before sowing the summer crops 6 fields were established, each divided into 2 parts by the road of 3 m length. On the first part of the field (size of the field – 1 400 m2) monocrops were cultivated: winter rye, potatoes, oat, clover, flax and black steam. On another part (size of one field – 1 200 m2) the 6-field crops rotation was implemented: black steam – winter rye – potatoes – oat with undersowed clover – clover –flax. Across 6 fields with monocrops 11 plots with variants of the fertilizers were splited: 1- N; 2 – P; 3 – K; 4 – 0 (without fertilizing); 5 – NP; 6 – NK; 7 –PK; 8 – NPK + manure; 9 – NPK; 10 – manure; 11 – 0 (without fertilizing). The same variants excluding the 10th and the 11th, were implemented on the fields with crop rotations. The size of registration plot was 100 m2, the size of arable plot was from 127 up to 133 m2 accordingly. After the lime implementation on the half part of all the fields the size of registration plot was 50 m2. Agrotechnology improvement The most significant agrotechnological improvements in the Long-term field experiment are connected with the doses of the fertilizers and proportions of the nutrients in these fertilizers. According to these factors four periods within the 100-year period of the experiment’s implementation are defined (Table 2).

Table 2. Fertilizing system in the long-term field experiment (mineral fertilizers – kg ha-1, manure and lime – t ha-1) Period Dose of fertilizers Amount of fertilizers N P2O5 K2O manure N P2O5 K2O manure lime I (1912-1938) 7,5 15 22,5 18 195 390 585 486 0 II (1939-1954) 75 60 90 20 1200 960 1440 320 9 III (1955-1972) 50 75 60 10 900 1350 1080 180 3 IV (1973-2012) 100 150 120 20 3800 5700 4560 760 18

Modifications in the scheme of the long-term field experiment As pointed Egorov (1972) and Dospekhov (1975), in the period of the first 60 years after establishing the Long-term field experiment there were no principal changes in the scheme of the experiment. However, in process of obtaining the results of the researches, various improvements of the scheme were undertaken. As the concept “experimental scheme” means, first of all, concrete variants, it is worth detailing three following changes of the basic scheme: 1. Up to 1937 nitrogen in nitrate form (up to 1921 - Chilean saltpetre, then Norwegian saltpetre, from 1924 – natron saltpetre) was studied in the 8th variant. Nitrogen in ammoniac form (sulphate ammoniac) was studied in the 9th variant (NPK from 1912). In 1938 there was the lime implementation on all the plots of the 8th variant (one occasion doze – 2,5 t ha-1) and manure implementation in doze of 20 t ha-1. This doze of manure was studied up to 1948 and in 1949 the final scheme of the 8th variant was formed – NPK + manure. 2. The first most important changing to the scheme was carried out by Egorov in 1949. It is connected with the introduction into the scheme the lime as the 3rd studied factor. The doze of lime calculated on hydrolytic acidity was 4,57 t ha-1 of limestone (83 % Ca +Mg in proportion of 2:1). New variants were established by the splitting of the basic plots into two parts. Crops yield was considered separately from the plots with lime implementation and from the plots without lime implementation. At the same time the permanent steam was studied only on the plots without lime implementation, and on the plots with lime implementation the crop rotation in time period was studied. Since the 2nd rotation the crops rotation began to correspond to the basic crops rotation. 3. The first principal changing to the scheme was carried out by Dospekhov in 1973. On all the plots of the even fields with crop rotation the common form of the fertilizers was implemented (NPK), in 1978 the lime in doze of 4,5 t ha-1 was implemented. On the odd fields studying 9 variants of the basic scheme with the differential fertilizing both with lime implementation and without lime implementation was

continued. After the introduction of the new variants both the informational content and the scope of the researches increased. Results and Discussion Systematical implementation of organic and mineral fertilizers along with the periodical lime implementation are most efficient method of chemical melioration of sod - podzolic soil and precondition for the increase of the arable soil efficiency. Results of the melioration are determined by the various factors: basic soil characteristics, types, doses and combinations of the fertilizers, and the special requirements of the cultivated crop. In the period of the first 60 years after the establishing the Long-term field experiment the various levels of the anthropogenic input received by each of 200 plots determined the repeated differences in humus and nutrients content (Table. 3).

Table 3. Effect of long-term soil treatment (1912-1972) on the potential soil fertility (average dozes of fertilizers and ameliorants: N36P44K51; manure – 16 t ha-1, lime* - 0,5 t ha-1)

Soil Perennial Effect of monocrops and crops rotation implementation characteristics fallow land Crops Steam** Rye Potatoes Oat Clover Flax rotation (barley) Humus content, % 2,19 1,76 0,89 2,02 1,49 1,77 1,70 1,84 P2O5, mg 100 g-1 soil 93 89 150 182 147 134 96 134 K2O, mg 100 g-1 soil 133 91 134 133 86 125 78 102 pH HCl 5,3 5,0 3,9 5,4 5,2 5,5 5,0 5,1 * lime implementation – once in every 6 years since 1949 ** in comparison with the plots without lime implementation It is worth paying attention the fact that the soil characteristics of the fertilized plots of the 6-field crops rotation with clover and steam are inferior to the not-fertilized plots with perennial fallow land. Monocrop of rye determines the establishing the favorable soil characteristics in comparison with the soil characteristics determined by the other monocrops or crops rotations. Humus content on the plots with the other crops (2, 02%) is close to the humus content (2,19%) on the plots with fallow land. The considerable losses of humus content during the 60-year period are indicated on the plots with monocrop of potatoes (21 t ha-1) and steam (36,1 t ha-1). Monocrops of summer cereals, clover and flax determined not significant losses of humus content. The value of the Long-term field experiment, as the unique one in the world, is determined by establishing, since its foundation (1912), the plot with the steam that splited into the plots with the different doses of the fertilizers. For example, the plot with the steam was introduced in the scheme of Rothamsted long-term field experiment only in 1959 on the meadow with cattle pasture. Results of the researches show the definite tendency to decreasing the carbon content during the steam treatment of the sod-podzolic loamy soil, moreover the rate of the annual losses is determined by the doses of implemented mineral and organic fertilizers. The considerable losses were indicated on the plots without fertilizing where during the first 10-year period the carbon content decreased by 37,5 % in comparison with the basic level (1,20%). During the next decennials the mineralization rate of the organic substance decreased that connected with obtaining the critical carbon content (0,48-0,52%) determined by the granulate content of this soil type. Implementation of mineral fertilizers in full doses (NPK) decreased the carbon decomposition rate in soil and the level of carbon content was 0,81-0,89%. Annual manure implementation (in average 17,7 t ha-1 during the 100-year period) defined steady or positive balance of carbon with the seasonal variations from 1,21 up to 1,27% on the plots with steam implementation. It is necessary to underline, that during the period of global climatic warming (1995-2010) the losses in carbon content decreased independently on the level of fertilizing that connected with the erosion processes both on the plots with steam implementation and on the horizontally adjacent plots (Figure 1). Under the conditions of biocenosis of perennial fallow land the definite tendency of maintaining the positive carbon balance was indicated. The carbon content during the 100-year period decreased up to 0,11 % or 3,3 t ha-1 As it was determined previously (Dospekhov et al., 1975, 1976, 1980), the long-term fertilizing and

Matyuk, N.S., Mazirov, M.A., Kascheeva, D.M., Polin, V.D., Arefieva, V.A., 2013. Transformation of upper part soil profile of sod- podzolic light loamy soils under the conditions of long-term soil improvement. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 16-24 periodical lime implementation of arable soil layer are the efficient methods of under arable layers treatment even with constant depth of ploughing of 20-22 cm. One-meter soil profiles on all the plots with monocrops and on two plots with crops rotation were studied systematically in 1974 at first time, secondly – in 2011.

Figure 1.Carbon content rate (Corg,%) on the plots with permanent steam and adjacent fallow land

Results on the evaluation of the soil characteristics along the soil profile not only contributed to the general knowledge on soil treatment, but became the basis for the scientific view to the minimizing of the soil treatment, and, first of all, partially “non-tillage” soil treatment implementation (Christensen Bеnt and Trentemoller, 1995; Egorov, 1972). Long-term arable treatment causes changing in the morphological characteristics, physical and chemical characteristics, humus content and nutritious balance not only in the arable layer, but in lower layers as well. Under the long-term crops cultivation the depth of the arable layer increased by 6-15 cm in comparison with the fallow land soil and obtained 24-30 cm. Morphological differences between the soil profiles from the plots with monocrops and crops rotation and the soil profiles from the plots with perennial fallow land are determined by long-term soil treatment, repeated fertilizing and periodical lime implementation in the conditions of crops cultivating. The significant differences on humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents in the soil profiles from the plots with monocrops, crops rotation and perennial fallow land are indicated within the limits of the upper soil layer of 40 cm. It is necessary to underline the special effect of the long-term treatment: considerable changing the agrochemical characteristics of the under arable layer of 20-40 cm than the agrochemical characteristics of the arable layer. Under arable layer of the arable land has the humus content in 2-3 times higher in comparison with the arable layer, and the content of mobile forms of phosphorus and potassium in 8-10 times higher in comparison with the arable layer (Figure 2). In arable and one-meter layers of comparable variants from the plots with long-term crops rotation and from the plots with monocrops the significant differences in phosphorus and potassium nutritious balances are not indicated. Effect of fertilizing on humus content, contents of mobile phosphorus and exchange potassium was indicated by the not significant differences determined by the biological characteristics of cultivated crops. The minimum content of exchange potassium was in the soil from the plots with monocrops of potatoes and flax. The same content of exchange potassium was indicated in the soils from the plots with crops rotation. At the same time, potassium content was higher in the soils from the plots with monocrops of rye and oat. Phosphorus content in the soils from the plots with monocrops, except clover, was significantly higher in comparison with the soils from the plots with crops rotation that determined by the estrangement of the nutrition elements with main and side products. Lasting mineral fertilizers lime and manure implementation changes the soil characteristics up to the depth of 1 m. Meantime, the scales of changing the agrochemical characteristics are frequently higher in under arable layers than in arable layers. Redistribution in humus content and nutrients content in the upper part of soil profile defined by the arable usage doesn’t reflect the real level of fertility of the soil in comparison with the virgin soils. The precise characteristics of soil fertility, humus content and nutrients content are

Matyuk, N.S., Mazirov, M.A., Kascheeva, D.M., Polin, V.D., Arefieva, V.A., 2013. Transformation of upper part soil profile of sod- podzolic light loamy soils under the conditions of long-term soil improvement. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 16-24 obtained in comparison of the profiles of virgin and arable soils that are equal in depth. These characteristics describe the profile of 0-30 cm that in our researches is taken as the arable layer and that accumulate the significant mass of crops rests and implemented fertilizers.

Figure 2. Dissemination of humus, mobile phosphorus and exchange potassium in the profile of sod-podzolic soil (N100P150K120 + manure17,7 )

The layer of 0-50 cm characterizes, in general, accumulative and elluvial depth, but the layer of 0-100 cm characterizes the most stable humus content and nutrients content that maintain the plants vegetation in extreme conditions (Table 4). Table 4. Changes in humus content (t ha-1) along the profile of sod-podzolic soil , 2011 Humus content (t ha-1) Variants soil profile, cm percentage from the humus content in fallow land 0-30 0-50 0-100 0-30 0-50 0-100 Fallow land 76,5 96,2 108,0 - - - Permanently: Steam 47,7 70,8 91,5 62 74 85 Winter rye 148,3 192,6 225,6 194 200 209 Potatoes 84,4 105,8 125,1 110 110 112 Crops rotation 92,9 120,6 142,2 121 125 132

In arable sod-podzolic loam soils humus content and nutrients content are tightly connected with the intensity level of arable treatment and dozes of mineral and organic fertilizers. During the 100-year steam implementation along with applying of high dozes of mineral (N100P150K120) and organic (17,7 t ha-1) fertilizers humus content in the layer of 0-30 cm decreases at 38%, in the layer of 0-50 cm - at 26%, and in the layer of 0-100 cm – only at 15% in comparison with fallow land. The other tendencies in humus content are indicated in connection with the cultivation of the crops on the same level of the nutrition both permanently or in crops rotation. Permanent winter rye caused significant positive balance of the organic matter in all the soil layers, but potatoes caused only maintenance of the positive balance. Rotation of the crops on the same level of the nutrition caused the decrease of humus content level in comparison with permanent winter rye, but caused the higher level of humus content in all the soil layers in comparison with potatoes. Lasting mineral fertilizers implementation changes soil acidity. Application of ammonia saltpetre and potassium chloride causes significant increasing of exchange and hydraulic acidity (Figure 3). Periodical lime implementation (once in each six years since 1949) halted increasing the soil acidity along entire soil profile on the plots without fertilizing, and on the plots with lasting implementation of mineral fertilizers – up to the depth of 40-60 cm. Conditions and intensity of arable treatment cause the significant influence on the changes of ion-exchange soil characteristics. On the plots with 100-year steam implementation without lime applying even along with NPK + manure implementation the high level of hydrolytic acidity, especially in the layer of 0-40 cm, and low level of content of exchange bases are indicated.

Figure 3. Changes of physics and chemical soil characteristics under the influence of fertilizing and lime implementation

Cultivation of winter rye as the crop with the high quantity of the rests, stabilizes the level of hydraulic acidity in the layer up to 0-60 cm, and cultivation of potatoes – only in the roots growing layer (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Changes in ion-exchange soil characteristics under the different levels of arable treatment

The negative effect of systematic NPK implementation and crops cultivation on changing the acidity in the layer of 60-100 cm is indicated at the present time and proved by the high content of mobile aliminium that cases the toxic environment for the crops (Table 5).

Table 5. Comparable content of mobile aluminium in arable land and fallow land, meq 100g-1 soil

Soil layer, cm Variants 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100 Fallow land 0,5 1,3 7,4 10,8 7,0 Arable land: NPK 11,6 12,6 16,2 25,6 22,9 NPK +lime 0,3 0,2 7,2 17,5 9,2

Effects of crops rotations and monocrops cultivation on soil acidity in the upper part of soil profile (0-100 cm) don’t differ significantly. Content of absorbed bases in the soil of the plots without lime implementation decreases up to the depth of 60-80 cm, but, the typical for podzolic layer of fallow land “gap”, is not indicated. Improvement of soil characteristics in roots growing layer (0-40 cm) under the effect of crops cultivation, fertilizing and lime application in the 100-year period was indicated by increasing the agrocenosis productivity. Mean yield of winter rye on the plots without fertilizing increased in 3 times during the 100-year period due to introducing the new varieties and improvement of agrotechnical treatment; on the plots with complete dozes of mineral fertilizers mean yield of winter rye increased from 0,9 t ha-1 in the period of two first crops rotations (1912-1924) up to 2,5 t ha-1 in the recent years. Mean yield of potatoes not significantly varied within the crops rotations: from 6,0-12,0 4 t ha-1 on the plots without fertilizing up to 10,0-12,0 t ha-1 during the first 36-year period of conducting the researches and to 20,0-25,0 t ha-1 in subsequent years.

Conclusion As the results of 100-year arable treatment, effect of soil treatment, fertilizing and crops cultivation the significant changing of agrochemical characteristics in one-meter profile of sod-podzolic loamy soil was indicated in upper part of under arable layer that coincide with the podzolic layer which is not favorable for crops cultivation. Scales and directions of changing the agrochemical characteristics in soil are tightly connected with intensive level and type of soil treatment and mainly determined by implementation and systematical implementation of organic and mineral fertilizers. Principal differences in formation of agrochemical characteristics in the soil of one-meter profiles from the plots of comparable variants with crops rotation and monocrops are not indicated. Specific effect of various crops cultivation and agrotechnical treatments mainly indicated in humus content, content of total and exchange nutritious elements in roots growing layer of 0-40 cm. Lasting ammonia saltpetre and potassium chloride implementation produces negative effect on absorb characteristics and acidity of entire soil profile without lime implementation. All types of acidity increases, the content of mobile aluminium significantly increases, total content of absorbed bases decreases at the phone of NPK implementation. Periodical lime implementation halts increasing acidity along entire soil profile on the plots without fertilizing and causes creating the favorable conditions for crops cultivation up to the depth of 4-60 cm on the plots with lasting lime implementation before NPK fertilizing. Negative effect of physiologically acid mineral fertilizers on soil acidity in the layer of 60-100 cm is not completely eliminated by periodical (once in each six years) lime implementation. Improvement of soil characteristics causes increasing of the crops yield: potatoes – 2,0-2,5 times, winter cereals – in 3,0-4,0 times. References Christensen Bеnt, T., Trentemoller, V., 1995. The Ascow Long– Term experiments on animal and mineral ferlibizers. – SP– report, № 29, 188 p. Dospekhov, B.A., Kiryshin, B.D., Braterskaya, A.N., 1980. Effect of long-term arable use of the soil on its characteristics, crops yield and crops quality. Scientific Journal of Agrochemistry 9, 46-57 Dospekhov, B.A., Kiryushin, B.D., Braterskaya, A.N., 1976. Effect of 60-year period of fertilizing, periodical lime implementation and crops rotation on agrochemical characteristics of sod-podzoloc soil. Scientific Journal of Agrochemistry 4, 3-14 Dospekhov, B.A., Kiryushin, B.D., Braterskaya, A.N., 1975. Effect of 60-year period monocrops cultivation on agrochemical characteristics of sod-podzoloc soil. Izvestia TSHA 2, 43-53 Dospekhov, B.A., Kiryushin, B.D., Braterskaya, A.N., 1975. Effect of 62-years fertilizing and periodical lime implementation on changing the agronomical soil characteristics. Izvestia TSHA 6, 30-40 Egorov, V.E. 1972. The field experiment has been lasting for 60 years. Moscow, Znanie. 50 p. Kiryushin, B.D. 1978. Effect of crops rotations, monocrops and repeated crops implementation on the fertility of sod- podzolic soil. Abstract of PhD thesis, Moscow. Puponin, A.I., 1984. Soil treatment in intensive agriculture of the Nonchernozem Zone. Moscow, Kolos, 183 p.

Morkovkin, G., Litvinenko, Y., Maksimova, N., 2013. Dynamics of soil cover state and degradation processes intensity in natural soil zones of the Altai Region. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 25-29.

Dynamics of soil cover state and degradation processes intensity in natural soil zones of the Altai Region Gennady Morkovkin a,*, Yekaterina Litvinenko a, Nina Maksimova b

a Altai State Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science and Agro-Chemistry, Barnaul, Russia b Altai State Agricultural University, Department of Natural Resources Management and Geo-Ecology, Barnaul, Russia

Abstract

It is shown that the agricultural landscapes of the natural soil zones of the Altai Region are subjected to intense anthropogenic impact, and they are in an unstable state. Agricultural use has caused an extensive development of degradation processes, and the resulting indicator of those is the increase of eroded soils areas, dehumification, and the decrease of humus soil horizon thickness. More active wind erosion is revealed in the chestnut soil zone of the dry steppe and in the subzone of southern chernozems of arid steppe; a combined action of wind and water erosion is observed in the subzones of arid, temperate-arid and forest-outlier steppe, and water erosion develops in the zones of central forest-steppe and meadow steppe. The highest intensity of dehumification is observed in arid and temperate-arid steppe, and a greater change rate of soils areas in terms of humus horizon thickness decrease is observed in the chestnut soil zone of dry steppe and in the subzone of southern chernozems of arid steppe. Keywords: chernozems, humus content, humus horizon thickness, soil degradation, water and wind erosion.

Introduction Soil cover is a central element of biogeocenosis and a landscape component, but at the same time it is an extremely vulnerable formation that covers the land surface with the thinnest coat, and, ultimately, the life on the Earth depends on its normal functioning. At present, almost all countries of the world experience accelerating soil degradation. The rate of fertile soils losses over the recent 50 years has increased 30 times compared to the historical average, and amounts to 8-15 million ha annually (Dobrovolskiy and Kust, 1996). The causes of soil degradation include a growing world population, increasing arable lands by marginal lands, erosion, depletion, salinization, acidification, pollution, and the deterioration of physical soil properties. And the soil cover of the Altai Region is not the exception among the areas where the degradation processes are intensively revealed. The soil cover of the Region is much varied, the most valuable being chernozemic soils which occupy 5.62 million ha (Burlakova et al., 1988), or 33.5% of the total land area of the Region. The chernozems, naturally formed in the environmental conditions of the Altai Region as highly fertile soils, have lost much of their fertility by now. They are subjected to the maximum anthropogenic impact which results in their accelerated degradation. Among the degradation processes rendering an intense effect the state of chernozems erosion a special place is taken by erosion processes.

* Corresponding author. Altai State Agricultural University, Department of Soil Science and Agro-Chemistry, Barnaul, 656049, Russia Tel.: +7 3852 628389 Fax: +7 3852 628358 E-mail address: [email protected]

The purpose of this research is to identify the intensity of degradation processes’ occurrence in various natural soil zones of the Altai Region in temporal and spatial aspects to evaluate the resistance of agricultural landscapes to anthropogenic impact. To achieve this purpose, the land use patterns change was analyzed, and the intensity of wind and water erosion processes and the dynamics of soil humus state in various natural and soil zones of the Altai Region were defined. Material and Methods The research objects were the agricultural landscapes of various natural soil zones of the Altai Region. The subject of the research was the evaluation of the resistance of the agricultural landscapes of the natural soil zones to degradation processes under an intense anthropogenic impact. Soil cover is used in this work as an indication sign of agricultural landscapes’ functioning stability, for soil cover reflects not only the peculiarities of climate, hydrological regimes, and the properties of rocks and relief (Isachenko, 1991), but also the response of the landscape to anthropogenic impact. To satisfy the research objectives, a comparative analysis of the results of two soil survey rounds (1960-70s and the 1980-90s) was conducted; the archive data was granted for the research by OAO AltaiNIIGiprozem (Altai Research, Design and Surveying Institute of Land Management). The dynamics of agricultural land areas, the degree of wind and water erosion occurrence, the indices of humus content in the soil and the state of soil humus horizon thickness were studied. This work presents the results of analytical studies conducted at reference sites (three typical farms of each natural soil zone) for the conditions of the following five natural soil zones and subzones of the Altai Region: chestnut soils of dry steppe, southern chernozems of arid steppe, ordinary chernozems of temperate-arid and forest-outlier steppe, leached chernozems and gray forest soils of central forest-steppe, and typical and leached chernozems of meadow steppe. Results and Discussion The conditions of the studied natural soil zones vary considerably. The climate varies from arid warm in the dry steppe to humid temperately warm in the meadow steppe. In general, the average annual temperature in the zones is positive or close to 0°C. The average temperature of the coldest month (January) ranges from - 16°C to -18°C, and that of the warmest month (July) ranges from +18°C to +21°C. The precipitation amount for the period with temperatures above +10°C increases west-to-east, and ranges from 155 mm in the zone of the dry steppes up to 250-300 mm in the zone of meadow steppe. The average snow cover makes 40-60 cm, it reduces to 20-30 cm in the western areas. The climate is characterized by warm and short summers and cold winters with little snow (Agroclimatic Resources, 1971). The relief of the studied areas is classified as plain; however, it reveals significant variations in the natural soil zones. The chestnut soil zone of the dry steppes is located in the Kulundinskaya nizmennost (the Kulunda Lowland) with the altitudes of 80-160 m with poorly broken relief. The zone of the arid and moderately arid steppes occupies the Priobskoye plateau (the Ob River Plateau) with rolling plain relief and the altitudes of 150-220 m in the south-west part, and elevated ridged relief in the north-east with the altitudes of 200-320 m. The zone of leached chernozems and gray forest soils of the central forest-steppe is located in the Biysko-Chumyshskaya vozvyshennost (Biysk-Chumysh River Upland), an elevated dissected plain with hilly ridged relief and the altitudes of 300-350 m. The zone of the meadow steppes of piedmont plains is heavily dissected with the altitudes up to 400 m (Burlakova, 1984). The natural principle that ensures a sustainable functioning of the landscapes in each of those areas is disturbed in agricultural landscapes. Anthropogenic activities result in the creation of a system with fewer components compared to a natural system; the created system is characterized by artificial selection of plants and animals and subsequent removal of phytomass (Urazayev, 2000). Accordingly, due to the anthropogenic impact on a landscape there occurs the simplification of agricultural landscapes, that is, the reduction of their complex structure and ecological (specific) diversity (Bunina, 2004). The anthropogenic impact reveals common features in all zones (Mukha, Kartamyshev, Kochetov, et al., 1994): the destruction of the natural vegetation cover, a systematic mixing of the top soil layer, and the changes of physical, chemical and biological soil properties. Zonal variations are revealed by the specific indices that characterize the soils and the intensity of their changes.

Landscape transformation trends of the studied areas may be judged on by the land use patterns in the reference sites of each examined zone. In all investigated zones between the two survey rounds the portion of arable lands decreased, such trend is illustrative of the whole Region, and is has been continued from the early 1990s. These processes are also revealed in the dynamics of the areas under crop; in 1990 there were 6380.0 thousand ha of sown areas in the Region, while in 1999 and in 2010 there were 5457.4 thousand ha and 5149.3 thousand ha respectively. Such developments are caused by transfer of lands to long-term fallows, or using unprofitable arable lands as perennial grasslands (http://ak.gks.ru; Smelyanskiy, 2003). The greatest decrease of arable land areas is observed in the central forest-steppe and is mainly caused by the land transfer from the “arable land” category to the category of “other lands.” In the dry steppe the decrease of the arable land portion is caused by the increase of pasture-lands area, and in the temperately arid and forest-outlier steppes this transformation is due to the increase the area of other lands and the lands under forest. The area under shrub and forest vegetation has increased in the zone of temperately arid and forest-outlier steppes; the increasing percentage of forest in the total farm land holdings may prove the fact of abandoned lands’ overgrowing with wild plants, that is, we may judge on the restoration of the plant communities natural for this landscape (Morkovkin and Litvinenko, 2011). In all zones, except the meadow steppes of piedmont plains, despite the decrease of arable land portion, the largest percentage of land area belongs to a field type of agricultural landscapes, in which soil cover is subjected to the maximum anthropogenic impact. A field type of agricultural landscape is characterized by a repeated plowing of soil, the application of fertilizers, weed control, and annual removal of most of the phytomass (Volnov, 2006). The arable layer bears the entire impact and changes most actively in accordance with the new conditions of the landscape, reflecting the features of the current soil formation (Mukha, 1994). When exposed to an intense anthropogenic factor, the structure of a landscape is increasingly simplified, losing its natural stability (Urazayev, 2000). However, it functions according to the natural laws of the area (Chernikov, 2000). Accordingly, each zone reveals its proportion of transformed and natural, natural and anthropogenic landscapes that ensure a sustainable functioning of natural systems. According to Reimers (1990), an estimated portion of transformed landscape may reach 60-75% for forest-steppe, 40-60% for steppe, whereas for piedmont areas, non-transformed landscapes should make at least 80-98% of the total area. By the proportion of agricultural lands in the studied zones it may be concluded that none of the zones is not in the state of sustainable functioning. And since in an agricultural landscape a regulation and stabilization function is performed not by the system itself, but by man, one of the major challenges to ensure landscapes’ sustainability is the protection and reproduction of soil fertility and the prevention of degradation processes (Urazayev, 2000; Chernikov, 2000). In the Altai Region the consequence of the unstable state of agricultural landscapes’ functioning has been a wide-spread occurrence of wind and water erosion which greatly reduce soil fertility and render a negative effect on the environment (Table 1). As seen, active wind erosion is revealed in the dry steppe zone; a combined action of wind and water erosion is observed in the subzones of arid, temperate-arid and forest-outlier steppe, and water erosion develops in the zones of central forest- steppe and meadow steppe.

Table 1. State of soil cover in terms of erosion degree at reference sites, in percentage of the total area (2nd soil survey round) State of soils in terms of Dry steppe Arid Temperate Central Meadow steppe erosion degree steppe arid steppe steppe Non-eroded 28.2 11.4 22.4 69.1 88.2 Slightly washed-off 0.0 3.7 6.5 26.4 10.0 Moderately washed-off 0.0 0.1 0.9 4.4 1.4 Severely washed-off 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.4 Slightly wind-eroded 62.2 82.4 66.0 0.0 0.0 Moderately wind-eroded 9.0 2.4 4.0 0.0 0.0 Severely wind-eroded 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

In all studied zones the increase of eroded soils areas is observed (Table 2). The intensity of erosion processes occurrence in the zones varies. The greatest change of eroded lands area is monitored in the zone of southern chernozems of arid steppe making about 4.5% per year. Besides, the chernozems of the temperate-arid steppe and chestnut soils of dry steppe are subjected to intense erosion; the annual increase of eroded soils area during the monitoring period made 3.72% and 3.42% respectively. To a lesser degree the change of eroded soils area was observed in the meadow steppe (0.19% per year) due to the prevailing pastureland use in that region. Chestnut soils of the dry steppe are exposed to wind erosion. The area of slightly wind-eroded soils increases by almost 3% annually, fostered by the arid climate with strong winds. In the area of the temperate-arid and arid steppes both water and wind erosion is revealed. In both sub-zones wind erosion is a prevailing erosion type. However, when in the arid steppe the correlation of water erosion to wind erosion intensity makes 1:22.4, in the temperate-arid and forest-outlier steppe that makes 1:14.5; that is, with increased humidity of the climate the percentage of the areas exposed to water erosion increases, but is not equal to wind erosion in this zone.

Table 2. Intensity of eroded soils area change, percent per annum State of soils in terms of Dry steppe Arid Temperate arid Central Meadow steppe erosion degree steppe steppe steppe Non-eroded -3.42 -4.45 -3.72 -1.11 -0.19 Slightly washed-off 0.00 0.19 0.20 1.01 0.32 Moderately washed-off 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.10 -0.11 Severely washed-off 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 -0.01 Slightly wind-eroded 2.99 4.12 3.27 0.00 0.00 Moderately wind-eroded 0.43 0.13 0.21 0.00 0.00 Severely wind-eroded 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

An intensive agricultural use has resulted in the decrease of humus content in the soil and the reduction of humus horizon thickness (Table 3, 4).

Table 3. Intensity of soil types’ areas change in terms of humus content, percent per annum Soil types in terms of humus Dry steppe Arid Temperate arid Central Meadow steppe content steppe steppe steppe Slightly-humic +0.08 +2.73 +1.09 +0.37 - Low-humic +0.55 -2.46 -1.05 -0.14 +0.14 Moderately-humic -0.63 -0.27 -0.04 -0.23 -0.14

All natural soil zones involved in the study reveal a decreasing portion of soil type areas with relatively high humus content and a corresponding increasing portion of soil type areas with low humus content. Most intensively these processes occur in the arid and temperate arid steppes.

Table 4. Intensity of soil types’ areas change in terms of humus horizon thickness, percent per annum Soil types in terms of humus Dry steppe Arid steppe Temperate arid Central Meadow steppe horizon thickness steppe steppe Thin 2.30 2.09 1.34 1.64 0.35 Moderately-thick -2.30 -2.09 -1.34 -1.64 0.97 Thick 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 -1.32

The decrease of soil humus horizon thickness is observed in the natural soil zones. In the period between the two soil survey rounds the area under thin soils has increased, and, accordingly, the area under moderately- thick soils has decreased. The highest intensity of soils area changes has been monitored in the chestnut soil zone of the dry steppe and in the southern chernozem zone of the arid steppe, and made 2.3% and 2.09% per annum respectively. In the meadow steppe zone the increase of thin and moderately-thick soils’ area occurs due to the decrease of thick soils’ portion by 1.32% per annum.

Conclusion The agricultural landscapes of the natural soil zones of the Altai Region are exposed to intense anthropogenic impact, and they are in an unstable state. Agricultural use has caused an extensive development of degradation processes, and the resulting indicator of those is the increase of eroded soils areas, dehumification, and the decrease of humus soil horizon thickness. More active wind erosion is revealed in the chestnut soil zone of the dry steppe and in the subzone of southern chernozems of the arid steppe; a combined action of wind and water erosion is observed in the subzones of arid, temperate-arid and forest-outlier steppes, and water erosion develops in the zones of the central forest-steppe and meadow steppe. The highest intensity of dehumification is observed in the arid and temperate-arid steppe, and a greater change rate of soils areas in terms of humus horizon thickness decrease is observed in the chestnut soil zone of the dry steppe and in the subzone of southern chernozems of the arid steppe. References Agroclimatic resources of the Altai Region, 1971. – Leningrad: Gidrometeoizdat, 1971. – 156 p. [in Russian]. Bunina, N.P., 2004. To the issue of territorial organization of cultural landscape. in: N.P. Bunina, V.V. Shabanov (eds.) Issues of scientific support of ecologic and economic potential of Russia. MGUP Papers Collection. – Moscow, Russia. p. 147-150. [in Russian]. Burlakova, L.M., 1984. Fertility of Altai chernozems in the system of agro-cenosis. Novosibirsk, Nauka, Russia. 199 p. [in Russian]. Burlakova, L.M., Tatarintsev, L.M., Rassypnov, V.A., 1988. Soils of the Altai Region: Tutorial. Altai Agricultural Institute. Barnaul, Russia. 72 p. [in Russian]. Chernikov, V.A., 2000. Agricultural ecology. Moscow, Russia. 536 pp. [in Russian]. Dobrovolskiy, G.V., Kust, G.S., 1996. Soil degradation is “a quiet crisis of the planet”. Priroda (Nature). Moscow, Russia. No. 10. pp.. 53-63. [in Russian]. Isachenko, A.G., 1991. Landscape study and physical-geographical zoning. Moscow, Russia. Vysshaya Shkola, 366 p. [in Russian]. Morkovkin, G.G., Litvinenko, Ye.A., 2011. Problems of steady functioning of agricultural landscapes in the conditions of temperate arid and forest outlier steppe of the Altai Region. Agr. Science to Farming: in 3 vol. VI Intl. Scientific and Practical Conf. (3-4. February, 2011). Barnaul: Altai State Agr. University, 2011. – Vol. 2. – p. 182-186. [in Russian]. Mukha, V.D. 1994. Agricultural Soil Science Moscow, Russia. Kolos. 528 pp. [in Russian]. Reimers, N.F., 1990. Natural resources management: Reference book. – Moscow, Russia. Mysl, 639 pp. [in Russian]. Smelyanskiy, I.E., 2003. Biodiversity of agricultural lands of Russia: current state and trends. Moscow, Russia. MSOP – World Conservation Union, 56 pp. [in Russian]. Uruzayev, N.A., 2000. Agricultural ecology. Moscow, Russia. Kolos, 304 pp. [in Russian]. Volnov, V.V., 2006. Landscape study and agricultural landscape ecosystems. Altai State Agr. University, Barnaul, Russia. 210 pp. [in Russian]. Website of the Territorial Agency of Federal State Statistics Service in the Altai Region. http://ak.gks.ru [in Russian].

Probabilistic models of spatial fluctuations of edaphic properties in native soils in steppe zone of Western Siberia Irina Mikheeva *

Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia

Abstract

Fluctuations of properties in an individuum (pedon) of a chestnut soil under different use (virgin soil, unirrigated arable soil, and irrigated arable soil) were quantitatively evaluated. It was shown that these fluctuations make up to 20-40% of the property changeability in an elementary soil area. Probability distribution functions (pdf) with high p-values were considered as probabilistic models of soil properties. Analysis of pdf regularities gives clear and stable information about difference of soil properties in the soil volumes in space in soil horizons under agricultural impacts. Information divergences quantify these regularities. Analysis of entropy value highlighted the main tendency of agricultural impact – the tendency of outstanding decreasing quantity of various microconditions of soil, which is important change of edaphic factor. Keywords: soil, properties, fluctuation, pdf, information divergence, and statistical entropy

Introduction The state of the art in theoretical and applied soil science requires more specific mathematical description of soil properties and their relationships with soil-forming factors, as well as the reliable evaluation and prognosis of changes induced by current anthropogenic and natural processes. The further development calls for the expansion of probabilistic thought and the mathematical specification of basic concepts, including the concept of "soil properties." It is known that soil properties show quantitative diversity even within a soil profile and that soil properties are related to soil-forming factors by probabilistic rather than functional relationships. Multiple factors and the cumulative action of processes on different levels of organization determine not only the average values but also the oscillation of the property values; therefore, changeability should be considered as an intrinsic systemic property of the soil. On the other hand, changeability determines the quantitative measure of properties and, hence, affects the practical and economic importance of the soil, so it should be considered as biophysical attribute of the soil quality. Moreover soil changeability has very important ecological role as edaphic factor for all soil organisms, not only plants. We have proposed considering three categories of the spatial changeability of soil properties using the concept of nesting (Figure 1): heterogeneity for significant changes in soil-forming factors, variability for their insignificant changes, and fluctuation for leveled soil-forming factors. All three changeability categories are observed at different organization levels of the soil and soil cover. In our opinion, the quantitative evaluation of relationships between different changeability categories of soil properties is also necessary for assessing the stability of the soil cover as a hierarchical system (Mikheeva, 2005).

* Corresponding author. Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia Tel.: +7 3832198514 Fax: +7 3833639025 E-mail address: [email protected]

Figure 1. Categories of spatial changeability of soil properies

The variation of soil properties appears in the shortest distances. Process of soil formation, even in absolutely leveled conditions gives these fluctuations. It is known that many processes proceeding in soils, such as formation of micro and a macro- pores, structural units, cracks and microcracks and others, are stochastic by their nature. Even the smallest representative volume of the soil represents a statistical mix of the soil particles forming complicated system of channels and surfaces. At each moment the internal state of this volume under the same repeated impact has the difference. These distinctions lead to local macroscopic effects in space - to distinctions of humidity and fluctuations of the content of substances and other characteristics of the soil. Thus the aggregate structure of the soil has impact on a property variation in big degree, that means transition of our consideration to the lower hierarchy level. This intrinsic soil fluctuation is amplified by small fluctuations of soil forming factors, especially by variation of granulometric structure and vegetation. These factors of soil formation start acting at the lower level of hierarchy, for example, not vegetation – but separate plants, not granulometric structure – but existence of separate stones or deposits near plants at a deflation. All these reasons, finally, lead to a variation of the quantitative values of characteristic properties of the soil quality even in very short distances in uniform conditions of soil formation. This article is devoted to quantitative studying of this phenomenon under different soil usage. Material and Methods The fluctuations in properties of chestnut soil of the Kulunda Steppe were studied. The region is characterized by a droughty continental climate and its relief may be defined as a gently undulating plain. The soil cover consists of chestnut soils (70%), meadow-chestnut soils, meadow soils, solonetzes, and solonchaks with different degrees of hydromorphism. The chestnut soils significantly vary in texture, from loose sands to medium loams, which is a result of the ancient limnetic alluvial genesis of the territory. Loamy sandy and sandy loamy soils are predominant; they have an evenly colored humus-accumulative horizon and display deep effervescence. The above notion of property fluctuation describes the minimum spatial changeability of soil properties occurring under conditions of practically leveled soil forming factors at a specific level of organization. In our study, the soil fluctuations were determined by the presence of coarse pores, cracks, concretions, tongues, and micro zones with different particle-size composition, moisture contents, and chemical parameters within a pedon. The fluctuations of the soil properties were studied using the trench method. Trenches 6 m long were dug in loamy sandy chestnut soil in absolutely level conditions (in terms of the lithology, microclimate,

Mikheeva, I., 2013. Probabilistic models of spatial fluctuations of edaphic properties in native soils in steppe zone of Western Siberia. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 30-38. microtopography, vegetation, and tillage) under different use (virgin soil, arable soil, and irrigated arable soil) in close vicinity to one another (within 100-300 m). The arable soil was tilled for more than 30 years and irrigated for 20 years; corns for silage and forage grasses were the main crops. The soil was irrigated with low-mineralized water (with salt concentration of 0.7-1.0 g per l) at low irrigation norms; the water was of unfavorable salt composition with the predominance of sodium hydro-carbonate. The trenches passed through all the genetic horizons. Samples with volumes equal 10 cm3 were taken from each horizon in 20-22 replications (Figure 2). The thickness of each horizon, the humus content, particle-size composition, cation exchange capacity, exchangeable cation composition, pH, salt composition, and some other parameters were determined in laboratory analysis of soil samples by standard methods in Russia. The results of the laboratory studies were analyzed statistically. First we analyzed standard statistical parameters as average, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, asymmetry and kurtosis, range of changeability. Then we identified type and parameters of probability distribution functions (pdf) of soil properties by choosing the best approximation of pdf according to compromise statistical criterion, which equal the average of p-values of some nonparametric criteria: Kolmogorov’s test, Smirnov’s test and Ω2- and ω2- tests (Lemeshko, 2005). At the end we calculated and considered probabilistic indicators of pdf’s like statistical entropy and information divergence.

(a) (b)

Lower horizon boundary Lower horizon boundary

Distance, m Distance, m

(c)

Lower horizon boundary

Distance, m

Figure 2. Trench study (lower boundaries of genetic horizons are denoted by solid lines): (a) virgin soil, (b) unirrigated arable soil, (c) irrigated arable soil.

Results and Discussion Statistical parameters of soil fluctuations The standard deviations of the properties fluctuations in genetic horizons of loamy sandy chestnut soil under different land-use conditions are given in Table 1 (changes in the average values are not discussed in this paper). It is seen (Figure 2, Table 1) that the variance of the horizon thickness fluctuation in virgin soil gradually decreases down the profile. In Ap and B1 horizon of the unirrigated and irrigated arable soil this variance is some smaller than in A horizon of virgin soil. The variance of the B2 horizon thickness increases abruptly in arable soils; the thickness of BC horizon also increases strongly under irrigation. Thus, the variance of the thickness fluctuation in the illuvial horizons depends on the soil use, because it is largely determined by the water regime. The highest variance of the humus content fluctuation was observed in the A horizon of the virgin soil because of the irregular influx of organic matter. In the B1 and B2 horizons, the variance was significantly lower. In the Ap horizon of the arable soils, the fluctuation range of the humus content decreased abruptly, especially under irrigation. This is explained by the long-term tillage, mechanical mixing, and uniform wetting of the upper horizons. The variance of the humus content fluctuation decreased down the profile in the unirrigated arable soil and increased in the irrigated arable soil because of the translocation of humus substances within the soil profile under the effect of the alkaline irrigation water.

Table 1. Standard deviations of fluctuations of properties in genetic horizons of loamy sandy chestnut soil A(p) B1 B2 BC Feature 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Horizon thickness, cm 2.86 2.49 2.31 2.75 2.13 2.54 2.11 5.88 5.33 1.66 1.83 11.6 Humus, % 0.27 0.11 0.07 0.11 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.06 0.11 nd nd nd Clay,% 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.80 1,00 1,00 1,00 1.20 1.40 1,00 2,00 4.20 Fine sand, % 2.14 2.83 2.08 1.48 4.23 5.55 6.11 3.16 7.85 4.09 8.52 9.08 Salt, % 0.006 0.002 0.005 0.004 0.004 0.016 0.01 0.007 0.022 0.008 0.005 0.082 pH 0.12 0.13 0.19 0.2 0.14 0.11 0.38 0.18 0.43 0.73 0.1 0.24 CEC, meq/100 g 0.41 0.3 0.43 0.81 0.86 1.07 1.47 0.92 1.33 0.62 0.95 3.22 Note: (1) virgin soil, (2) unirrigated arable soil, (3) irrigated arable soil.

The variance of the fluctuations of the content of particles of different granulometric fractions significantly increases down the profile; hence, the pedogenesis in upper part of soil profile results in the smoothing of the fluctuations of the particle-size composition, which is manifested for all the types of soil use. Variance of clay content especially increases in irrigated arable soil as consequence of transferring clay particles under influence of irrigation water. Regularity of change of variance of sand particle content is defined by genesis of soil forming breeds. The variance of the salt content in the A horizon of the arable soil is significantly lower than in the virgin soil; under irrigation, it increases abruptly compared to unirrigated case. This is due to the mixing and more uniform rainfall penetration in the former case and due to the influx of salts with low-mineralized irrigation water in the latter case. The variance of the salt content fluctuation sharply increases in the deeper horizons. Localization of soil carbonates and the quality of irrigation water affect change of the variance of рН in soil profile. It authentically increases in the arable horizon of the irrigated soil versus unirrigated soil, owing to input of the hydro-carbonate ion with irrigation water. But it is bigger in virgin soil in deeper horizons relatively of arable cases because of ununiform localization of soil carbonates in natural conditions. The variance of capacity of cationic exchange in soil profile of chestnut soil isn't identical in soils of different use. But there is the general tendency of increasing of variation of CEC down on soil profile. Apparently from the provided data the characteristic of fluctuations of properties of the soil, its profile distribution depend on conditions and factors of soil formation and, in fact, is a genetic sign of the soil.

Therefore it needs to be displayed quantitatively for the purpose of a better understanding of spatial distribution of properties in soil profile. Thus, the trench study of the soil properties and the statistical analysis of the results showed that fluctuations of soil properties regularly change along the soil profile and depend on the soil-forming conditions and soil use; hence, they are features or properties (hyper properties) of the soil. Comparison of fluctuations and variability The variability data (in the sense of the concept, mentioned above) were received by statistical analysis of the materials of regular large-scale (1:25000) soil survey at the investigated territory (All-Union Guidelines for Soil Survey and Compilation of Large-Scale Maps of Land Tenure, 1973). The comparison of the variability ranges, variability coefficients, and standard deviations (Table 2) shows that the fluctuations of the properties within the soil individuum (pedon) are significantly lower than their variability within soil taxonomic variety at the territory (elementary soil areal).

Table 2. Fluctuation and variability of properties in the A(p) horizon of loamy sandy chestnut soil

Variability Changeability range Variability Fluctuation Property coefficient,% standard F** variance fluctuation variability fluctuation variability deviation* contribution ***, % Horizon thickness, cm 18-28 11.0-35.0 11 34 6.9 7.7 36 Humus, % 1.26-1.74 0.8-2.61 7 21 0.31 7.9 35 Clay; % 10.8-13.0 4.7-13.2 5 15 1.51 6.3 40 Fine sand, % 53.6-65.7 37.4-73.2 5 20 9.23 10.6 31 Salt, % 0.013-0.02 0.01-0.33 12 146 0.01 25.0 20 pH 6.3-6.9 6.2-7.6 2 4 0.27 4.3 48 CEC, meq/100 g 10.7-11.7 7.7-16.0 3 18 2 44.4 15 *For fluctuation standard deviations, see Table l. ** F-ratio. *** Contribution was evaluated by the Mill’s equation (Dmitriyev, 2000) In the A horizon of the loamy sandy chestnut soil, the variance of fluctuation makes up 15-40% of the total variance of the variability (Table 2). From the point of view of geostatistics variance of fluctuations could be considered as reliable minimum of expected nugget-effect for real soil surveys. Hence, the variability of the soil properties within the elementary soil areas is 20-40% determined by the local fluctuations of the elementary soil processes and 60-80% determined by changes in the soil-forming factors at territory. The contribution of the fluctuations in the horizon thickness, humus, clay and fine sand contents, and pH to their variability (31-48%) is larger than that of the chemical properties like the content of exchangeable cations and salts (15-20%). The obtained results do not contradict the opinion about the compatible variability’s within small and large areas: they are comparable but not equal. In the soils studied, this is an appreciable portion, close to the golden section ratio, which characterizes studied soils as stable hierarchical systems. Probabilistic models of humus content The simplest mathematical model of a soil property taking into account its variation in the space is the model of random value. The frequencies structure of the occurrence of quantity values in the range of variation of a property is described by a statistical distribution. Its mathematical function or probability distribution function (pdf) is the model of the random value. Often it is proposed Gaussian function of pdf, but it is not obligative function and in many field cases it contradicts to pedogenesis. The model of changes in the statistical distributions of soil properties under anthropogenic and natural processes, proposed by us earlier, indicates that pdf of soil properties can be of various shapes and have a regular character (Mikheeva, 2001; 2005). Developments have been made in the field of mathematical statistics (Lemeshko, 2005); they helped us identify and analyze pdf of various soil properties at different territories. There are types and parameters of probability distribution functions of humus contents in loamy sandy chestnut soil in trenches at fields of different usage in Table 3.

Table 3. Types, parameters, and statistical entropy of probability distribution functions of humus contents in loamy sandy chestnut soil in trenches at fields of different usage

Type of Statistical Usage Horizon Parameters p-value** function* entropy

А Su-Johnson’s 0=-3.9; 1=1.76; 2=0.09; 3=1.18 0.9 -0.03

Virgin В1 -“- 0=0.93; 1=1.19; 2=0.07; 3=0.98 0.8 - 0.9

B2 Nakagami 0=0.17; 1=0.46; 2=0.43 0.6 -1.0

А Su-Johnson’s 0=-0.3; 1=1.01; 2=0.07; 3=1.48 0.8 -0.9

Arable В1 D. of maximal value 0=0.72; 1=0.08 0.9 -0.9 B2 Nakagami 0=0.1; 1=0.53; 2=0.51 0.8 -1.6

А Double exponential 0=1.57; 1=0.08; 2=1.46 0.6 -1.2 Irrigated arable В1 Su-Johnson’s 0=-2.20 1=3.87 2=0.34 3=0.62 0.8 -0.8 B2 Nakagami 0=0.17 1=0.29 2=0.45 0.8 -1.2 *Mathematical expressions of functions are given in next small table **Compromise criterion, the p-value equal average of p-values of Kolmogorov’s test, Smirnov’s test and Ω2- and ω2- tests

Mathematical expressions of functions Name Function

2    2   1  1  x  3  x  3    f (x)  exp  0 1 ln    1  2 2     Su-Johnson’s 2 (x  )   2   2   2    3 2     

 2    1   (x  )2  f (x)   1  (x  )211 exp  1 2 Nakagami  2  2  2  Г(1 )  0    0   2     x  0   Double exponential f (x)  2 exp   2 Г(1/ )    1 2   1   1  x   x   D. of maximal value f (x)  exp 0  exp 0       1  1  1 

P-values are very high and significantly exceed standard means of significance levels (usually 0.01, 0.05, or 0.1), so we consider these functions as probabilistic models of humus contents in pedons of chestnut soil. Because it is difficult to understand they in form of mathematical functions, let’s do graphical visual analysis

of results (Figure 3).

Probabilitydensity

Humus content, Figure 3. Probability distribution% functions of humus content Note. Solid lines – virgin soil, dotted lines –arable soil, dash lines - irrigated arable soil; Three curves appointed in right side belong to humus content in A horizon, middle three curves – in B1 horizon, and left curves – in B2 horizon

Looking to Figure 3, it became clear that tillage decreases humus content in soil profile. Though the characteristic remain in the same range of variation, but probabilities of high values extremely decrease and aspire to zero. So the range of humus content in Ap horizon become close and shape of pdf become tight. In irrigated arable soil this tendency keeps, but growth of values in the left part of range of variation leads to shift of left branch of pdf, and do the tendency more expressed. The humus content in B1 horizon in steppe soils is sharply less than in surface horizon. Difference of pdf here, according to soil usage, is very clear. Though the values of humus content are small but they increase in irrigated study case, because of additional humidity. Differences between study cases of soil usage become smaller in B2 horizon, though it is obvious the decreasing of probability of heightened values in unirrigate arable soil is lower than in virgin and irrigated arable soil. Visual analysis of pdf regularities gives us clearer picture of difference of soil properties in the soil volumes in space under the agricultural impacts, than standard statistical characteristics, like the average and the variance; moreover pdf information is more stable to some big deviations. Nevertheless we should have some another quantitative characteristics to evaluate features and differences of pdf’s as themselves. Statistical entropy and information divergence could help us. Statistical entropy as indicator of soil changeability Entropy is derivative concept from the concept "condition of object" or "phase space of object". It characterizes degree of variability of microconditions of object. Qualitatively, if the entropy is higher, then in bigger number of significantly various microconditions an object at this macrocondition can be. Studying of pdf brought us the idea that statistical entropy of soil properties, which is calculated from pdf, can serve as the numerical characteristic of soil variation (Mikheeva, 2004). We have shown that statistical entropy is more stable characteristic than other characteristics of variability (Mikheeva, 2005). Known Shannon’s formula is applicable in case of discrete systems, therefore its use is justified for high levels of the organization of soil cover. We consider natural fluctuations of soil properties which cannot be considered as discrete as they are continuous. Therefore we have used definition of statistical entropy for continuous random quantity values. The value of statistical entropy may be calculated by the formula, where W (x) – pdf of random variable x; k and h0 are constants (Gubarev, 1992):  h  k W (x)lnW (x)dx  h  0  At calculations of entropy we have accepted while a constant h0 = 0, factor k = 1. For the bottom limit of integration have accepted the minimal values, or, in case of Nakagami pdf, 2; and for top limit - the maximal values of properties, because outside of this interval they are not determined. The value of entropy thus was interpreted as measure of a quantitative variety of inwardness of soil, owing to continuous spatial fluctuations. Because of small humus content in soils in semiarid steppe zone and small size of investigated pedons, intervals of definitions of humus's pdf are tight (Figure 3) and statistical entropy is small and only in horizon A of virgin soil have little negative value close to zero. In other cases it is considerably negative (Table 3). Negativity of entropy value do not contradicts taken definition of entropy. Smoothing of pdf leads to growth of entropy, but at decreasing of area of definition, the entropy are decreasing and can have negative value. Data show that entropy of humus content in A horizon catastrophically decrease in arable soil, it decrease still in irrigated arable soil. Value of entropy is more or less equal in B1 horizon in cases of study; in B2 it decrease especially in arable soil, and apparently increase in irrigated arable soil. Thus, analysis of entropy value highlighted the main tendency of agricultural impact – the tendency of outstanding decreasing quantity of various microconditions of soil. This is important change of edaphic factor. Divergence of pdf as indicator of holistic change of soil properties The concept of divergence is interpreted after Darwin more often in biology as concept connected with evolutions of organisms kinds. However in methodological works the divergence concept is given more fundamental systemic meaning. All area of life on the Earth can be considered in its whole as one system of divergences; it is believed that increase of distinctions conducts to more and more steady structural parities.

We proposed that it is reasonable to name process of soil forming and modern changes of soil properties by term “divergence” and investigate it quantitatively. Visual graphical analysis of pdf dynamics under anthropogenic impacts (Figure 3) have shown that within one soil the property can both weaken and intensify in different localities, though, a prevailing tendency is observed. Quantitative comparison of pdf of soil properties gives holistic estimation of changes of their fluctuations. For such holistic estimation of changes of soil properties we proposed to use mathematical value of divergence of pdf. This value is the quantitative measure of difference of pdf (Mikheeva, 2009). To estimate how the pdf of soil properties differ in different horizons and different state of soil (virgin, arable, irrigated) we used the value d:   W1(x)  ,where W1(x) и W2(x) – pdf of property in compared objects (Gubarev, 1992). d   (W1(x) W 2(x))ln dx  W 2(x)  The degree of difference of genetic horizons is one of important morphological features of soil body. In field condition it could be evaluated by visual perception of investigator. Information divergence help quantify this feature. Information divergence of humus content in horizons A and B1 is very big, but it shows less value in unirrigated arable soil. Divergence of horizons B1 and B2 is not so big, and it is equal in different cases of study (Table 4). Divergence of the humus content in the pedon of unirrigated arable soil as compared with a virgin soil happens because of a decrease in the upper limit of variation, with the value of divergence in B1 horizon being higher than in Ap horizon. On the contrary, in the pedon of irrigated soil versus unirrigated one, the changes happen because of an increase in the low limit of variation (Table5).

Table 4. Information divergence of humus content in soil horizons Usages Virgin Arable Irrigated arable Horizons d* dr d dr d dr A v. B1 35.2 - - 15.4 - - 36.1 - - B1 v. B2 6.2 - - 6.5 - - 6.2 - - Note. In this and text table: d – value of information divergence; dr – direction of difference, which is shown by to symbols, which reflect directions of differences, accordantly, of left (minimum) and right (maximum) boundaries of variation: - -decrease; + -increase; 0 –not change. Table 5. Information divergence of humus content in soil of different usage Horizons A(p) B1 B2 Usages d dr d dr d dr Virgin v. Arable 1.0 0 - 2.6 - - 0.4 0 - Virgin v. Irrigated arable 3.9 + - 0.9 - - 0.5 0 0 Arable v. Irrigated arable 1.1 + 0 0.5 + 0 0.7 0 - Thus, the impact of mechanical treatment and irrigation influences the change of pdf of the humus content in opposite directions, and their combined effect increases the divergence owing to the total restructuring of the probability distribution in Ap horizon. Irrigation in the B1 horizon moderates the differences caused by tillage. Thus, divergence as a quantitative parameter of the similarity of pdf of the soil properties can be used under different conditions for estimating the degree of differences of soil related to the fluctuations of natural and anthropogenic processes. This characteristic can help to single out the most changing and vulnerable soils, as well as to range the natural and anthropogenic changes according the degree of their influence on the soil properties. In summary, we note that increase of fluctuations of genetic soil properties down on the soil profile is the regularity for chestnut sandy soils in semiarid zone of Western Siberia. It is explained by a smaller engagement of the bottom horizons by soil forming process because of sharp continental climate. But reduction of fluctuations of horizon thickness and humus content, in virgin soil at the left asymmetry of their pdf testifies a stationary of this horizon. Soil indicators here don’t vary enough in space as they are close to the limit under constant external conditions, and, therefore, they vary a little and in time. Machining and irrigation of the soil break the dynamic balance that had been reached in the virgin soil during natural evolution. Increasing homogeneity of the superficial horizon, these influences cause processes of transferring of substances in a profile and lead to sharp increase of fluctuations of properties of

Mikheeva, I., 2013. Probabilistic models of spatial fluctuations of edaphic properties in native soils in steppe zone of Western Siberia. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 30-38. the soil in the bottom horizons, and more in the irrigated soil. Thus the right asymmetry of pdf of soil properties, testifying that considerable changes of properties were occurred only in small part of the distributed in space volumes of the genetic horizons, obviously, because of small quantity of an atmospheric precipitation and small irrigation and irrigating norms. Humus content is exception from this rule, because its fluctuation decreases down to the soil profile; that is displayed at different soil use. Statistical parameters and probabilistic models investigated in our paper would be considered as statistical standard of chestnut soils. References All-Union Guidelines for Soil Survey and Compilation of Large-Scale Maps of Land Tenure, 1973. Moscow, Russia: Kolos. Dmitriyev Ye. A., 2000. Mathematical Statistics in Soil Science. Moscow, Russia: Publishing Moscow University. Gubarev, V.V., 1992. Probability models .Part 2. Novosibirsk, Russia: Publishing Novosibirsk State Technical University. Lemeshko, B.Yu., 2005. Statistical Analysis of Univariant Observations of a Random Variable: a Program System. Novosibirsk, Russia: Publishing Novosibirsk State Technical University. Mikheeva, I.V., 2001. Statistical Probability Models of Soil Properties (with Chestnut Soils of the Kulunda Steppe as an Example). Novosibirsk, Russia: Publishing Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk Mikheeva, I.V., 2004. Statistical Entropy as a Criterion for Estimation Evolution and Dynamics of Top Soil. Sibirskii Ekologicheskii Zhurnal 3, 445-454 Mikheeva, I.V., 2005. Statistical Probability evaluation of sustainability and variability of nature objects under modern processes (with Chestnut Soils of the Kulunda Steppe as an Example). Novosibirsk, Russia: Publishing Rossiyskoy Akademii Nauk. Mikheeva, I.V., 2005. Spatial Fluctuations and Statistical Probability Distributions of Chestnut Soil Properties in the Kulunda Steppe. Eurasian Soil Science 38 (3), 278-288. Mikheeva, I.V., 2009. Divergence of Probability Distributions of the Soil Properties as a Quantitative Characteristic of the Soil Cover Transformation. Contemporary Problems of Ecology 2(6), 667-670.

Pedotransfer capacity of nickel and platinum nanoparticles in Albeluvisols Haplic in the South-East of the Western Siberia Sergei Kulizhsky *, Sergei Loyko, Artyom Lim

National Research Tomsk State University, Tomsk, Russia

Abstract

Findings of field and experimental studies of pedotransfer capability of nickel and platinum nanoparticles in the profile of Albeluvisols Haplic of the sub-boreal forest in the south-east of the Western Siberia were presented. Results of the surveys testify to the effect that major factors affecting the migration capability include large biogenic interstices and main cracks that act as transport channels for nanoparticles, as well as thermodynamic (φ-) potentials of particles that define the intensity of surface electrostatic interactions with walls of soil interstices. Keywords: nickel and platinum nanoparticles, soil, migration, physical properties

Introduction Before long, the onrush of nanotech industry can lead to the emergence of a new type of xenobiotics – inert particles smaller 100 nm resistant to environment and capable of accumulating in plants and living organisms having various effect, including toxic. Soil – is a main depot of pollutants in ecosystems, an initial link of water-migration ways and trophic chains. The creation of a theory of nanoparticles behavior in soils will allow not only foreseeing emerging effects, but also creating the technology of remediation. So far, many works have been published concerning nanoparticles transfer through porous media, including soils, however in most cases the expression “nanoparticles” is used as a semantic equivalent to soil colloids. Most often, synthetic porous media with established “idealized” parameters are used. Sometimes nanoparticles mean all grain-size fractions of a small diameter, as in the work of Li et al. (2010). In this work nanoparticles mean particles of anthropogenic origin only. In a number of works (Duester et al., 2011; Fanga et al., 2009; Kovenya et al., 1972) and others, they show that nanoparticles have a high potential to migration in porous saturated media. Soil is attributed to them too. That is why nanoparticles are referred to a category of potentially dangerous substances that can spread to substantial distances from a source of pollution. However not all nanoparticles are capable of far migration, as illustrated by Jaisi and Elimelech (2009), a number of nanotubes have good sorptive affinity with soil matrix and are not dangerous pollutant in migration terms.

* Corresponding author. National Research Tomsk State University, Tomsk, 634050 Russia Tel.: +73822529853 E-mail address: [email protected]

Particles of such a small diameter are permanent for soils, and the diameter itself is not their distinctive feature. The specified dimensional class in soils includes varied components of loamy organic-mineral matrix (soil nanoparticles): fractures of primary minerals and secondary loamy minerals; organic-ferrous, organic-loamy, and organic-mineral colloids; organic substance, etc. However, all these components are often immobile and due to high surface charges they form structures of complex geometry (ensembles): quite large structures, separate domains of which can be about 1 mcm, and ensembles themselves having high strength provide for water resistance of soil aggregates. That is why anthropogenic nanoparticles of inert metals will differ significantly from surface particle of similar dimensions in terms of their properties. This article shows the behavior of nickel and platinum nanoparticles less than 50 nm. In 2008, in Tomsk town, the first block of the Technical and Innovation Zone was brought into operation. It initiated the formation of Tomsk innovation cluster. The cluster included enterprises where nanotechnologies were applied, thus a threat of emerging of a new type of pollutants – nanoparticles – appeared. In this regard, an experiment of pedotransfer capacity of nickel and platinum nanoparticles was conducted at Albeluvisols Haplic (according to the Russian classification – sod-podzol soil), because this component of the soil covering was the leading one in the sub-boreal forest of south-east of the Western Siberia and surroundings of production spaces of Tomsk technical and innovation zone, in particular. Material and Methods The experiment to study the migration of nanoparticles was conducted in the field environment. The section characterizing Albeluvisols Haplic was laid in the inter-crown space of the grassland birch forest in the eluvial position on the second above the flood plain terrace of the Tom river. The profile formula (strength, cm): A (0–11/14) – AE (11/14–30/34) – E (30/34–57/60) – EB (57/60–83) – Bt (83–100/110) – Bt–BC (100/110–140) – BC (135 – 190/200) – C˜ (190/200 – 240+). The following was identified in the surface: the sum of exchangeable bases; absorbed calcium and magnesium; the content of humus according to Tyurin (wet oxidation); hydrolytic acidity; active acidity; full and capillary water-absorbing capacity; solid phase density; general porosity (Vadyunina and Korchagin, 1986). To determine the content of nanoparticles in experimental samples and source solutions, a mass spectrometry method with the ionization in the inductively coupled plazma was used. The sample preparation was carried out in the following way. They took samples of 0.10 g on analytic balance that were placed into a fluoroplastic cylinder (PTFE), added 0.2 – 1.0 ml of concentrated nitric acid, covered with a protective laboratory film and put it into a thermal unit heated up to 115 °С, kept it during 0.5 – 1.0 h until complete dissolution of the sample. The dissolved sample was quantitatively transferred into a measuring polypropylene test tube washing off the cylinder walls three times, and brought with the deionized water up to 10 ml. They closed it pressure-tight with a protective laboratory film, mixed and analyzed it using a mass spectrometer “ELAN DRC-e” model. The studied section was a control variant to select samples from experimental plots, where the suspension of nickel and platinum nanoparticles was introduced. To avoid the influence of space variation of soil capacities on the experiment, test points were placed in the distance about 3-4 meters from the control section. In test points the suspension of nanoparticles was introduced according to a standard method of small covered areas to study filtration properties of soils. An internal round frame of the diameter 20 cm and an external frame of the diameter 40 cm was put on the soil surface. During the suspension introduction, a constant water column was supported over the soil surface 5 cm high to provide the flow stability and the drenching speed, as well as the flow rate. The suspension was introduced into the internal ring with some delay to have the horizontal moisture edge of the external frame go down earlier than the suspension inside the ring. That enabled to minimize the side outflow of nanoparticles suspension. The concentration of the nanoparticles suspensions was selected based on the lowest speed of sedimentation in the concentrations range. 10 mg/l for platinum and 40 mg/l for nickel was selected as the most suitable suspension concentration. The suspension volume was 10 liters (based on the annual standard of soil drenching that made around 300 l/m2). The suspension was introduced in 2 promptitudes for each test material. After absorption and finishing of the suspension filtration in 2 days, samples were selected by the column from the following depth range: 0–5; 5–10; 10–15; 15–20; 20–25; 25–35; 35–45; 45–55 cm. Using the method that provides for the randomness, average samples were selected from obtained samples (control

Results and Discussion The peculiarity of the studied Haplic Albeluvisol is the presence of a gradient and stretched transition between genetic eluvial E and texture Bt horizons in the form of sub-eluvial horizon EB. The height of the transition zone is 20-35 cm. Together with this transition, properties change, the composition of density and the quantity of silt fractions increase along the profile – it is a reflection of conditions of their formation (Loyko et al, 2011). The studied soil, being light grain-size, has quite low pH values and exchangeable bases characteristic for such soils of the forest zone, except for the organogenic horizon AY, where these values increase for the account of biologic accumulation of bases on the matrix of an organic substance (Table 1). The whole profile differs by the average degree of saturation with bases, with the lowest values in eluvial (EL) horizons - 59–60 %, and in humus and texture horizons values approximate to 80%. Taking this into consideration, we can assume that during the profile wash-out with the nanoparticles suspension prepared using the distilled water for the account of exchangeable reactions, the solution chemical quality change will not occur significantly or quickly that could affect the nanoparticles aggregation speed. The biggest content of bases is observed in the humus horizon, however it has the minimum composition density with the maximum porosity; due to that reason, the introduced solution will come through this horizon quite quickly (the water penetration speed approximately 26 cm/h), and the time will not suffice for exchange reactions to occur. Generally, we can note the presence of three horizontal sections inside the profile, where the moisture movement conditions change occurs. This is a lower part of the humus horizon, where the break of multiple capillaries is observed, and the general porosity decreases. The second zone is located under the lower part of the humus-eluvial horizon (AE), where the porosity decreases, and the composition density increases, and the third zone on the border of the illuvial horizon, where the differential porosity changes due to the abrupt change of the grain-size composition (Tables 1 and 2). According to Syso (2007), the gross content of Ni in soils of the Western Siberia is within the range from 20 to 65 mg/kg. As a rule, the content of nickel in soil- forming rocks is higher than in soil horizons, i.e. its desalination occurs. In the control variant of the soil under study the content of Ni has the accumulative-eluvial-illuvial type of distribution. The maximum falls on the humus-accumulative horizon, then the composition decreases, and its quantity increases again nearer to illuvial horizons (Table 3). Such nickel distribution can indicate its anthropogenic introduction into the soil together with precipitations, because the survey territory is located in the natural condition, but within the town boundaries.

Table 3. Nickel and Platinum Content in Samples Experiment data Nanoparticles Layer-by-layer Control Sampling (2 replications) concentration in a layer accumulation depth, Ni Pt Ni Pt Ni Pt Ni Pt cm mg/kg mg 0–5 24,2 <0,01 76,3 0,30 52,1 0,30 65 0,38 5–10 20,0 <0,01 22,5 4,00 2,5 4,00 3 5,02 10–15 18,8 <0,01 18,8 1,73 0,0 1,73 0 3,42 15–20 16,9 <0,01 20,4 0,87 3,5 0,87 7 1,80 20–25 13,2 <0,01 21,1 0.53 7,9 0,53 18 1,17 25–35 14,5 <0,01 75,6 0,48 61,1 0,48 278 2,20 35–45 14,2 <0,01 19,9 0,34 5,7 0,34 26 1,58 45–55 18,8 <0,01 19,3 11.34 0,5 11,34 3 55,19

The platinum content is negligibly small that does not allow the identification of its changeability within the profile. Besides the concentration, the Table 3 shows the values of difference of concentrations and layer-by- layer accumulation. The concentration of nanoparticles in a layer – is a value obtained during subtraction of the control samples element concentration from test points. The layer-by-layer accumulation shows the metal accumulation in a cylindrical layer with 20 cm section (the composition density is taken into account). The layer-by-layer accumulation is calculated according to the formula: ПА=Псл×Vсл×Кнч/1000, where ПА

– layer-by-layer accumulation; Псл – layer composition density (g/cm3); Vсл – layer volume; Кнч – nanoparticles concentration in a layer (the difference between the control and test). The distribution of nanoparticles in the profile of two metals has a complex nature. At the same time, the distribution of platinum repeats in the first approximation the change of the composition density in the profile, or rather maximums of its content are confined to areas of the largest vertical density gradient, or the weighting of the grain-size composition and the general porosity change. In every such case one can assume the changing of the porous space geometry and deterioration of the radial migration conditions. The platinum accumulation points indicate places, where the substance inflow values exceed its outflow. The first maximum of the platinum accumulation (Table 3, Figure 1) lies within the range of 5-15 cm, when friable fine-grain-powdery cespitose horizon transfers into fine-grain-crumbly eluvial-humus horizon, and together with that a sudden change of density value and general porosity decreasing (for the account of biogenic pores) occurs.

Figure 1. Layer-by-layer accumulation of platinum along the profile Haplic Albeluvisol after the experiment.

The following peak is confined to the lower border of EL horizon, i.e. conditioned by the influence of the water-resistant texture horizon that slows down the flow of the infiltrating moisture abruptly from one side, thus making platinum nanoparticles coagulate and subside, and from another side, decreasing of the pores diameter can mechanically detain the migrating platinum nanoparticles, though this mechanism is hardly probable, because the size of nanoparticles should provide for their penetration into any pore, where the moisture transfer is possible. That is why, one can assume that the accumulation of platinum nanoparticles occurs mechanically and is connected almost fully with the correlation of the moisture migration speed and the platinum sedimentation speed. It is hard to assume for the inert platinum the possibility of acquiring a charge as a result of partial surface dissolution that is why the electrostatic interaction of platinum nanoparticles with the soil absorbing complex and electrolytes of soil solutions is practically excluded, at least, in short periods of contact, when the experiment was conducted. The profile distribution of nickel nanoparticles (Table 3, Figure 2) has a bimodal nature. However, the first maximum is in the layer of the humus horizon already. The higher location of the first accumulation peak makes it possible to assume a somewhat another mechanism of binding. Thus, during the suspension preparation, the aggregation and sedimentation of nickel nanoparticles was observed, comparing to platinum. It indicates indirectly that nickel nanoparticles obtain the surface charge on the stage of working suspensions preparation. That is why, getting into the humus horizon of higher absorption capacity caused by hydrophilic humus acids (5.6% of the content (Table 1)), nickel nanoparticles start intensive absorption in active centers of organic substance molecules, forming electrostatic associations with the latter. A large number of plant residues can be found at this depth that lost their anatomic structure

Kulizhsky, S., Loyko, S., Lim, A., 2013. Pedotransfer capacity of nickel and platinum nanoparticles in Albeluvisols Haplic in the South-East of the Western Siberia. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 39-45. and partially humified, but at the same time preserving the carcass structure with the formation of fiber structures, with a large number of twisting and one-side open pores that can mechanically detain nickel nanoparticles effectively. Some quantity of nanoparticles that go along large pores migrates into lower soil layers. By that time, the larger part of nickel nanoparticles aggregates it that is why in the second zone (under the lower part of the humus-eluvial horizon (AEL)) of the nanoparticles migration deterioration practically complete sedimentation of nickel nanoparticles occurs. The reason for that are not electrostatic effects, but the loss of filtration speed during the porosity reduction in the vertical direction with the parallel increasing of the composition density.

Figure 2. Nickel layer-by-layer accumulation along Haplic Albeluvisol profile after the experiment.

Some assumptions can be made by the summation of layer-by-layer accumulation values for each layer – it gives the value of nanoparticles composition after the experiment in the whole cylinder. These values for nickel are 400 mg, and for platinum – 71 mg. Taking into consideration that the source concentration of nickel solution was 40 mg/l, we can say that practically all nickel was detained in the test point cylinder. And the quantity of the introduced platinum was 100 mg; that is why we can say that 29 mg of platinum continued the migration into the depth of the soil profile, beyond 55 cm of strata. It follows from above that the larger role during the determination of transfer capacities is played by the material inertness degree. Nanoparticles consist of this material. The less inert nickel, obtaining the charge, aggregates faster, interacts with soil colloids, as a result it subsides within the first 50 cm from the soil surface binding in the upper part mainly with the organic substance, and lower during the transition from the horizon AY to the horizon EL with the abrupt decreasing of the average weighted diameter of pores. Platinum nanoparticles are very inert, they have small surface charges and subside mainly on mechanic geochemical barriers, that is why their distribution in the profile is better harmonized with physical properties (porosity, composition density, grain-size content). In total, it is noted that due to their finest size and super-disperse condition, nanoparticles showed a phenomenal migration capability in soils for colloid particles. It allows considering them as quite a dangerous type of pollutants capable of free and quick penetration inside the soil profile. On another hand, this peculiarity can be used for their elimination from the root layer by means of soils washing with water. Conclusion As a result of experiments conducted, it was established that platinum nanoparticles had higher migration potential as compared to nickel nanoparticles that can be connected with their high inertness and, therefore, the lesser thermodynamic (φ-) potential. Due to that, the platinum comes into electrostatic interactions with soil pores’ walls with less intensity, and is aggregated in suspensions weaker than nickel.

When studied nanoparticles come into the soil profile, their primary accumulation occurs in the upper root layer, but their part comes beyond its borders, which is especially characteristic for platinum, the carryover of which can make about 20-30% with a single drenching from the initial content. It is shown that the leading role is played by biogenic pores and main cracks, where nanoparticles are transported quickly into the depth of the profile, without managing to aggregate and/or come into the electrostatic interaction with the surface of the porous space. The detention of nanoparticles occurs mainly mechanically, but with the growth of their surface charge the bigger part is played by the electrostatic interactions and coagulation effects caused by the interaction of soil electrolytes. Nanoparticles that penetrated into the surface soil layers, provided their inclusion into the flow of side internal soil, soil-rock and rock waters can distribute to quite large distances resulting in the pollution of underlying catena soils and bodies of water. The approximate distribution distance in conditions facilitating the migration can make the first hundreds of meters, and the percent of nanomaterial that remained in the unbound condition can reach from 10% during the passing of horizons with the dense packing of aggregates, up to 60-80% with the high porosity (sands, pebbles, slope soils with a large number of flow tubes). At the same time, one should not assume a significant radial-lateral migration of nanoparticles in brackish and weakly aggregated soils of hard grain-size composition that should be taken into consideration during the pollution subsequences forecasting. References Duester, L., Prasse, C., Vogel, J.V., Vink, J.P.M., Schaumann, G.E., 2011. Translocation of Sb and Ti in an undisturbed floodplain soil after application of Sb2O3 and TiO2 nanoparticles to the surface. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 1204-1211. Fanga, J., Shana, X.Q., Wena, B., Lina, J.M., Owens, G., 2009. Stability of titania nanoparticles in soil suspensions and transport in saturated homogeneous soil columns. Environmental Pollution 157(4), 1101-1109. Jaisi, D.P., Elimelech M., 2009. Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Exhibit Limited Transport in Soil Columns Environ. Environmental Science Technology 43(24), 9161–9166. Li, W., Xu, J., Huang, P.M., 2010. Extraction of Nanoparticles from Argosols and Ferrosols. Molecular Environmental Soil Science at the Interfaces in the Earth’s Critical Zone 4, 275-278. Vadyunina, A.F., Korchagin, Z.A., 1986. Methods of study of the physical properties of soils, Moscow: Agropromizdat, 416. Loyko, S.V., Gerasko, L.I., Kulizhsky, S.P., 2011. Grouping the carriers of soil memory (the case of the northern area of chernovaya taiga). Bulletin of the Tomsk State University. Biology 3(15), 38-49. Syso, A.I., 2007. Patterns of distribution of chemical elements in the soil-forming rocks and soils of Western Siberia. Novosibirsk: Publishing House of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 227. Kovenya, S.V., Mel, M., Freed, A., 1972. Research on the role of mechanical forces and geometric conditions in the movement of fine particles in the soil columns. Soil Science 10, 133-140.

Babayev, M.P., Huseynova, S.M., Mirzezade, R.I., 2013. The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences in independence years (1991-2011).EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 46-49.

The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences in independence years (1991-2011) (Review)

Maharram P.Babayev *, Sultan M.Huseynova, R. I. Mirzezade

The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan

Introduction The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry was organized on the basis of the “Soil Science” sector which actualized in composition of the branch of Azerbaijan Academy of Science of USSR in 1945, ANAS (SAI) is a research center directed to the solution of the theoretical and practical problems on Soil Science, Ecology and Agrochemistry in our republic. The researches in the direction of the restoration of the preservation and yielding ability of the soils were extended (1991-2011) at the Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of ANAS in independence years. The auspicious conditions were created for the preparation of the high qualified specialists together with the Azerbaijan Soil Scientists’ society at the institute these years. Eighty seven high qualified scientific workers including one person who is academician of ANAS (G.Sh.Mammadov), corresponding member of ANAS (M.P.Babayev), 78 candidates of science, 7 doctors of science work at institute at present. The classic scientific schools over soil science and agrochemistry were carried on in inindependence years (academicians, H.A.Aliyev; B.R.Volobuyev; J.M.Huseynov; corresponding members M.E.Salayev; K.A.Alakbarov; A.N.Gulahmadov). Academician G.Sh.Mammadov’s scientific school is in the direction of Agroecology of soils, Ecological estimation, Modelling of Soil Fertility, State Soil cadastre and its scientific bases. The researches and some scientific achievements have been got in this field. The temporary classification and morphogenetic diagnostics according to the international standards of Azerbaijan soils have been prepared (a corresponding member of ANAS Babayev M.P., Ch.M.Jafarova, V.H.Hasanov). The scientific and theoretical bases of the fight measures against the antropogen and alluvial hydromorph soil- forming process, degradation of soils were worked out and a scientific school was created in this field (Babayev M.P., V.H.Hasanov, E.A.Gurbanov). The fecund condition was established for the fulfillment of the serious scientific searches, in the field of the reforms about use of the soil resources in agriculture and branch application of the scientific achievements to the economy in the period when our republic has got independence. The large application was possible in fulfillment of the scientific achievements in the field of soil science, soil melioration, physics, biology, agroecology of soils, improverment of soils, soil ecology and monitoring and also soil cadastre and agrochemistry problems and in the different branches of our economy in our inindependence years. Tens of monographies, books, atlases, maps, methodic recommendations were published these years.

* Corresponding author. The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, 1308734 Baku, Azerbaijan Tel.: (+99412) 5105597 Fax : (+99412) 5383240 E-mail address: [email protected]

At first assuming a relief condition of the zone as a basis a map of soil on the scale of 1:600000 of the Azerbaijan Republic was prepared and printed in Russian and Azerbaijani (Moscow 1991). “Azerbaijan state map of soil” prepared on the basis of the materials of the long-term soil researches (1:100000 planshets, 1998) is an important scientific document in fulfillment of general republic important soil-ecological measures and passporting of the soil resources. Agroecology of Azerbaijan soils, scientific bases of soil cadastre have been studied and the soils have been evaluated on ecological side. The researches about the scientific and theoretical bases of the process of antropogen soil formation have been carried out and corresponding methodical recommendations have been offered. A new conception of the soil-cadastre regionalization is suggested and “Regionalization map of Azerbaijan soil-cadastre” in a scale of 1:600000 is composed (1998). It is applied in the preparation of the project- normative documents. The great leader Haydar Aliyev’s soil reforms began in our republic in the independence years (1995). The varied researches carrying out at Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry have been directed to the scientific maintenance of the soil reform in our republic. After our republic had realized independence, the theoretical and practical bases of the cadastre service with the preparation of the ecological models of the soil evaluation and fertility were worked out, at the same time agrarian reforms and scientific analyses of its results were carried out. The ecoethical problems and their solution methods “Ecoethic problems of Azerbaijan; scientific, legal and moral aspects” (2004), “Soil Atlas of the Azerbaijan Republic” (2007), “Soil erosion and protection” (2009), “Ecological atlas of the Azerbaijan Republic” (2009, 2010 in azerb., rus and eng. languages). “The atlas of the morpho-genetic profiles of Azerbaijan soils” has been prepared (2004). “Soil degradation and protection” of Azerbaijan (2010). The methods grounded on the temporary scientific-experiments of the resroration and preservation of fertility of the irrigative soils in the valley of Kur-Araz have been offered. “Restoration and preservation of fertility of the irrigative soils” (2010). At first the completed systematic character of the soil cover, temporary soil classification and morphogenetic diagnostics was prepared (2006). The correlation with the World Reference Base of soil resources has been conducted and they are offered for use upon international and national ground. Morphogenetic diagnostics of Azerbaijan (2004), nomenclature (2006) and classification (2011) was prepared and published in 3 volumes. The water-salt balance investigations have been carried out in subsoils of the different zones of the Kur-Araz valley for a long time and the scientific analyses of their consequences have been given. The carried out scientific researches gave an opportunity for working out the theoretical bases of the solution of some important problems and offering recommendations of practical importance, including reclamation of the salinized soils for the reliable food supply of the country population and working out a scientific maintenance of the intending measures in order to get high and constant crop from reclamating soils (2006). The new complex reclamation methods grounded on principles of the ecological optimization have been offered, scientific practical methodic bases of the new direction have been worked out with the purpose of restoring of the natural and antropogen heavy clayey saline zones spreading in the plain regions of the republic to the arable state. The large-complex soil researches of the Baku-Tbilisi-Jeyhan oil pipe in the part of Azerbaijan have been carried out and dangerous factors have been determined and fight measures have been prepared against them (2009). The parameter of the hydrothermic potential of the soil environment, limiting factor of the soil environment of ecosystems, landscape elements has been offered and a unit of measurement has been defined. The biological diagnostics of the soils being used under vegetable and fodder crops has been defined on the basis long hospital in connection with the maintenance of the food safety and at first an estimation of the soils has been carried out on the basis of the biological indices of the soils, the got consequences are used in management by the scientific bases for the purpose of increasing of fruit-growing ability “Estimation of the activity of the irrigative soils under vegetable”.

Some important consequences have been got in agrochemical researches besides soil science and ecological investigations in the independence years (2006). A balance of the nutritious elements under the main food plants being used in agriculture has been defined. “Scientific bases of rationality of the nutritious element of the cultures and the balance in the rational sowing” (2006). The rising methods of the coefficients of appropriation of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium have been prepared and a corresponding formula has been offered. The silty residue of the Absheron canal and rationality of the fertilizers got from organic wastes have been got. The level of the being polluted by heavy metals of the landscape complexes of the country and Baku has been investigated. The important role of carbon dioxide gas has been grounded on scientific side in increase of the mineral food reserves besides an application of organic fertilizers of the plant nourishment. At first the atlas “Gathering” and distribution of nitrates in the culture harvest which is composed by the scientists of the institute has been published in a coloured description in Azerbaijan (2002). The coloured soil profiles involving all the genetic soil types and subtypes and an atlas of the soil- agrochemistry maps of our republic have been prepared (2004). Last years (1991-2011) as a result of the researches the physiological active substances (stimulators) which rise productivity and improve a quality of the different cultures being cultivated in agriculture soil improving preparations inhibitor, catalyst substances have been got. 40 patent has been got in the independence years. “Soil museum” has been organized at Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry during the independence. More than 50 soil monolits, soil and rock samples ekvolving all the soil-climate zones in Azerbaijan, and important scientific achievements have also been presented. The foreign relations expanded in the science of Soil Science and Agrochemistry as in all fields in independence years. The soil scientists of the country have been elected real members of the World Soil Scientists’ Union. The members of the society have participated at the conferences having been conducted in Iran (Tabriz 1993; Urmia 2005), Belarus (Minsk 2010), Turkey (Adana 1996; Konya 1998; Samsun 2010) and in Russia (Rostov-na-Don 2008). Spain International Congress (Barcelona 1998). Soil Scientists’ society congress of Dokuchayev Federation of Russia (Novosibirsk 2004), Soil Scientists’ society congress of Europe, 15th (Mexico 1994), 16th (France 1998), 17th (Thailand 2002), 18th (America 2006), 19th (Australia 2010), All- Union Soil Scientists’ congress. The thesis on the specialties of 03.00.27 – “Soil Science”, 03.00.16 – “Ecology”, 06.01.04 – “Agrochemistry”, 06.01.02 – “Melioration, recultivation and soil protection” is fulfilling in order to acquire doctors of philosophy on science of biology and agriculture in Specialized Defense Council-D.01.041 which actualizes at the Institute of Soil Sciences and Agrochemistry of ANAS. The high qualified specialists including 17 doctors of Science and 208 doctors of philosophy have been prepared on Soil Science and Agrochemistry of ANAS for last 20 years. The fecund condition was created for publishing of the scientific consequences in the independence years. The employees of the institute have printed 1265 scientific works (168 abroad), 5 maps, 5 atlases, 40 patents, 10 collections of the Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry and Azerbaijan Soil Scientists’ Society, 38 monographs, books, textbooks and scientific articles 16 in the foreign scientific journals (a list is added). The scientific researches of the Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of ANAS have been intended to be directed to the solution of the problems for the near future: -Foundation of the reference system of soil resources of the Azerbaijan Republic - Model of the ecological fertility, extending of the researches in the soil cadastre and monitoring. Scientific analysis of the soil reforms. - Organizing of the bank of the agrophysical, optic and heat characters of the soils. - Investigation of the chances of the use from the biological factors with the purpose of establishment and increase of the soil fertility under condition of the arid climate. - Monitoring of the quality of the soil and irrigative waters. - Monitoring of the resources of the nutrient and theoretical bases of its use in soil. - Investigation of the pollution level of the soils with the toxic and inimical substances.

References Babayev M.P., 2005. Management of degraded soil, rehabilitation processes in Azerbaijan traditional methods. UNESCO- MAB Dry lands series No 4, France, Paris, pp. 45-52 Babayev M.P., Jafarova Ch.M., Hasanov V.H. 2006. The modern classification of Azerbaijan soils. Magazine- Pocvovedenie, № 11, Moscow, 2006 y., p. 1307-1314 Babayev M.P., Huseynova S.M., Ramazanova F.M. 2012. National-applied classification of Azerbaijan anthropogenic soils. Turkey, Izmir, p 87-95 Babayev M.P., Hasanov V.H., Jafarova Ch.M., Huseynova S.M. 2011. Morphogenetic diagnostics, nomenclature and classification of Azerbaijan soils. Baku: Elm, 452 p. Babayev M.P., Azizov G.Z., Mustafayev M.G., Jafarov A.M. 2012. Natural factors that can create danger for that part of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipe-line passing through the Azerbaijan Republic and intending measures for preservation. Baku:Elm, 112 p. FAO, FAO-UNESCO-ISAIC. Map of the World. Revised legend. 1994, 119p. World reference base for soil Resources. Draft ISSS\\SR\C\FAO Waseninger\Rome, 1994, p. 161. World Reference base for soil resources. Rome, 1998, 90 p.

Management of Geospatial Information for the Growth of Various Sectors in Azerbaijan (Review)

Garib Sh. Mamedov *

State Committee for Land and Cartography, Baku, Azerbaijan Department of Agrarian Sciences, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan

Introduction Agriculture today has in its arsenal remote sensing data of Earth, statistics, maps, various reports on land management, various agencies that resent with an array of information related to space and other things that were not available only ten years ago. Such rapid growth in the flow of information requires special approaches. And here comes to aid the technologies of geospatial information management. And the role of geospatial information management should be considered from two different perspectives: first, to know what to produce and in what amounts, and second, these methods should be used actively in the definition of a comprehensive policy in this area. As you know, two months ago the President of Azerbaijan, His Excellency Ilham Aliyev approved the Concept of Development ‘Azerbaijan 2020: Looking to the Future.’ The main strategic view of the concept – with consideration of the modern opportunities and resources to achieve the stagу of development that would be characterized by a complete accomplishment in Azerbaijan of sustainable economic growth and high social welfare, good governance and the rule of law, of all rights and freedoms, an active status of civil society in public life. One of the key instruments for realizing the strategy is good management of spatial data and geographic information systems. The ideology that ‘everything happens somewhere’ is certainly a new wave in the creation and use of data in agriculture. We are witnessing exponential growth of techniques for creating and receiving, and more significantly, the amount of information of the corresponding form. Together with the existing data of geospatial character that is existent in the individual agencies responsible for development of agriculture, it forms a huge amount of information, which requires systematization and new methods of analysis. If we talk about the information that is available, it is necessary to emphasize the land reform. That information is characterized with a well-defined space-oriented digitizing, greater detalization and is brought to a format accessible for geospatial analysis. It became evident, and sometimes perceived as an axiom that the effective development of both human settlements, especially large, and districts and regions, in modern conditions is difficult, if not impossible, without the information system containing details of a specific territory. And most often it is the GIS that constitute the foundation of a municipal or regional information system that enables solving complex analytical problems in the modeling of processes in an urban environment or in the district, area or region.

* Corresponding author. State Committee for Land and Cartography, Baku, Azerbaijan

Today, geographic information systems are increasingly acting as an essential tool in making territorial management decisions because they accumulate in themselves information about the objects and processes, and enable processing large amounts of data. The basis of any GIS is constituted by spatial data. As in any territory changes occur constantly, it is not enough to enter the information once; it must be constantly updated and corrected. Without a continuous process of updating the system loses its credibility, its use is inefficient and, in fact, can lead to erroneous decisions. One of the main sources of spatial information that allows not only to create a geospatial framework of a GIS, but also to maintain it up to date, are the data of remote sensing, including from space. Northern Geographical Company since its inception specializes in the distribution of remote sensing data for a wide range of tasks, processes aerial and satellite imagery, updates the digital cartographic data based on remote sensing data, prepares various thematic data layers for GIS. The main problem of processing such documents is identification and correction of existing inaccuracies (and sometimes quite apparent inconsistencies) present on adjacent fragments of plans. After accumulation of in-depth information processing these images is still continued with architectural CAD applications that allow creating a plan together with three-dimensional model. The outcomes of treatment, as a rule, become vector drawings, projections and sections of large digital terrain models. The electronic model is created in the appropriate size, and any measurements on it are reliable, because the resulting fragments are given to the same coordinate system, and their combination in a single drawing is no difficult. The presence of electronic designs not only allows to receive or create general types of buildings, but also to go to the fragments taken with any zoom. Plans that carry the volume characteristics of the objects allow developers to get a three-dimensional model of the planned, constructed or an existing building. View of the information systems as one of the management tools of the state in the area of its economic and military security associates with the appearance of a number of new factors, conditions and circumstances. Integrated use of technologic means of generation, transfer, processing and, above all, the use of high-speed computer technology in the automated control systems (ACS), an important component of which is geographical information system (GIS), contributes to the development and wide application of computer science, cybernetics, systems engineering, mathematical methods, which play an important role in solving theoretical and applied problems of management. The functioning of any automated GIS is based on the interaction of its major subsystems. The most important component of a GIS is its information supply. The information supply of GIS means a set of all the geospatial information on the area of distribution of GIS in the form of digital and electronic topographic maps, space images, thematic references and statistic data. An important feature of newly created GIS is transition from traditional forms of information in mapping - graphic, to digital, vector. The spatial position of objects on the area is described with coordinates, which is their common property, i.e. location of a single coordinate space in a certain place. The set of spatial objects is a GIS model of the territory and is used to study and spatial analysis in order to ensure sustainable development of the territories (Biryukov, 2001). Global positioning technologies are represented with three global navigation systems - GLONASS, GPS and Galileo. Geospatial information (geospatial data), depending on its accuracy, nature or volume is subject to the laws and other regulations in the field of state and official confidential data. The problem of protection of geospatial information is part of the more general problem of information security of automated control system of oil and gas complex of Russia. This problem is also not fully solved in the Russian oil and gas enterprises, which could potentially cause damage to not only the military, but also other types of damage (industrial, commercial, and social). Certainly, the emergence and increase of the number of devices supporting the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is of great importance in all sectors of the economy. Agriculture in this aspect is no exception. It is impossible to speak of a "precision agriculture" without appropriate technology. Azerbaijan has put into

Mamedov, G.Sh. 2013. Management of Geospatial Information for the Growth of Various Sectors in Azerbaijan. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 50-52. operation AZPOS, a permanent network of reference stations. In the testing phase, the utilization possibilities of the respective devices in agriculture are studied. Agriculture is one of the most promising areas for the use of remote sensing satellites. Crops excellently show themselves in satellite images, they are not hidden; they are single- storey, well deciphered as by the texture and by the spectral characteristics. Shooting from the space can significantly improve the ways of operational monitoring and forecasting crop yield. Special attention should be paid on the abilities of unmanned aerial vehicles to gather the necessary geospatial information. The possibilities here are really endless. Parallel to the development of technology of collecting geospatial data for agriculture needs, the methods for processing this information should develop. It should be noted that today we suffer from an excess of information. Our ability to generate data on the whole outpaces our ability to use them. Therefore, we must clearly the right information at the right time. Accordingly, we should expect in the near future more serious expansion of "cloud computing" in the agricultural sector. Along with this trend we can be clearly observe the transition from 2D mapping to 3D, and even 4D. Important tools for the most effective use of spatial information are geoportals that use real-time data of remote sensing of Earth. Geoportal is a single online resource that includes the area of open access and special zone for the relevant regional or specialized institutions. As necessary, the information can be transferred from the closed area to the open one. Particular attention at the development of geo-portal is paid to information security. According to the legislation of the Azerbaijan Republic the main government agency responsible for managing geospatial information is the State Committee for Land and Cartography of the Azerbaijan Republic. In the last time, much has been done by the Committee in this regard. Given the increasing need to harmonize mapping activities to create geographic information systems, the TK011 Technical Committee was established and it successfully operates on standardization in the field of the ‘Assessment of Soil and Geographic Information/Geomatics’. A special geoserver was developed and implemented to provide mapping support and visualization in the monitoring of development of the country regions. On October 5, 2012 the International Steering Committee for Global Mapping published the second version of the global map of Azerbaijan. With this system, we can analyze the needs and study the usage statistics of various layers of GIS-based maps in Azerbaijan, including for the needs of agriculture. The priority directions at present days is creation of geoportals with their subsequent introduction into the ‘e-government’ solutions, participation in the development of unified geodetic reference frameworks for global development, sharing and integration of geospatial data for prevention of natural disasters, as well as improvement of the methods and tools of spatial data management for economic prosperity of the country. All this is somehow related to the growth in the agricultural sector of the economy.

References Berlyant A.M. 1998. Cartography. Interpretation of key terms. A.M. Berlyant. The firmware, the fund of digital cartographic materials, services, and regulatory framework of Geoinformatics: annual. Review, 3: 91-104. Biryukov B.C. 2001. Analysis of the technical means of sourcing digital information on relief by photographs. B. Biryukov, V. Rodionov, V. Avdeev. Geodesy and aerophotoshooting, 1: 19-22. Bobkov, V.A. 1995. Methods of the relief data processing. Bobkov V.A., Belov S.B., Kadnichansky S.A. Geodesy and Cartography, 6: 37-41. Du Toit, C. 2008. Government goes 2.0: State decision makers promise a high-tech future. Week, 156: 16-19. Evans, O. 2010. GIS for Gov 2.0, ESRI Federal User Conference, Washington, DC. Koshkarev A.V. 1993. Geoinformatics. Koshkarev A.B., Tikunov V.S., ed. Lisitsky D.V., M. Kartgeotsentr - Geoizdat, 213 p. Pollard, P. 2003. Spatial Data Infrastructure and e-Government: A Case Study of the UK. Lecture Notes in Computer Sci., 2755 - 2758. Zhalkovsky E.A. 1999. Digital cartography and geoinformatics. Zhalkovsky E.A. and others. M. Kartotsentr - Geodezizdat, 44.

Environmental Monitoring of arid woodland soils or tertiary plateaus in Azerbaijan (Review)

Ali M. Jafarov *, Cesaret A. Shabanov, Tatyana A. Kholina

The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan

Introduction People began to pay attention to environmental assessment in the middle of the XX century, when it became clear that the consumer attitude to nature will inevitably lead to its destruction and preservation of environment is the guarantee to continue own life. At the same time, has been appeared concept of "monitoring" - regular monitoring of the environment. The concept of environmental monitoring is given in UNESCO program MAB (Man and Biosphere, 1968): “Monitoring considered as a system of regular long-term observations in space and time, giving information about the environment in order to assess the past, present and forecast future changes in environmental parameters relevant to human”. Unlimited in space and time environmental monitoring is designed to detect anthropogenic changes in the environment, warn about situations that are harmful or hazardous to the health of humans and other living organisms (Mamedov, 2004; Mamedova et al., 2005; Mamedova, 2006; Motuzova and Bezuglova, 2007). Background monitoring is one type of environmental monitoring. The aim is to control soil of territories which could be used as environment standards, i.e. soil of reserves or other specially protected areas. As is known, the reserves are one of the most effective forms of landscapes protection. Even V.V.Dokuchaev said that the right organizing of the soils usage is possible only on areas unaffected by human activities. Nature reserves are such kind of etalon nature zones. At the present time, when human industrial activity significantly changes not only the individual biogeocenoses, but also fundamentally transforms the landscape as a whole, is especially important comparative knowledge of patterns of development and operation of primary (virgin) and secondary (anthropogenic) biogeocenoses (Mikheev et al., 1981). Of course, talking about completely undisturbed landscapes is currently impossible. But still in the protected areas of anthropogenic influence is minimized, because in the reserves is prohibited any economic and other activities. To develop ways of controlling nature requires forecast of direction and speed of changes of biogeocenoses and landscapes in different forms and levels of human impact. That's why the conducting of background ecological monitoring of soil protected area (nature reserve) and the adjacent unprotected area with similar environmental conditions seems to us important and timely task. Arid woodlands represent a unique type of xerophytic tree and shrub vegetation. In Azerbaijan, arid woodlands form a discontinuous zone, located between the semi-arid zone and the zone of mountain forests

* Corresponding author. The Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, 1308734 Baku, Azerbaijan Tel.: +994124325132 E-mail address: [email protected]

Jafarov, A.M. 2013. Environmental Monitoring of arid woodland soils or tertiary plateaus in Azerbaijan. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 53-55. in the foothills and lowlands Greater and Lesser Caucasus. In the historical past, these forests cover a wider area, but improper use, grazing and cultivation of a relatively gentle slope greatly reduced the area of these forests, and now arid woodlands account for only 3% of the forest fund of the republic. Located in a dry, highly dissected, difficult to reach places of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus foothills, they have vital soil protection, water protection and water-regulating value (Aliev et al., 2001). In the area of the Greater Caucasus, the largest array of arid woodlands located on Tertiary plateau. Much of this array is protected on the territory of the Turianchay State Nature Reserve. But part of the pistachio-juniper woodlands, located in Gabala region, east of the river Goychay, not included in the reserve. It seemed an interesting idea to compare the different rates of soil in a protected and unprotected territory, i.e. to carry out the background soil monitoring using soil of the reserve as a backdrop. We conducted background monitoring of soils of Turianchay State Nature Reserve and adjacent area, located on the east of the reserve’s borders on the left bank of the river Goychay, covering about 5000 hectares. The criteria for choosing this area served as a similar climate, relief, lithological conditions, soil and vegetation. They were compared on several measures of the two soil types: mount-forest brown and gray-brown. The results presented below. Turianchay State Reserve is located in the southern foothills of Adzhinour, in the area between the rivers Alidzhanchay and Goychay. Its territory begins on the territory of the river Alidzhanchay and narrow (5-6 km) stretches to the east (45-50 km) to the river Goychay. In the narrowest part of the reserve, its width is just over 2 km, at the widest - almost 10 km. Turianchay reserve is located on the 4 administrative districts: Agdash, Yevlakh, Gabala and Oguz, and area of Agdash district is 8584 ha, Yevlakh - 3050 ha, Oguz - 1000 ha and Gabala - 9854 ha. The total area Turianchay State reserve is 22 488 ha. The main forest-forming species woodland on the reserve and adjacent territories are 4 species of juniper (prolific, heavily scented, red and needle) and pistachio - long-lasting, stable and dry rocks with a strong root system, which protects the topsoil from erosion. They grow mainly in places where other species cannot grow without irrigation. Arid plants adapted to brown forest soils. At the territory of Turianchay reserve according to the occurrence conditions and character of soil-forming process the brown soil of arid zone are separated to 3 types: leached, typical and carbonated. Overall area of brown forest soils in reserve is 6512,46 ha, almost 30% of all territory (Kholina, 2009) The humus content in upper horizon of mount-forest brown soils in a territory of reserve (background territory) is 2.60-5.32%. Stock of this cover at 0-20 sm layer is overall 102 t/ha. In a territory adjacent to the reserve according to the results of our experiments the humus content at 0-20 sm layer is 1.95-4,28%, it’s stock in the same horizon is 76 t/ha. So, we can observe that the humus content is less than in background territory in average on 25%. The nitrogen content in upper horizon of related soils in a territory of reserve is 0.20-0.37%, and in unsecured territory is 0.14-0.28%. Therefore the nitrogen content is less in the adjacent territory for 24- 30%. Stocks of phosphor in a background territory contains 8.13-12.50 in a half meter cover, stocks of potassium - 134.81-186.25 t/ha. In a relevant territory at the same horizon stocks of phosphor is 6.98-10.25 t/ha, potassium – 112.76-148.67 t/ha. Lessening in a comparison with phosphor territory contains 14-18% and 16-20% respectively. Reaction of soil solution at upper horizons of reserve territory is close to neutral (7.1-7.3). In unsecured territory pH of soil solution of upper horizons is a little bit more – 7.6-7.9. Here appears that reaction of soil solution changed to alkalinity. This is firstly related to damping process. In a territory of Turianchay reserve grey-brown soil spread by separated zones in height from 200 to 400 m from sea degree. Grey-brown soil formed by primitive plantation, spreads after primitive plants, developed after retreating of forest. The vegetation cover in a territory of reserve is quite colorful and represents in the line with different trees of juniper and pistachio, blackberry, wild rose, garnet and other primitive plants.

In a secured territory the humus content in grey-brown soils in the upper horizon is overall 2.5%, but in adjacent territory is 1.8%. Stocks of nitrogen in a half meter cover of reserve territory is almost 11 t/ha, in unsecured territory stocks are less than 27% and this is 8 t/ha. Content of physical clay (fraction <0.01 mm) in actual soil of background territory contain 38.16-54.51% at upper horizon. On the comparable area the content of physical clay in the upper horizon is 27.58-42.35%, i.e. quantity of factions <0.01 mm are less for 22-27%. So, granulometric composition from middle- and heavy loam soil changed to easier - and middle loam soil, which could be related with washed soils. Talking about background monitoring, we can’t neglect the problem of contamination of soil cover by several chemicals (garbages from industry production, herbicide, pesticides, mineral fertilizers, heavy metals and etc.), municipal and other wastes. We considered degree of contamination in a territory of reserve as , meanwhile in the reality it wasn’t true, especially near living areas. Nevertheless in a attitude to unsecured territories it can be accepted for minimum. In a territory ahead of reserve a picture is totally different. Located in the nearby to the reserve territory the Goychay district center has a negative effect. The amount of waste for the built site contains 25-50 thousand tones. This number includes industrial, agrarian, transportation and municipal refuse. Through this territory pass the car roads, along which observe high level of contamination. Used gases of car motors contain about 200 toxic compounds, mainly nitrogen and carbon oxides, benz(a)piren. Ecological state of these territories are crucial, ecological situation has been disturbed partially (Mamedov et al. 2009). The ecological status of environment, as known, directly impacts to people’s health. Sanitary-ecological situation is not very favorable. Thus, the number of cancers in this area is among the highest in republic: from 10 to 35 infected for each 1000. The same situation occurrences in the case of digestive organs diseases: 200-300 deseases for 1000. Number of infected blood circulation diseases is 300-400 for 1000, also one of the highest in the republic. As we see, all ecological indicators of unsecured territory are lower than of the reserve territory. Considering these data, we offer to to extend the territory of Turianchay State Nature Reserve, attaching thereto the above mentioned part of the Gabala region, similar for its environmental conditions to reserve territory.

References Aliev, G.A., Khalilov, S.G., Abdueva, R.M. 2001. Ecological features of soils of arid woodlands of the foothills of the Greater Caucasus. Baku: Ozan, 214 p. Mamedov, G.S. 2004. Ekoetical problems of Azerbaijan: the scientific, legal and moral aspects. Baku: Elm, 370 p. Mamedov, G.S., Khalilov, M.Y., Mamedova, S.Z. 2009. Environmental Atlas of Azerbaijan Republic. Baku: Baku Cartographic Factory, 156 p. Mamedova, S.Z., Shabanov, J.A., Guliyev, M.B. 2005. Environmental monitoring of soil Lenkoranchay pool. Baku: Elm, 167 p. Mamedova, S.Z. 2006. Environmental assessment and monitoring of soil Lankaran region of Azerbaijan. Baku: Elm, 372 p. Mikheev, A.B., Galushin, V.M., Gladkov, N.A., Inozemtsev, A.A. 1981. The Nature Conservancy. M.: "Education", 273 p. Motuzova, G.V., Bezuglova, O.S. 2007. Environmental monitoring of soil. M.: "Academic Project", 237 p . Kholina, T.A. 2009. Ecological characterization and assessment of soils of arid woodlands Turianchay State Reserve. Proceedings of Agricultural Science, vol.7, № 2, Tbilisi, p.49-52.

The Chemical Composition of Some Soils and Its Significance for Vegetation of the Agsu District of Azerbaijan

Tubukhanım Gasımzade *

Department of Agrarian Sciences, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan

Abstract

The paper presents the results of a study of the chemical composition of the soils of the Agsu district of Azerbaijan. On the soil types the main indicators of the chemical composition and content of sodium, magnesium, aluminum, copper, phosphorus, carbon, potassium, calcium, titanium, manganese, and iron are shown. As the results showed, depending on change of the depth of soil profile the component composition varies only slightly. On average, these figures are close to the generally accepted standards and are sufficient for normal growth and development of vegetation on these soils in the area. Keywords: soil, chemical contents, vegetation, atomic emission method

Introduction The content of microelements in soils depends on their content in parent material and the soil-forming processes. The role of microelements in physiological and biochemical processes is immeasurably great. The soil is a source of microelements for plants, animals and people. They are part of the vitamins, enzymes and hormones. The chemical composition of the soil is a reflection of the elemental composition of geosphere that participates in the formation of soil. Therefore, all soils are composed of the elements that are common or occur both in the lithosphere, and in hydro, atmosphere and biosphere. (Kowalski et al, 1970) Lack or excess of microelements in the feed and food leads to metabolic disorders and occurrence of diseases in plants, animals and humans (Kowalski et al, 1971). Good nutrition is a major factor for the full life of plants. This will determine not only their normal growth, flowering and fruiting, but also resistance to various stresses. The success of growing plants eventually is buried in a specific soil and depends on its characteristics (chemical composition, physical properties, proximity to groundwater, etc.). It is possible to change the chemical composition of the soil and enrich it with nutrients by introducing a variety of fertilizers into the soil. Macro-and microelements are those necessary and important elements for plant, excess or shortage of which determines the growth and development. Manganese, copper, boron, zinc, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt, fluorine, vanadium, and iodine are basic to the life of plants and other living organisms. To secure plants with microelements fertilizers, which contain trace elements (manganese superphosphate) or special micronutrient fertilizers are entered into the soil. Trace elements are the chemical elements that present in the body at low concentrations (typically a few thousandths of a percent or less). The term «microelements» is used to denote certain chemical elements in

* Corresponding author. Department of Agrarian Sciences, Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Baku, Azerbaijan E-mail address: [email protected]

Gasımzade, T., 2013. The Chemical Composition of Some Soils and Its Significance for Vegetation of the Agsu District of Azerbaijan. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 56-59. soils, rocks, minerals, and water. Precise quantitative criteria for distinguishing trace elements from macro elements are not established. Some macro elements of soils and rocks (Al, Fe, etc.) are trace elements in most animals, plants and humans. It is established that trace elements are not random components of living organisms and their distribution in the biosphere abides to a number of laws. According to recent data, more than 30 trace elements are considered as essential for plant life and animals. Most trace elements are metals (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Mo, Co, etc.), some - non-metals (I, Se, Br, F, As) (Mamedov, 1981). Trace elements in soils are part of different compounds, most of which are represented by insoluble or difficultly soluble forms and only a small part – by mobile forms, which can be absorbed by plants. Mobility of trace elements and their availability to plants are strongly affected by soil acidity, moisture, organic matter content and other conditions. The content of trace elements in soils of different types is different. Material and Methods Materials: Samples of different soil types and plants taken in Agsu district of Azerbaijan. Methods: Methods for measuring the mass fraction of the mobile forms of metals (zinc, copper, nickel, manganese, lead, cadmium, chromium, iron, aluminum, titanium, cobalt, arsenic, vanadium) in the soil, waste, compost, sewage sludge by atomic emission method with atomization in an inductively coupled argon plasma" Methodology for the measurement of metals in the solid objects (soil, com-sty, cakes, sewage sludge, samples of vegetable origin) by spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma" Results and Discussion Lack or excess of microelements in the soil leads to a deficiency or excess in their plants and animals. At the same time changes occur in the nature of accumulation, the weakening or strengthening of the synthesis of biologically active compounds, the restructuring process intermediate exchange, and development of new adaptations or develop disorders, leading to the so-called endemic diseases of humans and animals. Silicon is a part of silicates, i.e. salts of silicon, and aluminum silicon and ferrosilicon acids and occurs in the form of silica both as crystalline (quartz) and amorphous. Aluminum is part of the aluminosilicates, alumina hydrate and alumina. It does not have biological significance. Iron is a part of Ferro silicate and other salts, both oxide, and ferrous and of the hydrate of iron. Its biological significance is great: it involves formation of chlorophyll in green plants. Its absence leads to chlorotic plants and the leaves lose their green color, new leaves develop badly. The lack of this element can occur only in soils rich in lime. The situation can be improved with foliar fertilization of Vitriol of 0.2-0.4% concentration with addition of 0.15 per cent lime. Even better results are obtained by introduction of iron chelates. Calcium is found predominantly in the form of salts of different acids, mostly coal. It is very important for plants, as the stems consist of it, and is usually found in plant cells in the form of crystals of calcium oxalate. Calcium helps roots to grow. If the shortage of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium weakens the development of aboveground part, with a lack of calcium root growth deteriorates. When calcium starvation occurs tops of plants are whitened, the newly formed leaves are small, curved, with irregularly shaped edges. At strong calcium deficiency the shoot apex dies. Excess calcium in the soil may cause "lime chlorosis" – yellowing of the leaves during active growth. Magnesium, like calcium, is found in the form of similar compounds. It is important for plants, as it constitutes the chlorophyll. Magnesium is part of chlorophyll, activates enzymes, and has a strong effect on fruit formation. At magnesium starvation the leaves (especially the lower ones) are marble: pale between the veins, the leaf tissue acquire different colors - yellow, orange, red, purple. Leaves get curled starting from the edges and fall off gradually. Most often it happens on light sandy soils. Entering fertilizers, containing magnesium, makes a noticeable positive effect on these soils. Sodium and potassium salts are part of various acids, and sodium has no biological significance, whereas potassium is one of the major plant nutrients and, in particular, plays an important role in formation of starch.

Phosphorus is part of the soil in the form of phosphates and in the form of various organic compounds. It is found in the nucleus of plant cells. It is known that lack of phosphorus in the soil affects the quality of the grain. It is one of the major nutrients and is essential for plant growth as well as nitrogen. Nitrogen is very important for plant nutrition as an organogenic element that constitutes the protein molecules – the base of plant and animal cells. It is found in the soil in the form of various organic compounds, ammonium salts, and salts of nitric and nitrous acids. Potassium, when it is deficient, reduces the turgor of plants, the ability of plants to resist fungal diseases weakens. Leaves become brittle and the tips are bent downwards, there is a premature yellowing of leaves, extending from the top, down the sides, and then between the veins. Later the leaves turn brown and die. Sulfur is also a part of the protein molecule. In the soils it is found in the form of sulfates, salts, sulfur, hydrogen sulfide and various organic compounds. Sulfur is usually sufficient in the soils; moreover, it is entered with manure, superphosphate, and ammonium sulfate. Hydrogen is important for plants as organogenic. It constitutes the water, hydrate, a variety of free acids and acid salts. Chlorine has no biological significance. It is found in the soil in the form of chloride salts. Carbon is part of the crop residue and on average equals to 45% of their mass. As the basis of all organic compounds it has a paramount importance. Also it is found in soil in the form of mineral compounds of carbon dioxide and salt of carbonic acid. Manganese is believed to play a catalytic role. Many other chemicals also present in very small quantities (e.g., copper, zinc, fluorine, boron, and others) also have certain biological importance. Some of them are used as fertilizer. But most important for plant nutrition are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron and acid - nitric, phosphoric, sulfuric, and coal (Shkolnik, 1950). The most important are microelements - copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, iodine (Vinogradov, 1957). Trace elements are involved in the activity of enzymes, hormones, vitamins and other substances that regulate important physiological functions of living organisms. The boundary between the macro-and microelements is relative. Thus, the iron is found in plants in small quantities, and it is sometimes referred to trace elements. We carried out a study on the chemical composition of certain types of soil of the Agsu district of Azerbaijan.

In the table 1 is the Agsu district of Azerbaijan, and with a number a specific area of the administrative district, where samples were taken, is encoded. The main indicators show the chemical composition of the soil types and content of sodium, magnesium, aluminum, copper, phosphorus, carbon, potassium, calcium, titanium, manganese, and iron. Element contents were determined by the X-ray spectral-based method on the basis of the Institute of Geology of the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences. The content of Al and Cu peaks in mountain-forest-meadow leached and mountain-meadow dense turf soils.

As seen from the results of the Table 1 component composition changes depending on the depth of soil profile varies only slightly. On average, these figures are close to the generally accepted standards and are sufficient for normal growth and development of vegetation on these soils in the area.

Table 1. Chemical composition of different types of soil in the Agsu region of Azerbaijan Name of the district Na2О MgО Al2О3 CuО2 P2О5 СО3 К2О CаО TiО2 MnО Fe2О3 ВТП and depth (cm) Soils of Xerophilous Shrub Forests and Mountain Steppes

- Agsu12 0 .44 2 .012 13 .364 57 .104 0 .152 0 .207 1 .940 6 .710 1 .912 0 .152 4 .469 11 .27 (0-7) Agsu 121 0 .55 2 .074 13 .364 57 .281 0 .176 0 .132 1 .584 5 .870 0 .730 0 .148 5 .148 12 .69 (7-20) Agsu 121 0 .51 1 .807 14 .442 56 .649 0 .153 0 .088 1 .443 7 .856 0 .612 0 .106 4 .116 12 .14 (20-39)

Agsu 121 forest brown soils Typical mountain 0 .54 2 .074 14 .119 55 .411 0 .174 0 .247 1 .797 7 .216 0 .649 0 .121 4 .885 12 .55 (39-52) Agsu 432 0 .71 2 .056 12 .610 50 .481 0 .157 0 .407 2 .019 13 .190 0 .558 0 .082 3 .957 13 .61 (0-20) Agsu 432 0 .68 2 .124 12 .257 50 .748 0 .156 0 .667 1 .957 13 .167 0 .549 0 .096 3 .973 13 .54 (20-41) 2 soils Agsu 43 0 .65 2 .186 11 .640 44 .861 0 .137 0 .084 1 .713 18 .395 0 .459 0 .089 3 .351 16 .21 (41-63)

Agsu 432 0 .66 2 .049 11 .463 44 .328 0 .141 0 .095 1 .728 18 .709 0 .482 0 .081 3 .206 16 .81

mountain mountain brown Settled Settled carbonate (63-84)

References Kowalski, B., Andrianova, H., 1970. Trace elements in soils of the USSR. Microelements. Kowalski, B., Rayeckaya, Yu., Gracheva, T. 1971. Trace elements in plants and feed. Microelements. Mamedov, G.S. 1981. The content of trace elements in food plants, soils and their role in soil evaluation, Materials of III Republic scientific and engineering conference, Chemistry and Agriculture, Baku. Shkolnik, Y. 1950. Importance of trace elements in the life of plants, and in agriculture. Microelements, Leningrad. Vinogradov, A., 1957. Geochemistry of rare and dispersed chemical elements in soils, 2nd ed., Microelements.

Babayev, A.H., Babayev, V.A., 2013. Complex indicator of the quality of various soils. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 60-65.

Complex indicator of the quality of various soils

Amin H. Babayev *, Vugar A. Babayev

Azerbaijan State Agrarian University, Ganja, Azerbaijan

Abstract

15 factors were selected through studying correlation relations between a range of factors of various soil types and different crop productivity that makes possible to manage specific type of soil fertility via influencing those factors. Therefore a new indicator – Complex Soil Quality Indicator was determined, and proposed to apply this indicator in soil quality evaluation.

Introduction The development of modern agriculture in the world civilization reaches such a level that its intensification highlights the fulfillment of objectives related to current situation of the soil, forecasting and management of soil properties (Babayev, 1994). Therefore in order to increase soil fertility and agricultural productivity, conducting a quantitative analysis of fertility factors and parameters, as well as identification of optimal parameters of soil properties in different regions can be useful (Babayev, 2005). Soil fertility is an energetic force that defining crop productivity and stimulating biological, chemical, chemical-physical and other processes in soil forming. Therefore the concept of “soil fertility” should be accepted as a system (soil is formed in the specific ecological condition and is always affected by anthropogenic factors). Thus the impact of anthropogenic factors to quantitative indicators of soil properties (morphological, agrochemical, agrophysical, biological) that is considered a potential fertility criterion and to the productivity indicators of ecosystem (stability and level of production, profitability level etc.) that is considered an effective fertility criterion can not be removed on a certain period and place (Rabochev and Coroleva, 1985). Therefore currently a new level – systematic analysis of soil fertility has been already established regarding the researches conducted in the field of soil science. Various soil processes and having complex and numerous research objects enable us to consider this method one of the most important and modern method of soil research. This method is considered soil fertility modeling (Mammadov, 1993). The primary goal of modeling is related to the identification of the most significant factors that embraces the main features of research process (Mammadova, 2002). Currently the collection of extremely a large number of practical and theoretical materials enables the application of methods and principles of cybernetics in soil research. Here the last goal is soil evaluation as a dynamic system according to quantitative indicators. Therefore modeling should be carried out in order to express statistical description of soil with functional dependence.

* Corresponding author. Azerbaijan State Agrarian University, Az2000 Ganja, Azerbaijan Tel.: +994222569100 Fax : +994222521261 E-mail address: [email protected]

Material and Methods According to scientific researches on soil fertility conducted for the last years, one of the principal conditions for defining soil quality is the proper determination of soil fertility factors (Mammadov, 1992). To meet this goal we carried out a factor analyses paired with studying various properties of 4 zonal lands spread in Azerbaijan, correlation relations between productivity and agroclimatic indicators based on the researches of many years conducted by Soil Science and Agrochemistry Institute of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, as well as our research results. This activity was implemented based on the intended program with 12 versions. Complex correlation coefficients between the productivity of winter wheat, barley, tobacco and hazel-nut (common crops for the intended region) were determined in order to identify correlation relations between soil properties and agricultural productivity. After identification of correlation relations on intended versions the achieved results were helpful in terms of planning experiments in electronic calculating machines, selecting soil fertility factors and defining other opinions on different issues. 15 fertility factor parameters were approved to assess the quality of intended soils (chernozems, gleyic kastanozems, brown kastanozems, and calsisols) after complex analysis of soil properties. Then to what extent the impact of any factor’s figures to fluctuation interval was determined taking into consideration the normative documents applied in Azerbaijan (Babayev et al., 2011). According to research outcomes achieved for many years, a factor taking value equal or close to 1 is adopted an optimal limit for productivity. Thus after determination of the portion of the selected 15 soil fertility factor parameters to 1, the figure of any factor defining soil quality can be found through multiplying the factors portion by 100. This was approved as Complex Soil Quality Indicator (CSQI) [2]. To define this indicator the following formula should be used:

CSQI = (a1∙ a2 ∙a3 ....an) ∙ 100 [1] a1 – granulometric composition a2 – humus (in the sowing layer) a3 , an etc.

The advantage of this indicator is that each factor defining soil fertility enables to determine precisely the factors limiting soil fertility level (Babayev et al., 2011). Results and Discussion We determined complex soil quality indicator complying with above mentioned methods for Chernozems mountainous, gleyic kastanozems, brown kastanozems and calsisols via the conducted researches. The research materials (Babayev, 2005; Babayev et al., 2011; Mamadov, 1992, 1993). of Soil Science and Agrochemical Institute of Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences belonging to 30-40 years and our research outcomes were mainly taken into consideration during the research. Chernozems mountainous Don’t form independent geographical zone of S. and I. Caucasus, at the altitude of 600-1200 m. The relief is mountainous plateau, steppe plateau, foothill plains. Develop under cereals, different grassy plants. The soil forming rocks are delluviale shingle, loess, carbonate loamy soils, products of weathering limiest and limestone, clayey schist, alluvial basalt and etc. Used under potato, cereals, and partially under tobacco plantations. Temperature hot with dry winter; Climate CM – 0,6-7; index of dryness /ID – 1,6-1,8; >100 – 3500-44000, 122-132 kkal/sm2; tair >100 – 180-240 days; tsail > 50 – 210-240 days. Table 1 covers the dynamics of 15 soil fertility indicators of Chernozems mountainous selected after computer researches.

Table 1. Dynamics of soil fertility indicators of Chernozems mountainous

Fluctuation interval Fertility elements Unit of measurement Min. Average Max. Granulometric composition (physical clay) % 61,00 67,00 73,00 Silt % 30,0 35,0 40,0 Humus (in soil horizon) % 3,2 4,5 6,8 Humus reserves in 1-m layer t/ha 240 410 580 Total nitrogen in topsoil % 0,23 0,32 0,41 Density g/sm3 1,1 1,2 1,3 Total porosity % 51,0 54,0 58,0 Total phosphorus reserve % 0,10 0,32 0,41 Total potassium reserve % 3,5 4,2 5,0 Base saturation Mg/equ 36,0 41,0 46,0 Absorbed Ca+++Mg++ % 96,6 98,1 99,5 Absorbed Na++ % 0,5 1,9 3,45 Mobile phosphorus Mg/ equ 64,0 168,0 272,0 Exchangeable potassium Mg/ equ 115,0 298,0 482,0 Reaction of medium RN 6,4 7,2 7,9 Gleyic kastanozems Primarily in Alazan-Ayrichay valley, in the north part of Lankaran region thin forestry bashes, well- developed meadow-grass cover, under gardens and agricultural plants, ancient clayey-loamy and pebbles- sand delluvial-proruvial deposits. Semi-arid subtropical; climate / CM – 0,65-0,90; index of dryness – 1,1-1,2; > 100 – 3800-6400; 125-135 kkal/sm2; tair > 100 – 230-310 days; tsail 50 – 240-270 days. Table 2 covers the dynamics of soil fertility indicators of gleyic kastonozems.

Table 2. Dynamics of soil fertility indicators of gleyic kastonozems

Fluctuation interval Fertility elements Unit of measurement Min. Average Max. Granulometric composition (physical clay) % 40,00 56,00 72,00 Silt % 10,00 26,0 41,00 Humus (in soil horizon) % 1,8 2,6 3,4 Humus reserves in 1-m layer t/ha 191,0 300,0 422,0 Total nitrogen in topsoil % 0,11 0,16 0,20 Density g/sm3 1,33 1,34 1,35 Total porosity % 46,0 47,0 48,0 Total phosphorus reserve % 2,4 2,5 2,6 Total potassium reserve % 18,0 28,0 37,0 Base saturation Mg/equ 93,0 95,0 97,0 Absorbed Ca+++Mg++ % 1,0 2,0 3,0 Absorbed Na++ % 2,00 3,00 4,00 Mobile phosphorus Mg/ equ 10,0 28,0 40,0 Exchangeable potassium Mg/ equ 200,0 300,0 400,0 Reaction of medium RN 7,0 7,0 8,6 Brown kastanozems Brown kastanozems cover 25,5% of the Republic land fund. The height 200-300 m, foothill plain, natural vegetation, carbonate, lobs like loams. Dry subtropical; Climate/CM – 30-0,45; index of dryness İD – 1,8-3,6; + > 100C – 3300-4200; 122 – 129 kkel/sm2 tair + > 100C – 240-300; + 50C – 270-330 days. Table 3 covers the dynamics of soil fertility indicators of brown kastonozems.

Table 3. Dynamics of soil fertility indicators of brown kastonozems

Fluctuation interval Fertility elements Unit of measurement Min. Average Max. Granulometric composition (physical clay) % 56,00 58,00 61,00 Silt % 21,00 22,00 24,00 Humus (in soil horizon) % 1,50 2,20 2,90 Humus reserves in 1-m layer t/ha 122 162 203 Total nitrogen in topsoil % 0,12 0,15 0,18 Density g/sm3 1,21 1,26 1,30 Total porosity % 40,00 48,00 57,00 Total phosphorus reserve % 0,16 0,19 0,22 Total potassium reserve % 2,10 2,30 2,50 Base saturation Mg/equ 23,00 29,00 35,00 Absorbed Ca+++Mg++ % 87,00 91,00 95,00 Absorbed Na++ % 2,00 3,00 4,00 Mobile phosphorus Mg/ equ 10,00 15,00 20,00 Exchangeable potassium Mg/ equ 250 300 350 Reaction of medium RN 0,20 0,24 0,28 Dry residuum RN 7,90 8,10 0,28

Calsisols Calsisols cover 28,9% of the Republic land fund. The Kur-Araz lowland, southern-east Shirvan, Nakhchivan, the altitude 100-200, 800-1000 m, the loping foothill plain, cultural grain crop ant technical plants, carbonat delluvial bu origin loessikle loamy. Dry subtropical semi desert/CM > 1,0; ID – 0,23-0,33; 0,10-0,25; > 100 – 3900-48400; 130-133 kkal/sm2; tair – 300-330 days; tsail > 50 – 350-360 days. Table 4 covers the Dynamics of soil fertility indicators of calsisols.

Table 4. Dynamics of soil fertility indicators of calsisols

Fluctuation interval Fertility elements Unit of measurement Min. Average Max. Granulometric composition (physical clay) % 38,00 44,00 49,00 Silt % 18,00 18,00 19,00 Humus (in soil horizon) % 1,27 1,84 1,82 Humus reserves in 1-m layer t/ha 186 232 279 Total nitrogen in topsoil % 0,10 0,17 0,24 Density g/sm3 1,3 1,35 1,4 Total porosity % 45,00 46,00 48,00 Total phosphorus reserve % 0,15 0,18 0,20 Total potassium reserve % 3,0 3,2 3,4 Base saturation Mg/equ 26 28 29 Absorbed Ca+++Mg++ % 85,00 92,00 98,00 Absorbed Na++ % 1,6 4,7 7,8 Mobile phosphorus Mg/ equ 14 16 19 Exchangeable potassium Mg/ equ 246 291 335 Reaction of medium RN 7,9 8,1 8,2

Complex soil quality indicator was assigned based on above formula [1] according to optimal coefficients (Table 5) complying with crop productivity after the evaluation of the selected soil quality indicators paired with approved methods.

Table 5. Soil quality assessment complying with fertility factors

Unit of Part of Gleyic Brown Fertility elements Chernozems Calsisols measurement unit kastanozems kastanozems GRANULOMETRIC COMPOSITION a1 % Clay (physical) 60 1 Heavy loam 45-60 0,9 0,9 Medium loam 30-45 0,8 0,8 0,7 0,8 Light loam 20-30 0,7 Gritty 10-20 0,6 Sandy 10 0,3 HUMUS (topsoil) a2 % High according 1,0 Mid to soil 0,9 0,09 0,9 1,0 0,7 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 HUMUS RESERVES IN THE 1-m-THICK LAYER t/ha High according 1,0 Mid to soil 0,9 1 1 0,7 0,7 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 TOTAL NITROGEN IN TOPSOIL a4 % High according 1,0 Mid to soil 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,7 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 DENSITY a5 g/sm3 Compacted 1,0-1,1 1,0 Low compacted 1,2-1,3 0,9 1 0,7 0,9 0,5 Medium compacted 1,4-1,5 0,7 High compacted 0,5 0,5 PHOSPHORUS a6 % High according 1,0 1 0,9 0,9 0,7 Mid to soil 0,9 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 POTASSIUM a7 % High according 1 Mid to soil 0,9 1 0,9 1 1 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 ABSORBED Ca and Mg a8 mg/equ High according 1 Mid to soil 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 Low types 0,7 Very low 0,5 ABSORBED Na a9 mg/equ High according 0,5 Mid to soil 9a7 0,7 0,7 0,7 0,7 Low types 0,9 Very low 51 MOBILE a10 mg/equ High according 1,0 Mid to soil 0,8 Low types 0,6 0,6 0,8 0,6 1 Very low 0,4 EXCHANGEABLE POTASSIUM a11 mg/equ High according 1,0 Mid to soil 0,8 Low types 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,8 0,9 Very low 0,4

Table 5. (continue)

SALTING DEGREE a12 % Salted 0,1 1,0 Low salted 0,1-0,2 0,9 1 1 Medium salted 0,3-0,5 0,7 0,7 0,5 High salted 0,7 0,5 REACTION OF MEDIUM a13 Neutral 1 Low acid (alkaline) pH 0,9 1 Acid (alkaline) 0,7 0,9 0,7 0,5 High acid (alkaline) 0,5

The evaluation of complex soil quality indicators in accordance with two groups of factors - 1) relatively long term changeable and hardly adjustable factors group 2) flexible and well adjustable factors group creates a real opportunity for its practical use. Table 6 covers the evaluation results of zonal lands according to both two group factors based on the complex soil quality indicators. According to the introduced results the highest figures from the complex soil quality indicators refer to Chernozems mountainous (72,9 and 22,7), while the lowest figures refer to Calsisols (27,4 and 4,9). The use of complex soil quality indicators in soil fertility modeling enables to express many of soil properties that have complex correlation relations within a fertility model in terms of quality and quantity.

Table 6. Determination of complex soil fertility indicators

Soil name For I group factors For II group factors Chernozems mountainous 72,9 22,7 Gleyic kastanozems 64,8 15,4 Brown kastanozems 44,1 12,0 Calsisols 27,4 4,9

The meanwhile we propose to apply this indicator in developing land cadastre, as well as in the soil economic evaluation. Because each soil property was formed almost in relation with each other within its improvement, in general all properties are the result of complex soil processes. Therefore this can be expressed to a certain extent via the complex soil quality indicator. Conclusion Applying complex soil quality indicator in the soil economic evaluation can be effective in terms of regular controlling the long term changeable and hardly adjustable soil properties (granulometric composition, the amount of humus, humus reserve in the layer etc.), as well as soil flexible and well adjusted properties (food elements, reaction of medium (pH) etc.)

References Babayev, A.H. 1994. Theoretical and practical principles of soil fertility modeling. Baku, pp. 67. Babayev, A.H. 2005. Modeling and forecasting soil fertility in Azerbaijan. Baku, pp. 297. Babayev, M.P., Hasanov, V.H., Cafarov, Ch.M., Huseynova, S.M. 2011. Morphogenetic diagnostics, nomenclature and classification of soils in Azerbaijan. Baku, pp. 448. Mammadov, G.Sh. 1993. Agroecological model of the soil fertility in Azerbaijan. Baku, 1993 Mammadov, G.Sh. 1992. Organic evaluation of soils in Azerbaijan. Baku, pp. 210. Mammadova, S.Z. 2002. Model for soil productivity in Lankaran region. Baku, pp. 180. Rabochev, I.S., Coroleva, I.E. 1985. Increasing soil productivity. №5.

Properties of soils and rocks of rehahabilitated lands of Kuznetsk Basin Area

Vladimir Androkhanov *

Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia

Abstract

At the present time in the development of coal deposits in the Kuznetsk Basin from 1000 to 1500 hectare of land are destroyed every year. Thus millions of tons of rock are brought to the day surface; their physico-chemical properties differ significantly from the properties of natural soils. Namely properties of rocks determine the effectiveness of recultivation in the process of restoration of the damaged territories. To increase the efficiency of recovery of recultivation in Kuzbas it is necessary to apply the technology of recultivation, aimed at the creation of more powerful root layer with optimal properties. Keywords: technogenic landscape, soil, agrophysical, agrochemical properties

Introduction According to different literature data the total area of man-disturbed lands in Kuznetsk Basin Area ranges from 60 to 100 thou. ha (Potapov et al., 2005). Basic disturbances of soil and plant cover take place in the most developed part of Kemerovo Region, i.e. in Kuznetsk hollow. At the territory of this hollow the most fertile soil are spread such as chernozems which represent the basis of agricultural production and are the best soils for production of cereals of high quality. And namely here main coal enterprises are concentrated where the most part of coal is extracted in Kuznetsk Basin (at about of 90% of total amount). The territory of native lands as large as 1000-1500 ha is being annually disturbed at present time in Kuznetsk Basin. At the same time the works on land rehabilitation lag behind considerably the area of restored lands. It is necessary to note also that namely agricultural lands are still more estranged in the course of development of coal fields; these lands are characterized by a number of favorable agrophysical and agrochemical indices and favor to receive stable agricultural production under severe climatic conditions of Siberia. Nowadays when conducting rehabilitation works, the soils are restored at best which are suitable to growth of forest species or other species which are not exigent relative to environmental conditions and soil fertility in particular. The works on rehabilitation of the disturbed lands in Kuznetsk Basin began to develop most intensively in the 70-ties of the 20-th century when transformation of natural medium reached of the scale to be comparable with global geological and some other natural processes (Vernadsky, 1926). At this period of time new normative documents are worked out and some political solutions are taken into account directed to conservation and rational use of land resources; these are also used at the present time when conducting measures on land rehabilitation.

* Corresponding author. Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry of Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia Tel.: +7 3833639023 Fax: +7 3833639025 E-mail address: [email protected]

Materials and Discussion Principal documents which regulate the implementation of the works on land rehabilitation were mainly worked out in the 70-ties and 80-ties by specialists of Ministry of Agriculture as applied to natural conditions of the vast territory of the former USSR; these were practically expanded to all kinds of disturbances of terrestrial surface. The experience of application of these documents in initial stages of introduction of the works on land rehabilitation permitted to some degree to unify the technologies of preparation of the disturbed areas for rehabilitation. It also permitted to place requirements upon quality of materials and method used for recovery in accordance with accepted directions. Agricultural direction is the priority one in such documents. In order to realize such rehabilitation it is necessary to conserve lithogenic resources of rehabilitation, i.e. fertile soil layer and potentially fertile rocks. This fertile material should be used for creation of artificial soils, so called technozems, on the surface of the disturbed lands (Kurachev and Androkhanov, 2002). The formation of technozems on the surface of disturbed lands can proceed in two main ways. The most commonly encountered way is application of fertile layer directly onto level-headed surface of dumping ground. At the same time the substrate consists of chaotic mixture of stripping and accommodating rocks and is characterized by extremely unfavorable physical properties (Table 1). Unfavorable properties of the substrates of dumping ground are conditioned by the presence of stony fragments (stoniness is more than 95%) and strong compactness (sometimes more than 2 g per cu. cm) as a result of the surface of dumping ground.

Table 1. Agrophysical properties of the dump material

Depth, cm Density, Density of Porosity, Content of Contents of particles, Stoniness , g per cu. cm consistence, % particles, %, less %, less than 1 mm % g per cu. cm than 0.01 mm 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0-10 2,66 1,52 42,8 15,82 13,2 79,5 20-40 2,68 1,79 33,2 18,64 10,4 87,8 60-80 2,71 1,90 29,9 6,31 5,9 95,7

High density and stoniness of the material of dumping ground determine low porosity and water permeability of underlying layer. Therefore this layer is left to be impermeable for plant roots and biological processes practically do not take place here; at the same time the processes of disintegration of large rock debris of the dump are sharply retarded when covering material of potentially fertile rocks (PFR) (loams) or fertile soil layer (FSL) is placed. Another rate-determining factor of rehabilitation of the disturbed landscapes is insignificant total content of principal nutritive elements which are in the ground of outer waste dump. By their agrochemical properties the mixture of dumping ground is classified as being substrate which is not sufficiently provided for total nitrogen and phosphorus and medium provided for total potassium. Low content of these elements does not favor to development of soil and plant cover on the surface of dumping ground. Basic agrochemical indices of dumping ground are given in table 2.

Table 2. Agrochemical indices of the dump material

Depth,cm рН of water susp. Exchange capacity, Total content of, % meq per 100 g soil nitrogen phosphorus potassium 0-10 8,15 12,3 0,032 0,073 1,32 20-40 7,23 12,6 0,036 0,066 1,25 60-80 7,55 11,4 0,051 0,084 1,10

The material of dumping ground is notable for alkaline and weakly alkaline reaction; it is not absolutely typical for natural soils of the region in question. In natural soil of Kuznetsk Basin the pH value ranges from 5 to 7. Because of low content of clay fraction cation exchange capacity of dumping ground is not more than 15 meq per 100 g soil. The material with such unfavorable agrophysical and agrochemical properties can be suitable only for development of very restricted set of plant species. As a result of weathering of the baring the properties of the substrate of dumping ground will be changed in the course of time. Except that, in order to create relatively favorable soil conditions on such substrate a

Androkhanov, V., 2013. Properties of soils and rocks of rehahabilitated lands of Kuznetsk Basin Area. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 66-69. very prolonged period of time (from 300 to 1000 years) can be required. At the same time, the waste dumps can negatively influence on adjacent not disturbed landscapes. Furthermore, if to select plant species which are sustainable and not exigent upon nutritive regime (for example, sea-buckthorn, pine), it will be possible to plant on dumping grounds trees and gardens and to diminish negative influence on adjacent territories. Thus, in initial stages of rehabilitation the properties of substrate can limit the development of plants on the surface of dumping grounds. For more rapid and ecologically effective recovery of the disturbed territories in Siberia it is necessary to perform rehabilitation works directed to create favorable root-inhabited layer with use of FSL and PFR. For this purpose before development of the deposit it necessary to conserve the material of FSL and PFR for subsequent use for rehabilitation. For the most part the chernozems, meadow chernozemic and grey forest soils are spread at strip mining. The thickness of humus horizon suitable for removal and subsequent use in rehabilitation ranges in these soils from 25 to 50 cm. Therefore, the layer of FSL as thick as 30-40 cm applied to surface of dumping ground, in general, will correspond to root-inhabited layer; it will permit to create on dumping grounds the objects of sanitary and protective function such as forest stands, meadows and hay-fields. Agrophysical and agrochemical properties of FSL of natural soils of Kuznetsk Basin vary within rather wide limits. The estimation of fertility of FSL of chernozems and grey forest soils has been carried out in the laboratory of soil rehabilitation of ISSA SB RAS; FSL was earlier removed from natural soils and stored side by side on the plot of strip mining. The data are given in tables 3 and 4.

Table 3. Agrophysical properties of FSL

Density, Density of consistence, Particle size content, % Sample Porosity, % g per cu. cm g per cu. cm <0,01 mm FSL of chernozems 2,58 1,15 55,4 49,6

FSL of dark grey forest soils 2,56 1,16 54,7 55,0

Storage of FSL 2,69 1,21 55,0 58,8

As a whole, agrophysical properties of FSL are favorable for creation of filled soil-vegetative layer. The values of density of upper layers of natural chernozems and grey forest soils show that plowing layer is well cultivated and structured and consequently has an optimal density and porosity. Granulometric composition of FSL is classified as medium or heavy loam, such a fact is typical for this region. FSLs of different granulometric composition, on being removed and mixed, form to some degree more heavy- textured substrate with destroyed soil aggregates. FSL, on storing in clamps, becomes denser. On the whole, agrochemical properties of FSL are favorable and are characterized in natural conditions by sufficient content of humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. As a result of removal and mixing of different FSLs a considerable increase in content of humus and total nitrogen is observed. Such changes in content of basic elements of fertility of FSL point to imperfect technology of its removal from natural soils. It is primarily connected with the depth of removal of FSL. As the thickness of FSL varies within rather wide limits, the mixing of FSL and poor layers occurs on removal of FSL that leads to decrease in content of basic nutritive elements.

Table 4. Agrochemical properties of FSL

Number of point рН of water Cation exchange С org. % Total content, % susp. capacity, meq nitrogen phosphorus potassium per 100 g soil FSL of chernozems 6,9 37,8 6,12 0,38 0,28 2,15 FSL of dark grey forest soils 6,3 34,7 5,62 0,26 0,23 1,98 Storage of FSL 7,0 32,5 6,5 0,29 0,35 2,01

Nevertheless, the material of SFL is characterized by most favorable agrochemical and agrophysical properties as compared to that of baring grounds storage in dumps and PFR. The use of SFL for creation of root-inhabited layer in the process of rehabilitation will permit to form plant cover of any function. And yet it is necessary to note here that long-term conservation of this material in clamps leads to

Androkhanov, V., 2013. Properties of soils and rocks of rehahabilitated lands of Kuznetsk Basin Area. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 66-69. considerable loss of favorable agrophysical and agrochemical properties. This is due to absence of biological cycle inside the clamp as well as to strong compaction of FSL in the course of formation of clamp by means of heavy techniques. Therefore, the use of this material for the purpose of rehabilitation after long-term conservation cannot give desired effect. Conclusion On the whole, technology of FSL-filling for rehabilitation of dumping grounds will reliably permit to cover the surface of dumping grounds and prevent dusting. At the same time, artificial soil layer will create favorable soil-environmental conditions for plant growth in accordance with chosen direction of rehabilitation. However, the use of FSL-filling technology can also pose some unfavorable soil- environmental consequences. It is primarily related to restriction of the thickness of the created artificial root-inhabited layer. The investigations conducted showed that the layer of FSL as thick as 30-40 cm applied to surface of dumping ground even if favored to rapid rehabilitation of plant cover, and yet artificial soil formations created in such a manner are greatly distinguished in regimes of functioning (in water regime first of all) from soils with natural texture. Therefore, this applies restrictions on household use of such rehabilitated plots. In order to increase in completeness of rehabilitation of soil cover and efficiency of works on rehabilitation one should apply technologies directed to formation of the thicker root- inhabited layer. This is possible by means of additional application of PFR-material on the surface of dumping ground up to 1 m in thickness; subsequently this layer is covered by FSL-material. The thickness of root-inhabited layer can be alsoincreased at the expense of loosening and interfusion of the substrate of dumping ground. References Potapov, V.P., Mazikin, V.P., Schastlivtsev, Ye.L., Vashlayeva, N.Yu. 2005. eoecology of coal-extractive regions of Kuznetsk Basin. Novosibirsk: Nauka (In Russian) Vernadsky, V.I. 1926. Biosphere. – Moscow-Leningrad, (In Russian) Kurachev, V.M., Androkhanov, V.A. 2002. Soil classification of man-made landscapes. – Siberian Ecological Journal. No. 3. (In Russian)

Granina, N.I., 2013. The manifestation of the land degradation in the Irkutsk region at conditions of the anthropogenesis and measures on prevention of the further progress of negative processes. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 70-74.

The manifestation of the land degradation in the Irkutsk region at conditions of the anthropogenesis and measures on prevention of the further progress of negative processes

Natalia I. Granina *

Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of the Higher Professional Education “Irkutsk State University”, Irkutsk, Russia

Abstract

The analysis of modern condition and specific characteristics of soils of Irkutsk region is shown. Main factors of negative human impact on the soil and land of agricultural destination are marked. Procedures for their rational management are considered.

Introduction Stability of the Baikal region is defined - and still will be long defined, natural and-resource potential, among which: large stocks of available useful mineral deposits; significant wood, water and biological resources; unique object of a world heritage, an enormous source of fresh water - lake Baikal. One of the unique natural resources which has a lot of specific differences from all other resources is the soil. The major characteristic of the soils, from the point of view of their use in agriculture, is fertility. Owing to fertility soil becomes irreplaceable natural resource. Today capacity of soil to restore and support the development of a life has appeared not boundless. The most significant and unexpected changes for residents of region have occurred and are occurring as a result of degradation of soils. The erosion of soils, sealing of soils, pollution by chemicals and petrochemicals, acidification of environments, decrease in a content of organic substances in soils which lead to a depletion of soil fertility cause the greatest trouble in Irkutsk region among the processes causing degradation of soils. Goals of the work are focusing of the attention to uniqueness of soil resources, irretrievability of their natural riches providing competitive advantages and stable progress of region; proving an indispensability of protection of soils in modern conditions. Material and Methods The analysis of a soil conditions of Irkutsk region is conducted for inclusion in “National program of actions on struggle against desertification and degradation of soils” developed by the Ministry of nature and ecology of the Russian Federation.

* Corresponding author. Federal State Budgetary Educational Establishment of the Higher Professional Education “Irkutsk State University”, Irkutsk, Russia Tel.: +7(3952)24-30-77 Fax: +7 (3952)34-00-07 E-mail address: [email protected]

Results and Discussion The soils of region are characterized with sharply expressed regionality. The actions conducted on the soils of European Russia and other Siberian regions directed on increase of soil fertility can’t give a positive effect on soils of Irkutsk region always. It is connected with features of soils of region. Our soils have different history of progress of soils, different combination of modern and ancient factors of soil formation. The consequence of these all is different composition of properties of soil capability (Vorobyova et al, 2010). The greater length of the region from the south to the north defines significant changes of horizontal zonality. The variations of climatic conditions, influence of an exposition, meridian, arid mountain horizontal zonality are shown in region. The frozen ground, heterogeneity of soil-forming solids, complex evolution, their change as a result of anthropogenous influence of soils play an essential role. The long-term frozen ground in soils, buried humic horizon, second (relict) humic horizon, solothization and salting of soils are appeared. The presence of the buried humic horizon in soils is a consequence of Pleistocene-and-Holocene cryogenesis, the subsequent formation of hummock-and-cathole microrelief, its anthropogenous transformation in spotty detrital-hummock-and-cathole microstructure. The second humic horizon in wood soils is considered as the result of degradation olden wide humic horizon of meadow-steppe soil at replacement in Holocene steppe vegetation by taiga. The territory is characterized with small polygonal jointing testifying about modern cryogenic processes (Kuzmin et al, 2002). In Irkutsk region degradation of soils and as consequence their desertification is shown practically everywhere. The reasons of that are negative for growth of plants agrochemical and physical and chemical properties of soils and lands of agricultural purpose. Degradation appears as a result of change of climatic conditions, unbalanced economic use of lands, activity of the industrial enterprises, as well as due to natural soil-and- lithological factors, including the salting of soils and waters, close stratification of the salted solids, easy granulometric structure of soil and agricultural land uses. The important aspect of activization of negative processes becomes cutting down of woods which leads to increase of albedo, to reduction of leaking a moisture in ground, to strengthening of erosive processes in territory at Angara river. Let’s consider principal causes of soil degradation. Erosion of soils. The first information about washed off and out arable lands and occurrence of deposits in Irkutsk province had appeared in 1888. The part of the fresh arable land which are cleared away from wood on southern slopes, almost entirely was destroyed by downpours and spring streams in northern volosts of Nizhneudinsk and Balagansk districts in 1923. The development of erosive and deflationary processes and Irkutsk agricultural college in 1966, in Irkutsk region was studied by Irkutsk state university in 1978. The inventory of soils broken by erosion-and-deflationary processes was carried out by Irkutsk branch of East Siberian Scientific-Research and Design Institute of Land Management (Parshikov, 1967). Generalization of all scientific and statistical information existing in the region, geographical analysis of prevalence of erosion and a deflation of soils in territory at Angara river have been carried out by Sh.D. Hismatulin (2000). Researchers from the Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences calculated the degree of potential erosion risk in forest area, which can manifest itself in a felling coupe, eradicating and plowed areas (Ishmuratov et al, 2000). It is possible to judge displays of erosive process in territory of Irkutsk area according to the materials published earlier. Three types of erosion are water, wind (deflation) and joint (water and wind). The share of soils broken by water erosion fall at 33-35 %, share of wind erosion is 52-53 %, share of joint erosion is 13-14 %. These figures vary greatly in several areas. Deflation processes dominate in Alarsky, Ekhirit- Bulagatsky, Bayandaevsky and Nukutsky districts. So, 53 - 73% of this area falls at eroded land, with the share of lands damaged by water erosion is 23-30%, and joint manifestations of planar washout and deflation are according to 15-18%. On the contrary processes of water erosion prevail in Bohansky district. It is up to 60 %. The share of deflated land decreases up to 25 %. Joint manifestation of water erosion and a deflation is about 17 %. Processes of water and wind erosion are shown in relatively same identical proportion (40-45 %) in Osinsky district.

Meanwhile, Osinsky district concerns to territory from strong potential danger of water-and-wind erosion according to character of a relief, a bias of a surface, granulometric composition of soils, presence or absence of a long-term frozen ground in lands. All administrative districts of Irkutsk area are subjected with erosion practically. These districts are Presayansky (Tulunsky, Kuitunsky, Ziminsky, Zalarinsky, Cheremkhovsky, Usolye-Siberian, Irkutsk); 2) At lake Baikal (Olkhonsky); 3) at Angara river (Bratsky, Ust-Udinsky). The level of erosional feature of agricultural land uses in Bratsky, Tulunsky, Ust-Ilimsky and Olkhonsky districts makes 47 % from the area of the agricultural grounds (Ishmuratov et al, 2000). The agricultural lands of region are most strongly subjected to negative processes. Regular researches on estimation of erosion and deflation of soil are not realized now. Lands of the northern territories of Irkutsk region are not studied practically. Saltings of soil The inventory information says that region had 77 000 ha of salted soils of agricultural land uses in 1980 and 100,2 of ones in 1990. The information about square of the salted lands on districts is not present or significantly differs because of ambiguity of completeness of the accountence. Scientific researches about processes of soil salting at an irrigation as well as the ways of desalination of soils were conducted at Irkutsk state university (Karnaukhov et al, 1974). It is established, that at an irrigation irkutsk black soils are salted, they lose structure and form subsidences. It is offered to irrigate by method of overhead irrigation in autumn and for warming of soils and accelerations of germination of grasses in the spring for accumulation of a moisture and thermal amelioration. Now amelioration of soils practically is not realized. Observable processes of aridization of climate in the Baikal region (degradation of a frozen ground, measurement of hydrological and hydro-geological modes, an increase of quantity of dusty storms) tend to increase the areas of salted soils, to occurrence "salty" tornados. The regular researches of salt structure of soils, the control and recultivation of the salted soils are necessary in the region. Bogging and flooding of soils We have no yet the information about the sizes of soils flooding in the region. There are data of 1985 and 1990 of a department of land tenure and land management about quantity of boggy and waterlogged soils of agricultural purpose without the instruction of the reasons caused negative effects. The square of waterlogged lands of agricultural areas has made 46.1 ha. Boggy ones has made 54.8 ha. Researches of inundated and marshy soils were conducted by the senior lecture of ISU Ivanjuta L.A. (1981-1999) and now are not conducted. Strengthening of physical influence on soil Strengthening of physical influence on soil is appeared at an increase of mechanization of technological operations in field-husbandry, lea management, and truck farming and with an increase of the sizes of the cultivated land, as well as with increase of capacity and working speeds of agricultural implements. The negative influence of the mechanized tillage of soils is connected with deterioration of physical properties of soils and as a result is connected with decrease in their fertility. The solidification can reach significant depth of all thickness of soil profile. There are individual researches in the region in which influence of tillage on physical properties of ground was studied. Investigations have appeared episodicly (2- 3 years of researches). They have been concerned the soil structure and water mode. Researches were carried out on faculty of agriculture and faculty of mechanization of Irkutsk agricultural institute in the end 60th and the beginning of 70th. Radical measures of protection of soils at solidification are not exist yet. In the mean time, it is necessary to develop diagnostics of the soil solidification for detailed soil inspections and allocation of contours of solidificated soils, to establish the control over a condition of old- arable soils. Besides at tillage it is necessary to consider characteristic feature of the territory at Baikal a hummock-and-cathole relief which researches were engaged by V.P. Parshikov, 1968 (East Siberian Scientific-Research and Design Institute of Land Management); S.A. Fillipova, 1972 (ISU); V.A. Kuzmin, 1970- 2000 (Federal State budgetary Institution of Science the Institute of Geography named after V.B. Sochava of Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences).

Pollution of soils Researches of soils depending on an origin of pollution sources (agricultural, industrial or household) are conducted by academic institutes of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science; establishments of the Ministry of Agriculture; High schools of city (Irkutsk state agricultural academy and Irkutsk state university) etc. Data about character of pollution and estimation of a degree of pollution are lot. But they are not systematized and not generalized. Especially sharply there is a question on soil pollution by petrochemicals. Soils in the places of disposal sites of toxic and containing radionuclides, the wastes in seats of air carry of decaying contents of city and industrial dumps, grounds near sediment bowls and industrial drains are not studied. These questions also should be considered in the program of the control and soils protection of soils and the agricultural grounds. Recreational load. The recreational load is shown most sharply on coastal alluvium of lake Baikal and on island Olkhon. The increase of albedo, aggression of mobile sands, an increase of the square of salted soils (island Olkhon and territories at Olkhon), simplification of granulometric composition, reduction of structural properties of soil aggregates take place in connection with aridization of climate, destruction of woods. That is both consequence and the reason for the further progress of erosion and soil degradation. Thus, soil degradation in Irkutsk region requires the system approach to studying a process of soil and lands degradation and problem solution of struggle with it. The important link in similar researches is definition of temporary variations of soil cover, estimation of criteria of desertification and establishment of their quantitative characteristics as well as the profound studying of desertification dynamics. Conclusion Until now processes of developments of soil degradation in Irkutsk region are poorly studied. Existing information are separated. The separate investigations (monitoring of a qualitative condition of the lands of agricultural purpose (five zones of region are explored only), there are supervision over a coastal zone of the Bratsk water basin) which have been directed on studying of a condition and an estimation of influence of those or other technogenic influences on a qualitative condition of the grounds were spent. Despite of importance of the problem solution of degradation soil for progress of an economic complex of region following questions have not solved and among them are the specific reasons of degradation of the lands are not revealed with sufficient reliability; the forecast of their progress for next decades is not developed; the scientifically-proved measures on prevention of the further progress of negative processes on protection and rational use of natural resources are not defined. Now materials of soil researches have become outdated in connection with the change of soil classification in Russia, application of new standards of the description of soil cuts and introduction of GIS-technology. Existing data on soils of region have prescription more than 30 years. Besides there is no map of modern agricultural state of agrarian resources. The important deterrent is absent of the federal law about soil protection and special service of the accountance and the control of an ecological condition of soils. There is no regional or federal program on monitoring the grounds. The professional approach to soil resources is necessary for restoration and increase of soil fertility of Irkutsk region. Professional approach consists of introduction of scientifically-proved systems of agriculture; application new large-scale soil maps; carrying out ecological and agroecological monitoring of the lands, ecological examination in the field of land tenure, an estimation of land-resource potential, a cadastral assessment and inventory of the grounds. In view of a specific character of land tenure of region it is necessary to turn special attention to professional trainings (Granina, 2012). Today in conditions of an accrueing world economic crisis the ecological situation in regions and in the country as a whole becomes the most meaningful factor of progress of economy and maintenance of stable progress of a society. Capacity of the nature to restore and support progress of a life it has appeared not boundless.

References Bychkov, V.I., 1979. Allocation of erosion-meliorative fund of the Upper Angarski Krai on the basis of typification of the grounds. Ground of Irkutsk area, their use and amelioration.-Irkutsk: Institute of geography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science and the Far East. Pp.70-75 [in Russian]. Vorobiyova, G.A., Vashukevich, N.V., Kuklina, S.L, 2010. Soil resources as an essential component of sustainable development strategy of Irkutsk region. № 4. http: eizvestia.isea.ru [in Russian]. Granina, N.I., 2012. Land as a natural resource and object of economic management. The features of personnel training. News of Irkutsk state agricultural academy pp 34-39 [in Russian]. Ishmuratov, B.M., Kalep, L.L. , Hismatullin, S.D., Chudnova, V.I., 2000. Natural-and-economic potential of an agriculture of Irkutsk region and the concept of its progress during economic reforms. Novosibirsk: Publishing house of Institute of geography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science. p. 180 [in Russian]. Karnauhov, N.I., Morozova, K.V., 1979. Agrarian land improvements of Irkutsk region. Ground of Irkutsk region, their use and amelioration. Irkutsk: institute geography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Science and the Far East,. pp. 113-125 [in Russian]. Kuzmin, V.A., 2002. Soil-and-ekologich dividing into districts in Irkutsk region. Soil science. 12. pp. 1436–1444 [in Russian]. Kuzmin, V.A., Kozlova, A.A., 2012. Soils and a soil cover of Southern Baikal region in conditions of paleocryogenic microrelief. Petrozavodsk: the Karelian centre of science of the Russian Academy of Science. Book. 3. pp. 174– 175 [in Russian]. Khismatulin, Sh.D. 1979Issues of rational use of salted soils of the Irkutsk region. Soils of Irkutsk region, their use and amelioration.-Irkutsk: Institute of Geography of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Far East. pp.76-87 [in Russian]. Ivanyuta, L.A., Ivanyuta, S.I., 1988. Features of the content and distribution of manganese, copper and zinc in the peat soils of the Eastern. Soils south of Middle-Siberia. Irkutsk: Publishing house of ISU. pp. 61-70 [in Russian].

Erol, A.S., Shein, E., Er, F., Mikayilsoy, F., 2013. Physical properties and processes in the agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic) of Konya province (Çumra area). EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 75-82.

Physical properties and processes in the agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic) of Konya province (Çumra area) Ahmet Sami Erol a, Evgeny Shein b, Fatih Er a, Fariz Mikayilsoy c,*

a Selçuk University, Cumra Vocational School, 42500, Çumra-Konya, Turkey b Lomosonov Moscow State University, Faculty of Soil Science, Moscow, Russia b Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Konya, Turkey

Abstract

Genetic horizons, granulometric particles distribution, density, and some chemical properties of agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic) of Konya province (Çumra area) were investigated. The granulometric analysis indicates a more fine particles content and higher density of B1 horizon (38-62 cm). Organic carbon content is low (less than 1%), the values of C / N is very low. This fact may be interpreted as a high saturation of organic matter with nitrogen, which is typical for organic substances sorbed on the surface of thin mineral particles. During the growing season a significant decreases in the contents of CaCO3, the nitrogen as well as of the C / N were noted. Organic matter content at the beginning and end of the growing season were not significantly different. Under drip irrigation the increase in the soil water content at a depth of 40 was frequently observed, indicating the accumulation of moisture at this depth after irrigation. Probably this is due to the structural features of the profile of these soils: high density and a concentration of fine particles begin at a depth of 38-40 cm (in B1 horizon).

Introduction Soils of Central Anatolia because of thermal resources, availability of water for supplemental irrigation, natural fertility are widely used in agriculture. However, many of the processes that determine the evolution of these soils, as well as scientifically and ecologically based their use remain underdeveloped. Scientific studies of the properties of these soils, characterization of their water and heat regimes are not practically carried out. But it is obvious that these kinds of works are needed to develop a strategy for the agricultural use of soil, as well as for the rational use of natural resources in the region. The aim of this work - the study of the physical and chemical properties and some elements of the water regime alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic, WRB, 2006; Calcaric Fluvisols FAO, 1988) under special field experience. Objectives: 1. Investigate the fundamental physical and chemical properties of soils of Çumra area (Konya province) 2. Study some characteristics of soil water regime in the field agronomy experience 3. Develop a rationale operation to improve the physical properties and elements of hydrothermal regime of the soils studied.

* Corresponding author. Selçuk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 45072 Konya, Turkey Tel.: +90 332 2232934 E-mail address: [email protected]

Material and Methods General information about the study area The geographical location of the study area Çumra located between 370 - 380 East longitude and 33 -340 North latitude (Fig.1).

Figure 1. Area map Chumra (Çumra) [2].

Çumra area is located 1013 meters above sea level. Area is about 172,082 hectares. Topography has the characteristics: 50% plains, 17% of light slanted, 14% moderate sloping, 13% steep and very steep 6%. Çumra area and its main morphological units consist of mining and rolling hills, and have different forms of relief (Fig. 2). Mountain-hilly terrain consists of marl, limestone, and pebble conglomerate.

Figure2. Çumra area and its main morphological units [1].

The agrarian structure of the study area Çumra: the total area is 172 000 ha, 52.24% of this area is irrigated. Irrigation is performed using surface water and groundwater. In the area of agricultural land intensive irrigation is used as a high irrigation. The area is made intensive agricultural production (Anonymous, 2008)

The climate of the study area. Çumra area and its surroundings climatic conditions are shaped by a variety of geographical factors, of which the most important is continental. In this regard, respectively, the summers are hot and dry, while winters are cold and snowy. The average district Çumra is a closed basin of Konya, where a variety of agricultural products are grown together, which determines the main direction of the district. In Çumra and around the winter is cold and snowy climate, summers are hot and dry. Summer temperatures are suitable for the cultivation of many agricultural products. In the summer months when the air humidity and soil water storages are decreased the supplement irrigation is needed (Table 1).

Table 1. The annual temperatures and precipitations data for Çumra district in the period 1992-2012 and for 2012 [4].

Minimum Average The highest Precipitations, temperature, 0С temperature, 0С temperature, 0С mm Months 1975-2012 2012 1975-2012 2012 1975-2012 2012 1975-2012 2010 2011 January -23.7 -20.3 0.1 -1.3 18.0 11.5 37.8 43.6 52.9 February -26.3 -21.5 1.1 -1.9 21.1 12.3 28.3 33.3 40.1 March -18.6 -7.8 5.7 4.3 28.2 18.0 31.2 12.1 44.2 April -9.7 0.6 11.2 14.0 31.5 27.9 40.9 67.4 48.0 Mai -1.2 4.9 15.7 16.4 33.8 27.1 36.0 12.4 52.5 June 3.9 9.2 20.0 22.3 37.3 34.3 19.6 47.9 39.5 July 7.1 10.7 23.0 25.1 39.9 39.2 5.4 0.0 0.0 August 4.8 11.9 22.3 23.3 39.2 35.2 3.1 0.0 1.0 September -0.4 7.2 17.9 20.1 39.3 32.6 8.9 1.6 3.8 October -5.0 5.4 12.2 14.7 31.8 27.1 30.6 62.6 32.1 November -18.2 -3.6 6.0 7.9 25.0 24.9 34.5 4.2 29.2 December -21.8 -6.5 1.9 4.5 22.1 20.1 42.6 106.8 24.9 Average -9.1 -0.8 11.4 12.5 30.6 25.9 318.9 391.9 368.2

Lack of rainfall in the region, the uneven distribution of monthly and seasonal precipitation and soil moisture affects the vegetation. The soils (in general). The most extensive low-lying areas are occupied by cheznut (Kastanozems) and alluvial soils, located as azonal soils. This is very important from the point of view of the agricultural potential of the land. In the area of Çumra, the influence of various factors and conditions, such as rocks, precipitation, temperature, vegetation cover, led to the formation of different types of soils and different properties of soils. Çumra soil area in terms of texture is loam, which is suitable for the cultivation of various agricultural products. Most of the soils of region Çumra, - Kastanozems and alluvial also are rich in minerals, young, deep and fertile. However, there are problems such as lime, alkalinity, drainage, salinisation, wind erosion and the lack of soil water storage during vegetation period. Soils are carbonates, which can have a toxic effect on plants. In the area of agricultural land area Çumra macro-nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), are not at a sufficient level, and the addition of organic matter and fertilizers is sufficient for the growing of agricultural crops. Despite a sufficient level of trace elements in the soil, due to the fact that these soils contain a lot of lime, minerals are not available to plants form.

Soils of the experimental site Description of the soil profile at the experimental site (January, 25). Soil profile is presented the alluvial heavy calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic, WRB, 2006) on the clay alluvial deposits. A (0-38 cm) - cultivated horizon, yellowish-brown. Silty-clayey, silty loess many particles. Wet. 0-10 cm layer contains the humus content about 2% (estimation). Loose, density is lower than 1.3 g/cm3. The transition to the next horizon is in density and hardness (expense of plowing, very conspicuous). B1 (38-62 cm) - compact, sharp boundary, rather dry (humidified by January 25 to about 38 cm), the density is about 1.45 g/cm3. At the bottom of the horizon a small (2 mm) efflorescence’s carbonates. The transition to the underlying horizon by the presence and size of carbonates. BCa (62-100 cm) - up to 10 mm clear accumulation of carbonates, dense (> 1.43-1.5 g/cm3). Some elongated prismatic peds.

The experimental field in 2012 was divided in 4 plots (72 m2) where 4 profiles were investigated for some physical properties and regimes: Plot-1, Plot-2, Plot-3 and Plot 4 with sugar beet (Beta vulgaris saccharifera), plant buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), soy (Glycine max), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) and Control (Plot 5) without plants. Date of sowing - 8 May 2012. The fertilizers DAP (Diamonyum Fosfat) were used in dose of 100 gr on the Plots 1 and 2. DAP contains (NH4) 2HPO4, which contains 18% nitrogen (N) and 46% phosphorus (P). At the site where there was a reference profile 5 (Control) fertilizers and irrigation water did not serve. For other profiles were watering from 20:00 - 08:00 through drip irrigation. The distance between the drip irrigation was 20 cm. Watering was carried out in 7 days 1 times. There was a total 840 m3 of water. Watering was performed 21 times and for each profile each time was served water 40 m3. Soil samples for soil water content were taken every 6 days. At each site, where there were profiles, the number of crops in rows were 16 pieces. Soil samples were selected from the soil layers 0-10, 10-20, 20-40 and 40-60 cm before the experiment (April 2012) and after the (November 2012). The soil bulk density was determined in the samples taken by a cylindrical auger. Particle size distribution analysis (soil texture) was performed in two stages. At the first stage, ground soil was sieved through 1_mm and 0.25_mm screens to separate coarse soil particles (> 0.25 mm). At the second stage, particle size distribution in the fraction <0.25 mm was determined on a FRITSCH Analysette_22 laser diffractometer after the ultrasonic pretreatment [6]. Thus, we obtained data on the content of coarse fractions (> 0.25 mm) and on the particle size distribution for finer fractions. This was necessary, because the content of coarse fractions in the analyzed soil was and hampered the analysis of particle size distribution curves for fractions <0.25 mm. The organic carbon content was determined on an automatic analyzer (AH_7529) at the temperature of 900–10000 C in the flow of purified oxygen (Milanovskiy, 2009). Contents of N was determined by analyzer CNHS for solid samples (Vario EL III Elementar). Results and Discussion Soil texture The texture of upper horizon of this soil is silty clay (clay -44, 8%, silt 54.2 and sand – 1%), but in Russian classification [7,8] this soils is Medium (light) clay (clayey–silty). The particle size distributions of soil horizons are of special interest. Figure 3 shows the differential size distribution curves of the investigated soil layers: 0-10, 10-20, 30-40, 40-50 and 90-100 cm/ This distribution have two specific points: (1) the profile of the soil sufficiently homogeneous and uniform that is not characteristic for alluvial soils. This indicates on the special characteristics of the origin and evolution of these soils. (2) at a depth of 40-50 cm (horizon B1) observed a fine particles size, there is an increased content of fine silt. Thus in this layer also sand components slightly increase (3-4%), although significant changes in granulometric composition doesn’t occur. However, a marked change in grain size in that particular horizon may affect the formation of the water regime of the soil - a heavy layer will probably be poorly permeable to water, it can stagnate water after irrigation (Shein and Karpachevskii, 2007)

0.04

0.035

0.03 depth,cm

0.025 10 20 g/g 30 0.02 40 100

0.015

0.164

0.246

0.366 0.544

0.809 0.01

1.203

1.79

2.662 3.958

5.887 0.005

8.756

13.022 19.368

diam,mkm 28.805

42.841 0

63.716

94.763

100

140.938

209.613

311.75 463.656

Figure 3. Particle size distribution (differential, g/g) of the soil investigated.

Some chemical properties of the agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic). In the table 2 the contents of soil organic matter (Corg, %), carbonates (CCaCO3, %) and nitrogen (N, %) in the beginning and in the end of vegetation period presents. It should be noted that the content of organic matter in this soils is very low. The values of C / N is very low also (about 5-7) and this fact indicates on a high saturation of organic matter with nitrogen. For a well-humified organic matter this rations are usually 12-13 [5]. Such a low rations are likely to be associated with organic matter, adsorbed on the surface of thin mineral granulimetric particles. First of all, they may be the metabolic products of the biota. Comparative statistical analysis of the data at the beginning and the end of the vegetation season by using Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Test showed that CaCO3 content, nitrogen content, as well as of the C / N were significantly differ. Organic matter content was not significantly different, ie. during the growing period; there was no increase or decrease in the content of soil organic matter in the upper (0-40 cm) soil layers. The significant reduction of N points to the need for continuous monitoring and nitrogen fertilizer application in accordance with the balance of this item. A significant decrease in carbonate content (CaCO3) is probably due to their leaching with irrigation and soil water, as well as prominent activity of microbiota, which increases the concentration of carbon dioxide in the soil air. This promotes the increasing of carbon dioxide content in the soil water; increase its acidity and therefore dissolution and removal of carbonates.

Table 2. Soil organic matter (Corg, %), carbonate (СCaCO3, %) and nitrogen (N, %) contents in the beginning and in the end of vegetation period Profile No Depth, cm CCaCO3,% Corg, % N,% C/N In the beginning of vegetation period (May, 2012) profile 1 0-10 2.40 0.88 0.14 6.3 10-20 2.36 1,00 0.13 7.6 20-30 2.35 0.69 0.13 5.3 30-40 2.43 0.51 0.10 5.1 40-50 2.49 0.421 0.07 6.0 50-60 2.46 0.42 0.05 8.4 profile 2 0-10 2.35 0.81 0.14 5.8 10-20 2.35 0.58 0.12 4.8 20-30 2.38 0.51 0.11 4.6 30-40 2.42 0.46 0.08 5.8 40-50 2.40 0.42 0.05 8.4 50-60 2.45 0.41 0.05 8.2 profile 3 0-10 2.34 0.88 0.15 5.8 10-20 2.42 0.72 0.12 6.0 20-30 2.41 0.45 0.11 4.1 30-40 2.43 0.36 0.09 4.0 40-50 2.48 0.42 0.07 6.0 50-60 2.51 0.43 0.05 8.6 profile 4 0-10 2.21 0.89 0.12 7.4 10-20 2.22 0.68 0.12 5.7 20-30 2.28 0.48 0.09 5.3 30-40 2.27 0.43 0.09 4.8 40-50 2.39 0.42 0.04 10.5 50-60 2.46 0.35 0.05 7.0 profile K 0-10 2.38 0.86 0.15 5.7 10-20 2.39 0.81 0.13 6.2 20-30 2.32 0.72 0.11 6.5 30-40 2.32 0.62 0.08 7.75 40-50 2.32 0.45 0.08 5.6 50-60 2.39 0.45 0.03 15 In the end of vegetation period (November, 2012) profile 1 0-10 2.27 0.85 0.12 7.1 10-20 2.29 0.89 0.13 6.8 20-30 2.23 0.7 0.10 7.0 30-40 2.21 0.58 0.08 7.3 profile 2 0-10 2.32 0.67 0.10 6.7 10-20 2.29 0.59 0.09 6.6 20-30 2.34 0.40 0.07 5.7 30-40 2.36 0.40 0.07 5.7 profile 3 0-10 2.32 0.78 0.11 7.1 10-20 2.329 0.601 0.09 6.7 20-30 2.33 0.5 0.08 6.3 30-40 2.36 0.44 0.08 5.5 profile 4 0-10 2.07 0.94 0.10 9.4 10-20 2.25 0.72 0.09 8.0 20-30 2.29 0.59 0.09 6.6 30-40 2.28 0.51 0.08 6.4 profile K 0-10 2.35 0.77 0.12 6.4 10-20 2.29 0.77 0.12 6.4 20-30 2.31 0.65 0.11 5.9 30-40 2.28 0.57 0.10 5.7 40-50 2.26 0.57 0.09 6.3 50-60 2.27 0.51 0.09 5.7

Soil water regime Water regime investigated plots is represented as chronoisoplet of soil water content in Fig. 2 (a-d) [8]. First, note the difference irrigated plots of the control plot. By the end of the growing season the water content in soil of the control plot was 17-20%, while in irrigated plots the water content reached 22-25%.

Plot 1

Plot 2

Plot 3

Plot 4 (Control)

- Soil Moisture content legend

Figure 4. Soil water content during the vegetation period

It should also be noted that on the depth of 40 cm an increase in humidity is often observed, indicating the accumulation of moisture at this depth after watering. Probably this is due to the structural features of the profile of these soils: an increasing of a soil density and clay particles content begins at a depth of 38-40 cm (B1 horizon). Conclusion 1. Genetic horizons, granulometric particles distribution, density of agricultural alluvial calcareous soils (Calcic Fluvisols Oxyaquic) of Konya province (Çumra area) indicate a more fine particles content and higher density of B1 horizon (38-62 cm). 2. Organic carbon content is low (less than 1%), the values of C / N is very low and indicate a high saturation of organic matter with nitrogen, which is typical for organic substances sorbed on the surface of thin mineral particles. 3. During the growing season a significant decreases in the content of CaCO3, the nitrogen content as well as of the C / N were noted. Organic matter content at the beginning and end of the growing season were not significantly different. 4. Under drip irrigation the increase in the soil water content at a depth of 40 frequently observed, indicating the accumulation of moisture at this depth after irrigation. Probably this is due to the structural features of the profile of these soils: dense and fine particles a concentration begins at a depth of 38-40 cm (in B1 horizon). References Anonymous, 1966. General Command of Mapping (National Mapping Agency of Turkey). 1/100 000 Scale Topographic Map of Turkey (regarding layouts). Anonymous, 2008/a. Çumra Municipality Housing Department. http://www.cumra.gov.tr Anonymous, 2008/b. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock Çumra District Directorate of Agriculture Records. Anonymous, 2012. Turkish State Meteorological Service. http://www.meteor.gov.tr] Milanovskiy E. Yu., Humic Substances as Natural Hydrophobic–Hydrophilic Compounds. GEOS, Moscow, 2009 (in Russian). Shein E.V., Milanovsky E. Yu., Molov A.Z. The Granulometric composition: the role of soil organic matter in data distinctions between sedimentation and laser diffraction analysis//Eurasian Soil Science. № 13, 2006. Shein E. Modern methods in physics of solid phase of soils. / Land Degradation and Challenges in Sustainable Soil Management. 8th International Soil Congress. May 15-17, 2012. Gesme-Izmir, Turkey. Proceedings book. V.3 Pp. 388-392. Shein, E.V. and Karpachevskii, L.O. (Eds). Theory and Methods of Soil Physics, Moscow, 2007 (in Russian).

Concept of Soil Quality Coşkun Gülser *, Rıdvan Kızılkaya

Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science & Plant Nutrition, Samsun, Turkey

Introduction A thin layer of topsoil, takes hundreds of years to form, covers much of the earth as the interface between aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial ecosystems. Soil is a fundamental natural resource for basic human needs. Soil can provide the physical support, nutrients, water, and gas exchange necessary for crop growth. Soil is also home to many macro or micro organismswhich directly or indirectly impact crop growth. Soil also supports natural ecosystems as it cycles water and chemical elements through the biosphere. Physical, chemical, and biological soil factors determine the need for various inputs, such as water, fertilizer, and pesticides. The health of our environment depends on soil, air, and water quality. Therefore, soil management will always be important. Evaluating soil quality is not the same classifying soils based on their natural properties. Soil quality is not concerned with rating or comparing the suitability of different soil types for a specific use. Soil quality is an evaluation of the condition of a particular soil in relation to its potential capacity. Therefore, the focus of soil quality is on properties or processes impacted by soil use or management. The importance of soil quality and how it may be defined, evaluated, and managed will be discussed during this workshop. Definition of Soil Quality The soil quality concept placed in the literature in the early 1990s (Doran and Safely, 1997; Wienhold et al., 2004). Soil quality is usually defined as ‘‘the capacity of a specific kind of soil to function, within natural or managed ecosystem boundaries, to sustain plant and animal productivity, maintain or enhance water and air quality, and support human health and habitation’’ (Karlen et al., 1997). This definition is similar to that of Doran et al. (1996) in which soil quality is the "capacity of a soil to function, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant, animal and human health". These functions of soils in many soil quality definitions include a soil’s role in plant growth, hydrology, biological transformations, and degradation of organic materials. According to these definitions, soil quality has two parts: an intrinsic part covering a soil's inherent capacity for crop growth, and a dynamic part influenced by the manager. A good quality soils can be degraded by poor management. Dynamic part of soil quality generally changes in response to soil use and management (Larson and Pierce, 1994). The distinction between inherent and dynamic parts of soil quality can be characterized by the genetic (or static) pedological processes versus the kinetic (or dynamic) processes in soil (Richter 1987; Koolen 1987; Carter 1990).

* Corresponding author. Ondokuz Mayıs University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science & Plant Nutrition, Samsun, Turkey Tel.: +90 362 3121919 E-mail address: [email protected]

Attributes of natural or inherent soil quality which is a function of geological materials and soil state factors or variables such as topography, parent material, mineralogy and particle size distribution, are mainly viewed as almost static and usually show little change over time. Some soils have poor inherent quality and are not fit or suitable for a specific use or crop production. On the other hand, human activities such as land use and farming practices can result in the deterioration of a soil that originally possessed good inherent quality due to adverse management and/or climatic effects such as; soil erosion and desertification (Table 1).

Table 1. Reducing soil quality by the processes associated with land use and management practices (Carter et al. 1997).

Process Effect on soil attributes/quality Possible effect on environment Erosion Topsoil removed, nutrients lost; capacity to Deposition of soil material and pesticides in regulate water and energy flow in soil reduced stream sand rivers Loss of organic Soil fertility and structure reduced; capacity to Increased soil erosion and degradation, and matter regulate energy flow in soil reduced enhanced greenhouse effect from released CO2 Loss of structure Soil porosity and stability reduced; capacity to Increased runoff and soil water erosion store and transmit water reduced Salinization Excess soluble salts and nutrient imbalance; Increased bare soil and soil wind erosion adverse medium for crop growth Chemical Presence of toxins; capacity to act as an Movement of chemical via runoff and/or Contamination environmental buffer exceeded leaching

Soil properties related with dynamic soil quality can change in response to human use and management over relatively short time periods (Table 2). Total organic matter may change over a period of years to decades, whereas pH and labile organic matter fractions may change over a period of months to years. On the other hand, microbial biomass and populations, soil respiration, nutrient mineralization rates, and macroporosity can change over a period of hours to days. Therefore, maintenance and/or improvement of dynamic soil quality deals primarily with those attributes or indicators that are most subject to change (e.g., loss or depletion) and are strongly influenced by soil management or agronomic practices (Carter et al. 1997).

Table 2. Some various processes in soil according to time scale (Carter et al., 1997).

Long term (102 to 103 yr) Medium term (1 to 102 yr) Short term (seconds to 1 yr) Humus decomposition Clay formation Evaporation Podzolization Clay destruction Carbonate leaching Gleying Clayt ransformation Heat transport Laterization Pseudo gleying Gas diffusion Solodization Erosion Ion exchange Salinization Mineralization Immobilization Compaction Loosening Desalinization

Attributes of Soil Quality Indicators The sustainability and productivity of land use can be affected by the quality of soil which is controlled by chemical, physical, and biological components of a soil and their interactions (Papendick and Parr, 1992). Soil physical and chemical properties are shaped by biological activity, and biological activity is enhanced or limited by chemical and physical soil conditions. Therefore, specifically categorizing some soil indicators is difficult. For example, cation exchange capacity could be classified as either a physical or a chemical property, and organic matter as either and most useful indicators of soil quality integrate the combined effects of several properties or processes. Karlen et al. (1997) reported that soil quality affects basic soil functions, such as moderating and partitioning water and solute movement, their redistribution and supply to plants; storing and cycling

Gülser, C., Kızılkaya, R., 2013. Concept of Soil Quality. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 83-94. nutrients; filtering, buffering, immobilizing and detoxifying organic and inorganic materials; promoting root growth; providing resistance to erosion. The capacity of soil to function can be reflected by measured soil physical, chemical and biological properties, also known as soil quality indicators (Table 3). There are several criteria in selection of soil quality indicators. Generally, appropriate soil quality indicators should be: - easy to asses. - able to measure changes in soil function both at plot and landscape scales. - assessed in time to make management decisions. - accessible to many farmers. - sensitive to variations in agro-ecological zone. - representative of physical, biological or chemical properties of soil. - assessed by both qualitative and/or quantitative approaches.

Table 3. Summary of some soil health indicators used to asses soil function (Kinyangi, 2007). Indicator Soil function Soil organic matter (SOM) Soil structure, stability, nutrient retention; soil erosion Physical: soil aggregate stability, Retention and mobility of water and nutrients; habitat for macro and micro infiltration and bulk density fauna Chemical: pH, extractable soil nutrients, Soil biological and chemical activity thresholds; plant N-P-K and base cations Ca, Mg and K available nutrients and potential for N and P as well as loss of Ca, Mg and K Biological: microbial biomass C and N; Microbial catalytic potential and repository for C and N; soil productivity potentially mineralizable N and N supplying potential

Physical Soil Quality Indicators Physical indicators of soil quality are mostly related to water storage and movement, soil structure. Basic physical indicators of soil quality are soil texture, soil depth, infiltration, bulk density, water holding capacity, aggregate stability and penetration resistance (Table 4). Some physical indicators such as; texture and topsoil depth are fixed soil properties that cannot be altered, except over long time periods or sediment deposition by erosion. These soil properties influence soil use or productivity, they are inherent part of soil quality. For example, soil texture is an inherent soil property which strongly influences many soil quality indicators, like drainage and water holding capacity. Infiltration is the process of water entering the soil from boundry of soil atmosphere system. The infiltration rate is dependent on the soil type; soil structure, or amount of aggregation; and the soil water content. The infiltration rate is usually higher when the soil is dry than when it is wet. Therefore the soils should have similar moisture content when taking the measurements for soil quality assesment. Bulk density is dependent on the densities of the soil particles (sand, silt, clay, and organic matter) and their packing arrangement. Bulk density is a dynamic property that varies with the structural condition of the soil. This condition can be altered by cultivation; trampling by animals; agricultural machinery; and climate (raindrop impact etc). Compacted soil layers have high bulk densities, restrict root growth, and inhibit the movement of air and water through the soil. Soil structure is the combination and spatial arrangement of primary soil particles into larger secondary particles known as aggregates, peds, clods, etc. An aggregated structure is generally considered best for agricultural activities. A good soil structure is defined as an arrangement of soil particles into stable larger units, and of the pore spaces between those units, that allows movement of water through the soil, movement of air into and out of the soil and ease of penetration by roots, and that protects the soil against erosion (Gülser, 2006). Pore size distribution is considered to be a good indicator of the soil structural condition and useful for predicting water infiltration rates, water availability to plants, soil water storage capacity, and soil aeration status (Carter et al., 1997). Aggregate stability is a measure of the vulnerability of soil aggregates to external destructive forces (Hillel, 1982). In general, the greater the percentage of stable aggregates, the less erodible the soil will be. Soil aggregates are a product of the soil microbial community, the soil organic and mineral components, the nature of the above-ground plant community, and ecosystem history. They are important in the movement and storage of soil water and in soil aeration, erosion, root

Gülser, C., Kızılkaya, R., 2013. Concept of Soil Quality. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 83-94. development, and microbial community activity (Tate, 1995). Aggregates improve soil quality by protecting soil organic matter entrapped in the aggregates from exposure to air and microbial decomposition, decreasing soil erodibility, improving water and air movement, improving the physical environment for root growth and improving soil organism habitat (USDA, 1999). Breakdown of aggregates is the first step to crust development and surface sealing, which impedes water infiltration and increases erosion. Soil aggregation can change over a period of time, such as in a season or year. Aggregates can form, disintegrate, and reform periodically (Hillel, 1982). Penetration measurements have been used to study tillage effects on penetration resistance (Hakansson et al. 1988; Gülser et al. 2011) and to estimate soil trafficability and soil resistance to plowing, seedling emergence and root growth (Hakansson et al. 1988; Bengough and Young, 1993). Penetration resistance provides an indicator of when soil strength becomes too great for effective penetration by crop roots. Extensive work has shown that for most agricultural crops root growth slows dramatically when the penetration resistance exceeds about 1.7 or 2 MPa (Bengough and Mullins, 1990; Canarache, 1990; Arshad et al. 1996). Chemical Soil Quality Indicators Chemical indicators of soil quality are mostly related to nutrient availability, phytotoxicity of trace metals, and pesticide mobility in soils. Basic chemical indicators of soil quality are soil organic matter (SOM), soil reaction (pH), electrical conductivity (EC), NO3--N, cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Table 4). Soil organic matter, which is one of the most important factors affecting soil quality, is a soil component having physical, chemical, and biological properties. Types of organic matter are very difficult to describe. Soil organic matter is generally described as one of three types which are i) living organisms including plant roots, ii) readily turned over or decomposed under favorable conditions which is active part of SOM (in periods often measured in months) and iii) humus, which is relatively stable and resistant to further decomposition(often lasting hundreds of years). Composition of soil organic matter defined by different researchers is given in Table 5.

Table 4. Physical, chemical, and biological indicators for soil quality (Doran et al., 1996; Larson and Pierce, 1994; Doran and Parkin, 1994) Indicator Rationale for assessment Physical Soil texture Indicates how well water and chemicals are retained and transported. Provides an estimate of soil erosion and variability. Soil depth and rooting Indicates productivity potential. Infiltration Describes the potential for leaching, productivity, and erosion. Soil bulk density Describes soil structure, porosity, aeration and water holding capacity and permeability. It is used to correct soil analyses to volumetric basis. Water holding capacity Describes water retention, transport, and erosion.

Available water is related with soil bulk density and organic matter. Aggregate stability Describe soil erodibility, capacity to store and transmit water, aeration Penetration resistance Desribes soil strength for effective penetration by crop roots Chemical Soil organic matter (OM) As a proxy for soil fertility and nutrient availability pH biological and chemical activity thresholds. Electrical conductivity plant and microbial activity thresholds. Extractable NO3-N, CEC Describes plant-available nutrients and potential for N loss. Indicates productivity and environmental quality. Biological Microbial biomass C and N Describes microbial catalytic potential and repository for carbon and nitrogen. Provides an early warning of management effects on organic matter. Soil respiration Defines a level of microbial activity. Provides an estimate of biomass activity. Enzymes Provide a sensitive measure of changes in microbial and biochemical activity in a soil. Defines organic matter decomposition and nutrient recycling. Earthworms Defines soil fertility, provides aggregation and porosity.

Table 5. Soil organic matter defined by Hodges (1991) and Lampkin (1992). Hodges Lampkin Constituents Effective humus Fresh and incompletely decomposed residues fresh additions of vegetation, roots, manure etc Stable humus 1. products of advanced decomposition and protein-like substances, organic acids, tannins, products lignins, waxes, fats, resynthesized by microorganisms carbohydrates, gums 2. high molecular weight substances humic acids humic acids, fulvic acids, humus Biomass - bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae, protozoa, nematodes, annelids, arthropods, molluscs etc

Decomposition of “active” organic residues produces long polysaccharides which are bind soil particles into stable aggregates that resist compaction and erosion. Tisdall and Oades (1982) concluded that only a part of the SOM stabilizes aggregates: generally the younger SOM with a larger content of polysaccharides, roots and fungal hyphae. Aggregation is also promoted by the binding action of plant roots, and root exudates. Aggregation and the activity of earthworms, burrowing insects, and plant roots create channels that aid water infiltration, aeration, and drainage. Organic matter increases soil water-holding capacity in coarse textures soils. Assimilation by living plants and soil organisms retains nutrients, preventing them from leaching. Decomposition of SOM releases nutrients essential for the growth of plants and soil organisms. Humus, which is stable part of SOM, buffers soil pH and retains nutrients through its contribution to CEC. SOM provides food and energy for soil organisms. pH of soil solutions influences on element solubility in soils. The processes of mineral dissolution and also adsorption at acidic functional groups are dependent on pH. Cation exchange capacity also depends on pH. Nutrient deficiencies of the base nutrient cations Ca, Mg, and K, and also P deficiency are mostly associated with lower soil pH or acidic soils. Trace elements such as; Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Al cause toxicity to plants in acidic soils. Alkaline soils are associated with deficiencies of trace elements and also deficiencies of P (Lindsay, 1979). Eventhough EC is generally related to salinity, it is also reflects dissolved nutrients in anion and cation forms in soils (Smith and Doran, 1996), and is an important parameter for monitoring organic matter mineralization in soils (De Neve et al., 2000). Salinity limits crop production when the concentration of soluble salts in the soil solution is high enough to decrease absorption of water. The critical EC at which growth is affected depends on plant species (Bohn et al., 1985). High ratio of exchangeable Na can cause swelling of soil aggregates and clay dispersion, which results in a decrease in permeability (Shainberg and Letey, 1984).

Soil nitrate (NO3-) is a form of inorganic N that is available for use by plants. It forms from the mineralization of organic forms of N in the soil by microorganisms. The rate of N mineralization is dependent on the amount of soil organic N, water content, temperature, pH, and aeration. Crop needs are met by mineralized-N and by fertilizer-N. Nitrate is the most mobile form of N in soil, so it can be leached with percolating water below the root zone. Nitrate is not a contaminant until it leaches below the root zone or is transported off-site in surface runoff (USDA, 1999). Nitrate can contribute to euthrophication when leached to groundwater. Exchangeable cations are cations that are adsorbed weakly by soil particles and can be easily displaced from the soil particle surface into the solution phase by another cation. The cation exchange capacity is the net negative charge of a given weight of soil. CEC is especially important for the essential plant nutrients K, Ca, and Mg. These nutrients are protected from leaching when held in exchangeable form on particle surfaces. These are a reserve nutrient supply that can replenish ions taken up by plant roots. Biological Soil Quality Indicators Biological indicators of soil quality often refer to the amounts, types, and activities of soil organisms. Basic biological indicators of soil quality are microbial biomass C and N, soil respiration, enzymes and earthworms (Table 4). The microbial biomass can quickly respond to changes in soil processes resulting from changes in management due to its high turnover rate relative to the total soil organic matter. The microbial biomass C can be divided by total organic C or CO2-C respired in order to make comparisons between soils under

Gülser, C., Kızılkaya, R., 2013. Concept of Soil Quality. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 83-94. different managements having different organic matter contents. The ratio of microbial biomass C to total organic C has been useful to explain changes in organic matter under different cropping or tillage systems, as well as in soil polluted by heavy metals (Gregorich et al. 1997). Carbon mineralization is the gross flux of CO2 from soil during an incubation and indicates the total metabolic activity of heterotrophic soil organisms. Nitrogen mineralization is the net flux of inorganic N during a soil incubation and represents the balance between gross mineralization and immobilization by soil organisms (Gregorich et al. 1997).

Soil respiration is the rate of CO2 release (or oxygen consumption) by biological respiration. Soil respiration rate represents the size and activity of the overall population of soil organisms. Soil microbes generally make the largest contribution to soil respiration, although field measurements can include significant contributions from larger organisms and plant roots. Soil temperature, moisture, aeration, and food supply all have major effects on biological activity, and therefore respiration rate (USDA, 1999). Enzymes catalyse innumerable reactions in soils and are associated with organic matter decomposition and nutrient recycling. They exist in soil in a biotic form associated with viable microorganisms or soil fauna. Enzymes are important in facilitating the hydrolysis of substrates that are too insoluble or too large for microorganisms to use directly (Gregorich et al. 1997). Earthworms improve soil quality by increasing the availability of nutrients. Available plant nutrients (N, P, & K) tend to be higher in fresh earthworm casts than in the bulk soil. Earthworms also accelerate the decomposition of organic matter by incorporating litter into the soil and activating both mineralization and humification processes; improve soil physical properties, such as aggregation and soil porosity; suppress certain pests or disease organisms; and enhance beneficial microorganisms (Edwards et al., 1995). Evaluating Soil Quality Soil quality is evaluated using indicators that measure specific physical, chemical, and biological soil properties. The smallest set of properties or attributes that can be used to characterize an aspect of soil quality is called as minimum data set. Indicators in minimum data set of soil quality are need to be developed for (i) integrate soil physical, chemical and/or biological properties and processes, (ii) apply under diverse field conditions, (iii) complement either existing databases or easily measurable data, and (iv) respond to land use, management practices, climate and human factors (Doran and Parkin, 1994). Monitoring changes in the key soil quality indicators with time can determine if quality of a soil under a given land use and management system is improving, stable or declining (Lal, 1998; Shukla et al., 2004). Loveland and Webb (2003) reported that a major threshold for soil OC is 2% (3.45% SOM), below which potentially serious decline in soil quality will occur. Shukla et al. (2006) determined the dominant factors in assessing soil quality. Soil aeration was the most discriminating factor for the 0–10 cm depth and soil aggregation was the most significant factor for the 10–20 cm depth of soil. For each factor, the dominant measured soil attribute was soil organic carbon. They concluded that if only one soil attribute were to be used for monitoring soil quality changes every 3–5 years, soil organic carbon should be selected. Clay concentration and SOM influence aggregation which effect water storage and movement in soil, as well as productivity. An increase in SOM could also reduce environmental pollution. Thus, from the perspective of land owners and environmentalists, SOM should be classified as an important attribute for monitoring soil quality. A high soil respiration rate, indicative of high biological activity, can be a good sign of rapid decomposition of organic residues into nutrients available for plant growth. However, decomposition of the stable organic matter is detrimental to many physical and chemical processes such as aggregation, cation exchange, and water holding capacity. The lower soil porosity accounts for the lower respiration rate under compacted conditions (USDA, 1999). Biological activity is a direct reflection of the degradation of organic matter in the soil. This degradation indicates that two processes are occurring: (1) loss of soil carbon and (2) turnover of nutrients (Parkin et al., 1996). Kızılkaya and Hepşen (2007) found that addition of various organic wastes produced changes in the microbial properties of earthworm Lumbricus terrestris casts and surrounding soil with increasing microbial biomass, basal soil respiration and enzyme activities of dehydrogenase, catalase, b-glucosidase, urease, alkaline phosphatase, and arylsulphatase (Figure 1). Except for catalase activity, these values of microbiological parameters in casts were higher than in surrounding soil at all waste treatments

Gülser, C., Kızılkaya, R., 2013. Concept of Soil Quality. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 83-94. and control. Application of manures, composts, biosolids (sewage sludge), and other organics are good ways to increase SOM. Sewage sludges should be low trace-metal, in this case it can be applied to food crops and improve soil quality with no restrictions. Kızılkaya and Bayraklı (2005) studied the effects of sewega sludge with N-enriched (or adjusted C:N ratio in soil) on enzyme activities (β-glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase, arylsulphatase and urease) in a clay loam soil. The addition of the sludge caused a rapid and significant increase in the enzymatic activities and available metal (Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) contents in the soils. In general, enzymatic activities in sludge amended soils tended to decrease with the incubation time. The presence of available soil metals due to the addition of the sludge at all doses and C:N ratios (3:1, 6:1 and 9:1) did negatively affect all enzymatic activities. They concluded that this would not only overcome problems of enzyme inhibition but also would reduce a major area of public concern such as nitrate leaching, heavy metal and pathogen contamination, plant uptake of sludge borne metals and soil fertility and health.

Figure 1. Changes of microbial biomass carbon (a) and basal soil respiration (b) in earthworm cast and surrounding soil. HH = Hazelnut husk, CM = Cow manure, WS = Wheat straw, TOW = Tobacco production waste, TEW= Tea production waste (LSD, P<0,01) (Kızılkaya and Hepşen, 2007)

Arshed and Martin (2002) reported that many soil quality indicators interact with each other, and that the value of one indicator may be influenced by one or more of the other selected parameters. Changes in soil quality can be assessed by measuring appropriate soil quality indicators at different time intervals for a specific use in a selected agro-ecosystem. Candemir and Gülser (2011) studied the effects of different agricultural wastes on some soil quality indexes over two years in a clay field and a loamy sand field. They found that soil organic carbon contents were around 2% after 30 months in clay while they were generally less than 2% after 7 months in loamy sand. Organic wastes generally increased aggregate stability, field capacity, decreased bulk density of the soils. Tobacco waste exerted the greatest effect on aggregation, EC and NO3-N (Figure 2). Hazelnut husk and tea waste had the greatest effect on soil respiration in clay and loamy sand soils, respectively. They concluded that soil quality can be improved in coarse textured soils using tea waste and hazelnut husk, and in fine textured soils using tea waste and manure.

2,0 a C M TOW HH TEW

a Clay soil Loamy sand soil 1,5 (LSD:0.27**)

b (LSD:0.22**) . b -1 b 1,0 c c c cd ce ce cd ce ce ce EC, dS m ce ce ce ce ce df df e e de 0,5 e e dg eh fh gh ghghghgh ghgh gh gh h

0,0 8 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 Sampling time, month

a 1000 C M TOW HH TEW b Clay soil Loamy sand soil (LSD:39.5**) (LSD:111.3**) acab a bd c ce cd df cd cd eg eh cd cd 100 fi fi cd cd gk fj cd gk cd hk ik cdcd cd ik ik ik jk cdcd d d k d

-N, ppm ppm -N, . 10

3 NO NO

1 8 16 23 30 7 14 21 28 Sampling time, month Figure 2. Effects of organic wastes on EC and NO3-N in clay and loamy sand soils (C:control; M:manure; TOW: Tobacco waste, HH: hazelnut husk, TEW:tea waste) (Candemir and Gülser 2011).

An evaluation process of soil quality consists of a series of actions (Kinyangi, 2007): - Selection of soil health indicators - Determination of a minimum data set - Development of an interpretation scheme of indices - On-farm assessment and validation The evaluation of soil quality is an important activity for recognizing the sensitivity of the soil to damage and the need to consider the sustainable use of soils (Nortclif, 1997). Defining soil quality without reference to the function of the soil is not possible because for a soil that is a good quality for one purpose may be a poorer quality for another purpose. Therefore, soil quality is not considered with respect to one function alone but with respect to its multifunctionality because of possible change of the land use in the future. The attribute measured as an indicator must be fit for the purpose of indicating soil quality, and the method of analysis must be fit for the purpose of providing appropriate information about the attribute (Nortcliff, 1997). A Case study for Soil Quality in Olive and Vineyard Fields In agriculture, soil quality assessment is only meaningful when the results are used to maintain and improve soil quality. Becoming familiar with how to define and evaluate soil quality, and the common causes for declines in soil quality are important in managing it. Collecting a minimum data set helps to identify locally relevant soil indicators and to evaluate the link between selected indicators and significant soil and plant properties (Arshad and Martin, 2002). Soil quality index can be derived using a minimum data set of indicators (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Soil quality index derived from physical, chemical and biological indicators (Adapted from Karlen et al. 2003). Doğan and Gülser (2012) studied the classification of soil quality for olive and vineyard fields of five different villages (Akçaköy, Çatalca, Efemçukuru, Görece and Yeniköy) in Menderes district of Izmir, Turkey. Soil samples were taken from 19 different olive fields and from 28 different vineyard fields. They classified the soil physical and chemical properties between 1.00 (ideal) and 0.20 (poor) according to soil requirements given in literatures for olive and vineyard (Table 6 and 7, respectively). Table 6. Suitable classes of soil properties for olive growth (Doğan and Gülser, 2012).

Suitable class Ideal Good Moderate Poor Score 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.20 Texture L, SCL CL, SiCL, SiL C, SiC others Bulk density g/cm3 <1.2 1.2-1.4 1.4-1.6 >1.6 pH (1:1) 6.8-7.3 6.0-6.8 or 7.3-8.0 6.0-5.0 or 8.0-8.5 <5.0 or >8.5 EC dS/m <2.7 2.7-3.8 3.8-6.0 >6.0 OM, % >2.5 2.5-2 2-1 <1 P, ppm 50-20 20-10 10-5 <5 Ca me/100g >12 12-10 10-8 <8 Mg me/100 g >2 2-1.6 1.6-1.2 <1.2 K, me/100 g >0.60 0.60-0.40 0.40-0.20 <0.20

CaCO3, % 9-19 7-9 or 19-22 7-5 or 22-25 <5 or >25 Zn, ppm >15 15-10 10-5 <5 Mn, ppm >8 8-5 5-2 <2 Cu, ppm >5 5-3 3-1 <1 Fe, ppm >4.5 4.5-2 2-1 >1 They used the following equation for evaluate the soil quality for olive and vineyard fields.

n S a1.a2.a3... an Where; S: Soil quality index; a1…an: Score of each soil parameter between 0.20 and 1.00.

Soil quality index (S) for olive and vineyard fields was classified as; S1: 1.00 – 0.75 Very suitable S2: 0.75 – 0.60 Suitable S3: 0.60 – 0.50 Marginal suitable N: < 0.50 Non suitable They found that only one of the 19 soil samples taken from olive fields was in very suitable (S1) class, 8 in suitable (S2), 6 in marginal suitable (S3) and 4 in non suitable (N) class. Restricting factors for olive growth in soils classified as S2 and S3 generally became lower soil organic matter, Ca, K and Cu contents than suggested levels. In addition to restring factors in S2 and S3 classes, soil texture, bulk density, pH, available P

Gülser, C., Kızılkaya, R., 2013. Concept of Soil Quality. EURASIAN SOIL WORKSHOP 2013, “The biophysical attributes of soil quality”. 29-31 May 2013, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey. p. 83-94. contents in soils classified as non suitable (N) were lower than that of suggested levels. Soil quality index values showed a significant positive relationship with olive yields at 5% level (Figure 3).

Table 7. Suitable classes of soil properties for vineyard growth (Doğan and Gülser, 2012).

Suitable class Ideal Good Moderate Poor Score 1.0 0.8 0.5 0.2 Texture L, SiCL, CL SiL, SCL, SL, SiC, SC C, Si, S, LS pH (1:1) 6.7-7.3 6.1-6.6 or 7.4-7.7 5.5-6.6 or 7.7-8.0 <5.5 or >8.0 EC dS/m <1.5 1.5-2.5 2.5-4.0 >4.0 OM, % 3.5 2.5-3.5 2.5-1.5 <1.5 P, ppm 80-50 50-30 30-20 <20 Exch.Ca, % >65 65-55 55-40 <45 Exch. Mg, % >30 30-20 20-10 <10 Exch. K, % >8 8-5 5-3 <3 CaCO3, % <2 2-4 4-8 >8 Zn, ppm 10-8 8-6 6-4 <4 Mn, ppm 70-50 50-30 30-15 <15 Cu, ppm 7-6 6-4 4-2 <2 Fe, ppm 35-25 25-15 15-4 <4

Figure 3. Relatioship between soil quality indexes and Figure 4. Relatioship between soil quality indexes and olive yields (Doğan and Gülser 2012). vineyard yields (Doğan and Gülser 2012).

They found that only one of the 28 soil samples taken from vineyard fields was in very suitable (S1) class, 5 in suitable (S2), 9 in marginal suitable (S3) and 13 in non suitable (N) class. Restricting factors for vine growth in soils classified as S2 and S3 generally became lower pH, OM, P, Fe, Mn, Cu, Mg and K contents than suggested levels. In addition to restring factors in S2 and S3 classes, physical properties in soils classified as non suitable (N) were lower than suggested levels. Soil quality index values showed a significant positive relationship with vineyard yields at 1 % level (Figure 4). Conclusion Soil organic matter is one of the most important factors affecting soil quality with regulating physical, chemical and biological soil properties. To improve soil quality with increasing SOM content, stimulating biological activity, improving soil structure and reducing erosion, some soil management practices can be suggested as follows; i) reducing tillage to slow decomposition of crop residues, ii) avoiding the urge to soil work when it is wet, it causses soil compaction, degredation of soil structure and low crop yield, iii) using crop rotations include legumes and deep-rooted and high residue crops to add nitrogen, recycle nutrients, iv) adding organic soil amendments (like manure, agricultural wastes, compost, biosolids green manure etc.)

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