ISSN 2747-2671 (online) PINISI JOURNAL OF ART, HUMANITY & SOCIAL STUDIES Vol. 1 No. 3, 2021

Arabic in the Development of Islamic Culture and

Stella E. Osim Department of Religious Studies and , University of Calabar Calabar Cross River State, Nigeria * [email protected]

Abstract Literature is generally defined as anybody of written works. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary (1995) gives further explanations about literature as "writings having excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal interest". In this paper, therefore, the writer looks at the literature which gives one much insight into writings in . The study uses a qualitative method of research where secondary sources from books and the internet were accessed and used in the work. The researcher finds out that the is so influential in shaping literature in Arab nations and beyond. The writer also looks at literature such as: , prose, and non-fiction literature, where imaginary and factual stories about events and people are written. Nevertheless, the paper finds out that there was a decline of as a result of getting into contact with a variety of different people's cultures like Persia, among others who influenced directly or indirectly on Arabic culture. However, in the modem Arabic literature, there was a revival which is referred to in Arabic as “al-”, which means "the Renaissance". Today, the researcher in the work sees Arabic literature being accepted externally as there is an increase of translations of Arabic books into other languages, and Arabic authors begin to receive the commendation of their writings. The study concludes that literature is one of the key ingredients in the development of any culture and religion of a people. It sells out people's culture and religion to the outside world. The Arabic literature especially contributes in helping to promote Islam as a religion in the world. Thus, studying Arabic literature gives one much insight into the Islamic religion, and it should be given optimal attention in religious scholarship, hence the relevance of this research.

Keywords: Islamic Culture; Islamic Religion; Arabic literature.

1. INTRODUCTION have artistic or intellectual value, often due to According to Joshua Mark, Literature comes deploying language in ways that differ from from the Littera meaning 'letters' and referring ordinary usage. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary in its to an acquaintance with the written word. It is view defines literature as writings having excellence therefore defined as the written work of a specific of form or expression and expressing ideas of culture, sub-culture, religion, philosophy or the permanent or universal interest. study of such written work which may appear in Literature is classified according to Alex poetry or prose (Eliot 2010; Duke 2006; Duke 2018; Preminger (1993) as fiction or non-fiction, and Ekpenyong & Okoi 2018). To John Foster (2001), whether it is poetry or prose. It is fiction when it literature is generally defined as a body of written broadly refers to any that is derived from works. To be specific, it refers to writing considered the imagination. In other words, it is not based to be in an art form or any single writing deemed to strictly on history or fact. It can also refer, more

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narrowly, to written only in prose (the the Arabic language; it has the greatest lasting effect and ), and is often used as a on Arabic culture and its literature. Arabic literature synonym for the novel. Non-fiction on the other flourished during the but has hand, is content (sometimes, in the form of a story) remained vibrant to the present day, with poets and whose creator, in good faith, assumes responsibility prose-writers across the , as well as the for the truth or accuracy of the events, people, or rest of the world, achieving increasing success information presented. Looking at the difference (Allen, 2005). between prose and poetry, Black Jeremy says in prose, a form of language possesses ordinary syntax 3. THE QURAN AND ARABIC LITERATURE and natural speech, rather than a regular metre; in The Quran is the most important and which regard, along with its presentation in authentic example of Arabic literature and definitely sentences rather than lines, it differs from most the most influential. It had a significant influence on poetry. Poetry, on the other hand, is a form of the Arab language. The language used in it is called literary art that uses the aesthetic qualities of classical Arabic, and while modem Arabic is very language (including music, and rhythm) to evoke similar, classical has social prestige. Not only is the meanings beyond a prose paraphrase. Poetry has Quran the first work of any significant length traditionally been distinguished from prose by its written in the language, it also has a far more being set in verse; the prose is cast in sentences, complicated structure than the earlier literary works poetry in lines; the syntax of prose is dictated by with its 114 suras (chapters) which contain 6,236 ayat meaning, whereas that of poetry is held across meter (verses). It contains injunctions, narratives, homilies, or the visual aspects of the poem. , direct addresses from God, instructions Emphasizing the importance of literature, J. and even comments on itself on how it will be H. Newman says, “Literature stands related to man received and understood. It is also, paradoxically, as science stands to nature”, (Campbell 1954, p. 32). admired for its layers of as well as its The importance of literature to man as pointed out clarity (Allen 1995). by Newman makes it possible to hold it in high The word Quran means ‘recite’, and in early esteem especially in the religious traditions of man. times the text was transmitted orally. The first This is because many have sacred writings attempt at an authentic written version was during that are used by their adherents as divine words of the reign of the third ‘Rightly Guided Caliph’, the Supreme Being, hence the use of literal writings Uthman (c. 576 – June 17, 656). Although it contains to make the words appealing to readers. In Islam elements of both prose and poetry and therefore is too, literally, writings are used which are written in closest to Saj or , the Quran is regarded Arabic as a religious language. In this paper, as entirely apart from these classifications. The text is therefore, the researcher focuses on Arabic literature believed to be divine and is seen by as used in Islam. The study looks at what Arabic as being eternal or ‘uncreated’. This leads literature means and the influence of the Quran on to the doctrine of I’jaz or inimitability of the Quran Arabic literature. Other areas considered in this which implies that nobody can copy the work’s style paper includes: classical Arabic literature, the (Rodwell 2003). decline of Arabic literature and modem Arabic literature among others. 4. CLASSICAL ARABIC LITERATURE 4.1 Poetry: A large proportion of Arabic literature 2. ARABIC LITERATURE before the 20th century is in the form of poetry, and Arabic literature is the writing, both prose even prose from this period is either filled with and poetry, produced by writers in the Arabic snippets of poetry or is in the form of saj ’ or rhymed language. The Arabic word used for literature is prose. The themes of the poetry range from high- “Adab”, which is derived from a meaning of flown hymns of praise to bitter personal attacks and etiquette, and which implies politeness, culture and from religious and mystical ideas to poems on enrichment. Arabic literature emerged in the 5th women and wine. An important feature of the century with only fragments of the written language poetry that would be applied to all of the literature appearing before then. The Quran is widely was the idea that it must be pleasing to the ear. The regarded by people as the finest piece of literature in poetry and much of the prose were written with the

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design that it would be spoken aloud and great care that Ibn Khurdadhbih, an official in the postal service was taken to make all writing as mellifluous as wrote one of the first travel books and the form possible (Moreh 1988). remained a popular one in Arabic literature with books by ibn Hawqal, ibn Fadlan, al-Istakhri, al- 4.2 Non-fiction literature: The study earlier Muqaddasi, al-Idrisi and most famously the travels of explained what non-fiction literature is; that it is ibn Battutah. These give a view of the many cultures prose writing that is informative or factual rather of the wider Islamic world and also offer Muslim than stories that have been invented or fictional. perspectives on the non-Muslim peoples on the edges Arabic literature thus has these kinds of non-fiction of the empire. They also indicated just how great a writings which some of which will be discussed trading power the Muslim peoples had become. These under compilations, manual, biography, history, and were often sprawling accounts that included details of geography. not just on geography but also on history.

4.2.1 Compilations: In G. J. Toomer’s (1996) 4.2.5 History: Nevertheless, Roger Allen (1995) historical analysis, one of the most common forms of says, some writers concentrated only on history like literature during the Abbasid period was the al-Ya’qubi and al-Tabari, while others focused on a compilation. These were collections of facts, ideas, small portion of history such as ibn al- Azraq, with a instructive stories and poems on a single topic and history of Mecca, and ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur, writing a covers subjects as diverse as house and garden, history of . The historian regarded as the women, gate-crashers, blind people, envy, animals greatest of all Arabic historians though is and misers. These last three compilations were whose history Muqaddimah focuses on and is a written by al-Jahiz the acknowledged master of the founding text in sociology and economics. form. These collections were important for any Nadim, a companion to a ruler or noble whose role was often involved regaling the ruler with stories and 5. Fiction Literature: As stated in this paper information to entertain or advice. earlier, fiction literature is in the form of prose, especially , that describes imaginary events and 4.2.2 Manual: Manual was also a type of work people. In Arabic literature also, some writings are closely allied to the collection in which writers like fictional in nature which the writer would want to ibn_Qutaybah offered instruction in subjects like point out some of them, such as: literature, etiquette, how to rule, how to be a bureaucrat and romantic literature, and comedy, philosophical even how to write. also wrote one of novels, and . the earliest histories of the , drawing together biblical stories, Arabic folk tales and more historical 5.1 Epic literature: Epic literature is a long poem, events (Toomer 1996). typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the past history r a nation. 4.2.3 Biography: Another non-fiction piece of According to Roger Allen, the most famous example literature is the biography. According to Christopher of Arabic fiction is "One Thousand and One Nights" Stone, the first major biographer to weigh (Arabian Nights). It is easily the best known of all rather than just producing a hymn of praise was al- Arabic literature, and still affects many of the ideas Baladhuri with his Kitab ansab al-ashraf or Book of the non-Arabs have about Arabic culture. It is usually Genealogies of the Noble, a collection of biographies. placed in the genre of Arabic epic literature along Another important biographical dictionary was begun with several other works. They are usually by ibn Khallikan and expanded by al-Safadi and one collections of short stories or episodes strung of the first significant autobiographies was Kitab al- together into a long tale. The extant versions were I’tibar which told of Usamah ibn Munqidh and his mostly written down relatively late on, after the 14th experiences in fighting in the Crusades. This time century, although many were undoubtedly collected period saw the emergence of the genre of tabaqat earlier and many of the original stories are probably (biographical dictionaries or biographical compendia). pre-Islamic. Types of stories in these collections include animal , proverbs, stories of Jihad or 4.2.4 Geography: On geography, Toomer posits propagation of the faith, humorous tales, tales,

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tables about the wily con-man Ali Zaybaq and talks wrote the first Arabic novel about the prankster Juha (2006). (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to Al- Ghazali’s “The Incoherence of the ”. 5.2 Romantic literature: Another fiction literature This was followed by Ibn al-Nafis who wrote a in Arabic literature is what is called romantic fictional narrative Theologus Autodidactus as a literature. In Qutbuddin Tahera’s account, a famous response to ’s Philosophus Autodidactus. Ibn example of romantic is Layla and al-Nafis described his book Theologus Autodidactus as Majnun, dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th a defense of “the system of Islam and the Muslims’ century. It is a tragic story of unending love. Layla doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious and Majnun are considered part of the platonic love laws, the resurrection of the body, and the genre, so-called because the couple never marries or transitoriness of the world” (Mahdi 1970). He consummate their relationship, which is prominent presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection in Arabic literature, though the literary is and the immortality of the human soul, using both found throughout the world. Other famous Virgin demonstrative reasoning and material from the Love Stories include and Lubna, Kuthair and hadith corpus to prove his case. Later Islamic Azza, Marwa and al-Majun al-Faransi and Antara and scholars viewed this work as a response to the Abla. Another medieval Arabic love story was Hadith metaphysical claim of and Ibn Tufail that Bayad wa Riyad (The Story of Bayad and Riyad), a bodily resurrection cannot be proven through 13th-century Arabic love story. The main characters , a view that was earlier criticized by al- of the tale are Bayad, a merchant’s son and a Ghazali. Ibn al-Nafis’ work was later translated into foreigner from , and Riyad, a well- Latin and English as Theologus Autodidactus in the educated girl in the court of an unnamed Hajib early 20th century (Mahdi 1970). ( or minister) of ‘ which is referred to as the lady. The Hadith Bayad wa Riyad manuscript is 5.5 Science fiction: Another important fiction believed to be the only illustrated manuscript known literature in Arabic literature is science fiction which to have survived more than eight centuries of was written by the Arabian polymath Ibn al-Nafis Muslim and Arab presence in Spain (Robinson 2006). (1213 - 1288) and titled the work “Theologus Autodidactus”. The work is the earliest known 5.3 Satire and comedy literature: Satirical and science fiction novel. The novel deals with various comedic writings in Arabic poetry were known as science fiction elements such as spontaneous hija. Satire was introduced into prose literature by generation, futurology, apocalyptic themes, the end the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz in the 9th century. of the world and doomsday, resurrection and the While dealing with serious topics in what is now afterlife. Rather than giving supernatural or known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, mythological explanations for these events, Ibn al- he introduced a satirical approach, based on the Nafis attempted to explain these elements using premise that, however serious the subject under his own extensive scientific knowledge in anatomy, review, it could be made more interesting and thus biology, physiology, astronomy, and achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump geology. His main purpose behind this science of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing fiction work was to explain Islamic religious anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or teachings in terms of science and philosophy. For paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in example, it was through this novel that Ibn al-Nafis treating new themes in his prose works, he would introduces his scientific theory of metabolism, and have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more he makes references to his own scientific discovery familiar in hija, satirical poetry (Foster 2001). of pulmonary circulation to explain the bodily resurrection. Also, a number of stories within the 5.4 Philosophical novel: On philosophical novels One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights) earlier as one of the fiction-writing in Arabic literature, mentioned in this study is said to have featured Gelder Van says, the Arab Islamic philosophers, Ibn science fiction elements (Qutbuddin 2019). Tufail (Abubacer) and Ibn al- Nafis, were pioneers of the philosophical novel as they wrote the earliest 6. THE DECLINE OF ARABIC LITERATURE novels dealing with . Ibn Tufail According to Roger (2005) and Nzuanke &

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Eba (2017, p. 125), the expansion of the Arab people countries in the region. This Renaissance was not in the 7th and 8th centuries brought them into contact only felt within the Arab world but also beyond, with a variety of different peoples who would affect with a great interest in the translating of Arabic their culture. Most significant for literature was works into European languages. Although the use of Persia. Shu’ubiyya is the name of the the Arabic language was revived, particularly in between the Arabs and Non-Arabs. Although poetry, many of the tropes of the previous literature producing heated debate amongst scholars and which served to make it so ornate and complicated varying styles of literature, this was not a damaging were dropped (Moreh 1988). Moreh (1988) further conflict and had more to do with forging a single says, just as in the 8th century, when a movement to Islamic cultural identity. , of Persian translate ancient other literature had helped vitalise heritage, summed up his own stance in a few lines of Arabic literature, another translation movement poetry: would offer new ideas and material for Arabic. An “Never did he sing camel songs early popular success was The Count of Monte behind a scabby beast, Cristo, which spurred a host of historical novels on nor pierce the bitter colocynth Arabic subjects. Two important translators were out of sheer hunger Rifa’a al-Tahtawi and . nor dig a lizard out of the ground During the 20th century, Arabic writers in both and eat it...” (Allen & Allen 2000, p. 37). poetry and prose have reflected the changing The cultural heritage of the desert-dwelling political and social climate of the Arab world in their Arabs continued to show its influence even though work. Anti-colonial themes were prominent early in many scholars and writers were living in the large the 20th century, with writers continuing to explore Arab cities. When Khalil ibn Ahmad enumerated the the region’s relationship with the West until the parts of poetry he called the line of verse a bayt or present day. Internal political upheaval has also tent and sabah or tent-rope for afoot. Even during been a challenge, with some writers suffering the 20th century this nostalgia for the simple desert censorship. There are many contemporary Arabic life would appear or at least be consciously revived writers, such as Mahmoud saeed (Iraq) who wrote (Allen 2005). Bin Barka Ally, and “I Am the One Who Saw” A slow resurgence of the Persian language (Saddam City). Other contemporary writers include and a re-location of the and main seat of Sonallah Ibrahim and , who learning to Baghdad, reduced the production of was imprisoned by the state for their anti- Arabic literature. Many Arabic themes and styles government work. At the same time, others who had were taken up in Persian with Omar Khayyam, Attar written works supporting or praising and Rumi all clearly influenced by the earlier work. were promoted to positions of authority within The Arabic language still initially retained its cultural bodies. Non-fiction writers and academics importance in politics and administration, although have also produced political polemics and criticisms the rise of the confined it solely to aiming to re-shape Arabic politics. Some of the best religion. Alongside Persian, the many variants of the known are ’s “The Future of Culture in Turkic languages would dominate the literature of ”, which was an important work of Egyptian the Arab region until the 20th century. Nevertheless, nationalism, and the works of Nawal el-Saadawi some Arabic influences remained visible (Allen who campaigns for women’s (Moreh 1976). 2005). 8. EXTERNAL ACCEPTANCE OF ARABIC 7. LITERATURE In Shmuel Moreh (1976; 1988) historical According to Thabet Hoda (2013), literature in analysis of the Arabic literature, during the 19th Arabic has been influential outside the Islamic century, a revival took place in Arabic literature, world. Antoine Galland’s translation of the along with much of Arabic culture, and is referred to "Thousand and One Nights" was the first major in Arabic as “al-NahdcT, which means “the work in Arabic that found great success outside the Renaissance”. This resurgence of writing in Arabic . Other significant translators were was confined mainly to , Egypt and Friedrich Ruckert and Richard Burton, along with until the 20th century when it spread to other many working at FortWilliam, India. The Arabic

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works and many more in other eastern languages literature, in particular, contributes in helping to fuelled a fascination in Orientalism within Europe. promote Islam as a religion in the world. Thus, Works of dubious ‘foreign were particularly studying Arabic literature gives one much insight popular but even these were censored for content, into the Islamic religion, hence the relevance of this such as homosexual references, which were not research. permitted in Victorian society. Most of the works chosen for translation helped confirm the REFERENCES stereotypes of the with many more still Allen, R. (1995). The Arabic novel: An historical and untranslated. Few modem Arabic works have been critical introduction. Syracuse University Press. translated into other languages. Allen, R. (2005). The Arabic literary heritage: the However, towards the end of the twentieth development of its genres and criticism. century, there was an increase of translations of Cambridge University Press. Arabic books into other languages, and Arabic Allen, R., & Allen, R. M. (2000). An introduction to authors began to receive acclaim. Egyptian writer Arabic literature. Cambridge University Press. has most if not all of his works Black, J. A. (Ed.). (2006). The literature of ancient Sumer. translated after he won the 1988 Nobel Prize for on Demand. Literature. Several other writers, including Abdul Campbell, S. M. (1954). The poetry of Thomas Merton: a Rahman Munif and have been taken study in theory, influences, and form. quite seriously by Western scholars and both Alaa Department of English, Stanford University. Al Aswany's The Yacoubian Building and Rajaa al- Duke, E. O. (2016). Content Analysis of The Catholic Sanea's Girls of Riyadh attracted significant Western School and Religion and National Values, media attention in the first decade of the twenty-first Primary 1-6: Implications for Religious century (Hoda 2013). Education in Catholic Primary Schools within Calabar Archdiocese-Cross River 9. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION State. International Journal of Research in Basic This paper looks at Arabic literature. It traces and Lifelong Education, 5(1). the historical development of literature in Arab, Duke, E. O. (2018). The Instrumental Functions of which forms the major writings in the Islamic Cultural Studies and Policies in religion. The study examines how influential the Contemporary Nigerian Society. International Quran is in shaping literature in Arabic. This work Journal of Culture and History, 4(4). also looks at classical Arabic literature. In other Ekpenyong, E. O., & Okoi, I. O. (2018). The role of the words, standard or traditional works in Arabic church in conflicts management, literature in areas like poetry, prose, fiction and non- building and development in Nigeria. Sophia: fiction literature, where imaginary and factual An African Journal of Philosophy, 18(2), 84-94. stories about events and people are written. Eliot, T. S. (2010). Notes towards the Definition of Nevertheless, the paper looks at the decline of Culture. Faber & Faber. Arabic literature as a result of getting into contact Foster, J. L. (2001). Ancient : An with a variety of different people like Persia, who Anthology. Austin: University of Texas Press. had influence directly or indirectly on Arabic Mahdi, M. (1970). Remarks on the" Theologus culture. The work also views the modem Arabic Autodidactus" of Ibn Al-Nafīs. Studia Islamica, literature where there was a revival which is referred 197-209. to in Arabic as “al-Nahda”, which means “the McGinnis, Jon; Reisman, David C. Classical Arabic Renaissance”. Lastly, the researcher shows how Philosophy: an Anthology of Sources. Hackett Arabic literature is accepted externally as there was Publishing Company, 2007. an increase of translations of Arabic books into other Meri, J. W. (2018). Medieval Islamic civilization: an languages, and Arabic authors began to receive encyclopedia. . acclaim for their writings. Merriam-Webster, Inc. (1995). Merriam-webster's The study concludes that literature is one of medical dictionary. Merriam-Webster. the key ingredients in the development of any Moreh, S. (1976). Modern Arabic Poetry: 1800-1970; the culture and religion of a people. It sells out people’s Development of Its Forms and Themes Under the culture and religion to the outside world. The Arabic the Influence of Western Literature (Vol. 5). Brill

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